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Yoga

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation).

Yoga (Sanskrit:) is a commonly known generic term for the

physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which

originated in ancient India with a view to attain a state of

permanent peace.[1][2] Specifically, yoga is one of the six stika

("orthodox") schools of Hindu philosophy. One of the most detailedand thorough expositions on the subject is the Yoga Stras of

Patajali, which defines yoga as "the stilling of the changing

states of the mind"[1] (Sanskrit: : - :). Yoga has also

been popularly defined as "union with the divine" in other contexts

and traditions.[3] Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism,

Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[4][5][6]

Post-classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha as the

originator of yoga.[7][8] Prephilosophical speculations anddiverse ascetic practices of first millennium BCE were

systematized into a formal philosophy in early centuries CE by

the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[9] By the turn of the first

millennium, Hatha yoga emerged as a prominent tradition of

yoga distinct from Patanjali's Yoga Sutrasand marks the development of asanas into the full body postures

now in popular usage[10] and, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people

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associate with the word yoga today.

Hindu monks, beginning with Swami Vivekananda, brought yoga to the West in the late 19th century. In the

1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. This form of yoga

is often called Hatha yoga. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a

complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma and heart patients.[citation needed] In a

national survey, long-term yoga practitioners in the United States reported musculoskeletal and mental

health improvements.

[11]

Contents [hide]

1 Terminology

2 Purpose

3 His tory

3.1 Prehistory

3.2 Vedic period

3.3 Preclassical era3.3.1 Upanishads

3.3.2 Bhagavad Gita

3.3.3 Mahabharata

3.4 Classical yoga

3.4.1 Early Buddhist texts

3.4.2 Samkhya

3.4.3 Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

3.4.4 Yoga Yajnavalkya3.4.5 Jainism

3.4.6 Yogacara school

3.5 Middle Ages

3.5.1 Bhakti movement

3.5.2 Vajrayana

3.5.3 Hatha Yoga

3.5.4 Sikhism

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3.6 Modern his tory

3.6.1 Reception in the West

3.6.2 Medicine

3.6.2.1 Potential Benefits for Adults

3.6.2.2 Physical injuries

3.6.2.3 Pediatrics

4 Yoga compared with other systems of meditation

4.1 Tantra

4.2 Buddhism

4.2.1 Zen Buddhism

4.2.2 Tibetan Buddhism

4.3 Christian meditation

4.4 Islam

5 See also

6 References

6.1 Notes

6.2 Citations

6.3 Bibliography

7 External l inks

Terminology [edit]

In Vedic Sanskrit, the more commonly used, literal meaning of

the Sanskrit wordyoga which is "to add", "to join", "to unite", or

"to attach" from the root yuj, already had a much more figurative

sense, where the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes

on broader meanings such as "employment, use, application,

performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to harness" as in

"to put something to some use"). All further developments of the

sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as

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Statue of Lord Shiva in Bangalore, India,

performing yogic meditation in the

Padmasana posture.

"exertion", "endeavour", "zeal" and "diligence" are also found in

Epic Sanskrit.[citation needed]

There are very many compound words containingyog in

Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection",

"contact", "method", "application", "addition" and "performance".

For example, gu-yoga means "contact with a cord"; chakr-

yoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similarinstrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the

thigh)"; chandr-yoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellation";pu-

yoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhakti-yoga means

"devoted attachment" in the monotheisticBhakti movement. The term kriy-yoga has a grammatical sense,

meaning "connection with a verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga

Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the Supreme" due to

performance of duties in everyday life[12]

In Hindu philosophy, the wordyoga is used to refer to one of the six orthodox (stika) schools of Hinduphilosophy.[note 1] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjaliare often labelled as Rja yoga.[14] According to Pini, a

6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to

yoke) oryuj samdhau (to concentrate).[15] In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the rootyuj

samdhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology. [16] In

accordance with Pini, Vyasa (c. 4th or 5th century CE), who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga

Sutras,[17] states that yoga means samdhi(concentration).[18] In other texts and contexts, such as the

Bhagavad Gt and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the word yoga has been used in conformity withyujir yoge

(to yoke).[19]

Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a

yogi or yogini.[20]

Purpose [edit]

Generally put, yoga is a disciplined method utilized for attaining a goal.[13] The ultimate goal of Yoga is

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Male figure in a crossed legs posture on

moksha though the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological

system with which it is conjugated. Bhakti schools of Vaishnavism combine yoga with devotion to enjoy an

eternal presence of Vishnu.[21] In Shaiva theology, yoga is used to unite kundaliniwith Shiva.[22]

Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of Brahman ortman pervading all things.[23]

In the specific sense of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, yoga is defined as citta-vtti-nirodha (the cessation of the

perturbations of consciousness).[13] This is described by Patanjali as the necessary condition for

transcending discursive knowledge and to be one with the divinely understood "spirit" ("purusha"): "Absolute

freedom occurs when the lucidity of material nature and spirit are in pure equilibrium." [24] In the Yoga

Sutras, Patanjali indicates that the ultimate goal of yoga is a state of permanent peace or Kaivalya.[2]

Apart from the spiritual goals the physical postures of yoga are used to alleviate health problems, reduce

stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as a complete exercise

program and physical therapy routine.[25]

History [edit]

Prehistory [edit]

Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization sites, dating

to the mid 3rd millennium BCE, depict figures in positions

resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, showing "a form

of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga," according to

archaeologist Gregory Possehl.[26]Ramaprasad Chanda, who

supervised Indus Valley Civilization excavations, states that,Not only the seated deities on some of the Indus seals are in

yoga posture and bear witness to the prevalence of yoga in the

Indus Valley Civilization in that remote age, the standing deities

on the seals also show Kayotsarga (a standing posture of

meditation) position. It is a posture not of sitting but of

standing."[27] Some type of connection between the Indus Valley

seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated

Winaray

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a mold of a seal from the Indus valley

civilizationupon by many scholars, though there is no conclusive

evidence.[note 2]

Vedic period [edit]

Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conductyajna (Vedic

ritual of fire sacrifice) might have been precursors to yoga. [note 3]Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in

theAtharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which probably evolved into yogic asanas.[35] Early Vedic

Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as, Munis, the Kein, and Vratyas.[37]

Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (ritualistic texts of the

Vedic corpus, c. 1000800 BCE) and theAtharvaveda.[35][38]Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests

the presence of an early contemplative tradition. [note 4]

The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices known as (tapas) are referenced

in the Brhmaas (900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas.[41] The Rig Veda, the

earliest of the Hindu scripture mentions the practice.[42] Robert Schneider and Jeremy Fields write,

Yoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of years ago and are

said to directly enliven the body's inner intelligence. [43]

According to David Frawley, verses such as Rig Veda 5.81.1 which reads "Seers of the vast illumined seer

yogically [yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence."[44] show that "at least the seed of the entire

Yoga teaching is contained in this most ancient Aryan text". [44]

According to Feuerstein, breath control and curbing the mind was practiced since the Vedic times.[45], and

yoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymns[46]

While the actual term "yoga" first occurs in the Katha Upanishad[47] and later in the Shvetasvatara

Upanishad,[48] an early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest

Upanishad (c. 900 BCE).[note 5] Yoga is discussed quite frequently in the Upanishads, many of which

predate Patanjali's Sutras.[50]

Preclassical era [edit]
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Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500200 BCE such as the

middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Mokshadharma of the Mahabharata. The terms samkhya and

yoga in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies rather than the philosophical systems which developed

centuries later.[51]

Upanishads [edit]

Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation and

elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition.[52] The earliest reference to

meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads. [37]Chandogya Upanishad

describes the five kinds of vital energies (prana). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as

internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the Upanishad.[35]Taittiriya Upanishaddefines yoga

as the mastery of body and senses. [53]

The term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scripture Katha Upanishad(a primary Upanishad c. 400 BCE)

where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leads

to the supreme state.[37][note 6]

Katha Upanishadintegrates the monism of early Upanishads with conceptsof samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost

beingtman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness. [55][56] It is

the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga. Shvetashvatara Upanishad(c. 400-200

BCE) elaborates on the relationship between thought and breath, control of mind, and the benefits of

yoga.[56] Like the Katha Upanishadthe transcendent Self is seen as the goal of yoga. This text also

recommends meditation on Om as a path to liberation.[57]Maitrayaniya Upanishad(c. 300 BCE) formalizes

the sixfold form of yoga.[56] Physiological theories of later yoga make an appearance in this text. [58][59]

Further systematization of yoga is continued in the Yoga Upanishads of the Atharvaveda (viz., ilya,

Pupata, Mahvkya)[clarification needed].[60] The concepts of Chakra and Kundalini are first mentioned in

these[clarification needed] Upanishads. [61]

Bhagavad Gita [edit]
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Krishna narrating the Gita to Ar juna.

The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga"

extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter

(ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including

meditation,[62] it introduces three prominent types of yoga:[note 7]

Karma yoga: The yoga of action.[note 8]

Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion. [note 9]

Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge. [note 10]

In Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna

about the essence of yoga as practiced in daily lives:

(yoga-stha kuru karmani sanyugam tyaktv dhananjay

siddhy-asiddhyo samo bhutv samatvam yoga ucyate)- Bhagavad Gita 2.48

A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada translates it as "Be steadfast in yoga (yoga-stha), O Arjuna.

Perform your duty (kuru karmani) and abandon all attachment (sangam) to success or failure (siddhy-

asiddhyo). Such evenness of mind (samatvam) is called yoga."[67]

Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters

dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge). [68]

Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas. [69]

Aurobindo, a freedom fighter and philosopher, describes the yoga of the Gita as "a large, flexible and many-

sided system with various elements, which are all successfully harmonized by a sort of natural and living

assimilation". [70]

Mahabharata [edit]
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Amitabha depicted in yogic meditation,

Kamakura, Japan

Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the

Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the Mahabharata epic. The verses of the

section are dated to c. 300200 BCE. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents

of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms like

vichara (subtle reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to Patanjali's terminology are

mentioned, but not described.[71] There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Separation of self from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman etc. are all described

as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as beingidentical.[23] Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.[72]

Classical yoga [edit]

During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta era (c. 200 BCE500 CE) philosophical schools of

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to

emerge.[73]

Early Buddhist texts [edit]

Early Buddhist Pali suttas (c. 2917 BCE)[74][note 11] are the

oldest surviving texts to describe a systematic and

comprehensive yoga discipline. The only other Indian texts with

an antiquity comparable to the Pali suttas are the Yoga Sutras

of Patanjali. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems

alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to

time.[76]

Another yoga system that predated the Buddhist schoolis Jain yoga. But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it

is difficult to dist inguish between the nature of the early Jain

school and elements derived from other schools. [77]

The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and

states, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the ascetic (shramana) tradition.[78][79] One key innovative

teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition.[80]
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File:KapilaMuni.jpg

Kapila Muni, in a Kolkata temple

Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not

liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take

place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness. [81] The Buddha also departed

from earlier yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at death.[82] While the

Upanishads thought liberation to be a realization at death of a nondual meditative state where the

ontological duality between subject and object was abolished, Buddha's theory of liberation depended upon

this duality because liberation to him was an insight into the subject's experience.[82]

The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the

palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. [83] However there is no

mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecar mudr.

Samkhya [edit]

Further information: Samkhya

Samkhya was the oldest of Indian schools to take a coherent form in

first century CE.[84] When Patanjali systematized the conceptions ofyoga, he set them forth on the background of the metaphysics of

samkhya, which he assumed with slight variations. In the early works,

the yoga principles appear together with the samkhya ideas. Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras,

also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy),

brings out the intimate relation between the two systems. [85] Yoga agrees with the essential metaphysics

of samkhya, but differs from it in that while samkhya holds that knowledge is the means of liberation, yoga

is a system of active striving, mental discipline, and dutiful action. Yoga also introduces the conception of

god. Sometimes Patanjali's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila'sNirivara Samkhya.[86]

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali [edit]

Main articles: Raja Yoga andYoga Sutras of Patanjali

In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox

(which accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophical
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Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as

an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha.

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[87]

Pada (Chapter) English meaning Sutras

Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit 51

Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit 55

Vibhuti Pada On supernatural abilities and gifts 56

Kaivalya Pada On absolute freedom 34

schools[88][89] founded by Patanjali. Karel Werner, author of

Yoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process of

systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga

Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of

Patanjali.[note 12] Scholars also note the influence of Samkhyan

and Buddhist ideas on the Yoga Sutras.[90][note 13] The yoga

school accepts the samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but

is more theistic than the samkhya, as evidenced by the addition

of a divine entity to the samkhya's twenty-five elements of

reality.[92][93] The parallels between yoga and samkhya were so

close that Max Mller says that "the two philosophies were in

popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with

and Samkhya without a Lord...." [94] The intimate relationship

between samkhya and yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspectsof a single discipline. Skhya provides a basic

theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and

defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-

operation in a state of bondage ("bandha"), and

describing their state of disentanglement or

separation in release ("moka"), while yoga

treats specifically of the dynamics of the process

for the disentanglement, and outlines practicaltechniques for the gaining of release, or

"isolation-integration" ("kaivalya").

[95]

Patanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophy. [96] The verses of Yoga Sutras

are terse and are therefore read together with the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350450 CE), a commentary on the

Yoga Sutras.[97] Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system for control of the mind. [98]
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A sculpture of a Hindu yogi in

the Birla Mandir, Delhi

Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:

(yoga citta-vtti-nirodha)

- Yoga Sutras 1.2

This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga isthe inhibition (nirodha) of the modifications (vtti) of the mind (citta)".[99] The use of the word nirodha in

the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist technical terminology and

concepts play in the Yoga Sutras; this role suggests that Patanjali was aware of Buddhist ideas and wove

them into his sys tem.[100]Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff

(Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[101]

Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as

"Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept

derived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic

of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:

1. Yama (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya

(Truth, non-lying), Asteya (non-covetousness), Brahmacharya

(non-sensuality, celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

2. Niyama (The five "observances"): Shaucha(purity),

Santosha(contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of

the Vedic scriptures to know about God and the soul), andIshvara-Pranidhana (surrender to God).

3. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to

the seated position used for meditation.

4. Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prna, breath, "yma", to

restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.

5. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
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Yoga Yajnavalkya[103]

6. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.

7. Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.

8. Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the world to be

illusion. The everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of many

individual selves discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared by all persons. [102]

Yoga Yajnavalkya [edit]

Main article: Yoga Yajnavalkya

The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the

Vedic sage Yajnavalkya. It takes the form of a dialogue between

Yajnavalkya and his wife Gargi, a renowned female philosopher.[104]

The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the

period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE.[105]

Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundaliniand the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make

frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya.[106] In the Yoga

Yajnavalkya, yoga is defined as jivatmaparamatmasamyogah, or the union between the individual self

(jivatma) and the Divine (paramatma).[103]

Jainism [edit]

According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum

of all the activities of mind, speech and body. [6]Umasvati calls yoga the

cause of "asrava" or karmic influx[107] as well as one of the essentials

samyak caritrain the path to liberation.[107] In his Niyamasara,

Acarya Kundakunda, describesyoga bhaktidevotion to the path to

liberationas the highest form of devotion.[108] Acarya Haribhadra and

Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12

minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof.

sayogo yoga ityukto jvtma-

paramtmano

Union of the self (jivtma) w ith the

Divine (paramtma) is said to be yoga.

R b t J Z d b t ll J i i ti ll t f i
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Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic

meditation in the Kayotsargaposture.

Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic

thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. [109] The five yamas or the

constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjalibear a resemblance to the five

major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization

between these traditions.[110][note 14]

Yogacara school [edit]

Main article: Yogacara

In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of

Classical Hinduism, the Yogacara movement arises during the Gupta

period (4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the name as it provided a

"yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of

the bodhisattva.[112] The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to

reach enlightenment.[113]

Middle Ages [edit]

Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga.

Hatha yoga emerged as a dominant practice of yoga in this period. [114]

Bhakti movement [edit]

Main article: Bhakti Yoga

The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a personal

God (or "Supreme Personality of Godhead"). The movement was initiated by the Alvars of South India in the6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries. [115]

Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as the practical meditative

exercises, with devotion.[116]Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha

(separation) bhakti. Viraha bhaktiemphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna.[117]

Vajrayana [edit]

Main article: Vajrayana
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Main article: Vajrayana

While breath channels (nis) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical Upanishads,

it was not until Tantric works, such as the eighth-century Buddhist Hevajra Tantra and Carygiti, that

hierarchies of chakras were introduced.[118]

Hatha Yoga [edit]

Main articles: Hatha yoga andHatha Yoga Pradipika

The basic tenets of Hatha yoga were formulated by Shaiva ascetics Matsyendranath and Gorakshanath c.

900 CE. Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing

exercises. [119] Hatha yoga is also defined in the 11th-century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha, which defines it

in relation to the center channel, bindu etc.[120] Hatha yoga, sometimes referred to as the "psychophysical

yoga",[121] was further elaborated by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th

century CE. This yoga differs substantially from the Raja yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma,

the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), andprana, or vital energy

(tha).[122][123] Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja yoga,[124] itmarks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage [10] and, along

with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the wordyoga today.[125]

It is similar to a diving board preparing the body for purification, so that it may be ready to receive higher

techniques of meditation. The word "Hatha" comes from "Ha" which means Sun, and "Tha" which means

Moon.[126]

Sikhism [edit]

Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century, when Sikhism was in

its nascent stage. Compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, describe many dialogues he had

with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga.[127] Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and

rituals connected with Hatha Yoga.[128] He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation

on the name) instead.[129] The Guru Granth Sahib states:

Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee

must meditate on the Word Divine It is His grace which brings about the union He
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An early illustration of Indians

performing Yoga Asana in 1688

must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He

understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination."

[130]

Modern history [edit]

Reception in the West [edit]

Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid19th century along with other topics of Hindu philosophy. Thus N. C.

Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851. The first

Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga

to a western audience was Swami Vivekananda, who toured Europe

and the United States in the 1890s. [131] The reception which Swami

Vivekananda received is inconceivable without the active interest of

intellectuals, in particular the New England Transcendentalists,

among them R.W. Emerson, who drew on German Romanticismand the interest of philosophers and scholars like G.F.W. Hegel, the Schlegel brothers, Max Mueller, A.

Schopenhauer and others who found Vedanta in agreement with their own ideas and a cherished source of

religious-philosophical inspiration.[132]

Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century were a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of

Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical.[133] The

reception of Yoga and of Vedanta are thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly Neo-platonically

based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20thcenturies. M. Eliade, who was rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions brought a new element

into the reception of Yoga by the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga - Immortality

and Freedom,[note 15] By introducing the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga the conception of the

"transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-

Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself. [134]

In the West, the term "yoga" is today typically associated with Hatha yoga and its asanas (postures) or as

a form of exercise [135] In the 1960s western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak giving rise to a
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A w estern style Hatha yoga class.

a form of exercise.[135] In the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a

great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public. During this period, most of

the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages: Sivananda Saraswati (1887-1963) and

Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888-1989). [136] Among the teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the

west in this period were B.K.S. Iyengar, K. Pattabhi Jois, and Swami Vishnu-devananda, and Swami

Satchidananda.[137][138][139]Kundalini Yoga was brought to the United States by Yogi Bhajan in 1969.[140]

A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda,

connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside

of counter culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to a religious denomination.[131] Numerous

asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped 19th and early 20th century Western exercise

traditions.[141]

Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has been on the constant rise. The number of people who

practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011).

In 2013, for the White House, "Yoga has become a universal

language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing many

lines of religion and cultures,"... "Every day, millions of people

practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being. That's

why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidential

Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer

the challenge."at a time some schools in America are against its

practice inside educational facilities, saying it promotes Hinduism in

violation of the Establishment Clause.[142]

Medicine [edit]

Main article: Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine

Potential Benefits for Adults [edit]

Long-term yoga practitioners in the United States have reported musculoskeletal and mental health

improvements, as well as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics. [11] Regular yoga practice increases

brain GABA levels and has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some other metabolically
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brain GABA levels and has been shown to improve mood and anxiety more than some other metabolically

matched exercises, such as walking.[143][144] The three main focuses of Hatha yoga (exercise, breathing,

and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease. Overall, studies of the effects of

yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce high blood pressure, improve symptoms of heart

failure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lower cardiovascular risk factors.[145] For chronic low back pain,

specialist Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs has been found 30% more beneficial than usual care alone in a

UK clinical trial.[146] Other smaller studies support this finding.[147][148] The Yoga for Healthy Lower Backs

programme is the dominant treatment for society (both cheaper and more effective than usual care alone)due to 8.5 fewer days off work each year.[149] A research group from Boston University School of Medicine

also tested yogas effects on lower back pain. Over twelve weeks, one group of volunteers practiced yoga

while the control group continued with standard treatment for back pain. The reported pain for yoga

participants decreased by one third, while the standard treatment group had only a five percent drop. Yoga

participants also had a drop of 80% in pain medication use. [150]

There has been an emergence of studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer

patients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigueand increase anxiety control.[151]Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs include yoga as

a mind-body technique to reduce stress. A study found that after seven weeks the group treated with yoga

reported significantly less mood disturbance and reduced stress compared to the control group. Another

study found that MBSR had showed positive effects on sleep anxiety, quality of life, and spiritual growth in

cancer patients.[152]

Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia. Some encouraging, but inconclusive,

evidence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia

and improve health-related quality of life.[153]

Implementation of the Kundalini Yoga Lifestyle has shown to help substance abuse addicts increase their

quality of life according to psychological questionnaires like the Behavior and Symptom Identification Scale

and the Quality of Recovery Index.[154]

Yoga has been shown in a study to have some cognitive functioning (executive functioning, including

inhibitory control) acute benefit.[155]

Physical injuries [edit]
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Physical injuries [edit]

Main article: Sports injury

Since a small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical injuries analogous to sports

injuries;[156] caution and common sense are recommended. [157] Yoga has been criticized for being

potentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic outlet

syndrome, degenerative arthritis of the cervical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage to the common

fibular nerve, so called "Yoga foot drop,"[158]

etc. An expos of these problems by William Broad publishedin January, 2012 in The New York Times Magazine[159] resulted in controversy within the international yoga

community. Broad, a science writer, yoga practitioner, and author of The Science of Yoga: The Risks and

the Rewards,[160] had suffered a back injury while performing a yoga posture.[161] Torn muscles, knee

injuries,[162] and headaches are common ailments which may result from yoga practice. [163]

An extensive survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% had suffered some physical

injury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents had suffered an injury

producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus

(seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatestnumber of injuries.[156]

Some yoga practit ioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for women during menstruation, for

pregnant women, or for nursing mothers. However, meditation, breathing exercises, and certain postures

which are safe and beneficial for women in these categories are encouraged.[164]

Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners'

competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, many people

get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newly certifiedinstructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing

certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginning yoga student can

overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong

enough to perform them.[159][163]

Vertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from

rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, for example, in a

beauty shop while your hair is being rinsed, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices. This
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beauty shop while your hair is being rinsed, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices. This

is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke.[165][166]

Acetabular labral tears, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to have

resulted from yoga practice.[167]

Pediatrics [edit]

Yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for

breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief.

Many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their P.E. programs. The Encinitas, California

school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in P.E., holding against the

parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded

program.[168]

Yoga compared with other systems of meditation [edit]

Tantra [edit]

Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social,

religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice, an individual perceives reality as

maya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it.[169] Both Tantra and yoga offer paths that

relieve a person from depending on the world. Where yoga relies on progressive restriction of inputs from

outside; Tantra relies on transmutation of all external inputs so that one is no longer dependent on them,

but can take them or leave them at will. They both make a person independent. [170] This particular path to

salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such

as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from

social relationships and modes.[169]

During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly

chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is

known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the init iate's

previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini yoga for the purpose of moving the Goddess
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p y g p p g

into the chakra located in the "heart", for meditation and worship.[171]

Buddhism [edit]

Further information: Dhyna in Buddhism

Zen Buddhism [edit]

Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyaana" via the Chinese "ch'an" [note 16] is a form ofMahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with yoga. [173] In the

west, Zen is often set alongside yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family

resemblances.[174] This phenomenon merits special attention since yogic practices have some of their

roots in the Zen Buddhist school.[note 17] Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for

Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.[175]

Tibetan Buddhism [edit]

Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into

nineyanas, or vehicles, which are said to be increasingly profound.[176] The last six are described as "yoga

yanas": "Kriya yoga," "Upa yoga," "Yoga yana," "Mah yoga," "Anu yoga" and the ultimate practice, "Ati

yoga."[177] The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with the Anuttara

yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.[178]

Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart

rhythm. The Nyingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes breath

work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and precise dynamic movements to centre thepractitioner.[179] The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's

summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan yoga by Chang (1993) refers to caal (Tib.

"tummo"), the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan

yoga."[180] Chang also claims that Tibetan yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana

and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.

Christian meditation [edit]
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Christian meditation [edit]

Main articles: Christian meditation,A Christian reflection on the New Age, andAspects of Christian

meditation

Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation. This

has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way. [181] The Roman Catholic

Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to

some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.[182][183][184]

In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents:Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian

reflection on the New Age," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document

was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican's position.[185] The Vatican warned that

concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that

equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral

deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the

gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge.[181] The letter

also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in otherreligions and cultures"[186] but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other

approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality." [181] Some fundamentalist Christian

organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the

New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.[187]

Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. This is held by an

interdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates as an

anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutionalboundaries to be crossed." [188]

Islam [edit]

The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adapted both

physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).[189] The ancient Indian yogic text Amritakunda

("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century. Several other yogic

texts were appropriated by Sufi tradition, but typically the texts juxtapose yoga materials alongside Sufi
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Yoga portal

Hinduism portal

India portal

practices without any real attempt at integration or synthesis. Yoga became known to Indian Sufis gradually

over time, but engagement with yoga is not found at the historical beginnings of the tradition. [190]

Yoga is a growing industry in Islamic countries (Two Bikram Yoga studios in Iran). Also, yoga is used in

developing countries like Palestine to help the population manage stress. This article is a comparative

study of yoga and Islam, showing their similarities. Yoga and Islam [191]

Malaysia's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, which is legally non-binding, against Muslims

practicing yoga, saying it had elements of "Hindu spiritual teachings" and that its practice was blasphemy

and is therefore haraam. Muslim yoga teachers in Malaysia criticized the decision as "insulting." [192]

Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said that its

members would continue with their yoga classes. [193]

The fatwa states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting of

religious mantras,[194] and states that teachings such as the uniting of a human with God is not consistent

with Islamic philosophy.[195] In a similar vein, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed

a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains "Hindu elements"[196] These fatwas have, in turn, beencriticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India.[197]

In May 2009, Turkey's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakolu, discounted personal

development techniques such as yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism. His

comments were made in the context of yoga possibly competing with and eroding participation in Islamic

practice.[198]

See also [edit]

Yoga series

List of asanas

List of yoga schools

References [edit]

Notes [edit]
http://pdfcrowd.com/http://pdfcrowd.com/redirect/?url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fYoga&id=ma-130710201317-9eb18dcchttp://pdfcrowd.com/customize/http://pdfcrowd.com/html-to-pdf-api/?ref=pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anahata_blue.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Yogahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aum_red.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_India.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoga&action=edit&section=35http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoga&action=edit&section=36http://www.adishakti.org/pdf_files/islam_and_yoga_(sites.netscape.net).pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatwahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasphemy_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haraamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisters_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Council_of_Ulemas&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatwahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deobandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deobandihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Religious_Affairshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Bardako%C4%9Fluhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_serieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asanashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yoga_schoolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoga&action=edit&section=37


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1. ^ Jacobsen writes , "Yoga has five principal meanings:

yoga as a discipl ined method for attaining a goal

yoga as techniques of controlling the body and the mind

yoga as a nam e of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darana)

yoga in connection with other words , such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring to traditions

specialising in particular techniques of yoga

yoga as the goal of yoga practice."[13]

Monier-Williams includes "it is the second of the two Skhya systems ," and "abstraction practised as a

system (as taught by Patajali and called the Yoga philosophy)" in his definitions of "yoga."

2. ^ See:

Jonathan Mark Kenoyer describes one figure as "seated in yogic position."[28]

Karel Werner writes that "Archeological dis coveries allow us therefore to speculate with some

jus tification that a wide range of yoga activities was already known to the people of pre-Aryan India."[29]

Heinrich Zimmer describes one seal as "seated like a yogi."[30]

Thomas McEvilley writes that "The six mysterious Indus Valley seal images...all without exception show

figures in a pos ition known in hatha yoga as mulabhandasana or poss ibly the closely related

"utkatasana" or "baddha konas ana...."[31]

Dr. Farzand Masih, Punjab University Archaeology Department Chairm an, describes a recently

discovered seal as depicting a "yogi."[32]

Gavin Flood disputes the idea regarding one of the seals , the so-called "Pashupati seal," writing that it

isn 't clear the figure is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is intended to represent a human

figure.[33]

Geoffrey Samuel, regarding the Pashupati seal, believes that we "do not actually "know" how to in terpretthe figure, nor do we know what he or she represent."[34]

3. ^ See:

Jacobsen writes that "Bodily postures are clos ely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in the

Vedic tradition. The use by Vedic pries ts of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance of

the sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga."[35]

Whicher believes that "the proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial m ysticism and

contains m any elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation,

i f f i ( ) b h l [36]
http://pdfcrowd.com/http://pdfcrowd.com/redirect/?url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fYoga&id=ma-130710201317-9eb18dcchttp://pdfcrowd.com/customize/http://pdfcrowd.com/html-to-pdf-api/?ref=pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yoga&action=edit&section=37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Mark_Kenoyerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Zimmerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_McEvilley


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ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control..."[36]

4. ^ See:

Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the

early Brahminic literature, contains evidence suggesting it was close ly related to a tradition of early

Brahminic contemplation. A close reading of this text suggests that it was close ly related to a tradition of

early Brahminic contemplation. The poem may have been com posed by contemplatives, but even if not,

an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend in Indian

thought."[39]

Miller sugges ts that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta arises from "the subtlest

medi tative stage, called abs orption in mind and heart" which "involves enheightened experiences"

through which seer "explores the mysterious ps ychic and cosm ic forces...".[40]

Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from Vedic term dhih which refers to "vis ionary

ins ight", "thought provoking vision".[40]

5. ^ Flood: "...which s tates that, having becom e calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within

oneself."[49]

6. ^ For the date of this Upanishad s ee also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the"Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur"[54]

7. ^ Flood writes, "...Bhagavad Gita, including a complete chapter (ch. 6) devoted to traditional yoga practice.

The Gita also in troduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 'knowledge' (jnana), 'action' (karma), and 'love'

(bhakti)." [63]

8. ^ Karma yoga involves performance of action wi thout attachment to results.[64]

9. ^ The yoga of devotion is sim ilar to the yoga of action, but the fruits of action, in yoga of devotion, are

surrendered to Krishna.[65]

10. ^ Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom, knowledge, and direct experience of Brahman as the ultimate reality.The path renounces both des ires and actions, and is therefore depicted as being s teep and very difficult in

the Bhagavad Gita.[66]

11. ^ On the dates of the Pali canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for som e time, that

the Pali canon as we have it and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source cannot be taken

back further than the las t quarter of the first century BCE, the date of the Alu-vihara redaction, the earliest

redaction we can have some knowledge of, and that for a critical his tory it can serve, at the very most,

only as a source for

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