Empowering Radio - World...

Empowering Radio

Good practices in development & operation of community radio: Issues important to its effectiveness

Program on Civic Engagement, Empowerment & Respect for Diversity, World Bank Institute (WBIST)

September, 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ................................................................................................... ................... i

Introduction ................................................................................................................... ........... 1

About this report ................................................................................................................. ....... 1

Structure of the report ........................................................................................... .................... 2

What is Community Radio? .................................................................................. ................... 4

Many definitions of community radio ............................................................................ ............. 5

The Countries ................................................................................................................... ........ 7

Colombia ......................................................................................................................... .......... 7

Mali .................................................................................................................. ......................... 8

Nepal ...................................................................................................................................... ... 9

Peru .................................................................................................................................... ..... 11

South Africa ....................................................................................................................... ...... 12

The Issues .......................................................................................................... .................... 14

Participatory Processes and Volunteers .............................................................................. .... 14

Volunteers and paid staff ............................................................................................ ... 14

Types of volunteers ........................................................................................... ........... 15

Roles of volunteers ................................................................................. ...................... 20

Volunteer recruitment, training and incentives ..................................... ......................... 21

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 23

Relationship with the Community ............................................................................... ............. 24

Programming ....................................................................................... ......................... 25

Ownership, participation and control .................................................................. ........... 26

Conclusions ........................................................................................ ......................... 28

Exertion of Rights ............................................................................................................ ........ 29

Educating about rights ........................................................................... ....................... 29

Monitoring and advocating for rights ............................................................ ................ 31

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 33

Accountability and Good Governance ............................................................................ ......... 33

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Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 37

Role of Community Radio Associations & Networks ............................................ ................... 37

Peru’s CNR: A decentralised network ................................................... ........................ 38

Colombia’s many networks ....................................................................... .................... 39

Nepal: An evolving situation ............................................................................. ............. 40

AMARC ............................................................................................................. ............ 41

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 42

Sustainable Financing .................................................................................................... ......... 43

How much does it cost to run a radio station? ..................................... ......................... 43

Local and national revenue .............................................................................. ............. 44

Public financing and support ............................................................................ ............. 47

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 49

Community Radio in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations ....................................... ............... 49

Human rights and culture of peace .......................................................... ..................... 50

Conflict resolution .............................................................................. ........................... 51

Coping with conflict ....................................................................................... ................ 52

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 52

Conclusions & Recommendations ....................................................................... ................. 54





Role of Community Radio Associations and Networks ......................................................... ... 56


Community Radio in Conflict & Post-Conflict Situations ....................................................... ... 57

Bibliography ............................................................................................................. .............. 58

Annexes ................................................................................................................................ .. 59

Terms of Reference ........................................................................................................... ........ 1

Annexes ........................................................................................................ ........................... 4

Terms of Reference: Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios -- Issues Important to Their Effectiveness ........................................................... ........................ 1

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Introducción ............................................................................................................ ................. 7

1. Existencia, legislación, reglamentación y apoyo por parte del estado ............................... 9

Une corporation divisée par la création de multiples associations .......................................... 4

Attachment 1 : Le Mali, en bref1 ................................ ........ 42

Population et Politique ............................................................................ ...................... 42

Économie du Mali ............................................................................... .......................... 42

Attachment 5 : .................................................................................................... .................. 59

N°92-038/ portant création du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication ................................. 59

BP.: 133A Kati ............................................................................ ........................ 78

Sigida ka foli ............................................................................................................... ............ 78

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Pause ............................................................................................................................. ......... 82

Pause ............................................................................................................................. ......... 82

Pause ............................................................................................................................. ......... 82

EPRA ............................................................................................................... ....................... 84

Droit ........................................................................................................................... ............. 84

Education ........................................................................................................ ....................... 84

Education ........................................................................................................ ....................... 84

Offre d’emploi .................................................................................................................. ....... 85

Rediffusion ............................................................................................................ ................. 85

Avis ............................................................................................................. .................. 85

Info ..................................................................................................................................... ..... 86

Biennal .................................................................................................................................. .. 86

Donso foli ........................................................................................................... .................... 87

Introduction: .................................................................................................................. .......... 6

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National Context ..................................................................................................................... .. 6

Beginning of Community Radio in Nepal ................................................................................ ... 7

Spread of Community Radio .................................................................................. ................. 9

CR in Nepal: an Overview ................................................................................. ....................... 9

Media Ecology in Nepal .............................................................................. ........................... 10

Participatory Processes and Volunteerism .................................................................... .......... 13

Human Resource (HR) involved in CR sector .............................................................. ........... 14

Human Resource by type of Community Radio ............................................... ....................... 14

Share Structure in Cooperative Radio* ............................................................... .................... 14

Board of Directors involved in CR sector with gender and ethnicity ........................... ............. 15

Volunteers vis-à-vis work area ......................................................................... ....................... 15

Relationship with Community: .......................................................................................... .... 16

Passive Model .................................................................................................................. ....... 17

Active Model .......................................................................................................................... . 18

Democratic Model ............................................................................................... ................... 18

Exertion of Right ....................................................................................... ............................ 19

Accountability and Good Governance ................................................................................ .. 22

Role of Networks ........................................................................................................ ............ 22

Sustainable Financing ....................................................................................................... .... 24

Annual Income of 20 -Community Radio stations ........................................... ........................ 24

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 50 watts transmitter ....................................... ....... 25

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 100 watts transmitter ..................................... ....... 25



Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 1000 watts transmitter .................................. ........ 27

Role of CRs in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations ...................................... ..................... 28

Conclusion: ........................................................................................................ ................... 28

Reference Books (in Nepali) ....................................................................... ........................... 30

Reference Books (in English) ........................................................................ ........................ 30

Acknowledgements: .................................................................................... .......................... 30

Nepal CR Case Study 1 ............................................................................................ ................ 1

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Nepal CR Case Study 3 ............................................................................................. ............... 2


Nepal CR Case Study 5 ....................................................................................... ........... 4

Role of Community Radio in Rule of Law .............................................................................. .... 4


COMMUNITY STATION SUMMARY ...................................................................... ....... 12

P O Box KA 9482, Accra, Ghana ........................................................................ ...................... 1

E-mail : gcrn @ghana.com ..................................................................................................... ... 1

Colombia Report

Mali Report

Nepal Report

Peru Report

South Africa report

Selective Information on Ghana

Selective Information on Sri Lanka

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INTRODUCTION

Across many countries and in different regions, community radio stations have been fostering community participation and creating an appetite for transparent and accountable governance, even in challenging regulatory environments. Participation and governance depends on common people, particularly poor communities, collectively articulating their concerns and shaping the topics that are to be discussed and on which government action is scrutinized, promoted, and monitored.

Community radio stations are owned and operated by the communities they serve. They are non-profit, non-partisan, and usually non-sectarian, and they operate in a participatory way, often relying on community volunteers to produce and present programmes, to raise money and even to manage the stations. Through community radio, poor constituencies can develop their own news programs and organize discussions on matters affecting their community. They share information in a language they understand. They can debate issues, produce weekly programs, and develop talkback radio programs by phone or mail drop. In the process, poor constituencies who were isolated and marginalized are becoming energized, developing informed opinions, and becoming more adept at using information to protect themselves, to make informed decisions and to get results.

In most of the countries in which the World Bank’s Civic Engagement, Empowerment and Respect for Diversity (CEERD) program works, one important focus is to support interested communities to establish community radio stations and to develop their capacities in programming, credible local reporting, station management and resource mobilization. This is being done as a preliminary phase, before developing larger support programs for the community radio sector. In particular, this phase will clarify how best to support the participatory planning and establishment of community radio and how to enhance capacity and the likelihood of sustainability. There is also a pressing need to learn good practices in the development, operations and maintenance of these community radio stations, particularly on issues important to their effectiveness. Likewise, there is a need to learn the risks involved and how to mitigate them. The findings of this phase can help better plan for a larger, more comprehensive support program for the community radio sector.

About this report

This report is based on five national studies conducted by local consultants.1 The local consultants worked primarily with existing information and occasionally filled in the gaps with interviews and meetings with key actors. Interviewees were primarily community radio workers and volunteers. A coordinator/editor provided guidance to the local consultants and, based on their research, prepared this report that distils, analyses and presents their key findings.

The national studies addressed a common set of topics, providing descriptions and analyses of country/case examples. The topics were:

Participatory processes and volunteerismRelationship with the community

1 The five countries are Colombia, Mali, Nepal, Peru and South Africa. Originally Ghana and Indonesia were to be included but they were dropped because of scheduling problems.

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Exertion of rightsAccountability and good governanceCommunity radio networksFinancing and financial sustainabilityCommunity radio in conflict and post-conflict situations

The specific context of each country meant that certain topics yielded more useful information than others. For example, Colombia has taken a highly interventionist approach in its legislation, in Mali community radio has been associated with democratic reform and decentralisation and Nepal’s community radio movement is very young.

The country studies were based on existing information, occasionally supplemented with a few interviews or field visits to one or more community radio stations. The studies were therefore limited from the beginning because there has been very little rigorous research done around community radio. For example, in 1999 Colombia’s Department of Communications conducted a survey of the literature on community radio and concluded firstly that most of the studies available were undergraduate theses and secondly that these theses were more concerned with what community radio should be than what it is. The studies were very general and demonstrated little analysis and few proposals.2 Eight years later the research conducted for this report found that little had changed:

1. Whatever serious research has been done has been concentrated on a very limited number of experiences;

2. Most of the available information is in the form of news stories published in internet portals and other “alternative” media or papers presented at conferences. Usually the work of community radio broadcasters and activists, these texts provide information and opinion, but not rigorous research;

3. What academic research has been done, mostly undergraduate and graduate theses, looks at specific radio stations and projects. From 1994, when community radio emerged as a national phenomenon in Colombia, to 2007 only one study has attempted to develop a complete picture of community radio across the country.3

The case of Colombia is typical. The community radio “boom” that has been experienced over the past fifteen years in all the countries included in this study has not been accompanied by a significant increase in research and knowledge that might inform policy at the national level. A large part of the community radio knowledge base is anecdotal, historical (studies of a handful of pioneering experiences over the past fifty years) or foreign (usually models from Europe, Australia and North America).

Structure of the report

There are four main sections in this report.

The report begins by briefly introducing the concept of community radio and discussing some of its key defining characteristics: community-based, independent, not-for-profit, pro-community development and participatory. The 2 Colombia report page 33 Gómez and Quintero

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community radio stations of all five countries included in the study share these characteristics, although the emphasis on any given one varies depending on local factors.

The next section provides some selected data about each country in the form of a brief snapshot of socio-economic indicators, selected information about the country’s history, geography, culture and media environment. The information here is not intended to facilitate a comparison between countries, but to highlight specific characteristics that have influenced the particular challenges faced by the sector and the models that have emerged.

The chapters of the main body of the report respond to the issues addressed by the series of questions in the terms of reference:

Participatory processes and volunteerismRelationship with the communityExertion of rightsAccountability and good governanceCommunity radio networksFinancing and financial sustainabilityCommunity radio in conflict and post-conflict situations

Using data and examples from the country reports, the issue chapters identify country-level practices that worked (and of some that did not). The purpose is not to prescribe solutions but to describe models from which other community broadcasters can choose and adapt to their own local context.

Finally, conclusions and recommendations are gathered together in the final section. Annex 1 contains the terms of reference for the study, Annex 2-7 are the country reports, and Annexes 7 and 8 contain particularly noteworthy good practices from Ghana and Sri Lanka.

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WHAT IS COMMUNITY RADIO?

There is no single definition of community radio and there are almost as many models as there are stations. Each community radio station is a hybrid, a unique communication process shaped by a few over-arching characteristics and by the distinct culture, history, and reality of the community it serves. Nevertheless, there are some characteristics that community radio stations have in common. Among these are that they are community-based, independent, not-for-profit, for the community, and participatory.

Community-based: The station is based in its community and accountable to it. Usually the community is defined geographically, although its size can range from a neighbourhood or small town, to an entire city or a vast rural area covering thousands of square kilometres. Stations can also serve particular communities of interest such as women, youth or linguistic and cultural minorities.

Community media are owned and controlled by the community. In some cases the legal owner is the community itself, via an association established for the purpose. In others the legal owner is a not-for-profit group, a cooperative, an NGO, a municipality, or even a privately-owned company acting on behalf of the community. Regardless of the legal structure, the policies and objectives of the station are articulated with a strong input from stakeholders within the community and community members have both a sense of ownership and a real ability to shape the station to suit their wishes and needs.

Independent: Regardless of ownership, community media are independent of government, donors, advertisers and other institutions. This does not mean that they do not have relations with these institutions or that they cannot receive funding from them, but the nature of their relations must be transparent and cannot compromise the station’s independence. Where there is a potential for independence to be compromised, which often happens when money is involved, the relations are governed by clear and transparent agreements that guarantee the non-partisan community-service nature of the medium, while operating within the boundaries defined by the law and by the constitution/guiding principles of the station. Transparent governance structures, such as an elected board of governors, ensure that the station is responsive to community needs and interests.

Not-for-profit: To say that a community radio station is not-for-profit does not mean that it cannot carry advertising or that it has to be poor. It merely means that any surplus it makes is reinvested in the station and the community. The Italian Radio Popolare, for example, is financed with a combination of advertising and listener subscriptions and with annual revenue of one million euros it is one of the wealthiest community radio stations in the world. The station’s shareholders are thousands of its listeners and supporters and rather than collecting dividends, they make donations to help the station fulfil its mandate.

Community radio stations finance themselves in many ways: advertising, listener donations, concerts, international donors, government grants and so on. As one Ecuadorian broadcaster put it, “We’re not for profit, but we’re not for bankruptcy either.”

Pro-community: To say that community media are not-for-profit leaves open the question: What do community media stand for? If they don’t exist to make a

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profit, why do they exist? The broad answer to that question is that community radio exists to support and contribute to the community’s social, economic and cultural development, but each station will have its own specific answer. Many stations describe what they stand for in a mission statement, a short text that describes why they do what they do.

Participatory: Just as all community radio stations have a common mission to support and contribute to the community, they also all have a common strategy that involves community participation at all levels – programming, operating and even financing the station. This can be exercised in a wide variety of ways depending on the specific nature of the station, its objectives, and the characteristics of the community.

Participation in programming can be assured with participatory production formats, by encouraging and supporting programme production by organisations from within the community, by broadcasting public forums, and generally by enabling the free and open exchange of views.

In most stations the community participates in the management and direction of the station, for example through a board of governors or directors with members representing various interests within the community.

Many communities support their stations with cash or in-kind contributions. Financial support can come from individuals, local businesses, community organisations, or local government. In some cases the community supplies the building the station is housed in and contributes its own “sweat capital” to build it.

Many definitions of community radio

In addition to the common characteristics listed above, a given community medium will emphasise the importance of other characteristics. A rural radio station in northern Senegal may emphasise the practical service it provides by enabling people in its listening area to get messages to one another without having to travel for hours or even days; a station broadcasting to a linguistic minority in a big city may put emphasis in its cultural role; while a third station could define itself primarily by its role of ensuring that the poorest members of the community are able to express their concerns, or of promoting transparency and exposing corruption.

Box 1: What can community radio do?

It may seem abstract to say that community radio contributes to social, economic, cultural and political development. Concrete examples of how participatory communications projects change their communities can be found in the books A Passion for Radio:Radio Waves and Community (Girard 1993) and Making Waves:Stories of Participatory Communication for Social Change (Gumucio 2001). Both books are available on the internet. A Passion for Radio is at www.comunica.org/passion/ and Making Waves is at www.rockfound.org.

Many examples of what community radio can do are found in the country reports. Some of these are:

During roundtable programmes people can make suggestions for priority construction and development projectsInterviews with agricultural experts can help introduce and evaluate new agricultural techniques

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Radio theatre, poetry and music can provide entertainment and feature local cultural initiativesRadio programming can support and extend community-level campaigns in an almost infinite variety of subjects such as environmental awareness, tuberculosis or malaria prevention and treatment, land mines awareness, reintegration of former combatants, refugee issues, and human rights… Personal and community announcements can be broadcast, allowing the radio station to serve as a community telephone or bulletin boardTravelling health clinics, which often arrive in remote communities one day, wait a second day for word of their arrival to get around, and are only able to attend to people on the third day, can save considerable time by announcing their arrival in advance over the radio.Local authorities can be regularly interviewed to present their activities and receive feedback, thus promoting good governance and transparency Discussion programmes can examine the roles and rights of women and the changing nature of the familyLocal experts can provide education about health care and traditional medicinesRadio can provide a forum for cultural exchange between communities, thus promoting understanding and peaceAnd much more…

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THE COUNTRIES

Five countries were included in the final study, South Africa and Mali in Africa, Nepal in Asia, and Colombia and Peru in Latin America. In part they were selected to provide regional balance but also because each country has developed different models of community radio adapted to the local context and each model has its own strengths and weaknesses. Thus this report does not seek to identify an illusive ideal model for community radio, but to highlight specific good practices that illustrate how community radio can contribute to a variety of development goals.

In this section we will provide a brief snapshot of each country focusing on some of the critical factors that have contributed to the nature and utility of its community radio sector.

Colombia

Colombia is the 4th largest country in South America and the 3rd most populous in all of Latin America. It is a developing country with a moderately high per capita GDP and human development index. It is highly urbanised with more than 30 cities with populations greater than 100,000. It has well developed industries in

Population: 44.9 millionUrban population: 72.4% GDP per capita (PPP): US$7,526Human Development Index: 0.785Adult literacy: 92.8%, female 92.7, male 92.9Life expectancy at birth: 72.6 yearsHIV Prevalence (15-49 years): 0.6%Per capita health expenditure: US$522Telephone mainlines: 19.5 per 100 population Mobile subscribers: 23.2 per 100 populationInternet users: 8 per 100Radio receivers: 54.4 per 100 populationTelevision receivers: 25.1 per 100 populationShare of wealth of richest 20%: 62.7%Share of wealth of poorest 20%: 2.5%

RSF press freedom index: 131 of 168Number of community radio stations: 850

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textiles, food processing, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, chemicals as well as important oil and coal reserves as well as nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and emerald mines. Despite relatively good economic indicators, distribution of wealth is highly unequal and almost half of Colombia’s population lives below the poverty line.

Colombia has been in a state of low-intensity conflict during much of its modern history with the largest insurgent group, the FARC, being formed in the mid-1960s. Human rights violations are common, crime rates are high and the judicial system is widely perceived as ineffective. Largely a result of violence, crime and the impunity awarded by an ineffective judiciary, Reporters Without Borders put it in position 131 of 168 countries in 2006. In Latin America only Mexico (132) and Cuba (165) scored worse.

In the 1990s Colombia adopted a policy favourable to community radio, making one licence available in each municipality.4 In addition to making licences available, the government provides assistance in the form of funds for training and assistance to community broadcasters and support for regional networks.

Mali

Mali is among the poorest countries in the world, with sixty-five percent of its land area desert or semi-desert and with a highly unequal distribution of income. About ten percent of the population is nomadic and some eighty percent of the labour force is engaged in farming and fishing. Mali is heavily dependent on foreign aid and vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices for cotton, its main export. In 1991, after 23 years of dictatorship, a military coup made way for democratic elections in 1992.

Since the 1991 coup there has been a dramatic growth in Mali’s mass media, particularly the press and radio. While there are many newspapers and magazines, they are rarely distributed outside of the urban areas and inaccessible to the majority of the population in a country with an illiteracy rate of about eighty percent. The first community radio station was founded in 1988, during the period of one party rule, but it was after the coup that radio flourished. More than

4 Cities with a population greater than 300,000 were initially excluded, but after years of legal challenges the government was obliged, in May 2007, to issue a call for proposals for community radio stations in the major urban areas.

Population: 13.1 millionUrban population: 29.9%GDP per capita (PPP): US$998Human Development Index: 0.333Adult literacy: 19.0%, female 11.9%, male 26.7%

Life expectancy at birth: 48.1 yearsHIV Prevalence (15-49 years): 1.7%Per capita health expenditure: US$39Telephone mainlines: 0.6 per 100 population Mobile subscribers: 3 per 100 Internet users: 0.4 per 100Radio receivers: 15.3 per 100 Television receivers: 2.9 per 100 Share of wealth of richest 20%: 56.2%Share of wealth of poorest 20%: 4.6%

RSF press freedom index: 35 of 168Approximate number of radio stations: 175Number of community radio stations: 121

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100 radio stations were set up in the first ten years after the coup and today there are some 121 community radio stations, many in rural areas, and forty-seven commercial stations. The state broadcaster, the Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision du Mali (ORTM), operates both national and regional stations.

While French is the official language it is not widely spoken. Community radio stations broadcast primarily in local languages and it is common for stations to offer programmes in many languages.

Despite Mali’s poverty, and in contrast with its dependency on foreign aid, all but eight of its 121 community radio stations were financed locally, generally with a local development tax and/or with support from a local NGO. Mali is a multi-lingual and multi-ethnic country.

Nepal

Nepal is among the poorest and least developed countries in the world with almost one half of its population living below the poverty line. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, and almost 85% of the population is rural. In 1990 Nepal established a multiparty democracy within the framework of a

Population: 26.6 millionUrban population: 15.3% GDP per capita (PPP): US$1,490Human Development Index: 0.526Adult literacy: 48.6%, female 34.9%, male 62.7% Life expectancy at birth: 62.1 yearsHIV Prevalence (15-49 years): 0.5%Per capita health expenditure: US$64Telephone mainlines: 1.5 per 100 population Mobile subscribers: 0.7 per 100 Internet users: 0.7 per 100Radio receivers: N/ATelevision receivers: 1.1 per 100 Share of wealth of richest 20%: 54.6%Share of wealth of poorest 20%: 6.0%

RSF Press freedom index: 159 of 168*Private radio stations: 36Community radio stations: 20

*In its 2006 report Reporters Without Borders noted: The “democratic revolution” and the revolt against the monarchy in April this year (2006) led immediately to more basic freedoms and the country should gain a lot of ground in next year’s Index.

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constitutional monarchy. Since 1990, and despite some notable stumbles, Nepal has enjoyed a process of increasing democracy.

Since 1993, when the first private daily newspaper was established, the government’s media monopoly has been gradually eroded. The government maintained its monopoly on broadcasting until 1997 when, after a five-year wait, Radio Sagarmatha, Nepal’s first community radio station was awarded a license.

Despite its late start, community radio in Nepal is spreading quickly. As of May 2007 there were twenty established stations with another sixty-five with licences in hand preparing to start broadcasts. Once all these eighty-five stations are on the air, 56 of the 75 districts in the country will have a community radio station and 70% of the population will be within reach of a community radio signal. Unlike community media, commercial stations are generally located in the urban centres, with twenty-eight of the thirty-six currently in operation serving the capital Kathmandu. Because only ten percent of the budget for the state radio network comes from government, its programming is mainly commercially-oriented and competes with the private stations for revenue.

Nepal’s severely underdeveloped communication infrastructure, low literacy rate, and many languages5 present a number of challenges that community radio is uniquely positioned to overcome.

5 Nepali is the first language of less than half of the population and more than 100 languages are spoken.

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Peru

Peru is a developing country with a moderate per capita income and human development index score. Nevertheless, 51.6% of the total population is regarded as poor, including 19.2% considered extremely poor. During the 1980s, the country faced a huge external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking and massive political violence. In 1990 Alberto Fujimori was elected president and during his presidency, the economy began to recover and the insurgency was quashed. However, his government became increasingly authoritarian and faced with accusations of electoral fraud, corruption and massive human rights violations Fujimori fled the country in 2000.

The radio situation in Peru is complex. In addition to 2,000 licensed radio stations, 1,500 of them established between 1990 and 2005, there are hundreds of unlicensed broadcasters. The latter include community and commercial stations that have simply not been able to obtain licenses because of the cost and bureaucratic complexity but most of them are informal commercial operations with cheap “jukebox” formats and little or no news or information.

Population: 27.6 millionUrban population: 72.4%GDP per capita (PPP): US$5,678Human Development Index: 0.762Adult literacy: 87.7%, female 82.1%, male 93.5% Life expectancy at birth: 70.2 yearsHIV Prevalence (15-49 years): 0.6%Per capita health expenditure: US$233Telephone mainlines: 7.4 per 100 population

Mobile subscribers: 14.8 per 100 Internet users: 11.7 per 100Radio receivers: N/ATelevision receivers: 19.9 per 100 Share of wealth of richest 20%: 58.7%Share of wealth of poorest 20%: 3.2%

RSF press freedom index: 112 of 168Total licensed radio stations: ~2,000Community radio stations: ~200

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There are an estimated 200 community radio stations, understood as stations that de facto or de jure belong to and are run by their communities. The licensed ones are officially either commercial or educational stations because, while Peru’s 2004 radio and television law officially recognises community radio, no community station has yet to receive a license.

Peru’s main language is Spanish, but an important segment of the population, perhaps as high as twenty percent, speak indigenous languages, the most important of which is Quechua. Many radio stations broadcast at least some programming in that language.

South Africa

By UN classification South Africa is a middle-income country with an abundant supply of resources, well-developed financial, legal, communications, energy, and transport sectors, a stock exchange that ranks among the top twenty in the world, and a modern infrastructure supporting an efficient distribution of goods to major

Population: 47.2 millionUrban population: 58.8%GDP per capita (PPP): US$11,192Human Development Index: 0.658Adult literacy: 82.4%, female 80.9%, male 84.1%Life expectancy at birth: 47.0 yearsHIV Prevalence (15-49 years): 18.8%Per capita health expenditure: US$669Telephone mainlines: 9.4 per 100 population Mobile subscribers: 42.8 per 100 Internet users: 7.8 per 100Radio receivers: 24.8 per 100 Television receivers: 19.7 per 100 Share of wealth of richest 20%: 62.2%Share of wealth of poorest 20%: 3.5%

RSF press freedom index: 44 of 168Private radio stations: 17Community radio stations: 152Public radio stations: 18 (includes 4 commercial)

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urban centres throughout the region. South Africa is ranked 24th in the world in terms of GDP, corrected for purchasing power parity.

In many respects, however, South Africa is under-developed; advanced development is significantly localised around four urban areas and beyond these four centres, development is marginal and poverty reigns. Consequently the vast majority of South Africans are poor. South Africa has one of the highest rates of income inequality in the world. The white South African minority tends to be considerably wealthier than the rest of the population. This is partly attributed to the legacy of the apartheid system, and, increasingly, what many see as the failure of the current government. In the ten years since the ANC government took power, South Africa's United Nations Human Development Index fell dramatically, while it was steadily rising until the mid-1990s. Much of this could be attributed to the AIDS pandemic and the government's failure to take steps to address it.6

During the last years of the apartheid government many South Africans became aware of and began to prepare for the day when community radio would be allowed. These included both political exiles and local grassroots activists. Counting on the support of the government and the donor community and on the dedication of a large number of activists, community radio experienced rapid growth throughout the country.

Currently 152 of South Africa’s 191 radio stations are community stations. The rest of the stations are more or less evenly divided between private commercial stations and the stations of the publicly-owned South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). According to national surveys community radio reaches 6.5 million people, with almost ¼ of all radio listeners tuning into a community radio station at least once per week.

6 The first two paragraphs are largely extracted from Wikipedia’s South Africa entry - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_africa

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THE ISSUES

This section presents the seven issues identified for this study, illuminates good practices in community radio development and operation, showcases instructive examples, and examines how and why they worked.

Participatory Processes and Volunteers

What are good examples of participatory processes in community radio that lead to active and sustained volunteerism from the

communities?

Volunteers are essential to community radio. They contribute their time, knowledge and experience within the station for a variety of reasons. Some want to learn about radio and communication. Others want to support their radio station or to share their knowledge and experience with the wider community. Still others volunteer at the radio station because it provides a forum where they can further their work as environmentalists, doctors, or human rights workers.

Whatever the motives, few community radio stations would be able to provide a service if it were not for volunteers’ freely-offered labour and knowledge.

Volunteers are also the community’s presence inside the radio station and an important mechanism for enabling the meaningful community participation in programming, operating and financing that is the essence of community radio.

Volunteers and paid staff

In all five countries studied a significant share of the people involved in community radio are volunteers, although the ratio of paid staff to volunteers can vay widely from country to country and from station to station. In South Africa it is estimated that in most stations volunteers account for five of every six workers (86%) while in Nepal volunteers account for only 45% of the 600 community radio workers nationwide. In Mali, Colombia and Peru volunteers account for the majority of community radio workers.

When analysing the ratio of volunteers to paid staff it is important to keep in mind that the ratios tell us little about the actual amount of work done by volunteers vs. paid staff or about their relative levels of responsibility or the value of their contributions. While data is not available from all countries, the Peruvian study provides insights that have resonance elsewhere.

Among Peru’s community radio stations the scope of volunteering is inversely proportional with the size, wattage (power) and coverage area of the station. The smaller the radio station (basically rural or marginal urban) the more important volunteers are, while in larger stations volunteers do not disappear, but they become more specialised. (Peru report page 9)

Thus, in smaller stations volunteers take on the full range of tasks, from programme production and hosting to equipment maintenance to everyday administrative tasks, but in stations with more resources paid-staff take on a role of providing “infrastructure” while volunteers provide specialised “value-added” services. In the programming area, for example, staff duties in a large station

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include programme production, hosting and reporting, while volunteers will offer expertise as, for example, thematic correspondents or commentators. Examples of these include a medical doctor with a regular health column, or a correspondent reporting from a specific neighbourhood or village.

The Peruvian study also compared the actual number of volunteers, staff and hours worked in two typical stations – Radio Cutivalú with fifteen paid staff members and Radio Chaski with three. As table 1 shows both stations have the same volunteer to staff ratio (8 volunteers per staff member) but the more specialised volunteers at Cutivalú work an average of only one hour per day while at Chaski the volunteers work an average of two hours per day. While the two radio stations have the same absolute volunteer to staff ratio, in terms of hours worked the volunteers at Chaski work 1 hour for every 1.5 hours of staff time while at Cutivalú an hour of volunteer time is matched by 3 hours of paid staff time.

Station Volunteers Paid Staff Ratio

NumberHours /

dayNumber

Hours/day

Numbervols:staff

Hoursvol:staff

Cutivalú 40 1 15 8 8:3 1:3

Chaski 8 2 3 8 8:3 1:1.5

Table1: Volunteers and paid staff at two stations in Peru by total and by hours worked

Overall the evidence shows that while volunteers are universally found in community radio, there is no ideal ratio of staff to volunteers. Indeed at least one of the stations included in this study, South Africa’s Jozi FM, prides itself on its fulltime staff of thirty-five with salaries ranging from US$350 and US$2100 per month and only takes on an occasional volunteer intern. However, Jozi FM is the exception to the rule and its no-volunteer model is more like that of a private commercial station than a community one.

More typical is the situation found in Colombia’s stations in which volunteers’ participation in the stations breaks down divisions between the station and the community, with positive effect.

To the extent that community broadcasters do not have such a clear division between producers and audiences, because the audiences participate in the programming in many ways, there is a large flow of information, knowledge and shared interests between the station and the community. This has generated a very strong fabric of solidarity in the areas surrounding the stations, to the point that often, even among people who do not listen directly to the station, the mere fact that their town has one generates a sense of pride and belonging. (Colombia report, p. 17)

Types of volunteers

Two main types of volunteers can be identified in all countries: direct volunteers and partnership volunteers. The two types of volunteers are distinguished by whether their primary connection to the radio station is direct, i.e. an individual who volunteers at the station, or through a partner organisation such as a local NGO or government body that has a formal or informal agreement with the

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station. The two types of volunteers are motivated by different factors and they relate to the station in different ways.

Direct volunteers are generally individuals from within the community who volunteer directly at the station. These volunteers are found at all levels of station activity – from programme production to policy definition. Direct volunteers are motivated by a wide range of factors, including an altruistic desire to help the community, a desire to learn about radio, or a personal interest in local music and culture.

Their sentiment and goals are common due to similar geographical, cultural and national situations. Social harmony is based on sentiment, necessity and localness. They value coordination, not competition. Community radio is a cheap, simple and easy means for them to disseminate their initiatives to many at the same time. [They] are motivated by their concern with the problems faced by others and their enthusiasm and eagerness to contribute to public life. (Nepal study, page 10)

Yet there are also situations when a direct volunteer’s motives are inconsistent with the objectives of a community radio station. An example of this is when personal political or career ambitions collide with open and participatory programming policies.

[Direct volunteers] are generally young people who want to make a career in radio and who have attained a certain level of education. They perform practically all tasks, assisting the full-time staff as well. They come to the radio “just to learn the trade” or because of their “love for radio” but their training takes longer than expected and often they take the radio station hostage, becoming a hard to circumvent obstacle. (Mali report, p.28)

While Mali’s model of village radio stations with few or no paid staff often results in a very close relationship with the community, it can also leave stations vulnerable to abuse and more than one station has gone through a period during which it was “captured” by volunteers and employed to serve personal financial or political ends. To avoid this many stations require volunteers to sign agreements that specify rights and responsibilities and define certain ethical standards. Surprisingly the Mali study was the only one that noted the existence of written agreements between stations and volunteers, even though drafting and agreeing to volunteer job descriptions and codes of ethics is considered good practice in volunteer organisations worldwide.

Partnership volunteers are those whose labour within the community radio station is primarily a result of an association with an NGO, profession, business or government agency outside of the station. They volunteer with the radio station but they are also volunteers or paid workers at a second organisation with specific skills, knowledge and interests. Examples of this type of volunteers include a staff member of an NGO working in local economic development, a social worker, an activist lawyer working for a legal aid service, a public health worker, or a scientist based at a government agricultural research and extension station. Although they are considered volunteers by the station in many cases their primary relationship is not with the station but mediated by the outside organisation and their primary commitment is to the specific area of expertise of the organisation. The station in these cases provides a communication

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infrastructure enabling a direct link between expert volunteers and the broad community of listeners.

With direct volunteers the primary connection is between the station and the volunteer, while with partnership volunteers the connection is more complex, often stemming from relationships between the community radio station and other organisations working in the community.

Box 2: Allied institutions at Radio Marañon

Radio Marañon in the Andes mountain range in the north of Peru works with a number institutions allied with its communication work. One of these is the Vicaría del Medio Ambiente, which coordinates a network of sixty volunteers who monitor and report on the environment in their own communities within the station’s listening area. The volunteers of the Vicaria’s network are trained in environmental issues and communication. They monitor the environment for contamination problems and contribute reports to a regular programme on the radio station. The Pastoral de la Salud, a network of 60 rural health workers, has a similar relationship with the community radio station.

Of course direct volunteers also have relations with other actors in the community and individual partnership volunteers often develop very strong personal commitment to the station. Nevertheless the two types of volunteers are different in that the first is usually the product of an agreement between the station and an individual while the latter results from an agreement between the station and an outside institution that generally guarantees a higher level of expertise, greater continuity and additional resources to support the volunteer’s participation.

Both of the two main types of volunteers work in most community radio stations, but each type has different motivations, contributions and demands and requires different management styles. Table 2 looks at certain characteristics of the two types of volunteers.

Direct Partnership

Advantages

- Enthusiastic and motivated- Desire to learn radio- Member of the community and likely to have general knowledge of community needs/desires

- Specialised knowledge- Part of an organised group - May require fewer resources as the partner is responsible for motivation and financial rewards- More sustained volunteerism. The institution’s commitment continues even if an individual volunteer does not

Disadvantages

- Motivation may not be inline with station needs - High turnover- Whom do they represent?- May not have specific expertise

- Primary allegiance is not to the station- May put specific interest above community interest

Table 2: Some advantages and disadvantages of direct and partnership volunteers

While most community radio stations use and value both direct and partnership volunteers, partnership volunteers often bring specific and valuable skills and

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knowledge, require fewer resources and are more reliable and sustainable. In a certain way they can also be more representative of the community since partnership volunteers are “delegates” of organised groups or associations within the community and their projects and proposals grow out of the concerns of these sectors. While conventional media seek to maintain the illusion that their journalists are independent of movements and associations, in a radio station that seeks to be part of the community the presence of organised sectors of the community inside the station and on its airwaves gives authenticity to its voice. Further, the system of partnership volunteers spreads the burden of motivating, maintaining and rewarding and orienting them across numerous organisations instead of centralising it in the radio station.

Direct volunteers on the other hand choose to volunteer because they are enthusiastic and eager to learn. Whether they are natural communicators looking for an outlet, motivated by an interest in the technology, or want to learn radio in order to get a job, they are motivated to learn and develop the technical skills that a radio station needs. Other motivations are highly subjective and difficult to generalise about. Some are motivated by personal ambition – seeing the radio as a stepping stone toward a political career, or simply wanting to hear their own voice – others are inspired by a genuine desire to contribute to the community by getting its voices and issues on the air and attracting wider and deeper participation. Either way, direct volunteers are crucial to community radio and uniquely able to ensure that programming reflects the broad diversity of a community’s views and issues. Nevertheless, managing them can be complicated, as this South African example reminds us:

Part of the challenge in Community Radio, is that when it was first introduced in South Africa, extensive lessons were drawn from the Australian, American and Canadian models to shape the South African Community Radio model. One of the aspects that were imported without any modification is the volunteering model of the sector. Vaaltar FM in the rural North West Province and many other stations are of the view that the current model is difficult to implement and manage in the South African context. The assumption that has and continues to be made is that all volunteers have their basic needs for food, shelter and clothing met from where ever they come from, whilst the reality is quite to the contrary. (South Africa report, p. 16)

In spite of the effort sometimes required to train and support them, direct volunteers fulfil essential roles within stations. It is common to find excellent staff members who began as enthusiastic but untrained volunteers.

In practice it is not always simple to distinguish between traditional and partnership volunteers. In Colombia, for example, it is common to find volunteer collectives with the characteristics of both traditional and partnership volunteers. The collectives are informal groups that meet to produce a weekly radio programme. They get basic training, either from the station or from a third party such as an NGO. Most common in Colombia are groups of children or youth, but there are also collectives of women, disabled people, parents, artists, farmers, and others. While individual members of the collectives may be similar to traditional volunteers, the collectives themselves exhibit continuity and commitment and keep the weekly programs on the air for long periods of time. Colombian community radio stations value these collectives and a typical station in

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Colombia has between two and ten of them. In addition to free airtime, they provide them with training and access to equipment and materials.

Box 3: Community collectives in Colombia: Examples of direct and partnership hybrids

The Communication Collective “Pescao sobrero y tambó” in Simití, Bolivar, – the only communication collective in the town – groups 15 boys and girls 6 to 16 years old who meet every week to produce a one hour show broadcast on Saturday afternoons. Very early in the morning they meet at a teacher’s home. This teacher stands by them and helps them, and everyone participates in the show’s pre-production: they prepare the script, select the music and take turns for reading the stories. They are organised into small group, each with responsibility for a segment of the show no longer than 5 minutes. In the afternoon, they go together to the radio studio and broadcast the live show.

The show has a big impact in the town. In the neighbourhoods where the children live, their friends and relatives put loudspeakers to the street so everyone can listen to the show. When the children return home they are greeted with loud cheers and applause, which is an good motivator for them.

The children’s shows deal with troubles at school and at home, campaigning for the environment, garbage disposal, pet care, sexual and reproductive health issues, advice on health issues, spelling and math contests and other interests.

The Magdalena Medio Handicapped Collective in San Vicente de Chucurí, is directed by a man who was, for a certain period of time, the director of the community radio station. He is a professional electrician and a big fan of radio. As a member of the disabled people’s collective, he motivated others to produce a show aimed at promoting a different image of the disabled and, in this way, to make them feel more integrated into the community. [The members of the collective] want to be considered as valuable community members, able to work and produce, as well as to contribute to community harmony with their show. In this town there are several production collectives corresponding to different groups: children, youth, theater groups, women, cocoa growers, etc. These collectives reflect a much more organised and participative community, and this can also be seen in the radio environment. (Colombia report, p. 13)

Many radio stations also accept student interns. These can bring new knowledge to the station but they rarely stay beyond a couple of months. Bush Radio in Cape Town, South Africa welcomes interns from Europe, North America and Australia as both a way of benefiting from new knowledge and of financing the station by charging them US$500 per month.

BOX 4: South Africa Radio Internships7

Bush Radio, affectionately known as "The Mother of Community Radio in Africa", sustains itself through the support of committed people from around the world, who believe that everyone has the right to freedom of expression... and the airwaves.

One of the ways we are supported is through the South Africa Radio Internships - SARI. The project sees broadcasting students and seasoned professionals pay to help us move our democracy forward, while at the same time experiencing some of the wonders that Cape Town and the environs have to offer.

The fees paid by interns pays the project's general running costs, as well as a small stipend to young radio activists from the townships around Cape Town. There is no formal training in radio production available in South Africa at this time, a situation we aim to remedy by getting our fledgling Broadcast Training Institute - BTI accreditated.

The idea is to get away from the addiction of donor funding and government handouts because both have their own, not so hidden, dangers.

Since we don't encourage advertising, your support in this programme will help us keep

7 From the Bush Radio website at http://www.bushradio.co.za/internships.htm

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the flame of grassroots communication alive, while at the same time covering a future broadcaster's travel costs and a small stipend.

Attachment Internships:

Are you a broadcasting student in need of an internship overseas?

Do you want to gain some valuable experience alongside some of the most dedicated young media practitioners in South Africa?

Internships of up to three months are offered as a development opportunity to young broadcasting and communication scholars from all over the world. We place interns in our ever-busy News Department, the creative Production Department and with our popular On-Air Team.

On acceptance, you will receive a comprehensive induction manual and the name of the local trainee that will benefit from your presence and be your "buddy" for the duration of your stay.

We will help in finding you suitable and safe accommodation and provide you with airport pick-up and drop-off.

Sabbatical for Media Professionals:

Are you a trained broadcaster who needs a break from the boring routine of network commercial radio?

Do you wish you could fulfil those creative radio dreams you had when you first started out as a radio maker?

Do you believe that radio can be used as an upliftment tool to better the lives of people in the developing world?

If the answer to these questions is "yes"….please read on.

Established professional radio broadcasters are invited to spend up to 3 months at one of the most exciting little radio projects in the world*.

Make the programmes you've always wanted to hear. Join committed broadcasters from around the world who gather at Bush Radio to produce meaningful and creative radio.

In February 2004, we worked alongside interns from Norway, France, The Netherlands, Canada and Sweden.

Cost for internship is R 5000-00 per month (app. $500 US)

________________________________________________________________________

* “I have had quite a lot of contact with popular media in the United States, and elsewhere in the world, and have rarely come across achievements comparable to yours. I appreciated the vitality and seriousness as well as the very high level of professionalism and dedication of the staff and volunteers from all over the globe. What you are doing at Bush Radio is extremely important.” - Noam Chomsky

Roles of volunteers

There are no limits to the roles that volunteers can play in a community radio station. In many stations volunteers work on both sides of the microphone, fulfilling programming, administrative, leadership and coordination functions. In general the smaller the community radio station, the broader the range of tasks taken on by volunteers and in many of the smallest stations even the station manager is a volunteer.

In larger stations, with more resources available and more ability to absorb partnership volunteers, the division between volunteers and paid staff is more apparent, with paid staff taking on a role of providing “infrastructure” and

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coordination while volunteers, especially partnership volunteers, adopt more specialised roles that exploit their particular knowledge or expertise.

Thus, in the programming area, for example, staff duties in a large station include programme production, hosting and reporting, while volunteers will offer expertise as, for example, thematic correspondents or commentators – a medical doctor with a regular health column, or a correspondent from a specific neighbourhood or village.

Even in smaller stations the ideal situation is one in which staff take care of the essential coordination functions and volunteers provide support. This is the case with Radio Jamana in Mopti, Mali (Box 5).

Box 5: Radio Jamana has seven paid staff members and 23 volunteers. The four male and three female staff members are young and locally recruited, and for most of them working at the station is their first job. When hired they had no formal training in radio but they learned on the job and some of them have been able to take advantage of occasional workshops, seminars and short-term scholarships to raise their skill level.

The staff members are multi-talented and flexible, able to shift easily between producing, hosting a programme, fixing or maintaining studio and remote equipment, and reporting.

The station is organised into six departments – management, programming, advertising sales, news, accounting and secretarial services, and technical.

Among the 23 volunteers there are both traditional and partnership volunteers. Like station staff, volunteers take on a wide variety of tasks and there are volunteers working in each of the station’s six departments. Some traditional volunteers seem to be at the station almost daily, while other resource persons only visit when they have a programme to do.

Despite being multi-talented, it is the paid staff members who are responsible for the coordination of the six departments. By taking care of the coordination, the paid staff allow the volunteers to focus on tasks that either interest and motivate them or those that maximise the knowledge or expertise they have to offer.

Volunteer recruitment, training and incentives

Volunteers find their way into existing community radio stations via a number of avenues:

1. Most direct volunteers enter spontaneously, simply visiting the station and offering their services. They are not actively recruited, although the station may broadcast general announcements inviting volunteers;

2. Partnership volunteers come to the station via an external association that is already a station partner – and NGO, youth group, etc.;

3. NGOs and other associations approach the station seeking airtime and to establish ongoing partnerships;

4. The station actively seeks a partnership with an NGO with a specific area of expertise;

5. The station actively searches for an individual with a specific area of expertise.

Basic training of some kind is usually provided for volunteers. In many of Peru’s stations, for example, this first training is taken seriously and for a period of a few weeks to two or three months the new recruit works alongside one or more experienced colleagues (either paid and volunteer). Additionally stations organise

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periodic workshops and seminars, generally led by senior staff, to evaluate skills and needs and to provide more theoretical training. Some stations have developed basic training packages or manuals. Pairing the new volunteers with experienced members of the station has the additional advantage of introducing them to the station’s “culture” and value system and helps to quickly identify incompatible volunteers.

In South Africa the Open Society Foundation sponsored the development of a Community Radio Manual in 1999, about the same time that the first permanent community radio licences were being issued and four years after the first temporary ones were granted. The manual served not only to support station-level training in programming, production and management, but also introduced and advanced an understanding of community radio and its history, practices and objectives in South Africa and worldwide. No comparable material was found at the national level in the other countries studied.

Training is a stated priority for all of the countries in the study and all of them have had important initiatives in the domain. However, except for the occasional workshop report there is little data that indicates to what extent these initiatives have benefited or been directed at volunteers.

Colombia has developed a rigorous practice over the years. When the first round of licenses were issued in 1995 little formal attention was paid to training and, as a result, many of the stations closed down or lost their community nature when faced with the difficulty of surviving with little knowledge and experience. With the second and third rounds of concessions the Ministry of Communication dedicated significant resources to contract regional universities to provide initial training for every new station. In addition to technical skills, the training provided to the stations has covered legal aspects, administration, financing and an orientation to the role and nature of communities and community radio. While there has not been a formal evaluation of the impact of this training, the Colombia report attributes it with the emergence of a deep understanding of community radio among those who work with it.

[E]ven if this is a very recent process, and these second and third generation community radios have not been assessed or followed up yet, it should be noted that a community radio “culture” has become evident in the meetings, seminars and workshops where the people are aware of the law and regulations, and concepts such as the Style Guide and Programming Council are considered part of a station’s normal operation. (Colombia report, p. 9)

Ilitha Community Radio in South Africa has developed an elaborate process for recruiting, selecting and training community volunteers. First the station broadcasts public notices announcing that it is recruiting volunteers and inviting applicants to contact the station and sign up. The volunteer positions advertised correspond to identified needs within the station: if there is a shortage of journalists but enough technicians, the station advertises for journalists and not technicians. The public notices often specifically seek to encourage women to apply, since station policy puts a strong emphasis on the provision of service to rural women. Normally the response to the invitation is greater than the need for volunteers so the station then contacts the applicants individually and invites them to the station for an interview before selecting those that best fill its needs. The selected volunteers are then provided with in-house basic radio training and, finally, the most promising among them are given the opportunity to get training

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provided by a number of external service providers such as the National Community Radio Forum (NCRF), the Institute for the Advancement of Journalism (IAJ) and the National Electronic Media Institute of South Africa (NEMISA).

Ilitha Community Radio’s recruiting and training practices offer a number of advantages:

The station initiates the recruiting process when it needs volunteers;

The station directs the recruiting to people with the skills and interests it requires and also to people from particular sectors that it is interested in recruiting;

The selection process allows screening of applicants and selection of volunteers based on station and community priorities and on volunteers’ motivations, skills, etc.;

By recruiting in waves the station can make better use of resources by organising basic training courses for a groups rather than individuals;

The possibility of receiving external training provides volunteers with additional incentives;

The selection process is ongoing and benefits of external training are optimised.

Among the externally available training in South Africa is a Community Radio Station Management Skills Program developed and offered by NCRF, IAJ and MAPPP SETA (Media, Advertising, Publishing, Printing and Packaging Sector Education and Training Authority). The programme designed to help community radio practitioners be better equipped to manage, develop content and generate revenue for their stations. The programme provides volunteers with a basic allowance to cover costs of participation. The Open Society Foundation supported the production of training manuals and curricula and made them freely available for download from the internet.8

In addition to training, many radio stations offer financial incentives to cover transportation and other costs. In South Africa for example, this can range from around US$40 to as high as US$500 per month while fulltime staff members are paid from US$350 to as much as US$2100 per month.

Conclusions

Without volunteers’ time, knowledge and experience community radio would not exist. Volunteers are the community’s presence inside the radio station and an important mechanism for enabling the meaningful community participation in programming, operating and financing that is the essence of community radio.

There are two main types of volunteers –direct and partnership– and they must be managed differently. Both types can help make a station financially possible, while contributing to the quality and diversity of its programming. Partnership volunteers provide stations with a high level of expertise in its programming and they come with the backing of an outside institution. While there is a large body of knowledge and experience worldwide about volunteer management, in general it appears that community radio has failed to make adequate use of it. The cases

8 Available at http://www.osf.org.za/

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studied indicate that there is little understanding of motivations and incentives and in only in a very few cases is there evidence of written agreements setting out rights and responsibilities of volunteers or of written job descriptions for volunteers.

Among the good practices identified in the national reports are:

Systematic recruitment procedures that help ensure that a station attracts volunteers with profile that fit its needs;

Written agreements between stations and volunteers that clearly define rights and responsibilities.

Basic training provided as part of a “buddy system”

Basic training that includes both hands on learning and theoretical study;

Basic training that is accompanied with orientation to the general concepts and values of community radio and of the individual station;

When advanced training is available from external suppliers it can be used to develop skills but also provides an incentive for volunteers;

Nationally produced training materials that can be readily adapted by local stations.

Relationship with the Community

How have community radio stations ensured that they are the voice of the community?

While listeners of commercial radio are able to participate in the programming in limited ways –via open line phone-in shows or by requesting a favourite song, for example– community radio listeners are the producers, managers, directors, evaluators and even the owners of the stations. (Girard 1992, p. 2)

The meaningful participation of the community is a defining characteristic of community radio. Participation in community radio goes beyond the “talk radio” format; members of the community produce programmes, define station policy, manage their station and even finance it. Participation can be exercised in a wide variety of ways depending on the nature and objectives of the station, and the characteristics of the community.

Community participation in a community radio station is much more than a measure of a station’s internal democracy. Participation is both the purpose and the strength of community radio. It is the purpose because community radio seeks to provide a forum for the community and it is its strength because it is through participation that people and their organisations turn their knowledge, experience, research, opinions, culture and skills into the station’s programming.

It is notable that in many countries, and especially in rural areas, it is common for radio stations to take the name of the local community and become “The Voice of …”. By identifying itself so strongly with the community the station sends the clear message that it belongs to the community. It is their station, their spokesperson and they have a say in what it does and a responsibility to make sure it does it well.

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Programming

The Nepal study looked at content differences between commercial and community media and found that commercial media’s information sources were limited to the traditional ones – press releases, press conferences, promotional events, large public events, official spokespersons, and so on. Community radio, on the other hand, makes active use of field reports, interviews with ordinary people, testimonies, and other techniques that privilege “people as content”.

Communities participate in programming in many ways.

The community is present in the programmes. Community radio programming is primarily locally produced and about local people and issues. This is in stark contrast to television where the resource-intensive nature of production imposes limits on the amount of local programming.

The programmes are present in the community. Community members do not only listen to the radio, the station goes out to the community. In Ghana, for example, programmes are often recorded in open village meetings and the effect of hearing one’s own and one’s neighbours’ voices on the airwaves has been profoundly empowering.

Participatory programme formats including talk shows, round tables, reading listener letters on the air, vox populi, broadcasts from public locations, etc. are very simple ways of facilitating community participation. People comment on the issues of the day, on the station’s programming, or they just send greetings to friends and family members. This kind of service is very valuable, especially in rural areas where people are isolated from each other and the radio is the only medium that brings them together and contributes a sense of community. Participatory formats are a potent vehicle for communities to develop public opinion.

Community volunteers help make the programmes as we discussed in the previous section on volunteers.

NGOs and other types of civil society associations produce and broadcast their own programmes using the community radio’s production and broadcast facilities.

Feedback and participatory evaluation mechanisms are widely used. These include on-air mechanisms including the participatory programme formats mentioned above but they also include “open house” days when community members are invited to visit the station and meet with staff and volunteers and public meetings at which listeners and station representatives evaluate the programming.

A Programming Imbizo

In August 2006, Vaaltar FM in South Africa's North West Province undertook to hold an ‘imbizo’ (gathering), whereby members of the community and other interested parties were asked to provide inputs on what types of programs and issues they would like the station to focus on. The communities raised a variety of issues, but what was most critical was the provision of relevant and usable information in health matters and economic development or job creation projects. The station took this mandate very seriously, and realigned its programming while training its presenters to be responsive to the issues raised. The station has since realised a 100% leap in its audience ratings. This was as a direct response to the programming ‘imbizo’.

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Research. In South Africa all community radio stations are included in market surveys conducted by the South African Advertising Research Foundation and have access to the results. These surveys, typically based on diaries distributed to a sample of households and collected a week or two later are designed for use by advertisers, tend to exaggerate audience size and are so general that they are not useful for decisions about programmes. (List 2006).

Some individual stations do more qualitative research involving listener clubs and structured interviews, and some external agencies have conducted impact assessments, but these remain isolated initiatives. Apart from South Africa’s market surveys no sustained audience research initiatives at either the national or local level were found in any of the countries studied. Nevertheless, materials developed by elsewhere are available for stations interested in embarking on more appropriate audience research. Dennis List’s Audience Dialogue website is useful as is Arthur van den Elzen’s Spanish-language guide to audience surveys, Preguntando a Nuestro Pueblo.

Community representatives develop programme policy and programming schedules. Enabling the community to develop programme policy and programming schedules is unique to community radio and is done both in formal and informal ways.

In Colombia community participation in programming is a legal requirement stipulated in the community radio legislation. All community radio stations are required to have a “Style Guide” and a community Programming Council (junta de programación).

The Style Guide is a public document that defines the policies, principles and criteria of the station in matters such as audience rights, not inciting violence or discrimination and guaranteeing pluralism. By making their policies public in the Guide a station commits to a high level of transparency and community members can challenge it if, for example, the station deviates from its own programming policy.

According to Colombia’s community radio legislation the Programming Councils are “charged with the formulation and monitoring of policies, plans and programmes related to programming and for overseeing the compliance of the goals of the [community broadcasting] service.”9 The law also stipulates that organisations in the community, including municipal institutions, have the right to nominate representatives to the Programming Council and that the director of the radio station will be the Council’s chair.10

Ownership, participation and control

Who are the owners of community radio stations? In the five countries included in this study we have found a number of different answers to that question. There are stations owned by NGOs, by cooperatives, by church parishes, by municipalities and by associations or coalitions specifically formed to establish a

9 Ministry of Communications, Colombia, Decree 1981, 2003, Article 2 - http://www.mincomunicaciones.gov.co/mincom/src/user_docs/Archivos/normatividad/2003/Decretos/D1981d%202003.doc10 Ministry of Communications, Colombia, Decree 1981, 2003, Article 3 - http://www.mincomunicaciones.gov.co/mincom/src/user_docs/Archivos/normatividad/2003/Decretos/D1981d%202003.doc

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radio station. In some cases the legal ownership of the station has either been forgotten or was never clearly established.

More important than the legal status of the body that “owns” the station are its governance and membership structure, which can either restrict meaningful participation to a small group or open it up to the whole community. Four stations in Nepal, two of them owned by NGOs and two by cooperatives, provide good examples.

Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu was Nepal’s first radio station and is owned by an NGO belonging to the Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (NFEJ). The 120 journalists and environmental expert members of the NFEJ hold annual elections to choose its executive committee which in turn selects the station’s board of directors.

Young Star Club, another NGO, owns Solu FM located in the mountainous district of Solukhumbu. Unlike the NFEJ, membership in Young Star Club is open to the public and it has 300 members. To ensure as broad community representation as possible, a Radio Council has been established as the supreme body of the station and the Club only has three of the 45 members of the council with the rest consisting of representatives of ethnic organisations, representatives of all political parties, distinguished individuals from the community, a representative of the district NGO federation, etc. The Council chooses elects an executive charged with developing the vision, goals and policies of the station.

The Lumbini Information and Communication Cooperative owns Radio Lumbini. According to its regulations, membership in the cooperative is open to all, but in practice it is limited because membership costs $615, twice as much as the national per capita income. Its 220 members elect the cooperative’s board, which is also the station’s board, for a three-year term.

Another cooperatively owned station, Radio Rupakot, based in the Khotang district where indigenous people are the majority, provides a model that contrasts sharply with Bijaya FM. The station ran a membership drive aimed at signing up one member from each family in its broadcast area. Aided by its low US$1.50 membership fee the station signed up 1,200 members in the first two months of the drive, a number that continues to grow. Radio Rupakot then divided its coverage area into 20 representative zones with each one electing a representative to the Council, the station’s supreme body. The Council in turn elects an executive to direct the day-to-day activities of the station.

Often de jure ownership is in the hands of a local association or NGO but de facto ownership is in the hands of the community. This is the case of most stations in small communities: the licence may be held by an NGO but the station is dependent on the community for money, office and studio space, volunteers, content and legitimacy. In return the community insists on controlling its radio station. The NGO only holds the licence on behalf of the community and the most important decisions are taken at open annual general meetings where the programming schedule, budget, repairs or improvements to station facilities, and proposals for new programmes are fervently discussed. The annual general meetings elect the management committees or boards and proposals for station managers are submitted for approval. The community and its representatives clearly manage and control their stations.

This is the clearly the case in the majority of Mali’s stations but is also common in other countries where stations are often housed in buildings provided free of

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charge by the community or supported by cash or in-kind donations from individuals, organisations and local authorities.

In its legislation Colombia tried to ensure broad community participation by requiring every community radio station to have a board of directors and a Programming Council to oversee the programming and operation of the station. A community radio station that follows the procedures set out in the legislation:

holds an annual general meeting to elect the governing bodies;

at the meeting the outgoing bodies provide a public report of what they have done

following the meeting the incoming bodies prepare and present a work plan and a budget within one month of the election.

According to coordinators of Colombia’s regional networks, this works in 50 or 60% of the stations. In the rest the government’s inability to monitor and enforce the law combined with the low level of organisation of many communities has resulted in stations that are effectively controlled by a single institution or individual and used for their own purposes. This is the case with certain stations owned by churches or educational institutions, or cases where individuals have manipulated the system in order to get a commercial station disguised as a community one.

Conclusions

Community participation in programming is highly valued by community radio stations.

Community radio stations in all five countries use innovative participatory formats.

Community participation is not restricted to programming. There are many examples of community participation in stations’ decision-making structures. In Colombia stations are legally required to have community members on their Boards and Programming Councils and many of them do. However, even in the other countries where there is no legal requirement, most community stations have adopted structures that include elected decision-making bodies and broad community participation in non-programming aspects of a station’s operation.

As important than the legal status of the body that “owns” the station are its governance and membership structures, which can either restrict meaningful participation to a small group or open it up to the whole community.

Communities that provide support for community stations can insist that the station be responsive to listener concerns through mechanisms such as the annual general meetings and independent elected boards of directors.

Good enabling legislation and regulation are necessary but insufficient for ensuring community control of community radio.

Community radio can help a community organise itself, but if the community does not have a certain level of organisation and interest, the station can be taken over to serve the narrow interests of organised individuals or groups.

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Exertion of Rights

How has community radio helped people and communities press successfully for their civil and human rights, advocate successfully

with officials, protect themselves from abuse, and become legally and socially empowered?

Participatory media and communication of the kind afforded by community radio is one of the most powerful ways of ensuring that people are aware of their rights and able to exert, defend and extend them. The country studies highlighted three overlapping strategies employed by community radio stations: educating about rights, monitoring the status of rights, and advocating for recognition and extension of rights.

Educating about rights

Perhaps the greatest impediment to ensuring respect for human rights is the low level of awareness of them. Many community radio stations and networks, working alone or with others, actively contribute to human and civil rights awareness. Community radio is a good choice for rights awareness because, as a recent evaluation of its social impact concluded, it is particularly effective at ensuring inclusion of poor and marginalized populations, precisely the ones most likely to suffer violations of their human and civil rights. (AMARC, 2007).

Consider these examples from the country studies:

Vaaltar Community Radio in South Africa, together with the Media Training Centre (MTC), and local community organisations, are developing an HIV/AIDS awareness program. This program has a special focus on young and vulnerable woman in the community who are not able to negotiate safe sex with their partners at all times. The program is aimed at empowering young women to take a stand and protect their rights to say no. The station is playing a central role in training volunteers from community organisations dealing with HIV/AIDS to use the platform provided by the station to talk about these issues and help young women exercise their rights and to seek help.

Also in South Africa, Soweto’s Jozi FM has been involved with the Gay and Lesbian Organisation (GLO) over the years to put gay and lesbian rights issues in the public domain. The collaboration has helped GLO to dispel some of the homophobic stereotypes and myths prevalent in society at large and provided a platform for gays and lesbians to discuss their own rights.

The Supreme Court of Nepal ruled four years ago that the state should provide free education to people with disabilities. However, because many disabled people did not know their rights, some district governments ignored their obligations. Dang, in Nepal’s mid-west region, was one of the districts in which the ruling was ignored. Radio Swargadwari raised this issue frequently, informing and educating the disabled about their rights until the district government succumbed and agreed to provide them with free education.

Fundamental civil rights guaranteed by Nepal’s Constitution were suspended during the 15-month regime of King Gyanendra, who seized power in a coup in February 2005. Despite a ban on the broadcast of news, the community radios found creative ways to advocate for civil and

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human rights by broadcasting educational programmes about the rights enshrined in the constitution, processes for suspending rights, articles of the Geneva Convention, and international treaties and covenants ratified by Nepal. They also frequently broadcast notices about the ban on news and the consequent infringement of the right to information. This helped ensure that during the 15 months that their rights were suspended Nepal’s people did not forget their rights – they actually became more aware of them.

As part of its continuing democratic reforms the government of Mali developed PRODEJ, a ten-year legal reform programme (Programme Décennal de Développement de la Justice).11 The community radio stations have been given the role of disseminating information about the programme and URTEL, the national community radio association, sits on its steering committee. Since journalists are not usually well equipped to understand complex legal matters and to explain them in a way that people can understand, PRODEJ provides training to familiarise community radio journalists with the law, how it works, legal language, and how to explain it.

As a result of their training community radio stations were able to run programmes explaining environmental rights to community members. Armed with a new understanding of their rights many villages galvanized around the issue of deforestation and effectively defended their forests from lumber companies.

In times of conflict it is more important than ever that ordinary people and combatants are aware of human rights. However, for community radio stations in Colombia’s conflict zones to talk about “human rights” or “international humanitarian law” is to arouse the suspicion and perhaps anger of one or the other armed groups. Unable to deal with these issues in an open way, but faced with an urgent need to have them known and understood, community broadcasters have invented many ways of educating about human rights without actually naming them. For example, a group in the Montes de María produced a series of programmes in which they spoke of the rights of many groups in society – children, women, senior citizens, fishermen – without ever mentioning “human rights”, as if they were totally unrelated. With this strategy they have been able to educate people about their rights and even children in the area have a clear understanding of their rights.

Effective rights education can be ongoing and oriented to developing a general knowledge of and respect for rights (the cases of Mali and Colombia) or it can be targeted to deal with the rights of specific groups (the young women in South Africa or the case of the disabled people in Nepal).

The case of the rights awareness campaign undertaken during the 15 month suspension of civil rights in Nepal is exceptional in that its apparent focus on raising rights awareness rather than denouncing violations was in effect a creative way of dealing with a particularly repressive set of measures. News broadcasts were banned and freedom of expression restricted. Soldiers were permanently posted in all community and independent radio stations to enforce the ban and would have intervened if the programmes had taken an aggressive stance denouncing the measures. By focusing on education rather than confrontation,

11 http://www.justicemali.org/

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Nepal’s community radio stations adopted an effective “velvet” approach rather than face increased repression.

Monitoring and advocating for rights

In addition to educating about rights, community radio stations often work alongside other organisations in more targeted ways. These include monitoring rights, denouncing violations of rights, and organising or supporting campaigns to ensure rights are respected or extended to new areas.

Three examples from Peru show different ways a community radio can play an advocacy role.

1. When Jaén province in the north of Perú experienced a sharp increase in violent crime, the police were slow to react to guarantee the security of the population. Various community organisations approached Radio Marañon, a community station with a commitment to social issues and development, and Marañon agreed to broadcast information about the increase in crime and the inaction of the police and to disseminate the call for a march for peace. There was a strong turnout on the day of the march and most of the other community radio stations in the province suspended their own programming in favour of re-transmitting Radio Marañon’s live broadcast. Faced with province-wide protest the police were forced to take measures to address the crime wave.

2. Representatives of indigenous communities in the Peruvian jungle visited Radio La Voz de la Selva in Loreto to complain about an oil company that was contaminating the Corrientes River. The station convinced officials at the Ministry of Health in Lima to conduct blood tests on local people, but then had to fight to have the results released. Despite showing levels of lead and cadmium in the blood, the company refused to discuss the matter until La Voz de La Selva contacted the Coordinadora Nacional de Radio (CNR – the national community radio association) which made the issue a national one and forced negotiations between the company, the government and the indigenous people. The three parties then asked the radio station to sit in on the negotiations and to broadcast information about them.

3. Twelve community radio stations in Peru’s northern coastal region are working together with civil society organisations and local and regional governments in a project designed to improve the lives of women and youth in the region. Based on the results of a study that identified some of the key problems they face, the radio stations and other partners defined a series of activities. One of these was a weekly radio programme, carried on all the stations, in which the rights of women and youth are discussed. The radio programme allows women and youth to participate in identifying problems, proposing solutions and negotiating them with local authorities. A number of municipal governments have already made positive changes to municipal ordinances and it is hoped that regional governments, which work at a slower pace, will begin to make changes soon. Even if there were no immediate changes, the initiative succeeded in making women and youth conscious of their own situation and empowered them to propose changes.

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The three examples above exhibit different levels of complexity. In the example of Radio Marañon the station simply opened up its airwaves to a group of civil society organisations and exposed the failures of local authorities, but in the other two examples the stations became actors in more complex processes. La Voz de La Selva, for example, took on multiple roles:

It was a forum for lodging a complaint about a violation of rights;It lent its influence to convince health officials in the capital to conduct blood tests on the residents;When the health officials refused to release the blood tests, the station used investigative journalism techniques to get them released;It focused national attention on the struggle of a poor isolated community when it worked with the CNR’s national network; Finally, La Voz de La Selva was an eyewitness to the negotiations, ensuring the community was present in the room, making sure everyone could know what was proposed and agreed to, and guaranteeing transparency.

In the third example the radio programme empowered both participants and listeners, raising people’s awareness of their situation and their rights and encouraging them to develop their own proposals to be negotiated with local authorities.

The example of Nepal’s widows’ movement (see Box 6) demonstrates how community radio can play various roles at different stages in the development of a movement: Raising awareness of the subject, providing an on-air forum for disempowered groups to “meet” and talk about their problems and to propose action, and, finally, accompanying the groups and generating understanding and solidarity in society at large.

Box 6: Community Radio and the Widows Movement in Nepal

In Nepal widows are expected to live out their lives in mourning. They do not generally remarry and are not allowed them to wear colourful clothes or jewellery. Young widows are deprived of care and love in the society, and subjected to mental and social abuse.

The number of young widows has increased significantly in Dang district in the mid-western region due to the 10-year old insurgency. Radio Swargadwari began a program to draw attention to the situation and problems of the young widows. Not content with merely broadcasting information about the plight of widows, in September 2002 an interviewee appealed to widows like her to get organized and to demand their rights.

Soon afterwards the programme initiated a campaign urging widows to wear red clothes, bangles and red tika (worn on the forehead as an ornament by Hindu women); all banned for widows in Nepalese society, calling for a demonstration. One hundred and fifty widows from the district wore red clothes.

Radio Swargadwari also urged the public to support the widows’ campaign. Soon other organizations came forward to support the movement. Now around three thousand widows are organized under the Widows Concern Center, an organization of the widows in the district.

“The movement instilled confidence in the widows and the widows are now perceived more positively by society,” said the Center’s head, Huma D.C.. “We are thankful to Radio Swargadwari for its contribution to changing the social status of widows”.

What distinguishes the widows’ case from other examples of social organising is that the use of community radio first enabled and then accelerated the

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organisation of a disempowered group that had no previous social infrastructure. In the first instance, the airwaves of Radio Swargadwari constituted the only “place” where widows could even listen to someone talk about their common problems. Later the programme became a forum for organising, so the widows could discuss and propose solutions, and finally it allowed them to call on the solidarity of other people and organisations in the district.

While the example of the widows’ movement shows how community radio can help the most disempowered sectors organise, it is also common for community radio stations to work with organised sectors of the community. Indeed, one of the strengths of community radio in educating about or advocating for rights is precisely that it does not work alone but in partnership with other organisations. In some cases, the radio stations and the campaigners jointly draft the editorial policy and design campaigns, while in others the stations merely provide studios, airtime and technical assistance. In all cases, the local community itself is the main source of content and the inspiration for the campaign grows out of the community’s concerns, not the radio station’s. The community radio station role in these campaigns is not so much to lead as to make its talent and infrastructure available to organisations and activists in order to act as an accelerator and catalyst for change.

Conclusions


When it comes to advocating for rights, community radio can provide social and communication infrastructure for even the most disempowered of groups. This accelerates their efforts to achieve social justice.

The most effective campaigns are not undertaken by community radio stations, but arise organically from within the community. Nevertheless, by providing a forum for discussion community radio stations play an important catalysing role, helping communities to better articulate their concerns and propose solutions and common actions.

Accountability and Good Governance

What are good examples of community radio programs being used to press successfully for better delivery of public services or

investments, and for more government transparency and accountability?

A free, independent and pluralistic media environment, offering the means and incentives for the widest participation, can have a profound influence on people’s opportunities to access information and services, to understand and be able to exercise their rights, to participate in decisions that affect their lives and to hold to account those in positions of power and responsibility. (Duer et al, 2007 - Broadcasting, Voice and Accountability)

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Community radio has at least four roles with regards accountability and good governance:

1. An advocacy role in which it defends the interests of the population;

2. A role as a public forum for monitoring and discussing issues related to accountability and governance;

3. A role as a partner of government seeking to inform and involve the community;

4. A role as a provider of services that result in a better delivery of public services in domains such as health and education.

The advocacy role is similar to that discussed previously in the section on exertion of rights and either within magazine format programmes or with special programmes that specifically deal with complaints, community radio stations provide a platform for exposing abuses.

Magazine format programmes simply dedicate part of the community radio station’s airtime to receiving listener phone calls or reading letters. Some of the comments inevitably involve complaints about government, ranging from inefficiencies to corruption and abuse. In the case of serious complaints the station’s journalists might follow up the matter with local authorities. Often the complaints are not about serious problems but just a lack of information. In such cases the radio station itself might resolve the problem by putting people in touch with the appropriate officials or providing some information, or a local official might call the radio station to respond to the listener’s concern.

Specialised programmes such as Radio Jamana Mopti’s (Mali) popular weekly C’est pas normal (It’s not normal) invite listeners to call the station to make complaints about problems they encounter – government inefficiency, corruption, and government offices that are closed when they are supposed to be open are among the complaints received weekly. Government officials and public employees know that they are being watched and consequently are more careful about their work.

These programmes are often very popular but the format can be abused when, for example, complaints are unfounded or when sensationalism becomes the objective. Jozi FM in Soweto, South Africa takes the format to extremes with its extremely popular weekly programme Cheaters. The two-hour programme focuses on the most sensationalist scandals, preferring to air a colourful story about a cheating husband over a complaint about the petty corruption of government officials.

Humour can be part of a good advocacy strategy, keeping listeners interested and corrupt or incompetent officials off-balance. When radio stations were prohibited from doing news programming following the coup in Nepal, Radio Sagarmatha’s director, Mohan Bista, decided to get serious in an unusual way: “There were no restrictions on broadcasting comedy, as long as it wasn't political, so we decided to ask one of our regular comedians to sing the news in a comedy style familiar to Nepalis instead. They let us do that for a lot longer.”12

Mali’s Radio Bamakan also employs humour. Its programme Kouyaté an Samaké is a parody of the weekly briefing sessions offered by a government spokesperson after cabinet meetings. With clever language and a caustic style the station’s

12 Radio Censorship: From pirate radio to voice of a nation, in The Independent online edition 25 June 2007. http://news.independent.co.uk/media/article2702425.ece

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mock spokesperson reminds listeners of what is, and what is not, on the government’s agenda.

Going a step further than complaints, some stations provide forums for discussion and debate among citizens and officials. On Radio Diaka Kènè Yeleen, also in the Mopti region, Débat dans les villages (Debate in the villages) identifies a problem each week and invites everyone to comment on it. The programme is recorded in a public space in a different village each week. It is highly participatory and above all educational as people learn about their rights, the services they are entitled to, and that they can contribute to finding solutions to their own problems.

Community radio stations can also partner with government to give officials a chance to tell about their achievements and present new plans and projects.

South Africa’s Government Communications Information System (GCIS) is a government agency charged with a mandate to provide leadership in government communication and to ensure that the public is informed of government's activities. The GCIS runs an interactive ‘government meets the people’ programme called Imbizo, a Zulu word for a public meeting called to discuss issues of importance to the community. In this case the imbizo is a forum where the President visits a local community and holds a public meeting where people can raise issues about the government. Community radio stations partner with GCIS to provide coverage of the meetings, often broadcasting them in their entirety.

Many of Colombia’s community radio stations provide coverage of annual meetings where local governments provide an accounting of their activities. The programmes are increasingly popular with government officials, who appreciate being able to tell of their accomplishments and the problems faced. They are also popular with communities as they learn that they can monitor their governments, participate in the definition of priorities in a concrete way and demand clear and complete information.

These government programmes can have unforeseen consequences. Sometime after the governing council in Namarel, a remote village in Senegal, began broadcasting a weekly programme on Radio Gaynaako to let people know what it was doing and the problems it faced, it was surprised to discover that its tax revenue increased. As residents became aware of the council’s accomplishments they were more willing to contribute. When the council realised what was happening, they in turn decided to use part of the increased revenue to support the radio station.

Community radio stations also make a very practical contribution to governance by, for example, informing the population of services available, advising them when they are not available, announcing changes in public office hours and so on. In a remote community merely announcing that a given government office will be closed next Tuesday can save people many hours and much expense. In the case of the travelling health clinic described in Box 7, the radio station helped provide a better service at a lower cost.

Box 7: Community radio and health services

Community radio can make very practical contributions to the efficient delivery of public services. Pilar Gutierrez of the Pucará Community Health Project in the south of Ecuador reported that Radio Chaguarurco played an important role as a communication channel at

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the service of the communities, the telephone for those who don’t have telephones, and made the local health budget stretch further at the same time.

There are places where it is very difficult to access because they have no roads. The people who live there listen to the station for any information about visitors they might have so they can be ready for them... We have a medical team that periodically visits these communities. Before the radio station they would travel to a community and lose hours or even days waiting for the news of their arrival to get out to the people in the countryside and for the people to travel to where they were waiting to attend to their health problems. Now the radio station announces the visits and the community is ready and waiting for them on the announced day and time. This means the medical team can visit more communities and provide a more efficient and better service for everyone. (from Girard 2003, p. 233)

A recent study on the social impact of community radio, concluded that the mere “existence of community radio is a measure of the level of democracy, good governance and accountability in a society” (AMARC 2007, p. 40). While the conclusion might appear to be overly simplistic, there is an undeniable correlation between government’s tolerance of and support for community radio, and its willingness to be held accountable. Corrupt government officials are likely to be antagonistic toward community radio stations that expose them, but, as the five country studies report, community radio is supported by administrations that value democracy and transparency.

In Nepal, for example, the new government announced in its annual budget speech a plan to waive the licensing fee and cut royalty fees by 50% for one year in honour of the role played by community radio in establishing democracy. In its first year in power the same government issued 65 new community radio licenses, signalling not only its appreciation, but also its own commitment to being held publicly accountable.

Governments in other countries included in the study have also demonstrated their support for community radio and even encouraged its efforts to achieve greater transparency and participation. South Africa supports the broadcasting of the public meetings with authorities (Imbizo). Mali’s government has tolerated intense criticism from its community radio stations while maintaining a standing equal to Australia, and France and well above the USA in the Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index. Colombia’s national government supports community radio with policy and legislation that is widely regarded as the most supportive in Latin America, while local governments appreciate the opportunity to explain their policies and answer tough questions on the airwaves. Peru’s government is perhaps the least enthusiastic among the countries studied, but even there authorities recognise the valuable role played by community radio in ensuring accountability and good governance.

“Radio Cutivalú is definitively a social actor and has achieved some transformations. Together with the radio station, we have developed several campaigns, such as those for election transparency and for the right to access public information – access that should not be prevented by anyone; we have also developed some projects around tortures in the barracks, and citizens’ rights when confronting authorities.”Dr. Eugenia Fernand Zegarra, regional ombudsperson for the province of Piura (Geerts et al 2004, p. 170)

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Conclusions



2. A role as a public forum for monitoring and discussion of issues related to accountability and governance;



While in some cases the role of community radio is seen as antagonistic to petty corruption and inefficiency, where there is an interest on the part of officials community radio can be a valuable partner helping to deliver services, enabling officials to explain their projects and problems, channeling community feedback, and identifying problems when they appear so they can be addressed.

Role of Community Radio Associations & Networks

What community radio associations and networks (especially nationally or sub-nationally) have been particularly successful in

supporting development of community radio stations and the sector as a whole, and why?

All five countries included in the study have one or more national or sub-national community radio associations or networks. These associations often play important roles in a number of areas:

They represent the stations in negotiations with government and lobby on their behalf, especially on issues related to legislation, regulation, frequency allocation, licence renewal procedures, taxes, official advertising, and so on.

They represent stations in negotiations with other bodies such as performing rights organisations and advertisers;

They provide advice on licence application and renewal procedures;

They provide or arrange for training and technical assistance for their member stations;

The produce training materials (manuals, curricula) for use by members;

They facilitate the exchange of news and programmes;

They coordinate solidarity actions and campaigns to defend stations under pressure from political or financial interests because of their programming;

They mobilise support for the stations from donor organisations;

They provide spaces for debate, exchange of experience, cooperation among stations etc. by organising meetings, publishing newsletters, websites, etc.

Community radio associations and networks are not organised in the same way from one country to the next:

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In Colombia there are 23 regional groupings but no strong national association;

In Peru the Coordinadora Nacional de Radio (CNR) has 49 radio stations and 27 production groups as members, but another 150 community stations are not members of any national association;

The main community radio association in Mali has both community and commercial stations as members;

South Africa’s main community radio association is the National Community Radio Forum but there are a plethora of other networks and associations;

Nepal has an association and a service agency that work closely together.

Peru’s CNR: A decentralised network

Founded in 1978 the Coordinadora Nacional de Radio (CNR) is one of Latin America’s oldest and most active community radio associations. CNR has 76 members comprised of 49 radio stations and 27 production centres.

Production centres are usually NGOs that produce radio programmes for broadcast on one or more radio stations. Some production centres are local groups that are unable to get their own radio station because, for example, they are in a large city where no frequencies are available. Others produce programmes for syndication to a number of stations. In both cases the programmes may be broadcast on community or commercial stations, but the NGOs share the democratic and participatory principles of community radio.

In 2003, following a long discussion, CNR adopted its current decentralised structure with four regions and two thematic networks. Each of the 4 regions has between 10 and 15 radio stations. The two thematic networks (evangelisation and culture of peace and rural development and the environment) cut across regions. The decision to decentralise was taken seriously and while the association’s head office is in the capital city, members spread throughout the country manage fully 70 percent of CNR’s budget.

CNR has three main areas of work: economic sustainability, capacity development and impact and public opinion.

In the area of impact and public opinion CNR operates a national network news service. In contrast to the rest of Peru’s national news services, which focus on events in Lima, the CNR gives priority to events in the interior. In its decentralised model CNR member stations produce news and programmes that are then sent to Lima and packaged for national distribution. Twenty-two of the 49 member stations receive CNR’s programming by satellite and most of the rest access it via the internet.

Programming includes two daily national newscasts, newscasts for the north, south and amazon regions, a national daily one-hour programme of analysis and interviews, a half hour national sports programme, a weekend news and analysis wrap-up programme, a weekly debate programme as well as in depth documentaries. Via the satellite, CNR members also receive programming from the Latin American satellite service ALER, which includes news and analysis from the continent and the world, music and culture and daily programmes in Quechua produced jointly by CNR and ALER.

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In addition to reversing the traditional news flow from Lima to the provinces, CNR’s programming seeks to promote a pluralistic debate on themes related to democracy and development and to ensure the issues of decentralisation, poverty, peace and the environment are present on the national public and political agendas.

In the area of economic sustainability CNR’s main activities are in advertising and production. It sells ads on its own network programming and also operates the Agencia Intermediaria de Publicidad (intermediate advertising agency) that represents its members in the provinces to national advertisers based in Lima. CNR also produces radio for external clients from government, civil society and the private sector. Products include advertisements, radio drama, public service announcements, and documentaries.

Finally, in the area of capacity development CNR provides training for management, production, and technical staff of its members to contribute to both individual and institutional capacities.

CNR is a strong and vibrant network that provides practical services to its members. After almost thirty years it has proven to be both sustainable and flexible. However, while 49 stations is a respectable number of members, it remains to be explored why 75 percent of Peru’s 200 community radio stations have not joined.

Colombia’s many networks

Networks are recognised as an essential part of the survival strategy of Colombia’s community radio movement, but Colombia’s networks have developed in a remarkably different way from Peru’s.

Colombia has 23 regional community radio networks. At the national level there is SIPAZ (Sistema Nacional de Comunicación para la Paz – National Communication System for Peace) a network of grassroots organizations whose members include the regional networks but also television, print, internet and multimedia producers. SIPAZ also hosts AMARC Colombia’s national representation to the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC).

A national community radio association, RECORRA, made an important contribution to the community radio legislation when it was being developed in the 1990s, however, without strong leadership RECORRA disappeared after only a few years.

There is no single model for Colombia’s regional associations, and their capacity, activities, cohesion and participation vary from region to region. Colombia does not have a tradition of sustained community organisation initiatives, and it is common for organisations to form to deal with a specific problem and then fade away. In general the regional networks were formed very quickly and in a top-down fashion, more often in response to the government’s need for partners to implement its initiatives than from the radio stations’ needs. This approach goes a long way toward explaining why many of the regional networks never managed to consolidate their activities or to earn the support of the stations in their regions.

Nevertheless, a number of the regional networks are active and doing very important work. The network in Magdalena Medio, for example, is one of the oldest and best and it works closely with the networks in the neighbouring

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regions of Santander and North Santander. Together the three stand out for their achievements, whether measured by the number new and renewed licences in their regions, training courses, capable production teams, the quality of programmes or diversity of programme formats.

Nepal: An evolving situation

When the Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ) set up Nepal’s first community radio station, Radio Sagarmatha, it sparked interest in other communities. Municipalities, cooperatives and NGOs looked to the NEFEJ for guidance. To respond to the many request for assistance the NEFEJ set up the Community Radio Support Centre (CRSC) to provide practical support to the emerging community radio movement. CRSC’s objectives are:

· To assist those interested in setting up community radio with technical and professional expertise as well as in securing funds for them. · To strengthen networking among community radio stations, community radio promoters and independent community radio producers, and to facilitate exchange of radio programmes among them · To assist communities to establish community radio in different geographical areas keeping in mind the linguistic, cultural, ethnic and social diversity. · To strengthen capabilities of established community radio stations with professional and technical assistance. · To organise periodic trainings for community radio producers and technicians. · To identify appropriate places, from technical and resources points of view, for encouraging establishment of radio stations. · To produce manuals and reference materials in community radio. · To undertake community radio audience research/studies. · To be active in lobbying and advocacy in order to mould public opinion in favour of making laws that are conducive to the growth and expansion of community radio. · To establish and promote contacts with like-minded international organisations for world solidarity in favour of promotion of community radio broadcasting.

When it was first established CRSC also had advocacy and lobbying activities but as the community broadcasting sector grew the Association of Community radio Broadcasters in Nepal (ACORAB) was formed “as a common forum for enhancing the capacity of Community Radios to enable them to contribute towards strengthening democracy, enhancing people’s participation in the ongoing transitional processes and supporting community-let development initiatives.”13

While CRSC seeks to provide concrete services to community radio stations, ACORAB’s objectives are more concerned with advocacy, lobbying, and developing a common understanding of community radio as a participatory and democratic medium. Its objectives are:

13 http://www.acorab.org/aboutus.html

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To protect and promote the professional rights and welfare of the community radio broadcasters by consolidating the movement of the community radios. To help develop democratic culture in media. To facilitate community broadcasters to exchange their experience. To make community radios more responsible to the society by defining the community radio movement. To work as the bridge between the government and the community radio broadcasters. To encourage its members to ensure maximum possible exercise of the people's right to information and freedom of expression as guaranteed in the constitution of Nepal. To expand its network/relation at the national and international level.

AMARC

At the global level the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters, known by its French acronym AMARC, is an international non-governmental organisation serving the community radio movement, with almost 3,000 members and associates in 110 countries. From its international secretariat in Montréal, Canada and regional offices covering Africa, the Asia-Pacific region and Latin America and the Caribbean, AMARC supports and contributes to the development of community and participatory radio along the principals of solidarity and international cooperation.

AMARC has different ways of acting at the national level. In a few countries without a strong national association (Colombia, Uruguay, Mexico) AMARC has served as the rallying point and national AMARC chapters have been set up and in some countries with national associations AMARC actively provided national level technical support and solidarity (Nepal, South Africa). For most of the 110 countries in which it has members the Association is more valued for global and regional research initiatives, for example identifying good models of legislation, than for any direct national level intervention.

The Association’s strategic plan for 2007-2010 includes a series of global activities as well as regional ones in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Activities are grouped into six major programme areas:

I. Advocacy and policy research

Advocacy for community media at the national, regional and international levelPolicy research, monitoring and knowledge exchangeSolidarity activities including response to urgent calls from community radios threatened with closure or other interference and country solidarity missions.

II. Knowledge sharing and capacity building

Training of trainers, managers and producersKnowledge sharing and researchTechnical guidance and support

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III. Content exchange and social action campaigns

Regional news and features services in Latin America, Africa and AsiaCommunity media reporting from international fora and eventsSocial action broadcast campaigns on HIV/AIDS, health, environment, migration, anti-racism, food security, water & sanitation;Interactive platform for programme exchange

IV. Gender equality and women's rights

Joint international broadcast campaignsAdvocacy on media and genderTraining and capacity buildingNetworking and knowledge sharing

V. Network development and communication

Network communications and meetingsPartnerships for developmentMonitoring and evaluationDissemination of resultsOrganisational development

VI. AMARC Regional and World Conferences of Community Radio Broadcasters

10th world conference of community radio broadcasters (2010)Pan Africa conference 2nd regional conference in Asia Pacific (2009)Regional conference for Latin America and the Caribbean

AMARC is valued by community broadcasters in the five countries studied primarily because of its research and advocacy in support of creating enabling legislation and policy environments and because of its work supporting communication rights.

Conclusions

A strong national network is critically important to the development and eventual sustainability of community radio. National networks:

Represent member stations in negotiations with government and lobby on their behalf;

Represent stations in negotiations with other bodies such as performing rights organisations and advertisers;

Provide advice on licence application and renewal procedures;

Provide or arrange for training and technical assistance for member stations;

Produce training materials for use by members;

Facilitate the exchange of news and programmes;

Coordinate solidarity actions and campaigns to defend stations under pressure from political or financial interests because of their programming;

Mobilise support for the stations from donor organisations;

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Provide spaces for debate, exchange of experience, cooperation among stations etc. by organising meetings, publishing newsletters, websites, etc.

Networks allow for the development of expertise to serve the movement (in legislation or licence renewal procedures, for example) and enable a more efficient use of resources (training curricula and materials produced centrally can be adapted for use at dozens of local stations). National or sub-national networks were instrumental to the development of community radio in each of the five countries studied.

Sustainable Financing

What have been the most useful and practical methods and mechanisms for community radio to become financially

sustainable?

The survival and development experience of community media is like circus performers walking a tightrope in a delicate balance. They sometimes fall on the net and they climb back up to begin to walk again. The difference is that community media do not usually have a net to cushion the fall. (Gumucio 2004 – our translation)

Despite the occasional fall, many community radio stations do survive their high-wire act by developing strategies to keep their costs down, by tapping a diversity of available funding sources and by opening up new sources of revenue. Nevertheless, few generalisations can be made about financing community radio. Keeping costs low is a common theme, but strategies for economising are very different for an isolated rural station with no paid staff and annual fixed costs of US$2,000 or an urban station with an annual operating budget of US$150,000 or more. The only generalisation that can be made is that financial sustainability is a universal concern among community radio stations, even the largest and most stable ones.

While there are examples of community radio stations with stable financial positions, these are the exceptions. In Mali, URTEL estimates that 90% of its members are unable to meet the basic operation costs of rent, electricity and personnel detailed in their budgets. Personnel is usually the first item to be cut, with station staff dividing what is left after paying the bills. Very few stations are prepared for the eventual breakdown of an important piece of equipment. A single bolt of lightening can mean the end of an apparently stable station with five or ten years of serving the community.

How much does it cost to run a radio station?

The five country studies indicate a wide variation in the cost of running community radio stations. A tiny station in a rural area of Peru runs on US$2,000 per year – basically the cost of rent and electricity, but another Peruvian station serving an entire region from an urban centre might have an annual budget of US$150,000 or more – 75 times that of the small station. In Nepal, on the other hand, the difference between running a large station and a small one is only about US$25,000 annually (see tables 3 and 4). Most of the US$25,000 difference in the annual cost of running a 50 watt station and a 1,000 watt station accounted for by salaries (US$11,000) and spectrum use fees (US$9,000).

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Table 3: Monthly costs of a radio station with 50 watt transmitter in Nepal

Table 4: Monthly costs of a radio station with 1000 watt transmitter in Nepal

Local and national revenue

Community radio stations report a wide variety of local and national revenue sources. Advertising and sponsorship is the most common in all 5 countries, but stations also make money by selling airtime, providing coverage of special events, broadcasting messages from listeners, organising concerts and selling services.

Advertising and sponsorship

While precise data is unavailable, it is clear that advertising and sponsorship are common sources of revenue in all five countries included in the study, although not all of the radio stations. It is noteworthy that in some countries not included in this study legislation has declared advertising off-limits to community radio, either because commercial broadcasters have mounted successful lobbies or because governments have mistakenly interpreted non-profit with no commercial activity.

Item Annual Cost (US$) Cost (%)Salary 9,240 51%Rent 1,476 8.2%Electricity 1,380 7.6%Phone/Fax 2,772 15.3%Consumables (tapes, CDs, batteries etc)

1,476 8.2%

Maintenance 1,656 9.2%Spectrum fees 96 0.5%

Total 18,096 100%

Item Annual Cost (US$) Cost (%)Salary 20,304 46.8%Rent 1,848 4.3%Electricity 4,620 10.6%Phone/Fax 2,772 6.4%Consumable (tapes, CDs, batteries etc)

1,848 4.3%

Maintenance 2,772 6.4%Spectrum fees 9,228 21.2%

Total 43,392 100%

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In Nepal, the only country for which we have detailed national data, advertising and sponsorships account for 41% of the revenue of the 20 stations currently operating (see Table 5). The national data hides the fact that not all stations will have equal access to advertising as a revenue source. Radio stations in urban areas, with large coverage areas and serving relatively prosperous communities will be interesting to advertisers. Small stations in communities with few people and little commerce will have few commercial advertisers.

One problem that community radio stations outside of the main cities face is that even if their listenership has the characteristics that would interest advertisers, they have difficulty selling advertising because the advertisers and agencies are located in the main cities. In South Africa there are intermediate agencies that represent community radio stations to national advertisers and ad agencies. However, they take a minimum 35% commission, occasionally running as high as 65%. Across the sector and including both commercial and government advertising, the commission amounts to a multi-million dollar levy on the community radio sector.14 Faced with a similar problem, Peru’s CNR established its own intermediate agency in order to get a better deal for its members.

Table 5: Annual revenue of Nepal’s 20 community radio stations

Item Income (US$) Income (%)Local advertisements & sponsorships etc

130,800 24%

National advertisements & sponsorships etc

89,200 17%

Local public service announcements

61,500 11%

National public service announcements

108,000 20%

Co-production and partnerships 118,500 22%Other sources (Selling cards, cassettes & CDs, listener contributions, etc)

30,800 6%

Total 538,800 100%

Public service announcements

Public service messages and campaigns covering a wide range of subjects are the second largest source of income for community radio stations in Nepal (31%) and the largest in Mali (75%). Clients are usually government and NGOs and the announcements are usually part of campaigns to raise awareness of health, social and economic issues. Community radio is recognised as a natural partner in these campaigns. In South Africa programming and public service announcements placed by the Government Communications Information System (GCIS) are a significant revenue source for community broadcasters.

For many radio stations public service announcements and campaigns are often a source of tension between the station and potential “clients”. Clients who understand that public service is the raison d’être of the community radio station ask why they should pay for helping the station fulfil its mandate and many radio stations struggle with a dilemma; they hesitate to charge for airtime devoted to health or human rights messages or campaigns but they recognise that they have to charge in order to keep the station on the air. The nature of a dilemma is that

14 The Government Communication Information System alone places US$2.5 million of advertising in radio annually, much of it with community radio stations.

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there are no easy answers to it, but clearly if the service provided by the station is what the client needs, then the client should be willing to pay for it, while station policies can also allow for pro bono services in the cases of clients who cannot afford to pay.

Community messages

In remote areas community radio stations fulfil a role as a “community telephone” with up to several hours a day reserved for broadcasting personal messages, birth and death announcements, invitations to social functions, ordering food and supplies from the store in the next village, calling for emergency medical assistance and even for receiving personal medical advice from the local doctor. These messages may be intended to invite the entire community to a football game or they may be the only way to get a “private” message to an individual without a telephone. A small amount of money is charged per message, but for many stations they are a very important source of revenue. For example, Radio Marañon, a large regional station in a northern Peru, gets 30% of its budget from messages, the same amount it gets from advertising. For Chaski Radio, a much smaller station in an even more remote Peruvian community, messages account for 100% of its revenue.

Services

Another way that community radio stations make money is by charging for various services that make use of their infrastructure and expertise. For example, they may produce advertisements, public service announcements, documentaries or educational programmes for government, NGOs or private sector clients. While this alternative is usually only available to radio stations in larger cities, where clients are likely to be located, the Coordinadora Nacional de Radio (CNR - Peru’s national community radio network) sometimes acts as a broker – selling the services of radio stations in the provinces to clients located in the capital city. In smaller towns radio stations often provide “disco” services – renting out a package that includes audio equipment, music and DJs to private and public parties and festivals.

Rental of airtime

Many stations cover part of their costs by renting airtime to other organisations. In some cases the NGOs partners of the station pay a weekly sum as a contribution to keep the station on the air but in other cases it is a conscious commercial strategy. For example Peru’s La Voz de la Selva reserves 1.5 hours per day for renting to third parties. At the moment the Ministry of Education and a few NGOs rent airtime regularly and while the station does not interfere with editorial policy, their programmes tend to be compatible with station goals and “culture”.

Community contributions

Mali has a long tradition of community organisations supported financially with voluntary contributions of communities so it is surprising that community radio stations there have not been able to tap into this source. Seventy-five percent of the sector’s revenue comes from public service announcements and an almost negligible amount from voluntary contributions from community members. No doubt there are numerous reasons for this but one of them is that the stations have done a poor job of marketing themselves as an essential service that merits community support.

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Voluntary community contributions are not always in cash. In Peru and Colombia, for example, there is a long-standing tradition of mingas, when community members offer labour and materials for community projects. Many community radio stations have benefited from mingas to have their studios built or antennas raised.

Public financing and support

Local and national governments have devised a variety of mechanisms for providing financial support to community radio. Unfortunately, at the local level data is scarce and it is not possible to know how many stations receive local government support. Nevertheless, all five countries in the study report that at least some stations receive local government support, although in general amounts are small and in-kind contributions are more common than financial ones. For example, the municipal government provides free electricity to Radio La Voz de Sepahua (Peru) in exchange for an hour of airtime per day for a municipal news program. There are also many examples of radio stations being housed in municipal buildings and of receiving some cash support.

In 2003 the author of this report conducted a study of all the community radio stations in Senegal and discovered that more than one half of them received cash or in-kind contributions from local authorities.

No cases were reported of local support being overtly used to ensure favourable coverage, but there are always moments when any important revenue source –government, private or civil society– can seek to influence editorial policy.

National government support

In sharp contrast with the situation 10 or 15 years ago, when many governments were hostile to community radio, government programmes and other forms of support now provide reliable support to the sector in an increasing number of countries. The most common mechanisms for providing this support are through grants, reduced licence and/or spectrum use fees, and official advertising policies favourable to community radio.

In all five countries surveyed community radio is eligible for official advertising on a more or less equal footing with other media, reflecting good practice of allocating advertising budgets based on results. However, in many countries commercial broadcasters have argued that if community radio receives any government support, then it should not be eligible to carry official advertising. The idea that a government policy designed to support the sector should be neutralised by denying access to other funds is obviously without merit, but nevertheless has been successfully put forward by commercial broadcasters in some countries.

In practice the government of Mali uses all three mechanisms.

1. A media support programme provides US$400,000 to the media, of which US$150,000 is distributed by URTEL to community radio stations, an average of US$1,239 per station. The eligibility criteria and support levels are determined by ministerial decree and stations do not all receive the same amount;

2. A 1992 presidential decree set a relatively low annual licence fee for community radio (CFA100,000 = approximately US$200). URTEL argued successfully that the community radio stations could not afford

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the fee and as a result the government has never insisted on payment and no community radio station has ever paid. This “debt relief” is another form of financial support;

3. Community radio stations are eligible to broadcast official government advertising, including public service announcements and this amounts to a relatively high proportion of the sector’s revenue.

South Africa has a number of mechanisms available, including the Media Development and Diversity Agency and the Government Communications Information System.

The Media Development and Diversity Agency (MDDA)15 was set up as an independent agency by an Act of Parliament (Act 14 of 2002) to enable "historically disadvantaged communities and persons not adequately served by the media" to gain access to the media. It is funded by the South African Parliament and by foreign and national grants. Its beneficiaries are community and small commercial media. According to its website, to achieve its objective, the MDDA will:

Encourage ownership and control of, and access to, media by historically disadvantaged communities, historically diminished indigenous language and cultural groups;

Encourage the channelling of resources to community and small commercial media;

Encourage human resource development and capacity building in the media industry, especially amongst historically disadvantaged groups;

Encourage research regarding media development and diversity.

The MDDA allocates US$ 760,000 per year, 60% of its funding, to community radio initiatives. Its support can include core running costs for a limited period, funds for training, seed funding for new projects, and one off projects including audience research, feasibility studies, development of business plans and equipment acquisition.

The Government Communications Information System (GCIS) is located in the presidency and is the body primarily responsible for communication between government and the people, with a particular interest in development communication that emphasises direct dialogue, especially with people in disadvantaged areas. About US$2.5 of the GCIS’ advertising budget US$8.5 million is spent on radio with community radio receiving a “reasonable” share. Part of this funding is used to pay community radio stations to cover Imbizos; the public forums that take place when the President visits a community and people raise issues and questions.

In Colombia support is primarily provided by the Ministry of Communication through its Access and Social Development Division and the Community Radio Office in the Ministry of Culture. Neither of these offers much direct financial support, preferring to provide training and technical assistance. Stations do get some reprieve from Colombia’s multi-tiered spectrum fees. Community radio stations pay an average of US$620 per year, much lower than the fee charged to commercial broadcasters. Colombia is also one of the few countries in the world

15 http://www.mdda.org.za/

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in which community radio projects are eligible to access the universal access funds normally reserved for telecommunications.

Neither Peru nor Nepal has specific government programmes to support community radio, although in both countries community radio stations receive considerable revenue from government advertising. In Nepal the government formed after the of the uprising announced a plan to waive most spectrum fees for one year in honour of the role played by community radios in establishing democracy in April 2006.

Conclusions

Financial sustainability is one of the principal challenges faced by community radio and most stations are in a permanently precarious financial state.

Key sources of revenue include advertising, public service announcements and rental of time on air, but many stations have identified innovative ways of supplementing their income, for example by selling audio production services.

Government advertising and public service announcements are an important source of revenue for the community radio sector in all five countries included in the study. It is good policy for stations to charge for these announcements and campaigns and for institutions that desire to place them on the airwaves to be willing to pay.

Community radio stations, especially in rural areas, provide an important social infrastructure. This has been formally recognised at the national level in three of the five countries included in the study (Colombia, Mali and South Africa), all of which have specific national programmes to provide public funds to support community radio. Many stations also receive financial support from local or regional government.

Community Radio in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations

What roles have community radio stations played in preventing and resolving conflict, and supporting post-conflict reconciliation and

reconstruction?

Each of the five countries in the study has a different experience with conflict.

Colombia has experienced varying intensities of armed conflict almost continuously for the past 40 years. There have been hundreds of thousands of deaths, millions of internal refugees, and large expanses of territory are under insurgent control;

The violent insurgency in Peru that took 70,000 lives in the 1980s and 90s was largely ended by 2000, the beginning of a process of truth and reconciliation;

Nepal’s armed insurgency that began in 1996 and claimed 15,000 lives in ten years was followed in 2006 by a successful mass uprising against the King after he dismissed the government and assumed full control.

With the end of apartheid in 1994 South Africa’s low-intensity conflict also came to an end. Nevertheless, political and cultural conflict are still present;

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In Mali community and inter-community conflicts are common, often having to do with disagreements about use of resources such as water and pastures.

We can find at least three ways that community radio stations deal with these different levels and types of conflict:

Promoting human rights and a culture of peace; (Colombia, Nepal, Peru)

Helping to resolve conflicts; (Mali, Nepal)

Helping communities cope with conflict. (Colombia, Nepal)

Human rights and culture of peace

Earlier in this text, in the section on exertion of rights, we looked at a number of examples of how community radio raises awareness of human rights, noting that the greatest impediment to ensuring respect for human rights is the low level of awareness of them. In the same vein, the best way of avoiding conflict is to ensure that there are working alternatives to conflict that people are aware of. Merely by providing a space for dialogue community radio can help prevent conflict, but, as we have seen, community radio goes beyond being a forum and actively seeks to raise awareness of and respect for human rights. Examples include Nepal’s educational programmes about constitutional rights, the Geneva Convention, and international treaties and covenants ratified by the Nepalese government, but they also include promoting a more general awareness of a culture of peace and of human rights in the way that many of Peru’s stations did during and after the truth and reconciliation process that followed the war, and the way Mali’s network promotes awareness and discussion of rights in the context of judicial reform.

Box 8: Radio building peace

Search for Common Ground published Youth Radio for Peacebuilding, a guide “for broadcasters (adults and youth) who want to make good, entertaining youth radio programmes which also build peace”.

“Conflict is a widespread phenomenon, and there are many different types (political, social, economic, religious etc.) all of which may or may not result in violence. They can also be categorised according to the groups or individuals involved (generations, castes, ethnicities, nationalities, etc.). Equally, some specialists describe conflicts according to different phases, distinguishing, for example, ‘pre-conflict’, ‘confrontation’, ‘crisis’, ‘resolution’ and ‘post-conflict’.

“These categories can be useful because they allow us to analyse a situation, but we mustn’t forget that conflicts evolve; conflicts aren’t static, they transform and even superimpose themselves one on top of another, altering over time and depending on events.

“Conflicts are often caused by more than one of these factors. Indeed it is important for broadcasters to remember and to recognise that conflicts are usually the result of a combination of impulses, desires, needs, beliefs and perceptions. In violent conflicts there are often multiple perceptions of causes; they are almost never simple tugs-of-war between two groups. Most violent conflicts result from a whole collection of sometimes widely differing and even incompatible views, ideas, ideals and perceptions.

“Conflicts can also result from the clash of beliefs with facts. Female circumcision or female genital mutilation is one such example – even the different ways of describing the practice demonstrate that it is a conflict issue. In this case the clash is between cultural traditions (values), and the physical consequences of the

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practice (facts). Presenting practitioners with the facts of its physical impact has convinced many that the practice needs to be changed, and/or eradicated.

“Most lasting changes in a society are brought about by questioning and debate on the merits of the changes. In short, this disagreement or conflict is an integral part of everyone’s lives. If conflict is well managed the parties will develop a common approach about the speed and dimension of the changes they want. If it’s badly managed, then the conflict will probably become violent.”

Conflict resolution

When we speak of conflicts we immediately think of major events, international conflicts, civil wars, massacres, electoral violence, and so on. But there are also “smaller” conflicts such as rivalries between villages or neighbourhoods and disputes over land use. While a community radio station is likely to have only a very limited role in resolving a major armed insurgency, it can play a very effective role in resolving conflict at the local level.

In his book Youth Radio for Peacebuilding Michael Shipler (2006) reminds us that conflict is a normal and widespread phenomenon and, if managed properly, it can help bring about lasting and positive change. Many of the reasons for conflict escalation can be addressed by communication. These include:

When there is little or no communication between two or more sides who disagreeWhen false ideas and beliefs about each other held by the different sidesWhen there are historical, long-time grievances between the different sides

Shipler observes that there are many examples in which radio can help manage conflict by, for example, emphasising dialogue and encouraging mutual understanding between ethnic, religious, linguistic or other groups. As examples of positive roles which radio programming can take on, the author lists:

It can be a form of communication between protagonistsIt can correct misperceptions by inviting guests and experts to explain themselves clearlyIt can make one side more human to the otherIt can personalize an ideology or a myth, by giving them names and voices and airing real stories

Box 9: Conflict resolution: Two examples from Mali

The Voice of Folona in the Sikasso region, on the border with Ivory Coast, helped avoid inter-community confrontations during the first weeks of the Ivory Coast’s crisis in 2002. Thousands of refugees and displaced persons fleeing the rebellion set up camp on the Malian side of the border. There was a sudden enormous pressure on the communities in Mali, with shortages of supplies and consequent price increases. The radio station quickly got involved by broadcasting messages of tolerance, with the help of local chiefs. The messages reminded listeners of African traditions regarding hospitality and welcoming strangers. The messages succeeded in reducing tension and avoiding a potentially violent situation.

In the village of Niano in Mali local merchants cheated the farmers. Angered by this, the farmers decided not to repay the money they had borrowed from the bank, and the bank in turn refused to make loans available for the next season. To help resolve the conflict, Radio Ceseri organised a series of one hour on-air discussions with the villagers. During the second programme an agreement was reached between the farmers and the bank.

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It can give protagonists and listeners an emotional outlet, or a new way to see the problem, or an opportunity to hear about solutions and/or positive changes achieved elsewhere.

Coping with conflict

When a conflict reaches the level of a civil war, the ability of a community radio station to resolve it is limited. It may be able to educate about human rights or to try to resolve misunderstandings and prejudices, but even these are difficult to in a war zone when the combatants on both sides have an interest in maintaining prejudices and a culture of fear. However, while community radio is unlikely to bring the two sides to the table, there are many cases of it helping communities cope.

In Colombia, for example, radio stations in the eastern part of the Department of Antioquia, one of the most violent regions of the country, have a daily networked programme for hostages being held by the insurgents. The stations tell the story of a man who was released and the first thing he did was go to one of the stations to embrace the presenters to tell them that he had been able to put up with 4 years of captivity only because in the morning he could listen to the station and hear the voices of family members and others encouraging him.

Another Colombian case is recounted by Rodríguez and González (1996) about a Saturday night in Belén de Andaquíes. Most of the town’s youth were having a celebration in the plaza when a battle broke out between the guerrilla and the police. It was a typical war scene – armed occupation, aerial bombardment, shooting... When there is a battle nearby radio stations often go off the air in order avoid becoming a target, but in this case the station stayed on the air, letting people know what was going and on and guiding the young people from the plaza to safe zones until the fighting was over.

Conclusions

There are at least three ways that community radio stations deal with different levels and types of conflict:

The promote human rights and a culture of peace; They help resolve conflicts; They helping communities cope with conflict.

In the first of these the radio station’s role is largely educational and awareness raising.

In terms of conflict resolution:

Community radio can be a form of communication between protagonistsCommunity radio can correct misperceptions by inviting guests and experts to explain themselves clearlyCommunity radio can make one side more human to the otherCommunity radio can personalize an ideology or a myth, by giving them names and voices and airing real storiesCommunity radio can give protagonists and listeners an emotional outlet, or a new way to see the problem, or an opportunity to hear about solutions and/or positive changes achieved elsewhere.

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Finally, radio can help people deal with conflict by them informed, for example by telling them what areas to avoid during an armed confrontation.

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CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

Participatory Processes and Volunteers

Without volunteers’ time, knowledge and experience community radio would not exist. Volunteers are the community’s presence inside the radio station and an important mechanism for enabling the meaningful community participation in programming, operating and financing that is the essence of community radio.

There are two main types of volunteers –direct and partnership– and they must be managed differently. Both types can help make a station financially possible, contribute to its diversity. Partnership volunteers provide stations with a high level of expertise in its programming and they come with the backing of an outside institution. While there is a large body of knowledge and experience worldwide about volunteer management, in general it appears that community radio has failed to make adequate use of it. The cases studied indicate that there is little understanding of motivations and incentives and in only in a very few cases is there evidence of written agreements setting out rights and responsibilities of volunteers or of written job descriptions for volunteers.

Among the good practices identified in the national reports are:

Systematic recruitment procedures that help ensure that a station attracts volunteers with profile that fit its needs;

Basic training provided as part of a “buddy system”

Basic training that includes both hands on learning and theoretical study;

Basic training that is accompanied with orientation to the general concepts and values of community radio and of the individual station;

When advanced training is available from external suppliers it can be used to develop skills but also provides an incentive for volunteers;

Nationally produced training materials that can be readily adapted by local stations.

Relationship with the Community

Community participation in programming is highly valued by community radio stations.

Community radio stations in all five countries use innovative participatory formats.

Community participation is not restricted to programming. There are many examples of community participation in stations’ decision-making structures. In Colombia stations are legally required to have community members on their Boards and Programming Councils and many of them do. However, even in the other countries where there is no legal requirement, most community stations have adopted structures that include elected decision-making bodies and broad community participation in non-programming aspects of a station’s operation.

As important as the legal status of the body that “owns” the station are its governance and membership structures, which can either restrict

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meaningful participation to a small group or open it up to the whole community.

Communities that provide support for community stations can insist that the station be responsive to listener concerns through mechanisms such as the annual general meetings and independent elected boards of directors.

Good enabling legislation and regulation are necessary but insufficient for ensuring community control of community radio.

Community radio can help a community organise itself, but if the community does not have a certain level of organisation and interest, the station can be taken over to serve the narrow interests of organised individuals or groups.

Exertion of Rights


When it comes to advocating for rights, community radio can provide social and communication infrastructure for even the most disempowered of groups. This accelerates their efforts to achieve social justice.

The most effective campaigns are not undertaken by community radio stations, but arise organically from within the community. Nevertheless, by providing a forum for discussion community radio stations play an important catalysing role, helping communities to better articulate their concerns and propose solutions and common actions.




6. A role as a public forum for monitoring and discussion of issues related to accountability and governance;



While in some cases the role of community radio is seen as antagonistic to petty corruption and inefficiency, where there is an interest on the part of officials community radio can be a valuable partner helping to deliver services, enabling officials to explain their projects and problems, channeling community feedback, and identifying problems when they appear so they can be addressed.

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Role of Community Radio Associations and Networks

A strong national network is critically important to the development and eventual sustainability of community radio. National networks:

Represent member stations in negotiations with government and lobby on their behalf;

Represent stations in negotiations with other bodies such as performing rights organisations and advertisers;

Provide advice on licence application and renewal procedures;

Provide or arrange for training and technical assistance for member stations;

Produce training materials for use by members;

Facilitate the exchange of news and programmes;

Coordinate solidarity actions and campaigns to defend stations under pressure from political or financial interests because of their programming;

Mobilise support for the stations from donor organisations;

Provide spaces for debate, exchange of experience, cooperation among stations etc. by organising meetings, publishing newsletters, websites, etc.

Networks allow for the development of expertise to serve the movement (in legislation or licence renewal procedures, for example) and enable a more efficient use of resources (training curricula and materials produced centrally can be adapted for use at dozens of local stations). National or sub-national networks were instrumental to the development of community radio in each of the five countries studied.


Financial sustainability is one of the principal challenges faced by community radio and most stations are in a permanently precarious financial state.

Key sources of revenue include advertising, public service announcements and rental of time on air, but many stations have identified innovative ways of supplementing their income, for example by selling audio production services.

Government advertising and public service announcements are an important source of revenue for the community radio sector in all five countries included in the study. It is good policy for stations to charge for these announcements and campaigns and for institutions that desire to place them on the airwaves to be willing to pay.

Community radio stations, especially in rural areas, provide an important social infrastructure. This has been formally recognised at the national level in three of the five countries included in the study (Colombia, Mali and South Africa), all of which have specific national programmes to provide public funds to support community radio. Many stations also receive financial support from local or regional government.

56

Community Radio in Conflict & Post-Conflict Situations

There are at least three ways that community radio stations deal with different levels and types of conflict:

The promote human rights and a culture of peace; They help resolve conflicts; They helping communities cope with conflict.

In the first of these the radio station’s role is largely educational and awareness raising.

In terms of conflict resolution:

Community radio can be a form of communication between protagonistsCommunity radio can correct misperceptions by inviting guests and experts to explain themselves clearlyCommunity radio can make one side more human to the otherCommunity radio can personalize an ideology or a myth, by giving them names and voices and airing real storiesCommunity radio can give protagonists and listeners an emotional outlet, or a new way to see the problem, or an opportunity to hear about solutions and/or positive changes achieved elsewhere.

Finally, radio can help people deal with conflict by them informed, for example by telling them what areas to avoid during an armed confrontation.

57

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AMARC, Community Radio Social Impact Assessment: Removing barriers, increasing effectiveness, 2007.

Bosch, Tanja E., Sustaining community radio stations, in i4d, Vol. V, No. 4, April 2007 - www.i4donline.net

Duer, Kreszentia, et al, Broadcasting, Voice and Accountability: A public interest approach to policy, law and regulation, World Bank and University of Michigan Press, forthcoming 2007.

Elzen, Arthur van den, Preguntando a Nuestro Pueblo: Guía práctica para sondeos de audiencia, CORAPR, Quito, Ecuador, 2000.

Girard, Bruce, A Passion for Radio: Radio waves and community, Black Rose Books, Montreal, 1992.

Girard, Bruce, The One to Watch: Radio, new ICTs and interactivity, FAO, Rome, 2003.

Gumucio, Alfonso, Arte de equilibristas- La sostenibilidad de los medios de comunicación comunitarios. Paper delivered at La Onda Rural, Quito, Ecuador, 2004 http://onda-rural.net/docs/gumucio.doc

Gumucio, Alfonso, Making Waves: Stories of Participatory Communication for Social Change, The Rockefeller Foundation, New York, 2001.

Howard, Ross and Francis Rolt, Radio Talkshows for Peacebuilding: A guide (2nd

edition), Search for Common Ground, Washington, 2006. http://www.radiopeaceafrica.org/index.cfm?lang=en&context_id=3&context=manuals

List, Dennis, A Quick Guide to Audience Research, Original Books, Wellington, New Zealand, 2006. Available from www.audiencedialogue.org (The quick guide is reportedly also available in Arabic from the World Association of Newspapers and a longer guide is available in Bahasa Indonesia, Vietnamese, Khmer, and Lao.

Reporters Without Borders, Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2006, http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=639

Shipler, Michael, Youth Radio for Peacebuilding: A guide (2nd edition), Search for Common Ground, Washington, 2006. http://www.radiopeaceafrica.org/index.cfm?lang=en&context_id=3&context=manuals

The Independent Online edition, Radio Censorship: From pirate radio to voice of a nation, 25 June 2007. http://news.independent.co.uk/media/article2702425.ece

UNDP, Human Development Report 2006, http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm

58

http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/report.cfm

http://news.independent.co.uk/media/article2702425.ece

http://www.radiopeaceafrica.org/index.cfm?lang=en&context_id=3&context=manuals


http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=639

http://www.audiencedialogue.org/



http://onda-rural.net/docs/gumucio.doc

http://www.i4donline.net/

ANNEXES

Terms of Reference

Colombia Report

Mali Report

Nepal Report

Peru Report

South Africa report

Selective Information on Ghana

Selective Information on Sri Lanka

59

Terms of Reference

Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radio Issues Important to its Effectiveness

Countries: Colombia, Peru, South Africa, Mali, Nepal

Background


Community radio (CR) stations are owned and operated by the communities they serve. They are non-profit, non-partisan, and usually non-sectarian, and operate in a participatory way, relying on volunteers for reporters, producers and newscasters. Through community radio, poor constituencies can develop their own news programs and present discussions on matters affecting their community. They share information in a language they understand. They can debate issues, produce weekly programs, and develop talkback radio programs by phone or mail drop. In the process, poor constituencies who were isolated and marginalized are becoming energized, developing informed opinions, and becoming more adept at using information to protect themselves, to make informed decisions and to get results.

In most of the countries in which we work, one important focus is to support interested communities to establish community radio stations, and develop their capacities in programming, credible local reporting, station management and resource mobilization. We are doing this as a preliminary phase, before developing larger support programs for the community radio sector. In particular, this phase clarifies how best to support the participatory planning and establishment of community radio, how to enhance their capacities, and the likelihood of their sustainability. There is also a pressing need to learn good practices in the development, operations and maintenance of these community radio stations, particularly on issues important to their effectiveness. Likewise, there is a need to learn the risks involved and how to mitigate them. The findings can help us better plan for a larger, more comprehensive support program for the community radio sector.

The Study

This proposed study will be carried out as seven country studies with local consultants handling one study each. It is expected that this research should begin with extraction from existing, available information, and then fill in the gaps, using interviews and group meetings, to provide reliable nation-wide information answering questions posed below. The final synthesis report will be prepared by a coordinator/editor, who will coordinate with the local consultants, and who will distill, integrate, analyze and clearly present the key findings.

All the studies should be organized to address the following topics, providing descriptions and analyses of country/case examples. The specific context of the country will naturally mean that certain topics will be yield more useful information than others. The sections are intended to illuminate good practices in community radio development and operation – showcasing instructive examples, and how and why they worked. The key question to be answered in the

1

final synthesis report is in bold italics, and is followed by examples of particular issues to pursue.

Each national study should be accompanied by a brief introduction to the country context focusing on critical factors that determine the nature and utility of community radio in the country.

Participatory Processes and Volunteerism. What are the best cases of participatory processes in community radio that lead to active and sustained volunteerism from the communities, what levels and types of volunteerism result, and how is this sustained? What kind of participatory practices yield a sense of ownership, commitment, and a high level of sustained volunteerism? How are volunteers recruited, trained and supported? What motivates them? What is the range of roles played by volunteers (support, management, reporters, correspondents, content expertise, etc.) and what motivates them? What tends to be the ratio of staff to volunteers per station (e.g., on average, is it 5:30 indicating heavy reliance on volunteers, or 12:3, indicating heavy reliance on full-time, paid staff?). Are there practices that specifically encourage the effective and meaningful participation of women, youth and minorities? How do CRs deal with high turnover and are there any incentives in place?

Relationship with the Community. How have community radio stations ensured that they are the voice of the community? How do communities and community organizations participate in the community radio stations? Are they involved in programming, if so, how specifically? What is the process used to develop and deliver programming that gives a voice to the community and enables it to set the agenda for discussion and action? What program formats ensure that the issues of concern to the community, and their perspectives, are heard? How is the community involved in operations and management, financing, evaluation and ownership? Does the community own the radio station and what is their relationship with local authorities, organizations and business interests? What community monitoring and feedback mechanisms are used? Do stations undertake audience surveys or hold public meetings to gauge community support for the programming or to facilitate community participation in developing programming?

Exertion of Rights. How has community radio helped people and communities press successfully for their civil and human rights, advocate successfully with officials, protect themselves from abuse, and become legally and socially empowered ? Where are there good examples of CR contributing to public education, awareness-building and problem-solving on legal rights, including women’s rights and the ability of poor, marginalized people to protect themselves, organize and press for respect of their rights? What groups have become aware and pressed for their rights? How is the programming delivered? What is the interaction with listeners? What complementary support (coaching, community organizing and advising) has been important, for example to help marginalized groups to develop tactical skills? What alliances have been built between CR and organizations that focus on legal, civil, and human rights – and what practical collaborative programs have they carried out? Have community radio stations and networks collaborated with members of parliament or others to raise issues at the national level? What are the key enablers and impediments?

Accountability and Good Governance. What are good examples of community radio programs being used to press successfully for better delivery of public services or investments, and for more government transparency and accountabilit. Why and how have they been successful? What types of governance issues arise in CR broadcasts? How they arise? Are there examples of “talk back” programs? If so, how did they they developed and how do they work? What are the impacts? Are there examples of

2

broadcasting government meetings (e.g. broadcasting from the district assembly floor)? Of community discussion and feedback on government proposals? Of exposing corruption? What’s been important, to develop these uses of CR? What has been the reaction of government and local authorities? Are there any examples of governments welcoming the chance to “set the record straight” or local officials actively and opening answering concerns and redressing problems on the air? What has not worked, in developing and delivering these programs, and why?

Role of CR Networks. What CR associations and networks (especially nationally or subnationally) have been particularly successful in supporting development of CR stations and the sector as a whole, and why. How are community radio networks structured? What are their main strengths and weaknesses? What networks exist? What are their main objectives and what services do they provide (management, capacity-building, advocacy, programming, network-facilitating, technical support, identifying needs, mobilizing resources …) Have their objectives and services evolved over time? Describe how they were established; how they are organized and managed; and how they operate. Have their objectives and services evolved over time? Where there are multiple networks within a country, what have been the problems or advantages? What role have ICTs played in the networks? Have regional and global associations or networks been helpful in practical terms. How? If there is more than one, Provide a simple matrix of each network or association, the topics they have addressed and services and other assistance they have provided, with notation of examples and relevant years.

Sustainable Financing. What have been the most useful and practical methods and mechanisms for CR to become financially sustainable? How has CR successfully mobilized local funding on a sustained basis, and what public financing schemes are or have been available?

o What strategies and successful methods of CR stations mobilizing local revenues are being used? What does experience tell us is realistic regarding the proportion of a CR’s operating expenses that can be financed from local resource mobilization? What are the differences in this experience between rural and urban areas? What features of the country context and culture have a strong influence on CRs’ ability to raise revenue from their local communities and other local stakeholders? Are there examples of CRs being compensated by government agencies or NGOs making use of air time for their substantive programming? Are there examples of local government agencies or others providing in-kind support such as office and studio space, use of vehicles or other supplies or equipment? Has this been done without compromising CR’s independence?

o What are good examples of public finance mechanisms for CR and what has made these systems viable in the country context? What tax or levy mechanisms have been used successfully to fund community broadcasting and why have these systems worked? How have other public policies, such as allowing or restricting advertising revenue, impacted on CR finances?

Role of CRs in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations. What roles have CR stations played in preventing and resolving conflict, and supporting post-conflict reconciliation and reconstruction? How have conflict prevention and reconciliation radio programs been developed and sustained, etc. and what has made them successful? Are there any risks involved, and if so, how have they been mitigated? (Such risks might include political pressure, threats against station personnel, becoming mouthpieces for interest groups, and so on.)

3

ANNEXES

4

Annex 1

Terms of Reference: Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios -- Issues Important to Their Effectiveness

Countries: Colombia, Peru, South Africa, Mali, Nepal

Background


Community radio (CR) stations are owned and operated by the communities they serve. They are non-profit, non-partisan, and usually non-sectarian, and operate in a participatory way, relying on volunteers for reporters, producers and newscasters. Through community radio, poor constituencies can develop their own news programs and present discussions on matters affecting their community. They share information in a language they understand. They can debate issues, produce weekly programs, and develop talkback radio programs by phone or mail drop. In the process, poor constituencies who were isolated and marginalized are becoming energized, developing informed opinions, and becoming more adept at using information to protect themselves, to make informed decisions and to get results.

In most of the countries in which we work, one important focus is to support interested communities to establish community radio stations, and develop their capacities in programming, credible local reporting, station management and resource mobilization. We are doing this as a preliminary phase, before developing larger support programs for the community radio sector. In particular, this phase clarifies how best to support the participatory planning and establishment of community radio, how to enhance their capacities, and the likelihood of their sustainability. There is also a pressing need to learn good practices in the development, operations and maintenance of these community radio stations, particularly on issues important to their effectiveness. Likewise, there is a need to learn the risks involved and how to mitigate them. The findings can help us better plan for a larger, more comprehensive support program for the community radio sector.

The Study

This proposed study will be carried out as seven country studies with local consultants handling one study each. It is expected that this research should begin with extraction from existing, available information, and then fill in the gaps, using interviews and group meetings, to provide reliable nation-wide information answering questions posed below. The final synthesis report will be prepared by a coordinator/editor, who will coordinate with the local consultants, and who will distill, integrate, analyze and clearly present the key findings.

All the studies should be organized to address the following topics, providing descriptions and analyses of country/case examples. The specific context of the country will naturally mean that certain topics will be yield more useful information than others. The sections are intended to illuminate good practices in community radio development and operation – showcasing instructive examples, and how and why they worked. The key question to be answered in the final synthesis report is in bold italics, and is followed by examples of particular issues to pursue.

Each national study should be accompanied by a brief introduction to the country context focusing on critical factors that determine the nature and utility of community radio in the country.

Participatory Processes and Volunteerism. What are the best cases of participatory processes in community radio that lead to active and sustained volunteerism from the communities, what levels and types of volunteerism result, and how is this sustained? What kind of participatory practices yield a sense of ownership, commitment, and a high level of sustained volunteerism? How are volunteers

Annex 1

recruited, trained and supported? What motivates them? What is the range of roles played by volunteers (support, management, reporters, correspondents, content expertise, etc.) and what motivates them? What tends to be the ratio of staff to volunteers per station (e.g., on average, is it 5:30 indicating heavy reliance on volunteers, or 12:3, indicating heavy reliance on full-time, paid staff?). Are there practices that specifically encourage the effective and meaningful participation of women, youth and minorities? How do CRs deal with high turnover and are there any incentives in place?

Relationship with the Community. How have community radio stations ensured that they are the voice of the community? How do communities and community organizations participate in the community radio stations? Are they involved in programming, if so, how specifically? What is the process used to develop and deliver programming that gives a voice to the community and enables it to set the agenda for discussion and action? What program formats ensure that the issues of concern to the community, and their perspectives, are heard? How is the community involved in operations and management, financing, evaluation and ownership? Does the community own the radio station and what is their relationship with local authorities, organizations and business interests? What community monitoring and feedback mechanisms are used? Do stations undertake audience surveys or hold public meetings to gauge community support for the programming or to facilitate community participation in developing programming?

Exertion of Rights. How has community radio helped people and communities press successfully for their civil and human rights, advocate successfully with officials, protect themselves from abuse, and become legally and socially empowered ? Where are there good examples of CR contributing to public education, awareness-building and problem-solving on legal rights, including women’s rights and the ability of poor, marginalized people to protect themselves, organize and press for respect of their rights? What groups have become aware and pressed for their rights? How is the programming delivered? What is the interaction with listeners? What complementary support (coaching, community organizing and advising) has been important, for example to help marginalized groups to develop tactical skills? What alliances have been built between CR and organizations that focus on legal, civil, and human rights – and what practical collaborative programs have they carried out? Have community radio stations and networks collaborated with members of parliament or others to raise issues at the national level? What are the key enablers and impediments?

Accountability and Good Governance. What are good examples of community radio programs being used to press successfully for better delivery of public services or investments, and for more government transparency and accountabilit. Why and how have they been successful? What types of governance issues arise in CR broadcasts? How they arise? Are there examples of “talk back” programs? If so, how did they they developed and how do they work? What are the impacts? Are there examples of broadcasting government meetings (e.g. broadcasting from the district assembly floor)? Of community discussion and feedback on government proposals? Of exposing corruption? What’s been important, to develop these uses of CR? What has been the reaction of government and local authorities? Are there any examples of governments welcoming the chance to “set the record straight” or local officials actively and opening answering concerns and redressing problems on the air? What has not worked, in developing and delivering these programs, and why?

Role of CR Networks. What CR associations and networks (especially nationally or subnationally) have been particularly successful in supporting development of CR stations and the sector as a whole, and why. How are community radio networks structured? What are their main strengths and weaknesses? What networks exist? What are their main objectives and what services do they provide (management, capacity-building, advocacy, programming, network-facilitating, technical support, identifying needs, mobilizing resources …) Have their objectives and services evolved over time? Describe how they were established; how they are organized and managed; and how they operate. Have their objectives and services evolved over time? Where there are multiple networks within a country, what have been the problems or advantages? What role have ICTs played in the networks? Have regional and global associations or networks been helpful in practical terms. How? If there is more than one, Provide a simple matrix of each network or association, the topics they have addressed and services and other assistance they have provided, with notation of examples and relevant years.

Sustainable Financing. What have been the most useful and practical methods and mechanisms for CR to become financially sustainable? How has CR successfully mobilized local funding on a sustained basis, and what public financing schemes are or have been available?

2

Annex 1

o What strategies and successful methods of CR stations mobilizing local revenues are being used? What does experience tell us is realistic regarding the proportion of a CR’s operating expenses that can be financed from local resource mobilization? What are the differences in this experience between rural and urban areas? What features of the country context and culture have a strong influence on CRs’ ability to raise revenue from their local communities and other local stakeholders? Are there examples of CRs being compensated by government agencies or NGOs making use of air time for their substantive programming? Are there examples of local government agencies or others providing in-kind support such as office and studio space, use of vehicles or other supplies or equipment? Has this been done without compromising CR’s independence?

o What are good examples of public finance mechanisms for CR and what has made these systems viable in the country context? What tax or levy mechanisms have been used successfully to fund community broadcasting and why have these systems worked? How have other public policies, such as allowing or restricting advertising revenue, impacted on CR finances?

Role of CRs in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations. What roles have CR stations played in preventing and resolving conflict, and supporting post-conflict reconciliation and reconstruction? How have conflict prevention and reconciliation radio programs been developed and sustained, etc. and what has made them successful? Are there any risks involved, and if so, how have they been mitigated? (Such risks might include political pressure, threats against station personnel, becoming mouthpieces for interest groups, and so on.)

3

Annex 2

COLOMBIA

EMISORAS COMUNITARIAS EN COLOMBIA- AVANCES Y RETOS -

PORAMPARO CADAVID BRINGE

BOGOTÁ, MAYO 28, 2007

Annex 1

CONTENIDO

Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................. ...... i

Introduction ................................................................................................................. .......................... 1

About this report ............................................................................................................... ...................... 1

Structure of the report ...................................................................................................................... ....... 2

What is Community Radio? ............................................................................................................. ...... 4

Many definitions of community radio ....................................................................................................... 5

The Countries ................................................................................................................. ....................... 7

Colombia ....................................................................................................................... ......................... 7

Mali ............................................................................................................................................. ............ 8

Nepal .................................................................................................................................... .................. 9

Peru .................................................................................................................................. .................... 11

South Africa ..................................................................................................................... ..................... 12

The Issues ..................................................................................................................................... ....... 14

Participatory Processes and Volunteers ............................................................................ ................... 14

Volunteers and paid staff .......................................................................................... .................. 14

Types of volunteers ......................................................................................... .......................... 15

Roles of volunteers ............................................................................................................ ......... 20

Volunteer recruitment, training and incentives ................................................................ ............ 21

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... ............ 23

Relationship with the Community ............................................................................. ............................ 24

Programming .................................................................................................................. ............ 25

Ownership, participation and control ................................................................ .......................... 26

Conclusions ................................................................................................................... ............ 28

Exertion of Rights .......................................................................................................... ....................... 29

Educating about rights ...................................................................................................... .......... 29

Monitoring and advocating for rights ....................................................................................... ... 31

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... ............ 33

Accountability and Good Governance .......................................................................... ........................ 33

2

Annex 1

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... ............ 37

Role of Community Radio Associations & Networks ....................................................................... ...... 37

Peru’s CNR: A decentralised network .............................................................................. ........... 38

Colombia’s many networks .................................................................................................. ....... 39

Nepal: An evolving situation ........................................................................................................ 40

AMARC ........................................................................................................... ........................... 41

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... ............ 42

Sustainable Financing .................................................................................................. ........................ 43

How much does it cost to run a radio station? ................................................................ ............ 43

Local and national revenue ............................................................................ ............................ 44

Public financing and support ....................................................................................................... 47

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... ............ 49

Community Radio in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations .................................................................. .. 49

Human rights and culture of peace ..................................................................................... ........ 50

Conflict resolution ......................................................................................................... .............. 51

Coping with conflict .................................................................................................................. ... 52

Conclusions .................................................................................................................... ............ 52

Conclusions & Recommendations .................................................................................................. .... 54

Participatory Processes and Volunteers ............................................................................ ................... 54

Relationship with the Community ............................................................................. ............................ 54

Exertion of Rights .......................................................................................................... ....................... 55

Accountability and Good Governance .......................................................................... ........................ 55

Role of Community Radio Associations and Networks ....................................................... .................. 56

Sustainable Financing .................................................................................................. ........................ 56

Community Radio in Conflict & Post-Conflict Situations ..................................................... .................. 57

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ . 58

Annexes .............................................................................................................................. ................. 59

Terms of Reference ......................................................................................................... ....................... 1

Annexes ................................................................................................................................... .............. 4

Terms of Reference: Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios -- Issues Important to Their Effectiveness ........................................................................................ .................... 1

Introducción ....................................................................................................................................... .... 7

3

Annex 1

1. Existencia, legislación, reglamentación y apoyo por parte del estado ............................................ 9

Une corporation divisée par la création de multiples associations ................................................... ..... 4

Attachment 1 : Le Mali, en bref1 .............................. ....................... 42

Population et Politique ....................................................................................................... ......... 42

Économie du Mali .......................................................................................................... ............. 42

Attachment 5 : ............................................................................................................................... ..... 59

N°92-038/ portant création du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication ......................................... ...... 59

BP.: 133A Kati ....................................................................................................... ........... 78

Sigida ka foli ............................................................................................................. ........................... 78

Flash Info ..................................................................................................................................... ......... 81

Flash Info ..................................................................................................................................... ......... 81

Flash Info ..................................................................................................................................... ......... 81

Flash Info ..................................................................................................................................... ......... 81

Flash Info ..................................................................................................................................... ......... 81

Flash Info ..................................................................................................................................... ......... 81

Flash Info ..................................................................................................................................... ......... 81

Pause ........................................................................................................................... ........................ 82

Pause ........................................................................................................................... ........................ 82

Pause ........................................................................................................................... ........................ 82

EPRA .......................................................................................................................................... .......... 84

Droit ...................................................................................................................................................... 84

Education ................................................................................................................................... .......... 84

Education ................................................................................................................................... .......... 84

Offre d’emploi ................................................................................................................ ...................... 85

Rediffusion ....................................................................................................................................... .... 85

Avis ........................................................................................................................................ ..... 85

Info ................................................................................................................................... .................... 86

Biennal ................................................................................................................................ ................. 86

Donso foli ...................................................................................................................................... ....... 87

Introduction: ................................................................................................................ ......................... 6

National Context ................................................................................................................... ................. 6

4

Annex 1

Beginning of Community Radio in Nepal .............................................................................. .................. 7

Spread of Community Radio ............................................................................................................. .... 9

CR in Nepal: an Overview ............................................................................................................ .......... 9

Media Ecology in Nepal ......................................................................................................... .............. 10

Participatory Processes and Volunteerism .................................................................. ......................... 13

Human Resource (HR) involved in CR sector ............................................................ .......................... 14

Human Resource by type of Community Radio .......................................................................... .......... 14

Share Structure in Cooperative Radio* .......................................................................................... ....... 14

Board of Directors involved in CR sector with gender and ethnicity ...................................................... 15

Volunteers vis-à-vis work area .................................................................................................... .......... 15

Relationship with Community: ........................................................................................ ................... 16

Passive Model ................................................................................................................ ...................... 17

Active Model ........................................................................................................................ ................ 18

Democratic Model .......................................................................................................................... ...... 18

Exertion of Right .................................................................................................................. ............... 19

Accountability and Good Governance .............................................................................. ................. 22

Role of Networks ...................................................................................................... ........................... 22

Sustainable Financing ..................................................................................................... ................... 24

Annual Income of 20 -Community Radio stations ...................................................................... ........... 24

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 50 watts transmitter ..................................... ...................... 25

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 100 watts transmitter ................................... ...................... 25



Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 1000 watts transmitter ................................ ....................... 27

Role of CRs in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations ................................................................. ........ 28

Conclusion: ................................................................................................................................... ...... 28

Reference Books (in Nepali) .................................................................................................. .............. 30

Reference Books (in English) ................................................................................................... ........... 30

Acknowledgements: ............................................................................................................... ............. 30

Nepal CR Case Study 1 ....................................................................................................................... ... 1


5

Annex 1

Nepal CR Case Study 3 ........................................................................................................................ .. 2


Nepal CR Case Study 5 ..................................................................................... .......................... 4

Role of Community Radio in Rule of Law ............................................................................ ................... 4


COMMUNITY STATION SUMMARY .................................................................... ...................... 12

P O Box KA 9482, Accra, Ghana ................................................................................................... ......... 1

E-mail : gcrn @ghana.com ................................................................................................... .................. 1

6

Annex 1

Introducción

Este texto sobre las emisoras comunitarias (EC) en Colombia hace parte de un estudio mayor elaborado por iniciativa y con patrocinio del Banco Mundial, el cual que involucra otros seis estudios nacionales alrededor del mundo y que busca hacer un balance de la situación sobre emisoras comunitarias, participativas y alternativas en el ámbito internacional.

Está elaborado con base en información existente, complementando algunos aspectos a través de consultas con personas del sector que tienen un mayor conocimiento sobre ellos. Trata los siguientes aspectos: su existencia legal y funcionamiento, los procesos participativos alrededor de las radios y el aporte del voluntariado. La manera como estas emisoras se relacionan con sus comunidades de base, permitiendo que sean medios a través de los cuales ellas se expresan. El compromiso que las emisoras comunitarias colombianas han adquirido con la defensa de los DDHH. El papel que han jugado en la construcción de la transparencia y rendición de cuentas al nivel local. La función y aporte de las redes y las apuestas que han hecho para alcanzar una sostenibilidad económica.

Una de las observaciones de entrada es que la riqueza de experiencias de radio comunitaria en Colombia no se corresponde con estudios que evidencien que detrás de ellas ha habido un proceso de reflexión, de sistematización, de seguimiento y de evaluación. Es un campo de mucha producción y resultados para los productores, gestores y activistas de la radio, pero no para los estudiosos de las academias, de las ONG o de las instituciones. Escasean los estudios y con ellos un verdadero conocimiento sobre lo que está pasando con las emisoras comunitarias en la sociedad, su impacto y las transformaciones que han generado.

En 1999 el Ministerio de Comunicaciones de Colombia encargó un estudio diagnóstico de seguimiento al desarrollo de las emisoras comunitarias, después de 5 años de operación16. En 1994 se concedieron las primeras licencias de funcionamiento, con apoyo y acompañamiento del Ministerio y se quería saber cómo había sido su evolución hasta ese momento. Ese primer estudio hizo un rastreo de la bibliografía existente y entre otros, concluyó que una de las principales fuentes de información la constituyen las tesis de grado de las universidades del país, pero que: “… En los trabajos de tesis abundan los planteamientos que consideran a la radio comunitaria como espacio de participación y construcción de democracia, aunque todos se caracterizan por ser muy generales….pretenden delimitar el “deber ser” de la radio comunitaria sin estudios específicos y menos de campo, lo que las hace repetirse…Se encuentran recuperaciones históricas… sin análisis ni propuestas, abundando las referencias a experiencias radiofónicas pioneras como Radio Sutatenza…17 También registra ese diagnóstico información de otras procedencias, principalmente de memorias de eventos y noticias en los mismos medios ciudadanos y en portales web.

De aquí partimos para elaborar este tema y por ello, el primer paso que dimos fue actualizar esta información bibliográfica. Un análisis general de esta nos lleva a encontrar varios rasgos. Lo primero que se observa es un desbalance, hay algunas pocas experiencias que han sido tratadas con rigor y profundidad y sus estudios publicados y difundidos aún en medios internacionales (AREDMAG, Radio Andaquí, la Cometa, Colectivo de Comunicaciones de los Montes de Maria) mientras que sobre la mayoría no hay estudios ni siquiera descriptivos. El segundo es que la mayor parte de la información sobre las emisoras comunitarias está escrita en forma de noticias y de ensayos que se presentan en eventos y se publican en portales de Internet, donde prima la novedad, pero donde no se hacen planteamientos de rigor, por la misma naturaleza del medio. La tercera observación es que hay un número importante de trabajos sobre casos específicos, ya sean emisoras o redes de emisoras, pero falta una visión amplia que observe el tema al nivel nacional. Escasean las reflexiones de conjunto basados en estudios con una cierta profundidad. Se siguen haciendo tesis de pregrado y de postgrado sobre este tema en las universidades colombianas pero son escasas y poco significativas en el contexto y se mantienen planteamientos con poca profundidad. El estudio de Gómez y Quintero sigue siendo el único que intenta una visión nacional y, a pesar de basarse sobre una muestra estadística de emisoras, sigue siendo la mejor visión de conjunto existente sobre las emisoras comunitarias en el país.

16 Gómez, Gabriel y Quintero Juan Carlos (1999)17 IBIDEM Pag. 12

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Es que sobre este tipo de información se ha elaborado este trabajo, por lo cual hay que señalar la necesidad de realizar más investigaciones básicas - inclusive de orden descriptivo - rigurosas, sistemáticas y reflexivas sobre el conjunto, para el caso colombiano.

Tomando lo que hay se encuentran cuatro aspectos que sobresalen como características de la radio comunitaria en el país: el primero es que a pesar de las inmensas limitaciones los medios ciudadanos y dentro de ellos, las emisoras comunitarias han sido reconocidas en sus especificidades y función social dentro de la Ley. La Nueva Constitución de 1991 creó un marco proclive a la reglamentación, y se han venido desarrollando Decretos que las reconocen, caracterizan y reglamentan. Esta función le ha correspondido al Ministerio de Comunicaciones. El segundo aspecto es que la División de Radio del Ministerio de Cultura ha jugado un papel central en el desarrollo de las emisoras comunitarias, formulando y plasmando en la realidad una política pública de apoyo a ellas, en la medida en que las concibe como un medio fundamental para desarrollar la participación y construir la democracia desde la base. Y en este contexto se encuentra desde 2004 sacando adelante un proyecto nacional llamado “Radios ciudadanas” que concreta estos ideales, en el marco de una política de estado, que se alía con las organizaciones sociales y entidades de fomento para lograrlo. Este proyecto tiene por sus característica, importancia e impacto social un peso importante en el conjunto de las emisoras comunitarias de Colombia.

El tercer aspecto es que el sector radios comunitarias está organizado desde la base en redes regionales y asociado a una red nacional que cobija los medios ciudadanos y comunitarios. A través de ellas se han fortalecido las emisoras locales y han encontrado un importante espacio de representación, que de hecho, ha jugado papel de interlocutor frente al estado, configurando esto un panorama de actividad permanente y de diálogo a varios niveles. Un delegado de las emisoras comunitarias es actualmente el representante del sector en el Consejo Nacional de Cultura, instancia de participación ciudadana al más alto nivel ministerial, para la definición y construcción de políticas de cultura y comunicación.

Y cuarto, las radios comunitarias además de representar un sector de la comunicación ciudadana constituyen un movimiento social, militante de una causa socio cultural y comunicativa, defensor del derecho a la comunicación y sujeto de una comunicación “otra” donde primen la construcción de desarrollo y paz, en un país vulnerable como lo es Colombia. Dentro de esto juegan un papel central en la construcción de “la paz”, en tanto son quienes al nivel local, sufren los impactos inmediatos de la violencia y el conflicto armado, le dan la cara y desde allí generar las condiciones de la paz: fortalecer el tejido social, propiciar la participación a través de la palabra, visibilizar a quienes tradicionalmente han estado invisibilizados, propiciar las condiciones de la convivencia, alimentar los factores que generan arraigo, identidad y sentido de pertenencia.

Para desarrollar lo anterior, el presente texto está organizado en cuatro partes:

Preámbulo: Sobre el sentido de las emisoras comunitarias en una sociedad moderna y tecnificada

Los medios ciudadanos y en particular las emisoras comunitarias de radio deben ser vistas y abordadas para su estudio en el marco de una sociedad donde estos hacen parte de una complejidad (ecosistema comunicativo) mayor. En ella también existen los medios de comunicación comerciales, la industria cultural, la comunicación institucional, las experiencias artísticas en comunicación y, sobre todo, en el escenario de un mundo globalizado. En ese contexto, ya no se trata de presentar a las emisoras comunitarias como medios alternativos, contestatarios, rebeldes o de resistencia, sino como “espacios otros” frente a las formas dominantes de comunicación. En él, se vive la comunicación desde una perspectiva propia y diferente, comprometida con la construcción de la sociedad, de la ciudadanía y de lo público, y no solamente con las necesidades de mera información, entretenimiento o expresión artística. Por eso se rebautiza este sector, llamándolo “emisoras ciudadanas”. Añadiendo un elementos mas y es que por su natural ubicación local, están de por si mas cerca y pendientes de lo que llamamos el “tejido social”, que no es otra cosa que las organizaciones de base de cualquier comunidad, las asociaciones para generar riqueza, bienestar, participación y satisfacer las demás necesidades propias de la convivencia.

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En la sociedad idealmente democrática que deseamos construir, es necesario contar con dinámicas comunicativas, tecnologías y medios que respondan al pluralismo, a la diferencia y a la multiplicidad de demandas, expectativas y necesidades de expresión y comunicación que esta sociedad compleja, como la nuestra, tiene. Por ello, el solo concepto de industria cultural, que se refiere a atender las necesidades de información y entretenimiento, dentro de la lógica capitalista; o, el de la información estatal que responde a un flujo de información del estado hacia la sociedad para permitir y facilitar su acción; o, el de los medios ciudadanos, no ocupa la totalidad del espacio ni agota las posibilidades. Sino que por lo contrario, la posibilidad de que todo ello exista y se dé en su mejor y máxima expresión es garantía e indicador de democracia, ejercicio de los derechos y participación.

Podría pensarse en una sociedad donde la existencia, fortalecimiento y accionar de la industria cultural, permite que exista lo mismo para los procesos de comunicación “pública institucional” y de “medios ciudadanos”. En un modelo ideal la expansión y legitimidad de cada una es directamente proporcional a la expansión y legitimidad de las demás. Lo cual sería como afirmar que si una predomina sobre las otras (el entretenimiento que viene de la industria cultural, o el dominio del estado que viene de la comunicación/información de interés público, o los medios ciudadanos), esto sería síntoma de la no existencia de condiciones suficientes de democracia en esa sociedad.

Esta relación paritaria en términos generales, como condición de una sociedad justa, democrática e igualitaria, es lo que intento desarrollar en esta reflexión sobre las radios comunitarias en Colombia.

1. Existencia, legislación, reglamentación y apoyo por parte del estado

Colombia cuenta con una legislación sobre emisoras comunitarias, la cual en el contexto de América Latina podría considerarse como adelantada. Lo que básicamente hace es reconocer su existencia jurídica en el ámbito de la radiodifusión y posteriormente reglamentarla. El aspecto interesante es que dentro de una comprensión general de “la radiodifusión” en Colombia el estado define tres categorías: Una comercial, otra de interés público y otra de servicio comunitario (“Cuando la programación esté destinada en forma específica a satisfacer necesidades de una comunidad organizada”, Artículo 3, Decreto 1446). A cada una le da sus especificidades, su rango y su papel.

Esto se debe a que después de varias décadas (1960 – 1991) de existir de manera ilegal y de sufrir las consecuentes clausuras, retención de sus equipos, multas y sanciones, aprovecharon la oportunidad que ofrecieron la Nueva Constitución de 1991 y los debates ocurridos en los procesos pre constituyentes, para hacerse reconocer legal y jurídicamente y reglamentar.

Efectivamente, uno de los movimientos sociales mas intensos y continuos que se dieron en el país de manera articulada en las mesas pre constituyentes y finalmente, en la Asamblea Constituyente entre 1989 y 1991 fue el de los radialistas, y comunicadores de base, quienes se unieron en un movimiento nacional conocido como el “Grupo de Comunicación y Democracia”18, el cual llevó hasta el final, los sueños de muchos grupos comunitarios que abogaban desde hacía mas de 30 años por poder hacer uso de su libertad a la libre expresión y su derecho a la palabra.

Esta movilización que no ha sido documentada con rigor, estudiada ni analizada todavía, es un importante referente de un proceso democrático desde la base alrededor de un tema de comunicación. Quienes participaron en él fueron “los pequeños”, apoyados por ONG e instituciones que trabajan con ellos, con intereses fundamentalmente de empujar y fortalecer los procesos de participación y democratización que caracterizaron primero el proceso de descentralización (1986) y luego, la Asamblea Constituyente.

18 En las “Memorias del grupo de Comunicación y Democracia”, Bogotá, 1991, aparecen como instituciones que lo apoyaron y financiaron: Ministerio de Comunicaciones de Colombia, División de Comunicación Social; SENA, Oficina de Comunicaciones; Alcaldía de Bogotá, Oficina de Comunicaciones; ICBF, Oficina de Comunicaciones; Convenio Andrés Bello, UNICEF, CINEP, Foro Nacional por Colombia, Viva la Ciudadanía.

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Fue un momento clave en una historia todavía no escrita, pero urgida de ser documentada y recogida para la posteridad y la cual habla tanto de la radio, como de la democratización y el comienzo de una nueva vida civilista en Colombia.

En la Nueva Constitución quedaron establecidos esos derechos reclamados, en: Artículo 20, que define la libertad para fundar medios de comunicación; Artículo 64, el Estado debe promover de manera progresiva el acceso a la comunicación; Artículo 74, el espectro electromagnético es un bien público al cual el Estado debe garantizar su acceso

de manera igualitaria; Artículo 365, los servicios públicos son inherentes al Estado pero pueden ser prestados también por

comunidades organizadas.

Pero además, para el caso de la Emisoras Comunitarias (EC) otras leyes y decretos han especificado su naturaleza y sus características de actuación:

El artículo 10 de la Ley 72 de 1989; Los artículos 33 y 50 del Decreto 1990 de 1990 El Decreto 1446 de agosto 30 de 1995 El Decreto 1447 de agosto 30 de 1995. Decreto 1981 de 2003

Estas normas le dieron sus características básicas de existencia y funcionamiento, en las cuales resaltan lo siguiente: son emisoras de “interés público” que deben garantizar la libre expresión y la libertad de la palabra a los habitantes de las localidades donde actúan; con potencia clasificación D (“cubrimiento local restringido”, Artículo 4, Decreto 1446), o sea 250 watios, y por lo tanto alcance circunscrito al municipio; las concesiones y licencias para su funcionamiento se entregan a organizaciones representativas de la comunidad legalmente constituidas de los municipios donde van a existir (artículo 23, Decreto 1447); deben orientarse hacia las necesidades de información, movilización social y educación ciudadana de los habitantes de ese municipio, (“Orientadas a difundir programas de interés social para los diferentes sectores de la comunidad, que propicien su desarrollo socioeconómico y cultural, el sano esparcimiento y los valores esenciales de la nacionalidad, dentro de un ámbito de integración y solidaridad ciudadana. Por tanto todos los concesionarios tendrán la obligación de ajustar sus programas a los fines indicados”, Artículo 22 Decreto 1447). para lo cual se establecen una serie de mecanismos que garantizan una programación representativa de los diferentes grupos, sectores y actores sociales del municipio. Pueden financiarse con pauta publicitaria, para lo cual se les conceden 15 minutos por cada hora de programación. (“Los concesionarios del servicio comunitario de radiodifusión sonora, deberán invertir en su integridad los recursos que obtenga la emisora por concepto de comercialización de espacios, patrocinios, auspicios, apoyos financieros de organizaciones internacionales legalmente reconocidas en Colombia u organismos gubernamentales nacionales” Articulo 27, Decreto 1446). De igual manera, le garantizan la protección, asesoría y seguimiento por parte del Estado.

El Decreto 1981 de 2003 retoma las definiciones de los anteriores y hace una reglamentación mucho mas actualizada y detallada, en la cual se hacen exigencias tales como el Manual de estilo (“Documento de conocimiento público que contiene las políticas, los principios y criterios propios de la emisora comunitaria, con los cuales se protegen los derechos de la audiencia, se evita la incitación a la violencia, a la discriminación y se garantiza el pluralismo informativo, de conformidad con los fines del Servicio Comunitario de Radiodifusión Sonora”. Artículo 2). Se establecen las Juntas de programación que garantizan la pluralidad de visiones y necesidades de la comunidad (“…encargada de la formulación y seguimiento de políticas, planes y programas en materia de programación, y de velar por el cumplimiento de los fines del Servicio” Articulo 2, “…tienen derecho a participar las organizaciones sociales e instituciones del municipio por medio de un representante de cada una, de suerte que refleje la diversidad y pluralidad de los habitantes. La Junta de Programación será presidida por el director de la emisora” artículo 3). También se especifican las condiciones técnicas y demás requisitos del titular para poder optar a una licencia de funcionamiento y los criterios que tendrá en cuenta el Ministerio para otorgarlas.

Sin embargo, hasta ese momento las emisoras comunitarias eran solo concedidas a cabeceras municipales menores de 300.000 habitantes y por lo tanto estaban restringidas en las grandes

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ciudades. Este fue siempre uno de los puntos más álgidos en las disputas entre el estado (Ministerio de Comunicaciones) y las organizaciones radiofónicas del país, quienes nunca cedieron en sus intentos de alcanzarlas. Durante doce años se mantuvieron firmes en estas aspiraciones aprovechando todos los espacios de participación y diálogo con el estado. Pero la resistencia del estado también fue igualmente fuerte, lo que las llevó a presentar una Acción de Tutela ante la Corte Constitucional, quien a través de la Sentencia T-460 de 2006 falló a favor del establecimiento de emisoras comunitarias en las ciudades grandes. El Ministerio se siguió negando por razones ya aludidas, lo cual generó por parte de las organizaciones una segunda solicitud de Acción de Tutela a la Corte. Finalmente, el Ministerio se vio obligado a abrir las convocatorias para emisoras urbanas el pasado mes de mayo de 2007.

“Con ello, el movimiento social de las emisoras comunitarias de Bogotá abrió un camino importante para la protección no sólo de sus derechos, sino de aquéllos de todos los potenciales operadores de radio comunitaria del país. Pero además, este movimiento consiguió que una lucha que durante mucho tiempo fue estigmatizada por la clandestinidad en la que las emisoras comunitarias se vieron obligadas a vivir fuese finalmente reconocida como una lucha legítima y digna de la protección del Estado”.19

En este momento el Ministerio de Comunicaciones se encuentra preparando las condiciones para abrir a licitación la concesión de emisoras comunitarias no solo en Bogotá – donde se dio la lucha más brava por conseguirlas – sino en todas las ciudades grandes del país.

El Ministerio de Comunicaciones tiene una oficina que se encarga del control, la supervisión y el fomento de estas emisoras: la División de Acceso y Desarrollo Social y el Ministerio de Cultura tiene una oficina de Radio Comunitaria dentro de su División de Comunicación que ha ofrecido capacitación, estímulo y orientación a estas emisoras para su fortalecimiento y el debido cumplimiento de su función social.

Actualmente existen 850 emisoras comunitarias legalmente establecidas en Colombia (Cuellar, 2007) desde 1995. Cada una de ellas en la cabecera de uno de los 1031 municipios del país (referirse a los anexos 1 y 2 donde están los listados). Este ha sido un proceso de 12 años desde cuando se reglamentó su existencia, que ha ido poco a poco. En la medida en que ha sido tutelado por el Ministerio de Comunicaciones, la convocatoria para concesión de licencias ha ido ganado experiencias y se han abierto por regiones del país. En las últimas dos concesiones el Ministerio ha aportado unos fondos significativos para que universidades regionales realicen una capacitación inicial a los equipos técnicos de cada emisora20. Así, han adquirido una visión y una claridad sobre los aspectos legales, administrativos, técnicos, de organización ciudadana, de financiación, de programación y de producción, con los cuales comienzan a operar sus propias estaciones. Esta necesidad el Ministerio la vio después de que la primera concesión de 1996 las emisoras por falta de suficiente conocimiento y capacitación tuvieron muchos problemas con la operación de sus estaciones; muchas tuvieron que cerrarlas, o que concederlas a terceros para su operación y hubo casos en las cuales debieron apoyarse en cadenas comerciales para poder funcionar.

Los primeros años de operación de las radios comunitarias fueron muy duros para quienes no tenía experiencia o apoyo de ONGs, la iglesia o estaban ubicadas dentro de comunidades fuertes, pues a pesar de que están reglamentadas a escala pequeña, para muchas los estudios técnicos, la operación y la financiación significaban esfuerzos inmensos, casi imposibles de realizar por las mismas condiciones de los municipios de donde provienen. En esa primera etapa, acciones de mantenimiento de las licencias y de funcionamiento, como pago de derechos de autor, de impuestos, llevar contabilidades, mínimamente claras, mantener al aire la programación retando las tormentas eléctricas tropicales que dañaban equipos frecuentemente por falta de protección eléctrica, fueron frecuentes y mantuvieron (siguen manteniendo) emisoras apagadas por falta de capacidad técnica y financiera. Sin embargo, este ha sido el costo de hacer escuela y de garantizar un derecho aún en condiciones tan difíciles y precarias para algunas. Por ello el Ministerio decidió dar un apoyo inicial que fortaleciera las áreas mínimas de funcionamiento.

19 Planeta Informa: Radios comunitarias para las ciudades capitales, febrero de 200720 Ministerio de Comunicaciones (2004) Convocatoria para la capacitación de las nuevas emisoras comunitarias

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Para ello las diversidades han sido unas buenas aliadas y aunque le proceso es muy reciente y todavía no se han hecho seguimiento o evaluación a estas segunda y tercera generación de emisoras comunitarias, lo que si es importante anotar es que ya se evidencia “una cultura” de las radio comunitarias que se manifiesta en los encuentros, seminarios y talleres, donde la gente conoce la ley, las reglamentaciones, y donde conceptos como Manual de Estilo y Juntas de Programación son “pan comido” para todos.

Ahora bien, mas allá de la reglamentación del Estado colombiano, las EC son una posibilidad para las comunidades locales y regionales de contar con un medio que responda a muchas necesidades de expresión, comunicación, movilización, formación política y ciudadana, visibilidad de la vida local, creación de agendas locales y demás dimensiones de la vida municipal y regional, de una sociedad que busca ansiosamente vivir en democracia, acceder a la participación, a la equidad y a la convivencia. Como dice Vaclav Havel luchar por alcanzar “un mundo en el que los poetas puedan tener una voz tan poderosa como los banqueros” 21

Pero esa sociedad requiere para consolidar esa democracia deseada, superar la violencia social y el conflicto armado, y construir y fortalecer una cultura ciudadana, pacífica y democrática, porque ya las leyes respectivas están hechas en gran parte, falta que la sociedad se transforme en su interior, fortalezca en su tejido social a través de relaciones mas claras y acordes con "reglas de juego" consensuadas que garanticen a todos sus derechos y exijan sus responsabilidades. Como se pregunta Eduardo Posada Carbó si es posible la democracia sin instituciones, para afirmar que esta no puede ser solo apariencia y para ello se requiere la institucionalización de la vida democrática, en lo cual la comunicación es un factor clave, y para nuestro caso las emisoras comunitarias se convierten en medios e instrumentos estratégicos.

Por ello ubicar las EC en este contexto permite verlas en una dimensión mas profunda. De hecho, constituyen la infraestructura básica en comunicación que garantiza derechos ciudadanos a los ojos del Estado y de la sociedad colombiana. Y también ante la vida política - Y léase política como partidista, pero también como educación política -. Por ello, cada vez toman más cuerpo como factores decisivos que facilitan la construcción de un sistema democrático participativo, desde la base de la sociedad local. A partir de el, se tejerá e integrará a una nueva cultura política. Para ello, uno de los factores determinantes es el manejo de la información y la consolidación de una opinión pública consistente con sus principios.

La democracia en cuanto “poder público en público” es un gobierno de opinión que construye lo público, en donde se plantean y defienden los temas de la vida social y por lo tanto, quien la construya hace parte de esta posibilidad. Lo que aportan las EC es la posibilidad de “exponer a la vida pública” los asuntos de interés común para ser conocidos, analizados y debatidos. Tema absolutamente esencial en una sociedad democrática.

Mirada desde aquí la existencia de las EC encontramos entonces las siguientes limitaciones en su concepción y reglamentaciones.

Pero, existen muchas dificultades actualmente para lograrlo, las cuales provienen en parte del mismo orden social que reglamenta la Constitución. Algunas de ellas son:

(i) La escala pequeña a la cual han sido reducidas en tanto su alcance es solo municipal y no pueden encadenarse entre ellas, cuando pertenecen a una misma red

(ii) Con respecto a su sobre vivencia, la competencia con las emisoras comerciales – las cuales podrían considerarse como parte del la industria cultural - que tienen abierto el campo para el lucro a través de la publicidad, lo que aumente sus dificultades para sostenerse porque, a pesar de sus diferencias, compiten y están equiparadas con las comerciales en cuanto a la necesidad de financiarse con pauta publicitaria, pago de impuestos y de reconocimientos de derechos de autor.

(iii) La competencia también desleal que sufren en muchas localidades frente a otras emisoras consideradas de interés público. Están los casos de los municipios de San Vicente de Chucurí, Santander; de El Carmen de Bolívar; y de Quibdo, Chocó, entre otros, en los cuales las emisoras institucionales de interés público operadas por otras instancias del estado, como el Ejercito

21 Havel, Vaclav: Adiós a la Política Discurso pronunciado en Nueva York el 19 de septiembre de 2002 por el presidente de la República Checa.

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Nacional hacen interferencia a las frecuencias de las emisoras y además competencia desleal con la comercialización de los programas.22

(iv) Por las limitaciones económicas en que generalmente nacen, su tecnología es bastante frágil, les cuesta mucho trabajo – o imposibilidad total – darle un mantenimiento adecuado a sus equipos, se dañan con mucha facilidad por las condiciones del clima.

(v) Se ven presionadas y amenazadas por grupos al margen de la ley, o políticos en épocas de elecciones, o por empresas con intereses en las zonas que no aceptan crítica alguna por parte de las comunidades a sus actuaciones.

Las EC, como experiencias radiofónicas locales son elementos útiles para muchos. También para los políticos quienes se han dado cuenta de las posibilidades que presenta la radio para afianzar su proselitismo y su presencia, hasta el momento represada por una prensa menos permeable y mucho más identificada con las jerarquías y las hegemonías partidistas nacionales. Precisamente por esas mismas características, también a veces son vistas como “botines” para ser conquistados porque con ellos en su conquista de poder.

Desde este punto de vista el Estado, al asumir y reglamentar las EC en los términos en que lo ha hecho, está dando tímidos pasos hacia la democratización de la palabra, con respecto a la ciudadanía. Se observa un gran temor, en tanto las crea y legaliza pero en unos niveles muy pequeños, ejerciendo sobre ellas un gran control, que por ejemplo, no tienen con las grandes cadenas y no tomando decisiones complementarias que garantizarían su funcionamiento desde los financiero, por ejemplo, encauzando hacia ellas la contratación de servicios de comunicación institucionales a nivel local y regional, o presionando la apertura de rubros para estos fines en los presupuestos de las entidades territoriales.

Pero además, el Estado sigue siendo tímido no solo en la formulación de políticas, sino mucho mas en su apoyo a materializarlas: “Esta pobreza se ha reflejado en las políticas de Estado que hacen mas énfasis en la imagen que en la comunicación, en el problema de las tecnologías y las reglamentaciones que en el sentido de los medios como mediadores sociales claves en la construcción de la democracia y en el afianzamiento del pluralismo político”. 23

Y por otro lado, la academia ha demostrado una constante indiferencia hacia ellas. Son muy pocos los estudios serios, a fondo o las líneas de investigación que las involucran, si lo comparamos con la prensa o la televisión, por ejemplo. Esta falta de interés académico afecta en tanto no hay conocimiento que alumbre aspectos centrales de estos medios, que son figuras indudablemente de la relación entre medios, democracia y ciudadanía. El estudio de Gómez y Quintero (2002) muestra cómo hasta ese año los estudios sobre radios comunitarias dentro de la academia estaban centrados en tesis de pregrado, mayoritariamente estudios de caso sin mucho rigor y con desarrollos del “deber ser” de las emisoras, mas que a registros de la realidad aún fuera en estudios descriptivos o líneas de base. Desde esa fecha para acá poco se ha progresado y los estudios con mayor rigor que se registran desde entonces están localizados también en casos específicos (Cadavid, Rodríguez, Vega, Durán 2007)

2. La organización social y la participación comunitaria

Por ley las emisoras deben surgir de arreglos y organización de las comunidades. Para obtener la licencia de funcionamiento debe demostrar que son un grupo representativo de la comunidad y para mantener la concesión también deben demostrar que funciona con base en las decisiones de una Junta de Programación, que está reglamentada por ley y que – por lo menos en el papel – debe tomar las decisiones sobre el funcionamiento y la programación. Pero esto no siempre es así. Tanto los controles del estado como la capacidad organizativa de las comunidades tienen muchas fallas y existen tergiversaciones y dinámicas perversas dentro de estas organizaciones de base, con respecto a lo que se propone en la Ley.

Cuando una EC cumple con su definición, tiene una asamblea de miembros que se reúne cada año y que elige democráticamente una Junta Directiva y una Junta de Programación. Los responsables

22 Pero hay otros casos en el país donde quienes obstruyen son emisoras ilegales de grupos armados por fuera de la ley (FARC, ELN).23 Ibidem

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salientes deben hacer una rendición de cuentas pública de su gestión y los entrantes deben presentar un plan de trabajo con presupuesto en el lapso de un mes. Estas prácticas son frecuentes entre un 50 y 60% de las emisoras (según la opinión de coordinadores de redes regionales), así haya algunos defectos e imprecisiones, la mayoría cumple con estos parámetro formales. Sin embargo existe un porcentaje minoritario pero importante que no cumple con ello o que hace una mala interpretación tendenciosa. Por ejemplo, cuando la organización de base no es plural y representa a toda la comunidad, sino que está anclada en un solo grupo que la utiliza para su propio interés, el caso frecuente de EC de algunas iglesias (El Peñón, Santander), o sumidas en una institución educativa cerrada, en una sola asociación de padres de familia, o una sola junta de acción comunal de un barrio. También están los casos de radialistas comerciantes que manipulan a una comunidad para obtener una licencia de EC, pero la convierten en un negocio personal (caso típico de la emisora de Sabana de Torres, Santander, de Puerto Wilches, Antioquia o de San Pablo, Bolívar).

Lo anterior con respecto a la legalidad y a las maneras de obtener una licencia de EC y operar la estación. Pero esto es solo el aspecto formal, los niveles de participación de las EC, no solo dependen de esta estructura y del cumplimiento de esos requisitos, sino que son directamente proporcionales a los niveles de organización y gestión comunitaria que haya en un municipio y que se mantengan alrededor de la emisora.

La verdadera participación está en la programación de una emisora, porque allí se refleja la pluralidad y la variedad de visiones, necesidades, intereses, sensibilidades y estéticas de los diferentes grupos sociales que componen la comunidad.

En Colombia la participación de la comunidad se da principalmente en cuatro formas. Primero, una forma muy estructurada, la legal, mencionada arriba. Segundo, una forma muy desestructurada: la solicitud de servicios por parte de las audiencias, de igual manera que también se hace en muchas emisoras comerciales. La gente llama para solicitar que se pasen mensajes y razones, o para solicitar complacencias musicales. Esto se hace a través del teléfono o de cartas. Estas prácticas participativas son fundamentales en las audiencias locales pues son las que mas servicios prestan de comunicación entre unos y otros lugares, especialmente los municipios rurales. Con ellas se acercan las personas, la gente se integran, se sienten parte de un grupo, de una sociedad, de una comunidad, especialmente donde hay grupos alejados los unos de los otros.

Una tercera forma es a través de la conformación de colectivos de producción. Los colectivos son grupos informales y voluntarios de personas afines que se reúnen para hacer un programa semanal de radio, para lo cual han sido capacitadas, ya sea por los técnicos de la emisora o por otras personas. El tipo de colectivos que más abunda es el infantil y el juvenil, pero también hay colectivos de mujeres, de jóvenes rockeros, de minusválidos, de padres de familia, de mujeres artistas, de productores agropecuarios y demás. La participación de las personas en los colectivos no es muy permanente, pero siempre hay un grupo que hace el programa. Así que la emisión de éste permanece al aire por periodos largos y expresa la existencia de un grupo activo y motivado en una comunidad.

El número y la actividad de un colectivo es un indicador de participación radial en un municipios. Las emisoras apoyan mucho a los colectivos, les ayudan, lo forman y por supuesto, no cobran por la emisión del programa, muchas veces por lo contrario, les aportan equipo y materiales para que puedan hacerlo. En un municipio puede haber entre 2 y 10 colectivos funcionando al tiempo, dependiendo de la actividad organizativa y los movimientos sociales.

Pongo ejemplos de ello: a) El Colectivo de Comunicación Pescao sobrero y tambó de Simití, Bolívar, es el único del pueblo, está conformado por 15 niños y niñas entre 6 y 16 años que semanalmente se reúnen para hacer un programa de una hora el sábado por la tarde. Muy temprano en la mañana se reúnen en casa de una maestra que los acompaña y los ayuda y entre todos hacen la preproducción: el libreto, buscan música y se turnan las locuciones. Cada grupito es responsable de una sección del programa de no más de 5 minutos. Por la tarde van todos al estudio y los emiten en directo.

Este programa tiene un gran impacto en el pueblo, en las vecindades donde viven los niños, las amigas y parientes sacan los bafles del equipo de sonido a la calle para que todo el mundo oiga el

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programa de los niños, así que en muchos barrios enteros se puede escuchar y cuando ellos llegan a casa, los reciben con aplausos y felicitaciones. Esto es un gran reconocimiento para ellos.

Los programas de los niños hablan de los problemas en la escuela, en la casa, hacen campañas para proteger el medio ambiente, manejo de basuras, cuidado de mascotas, salud sexual y reproductiva, consejos para la salud, concursos de ortografía y de matemáticas y demás temas de interés.

b) El otro ejemplo es el Colectivo de Minusválidos del Magdalena Medio que funciona en San Vicente de Chucurí, está liderado por un hombre que llegó a ser director de la radio comunitaria durante un tiempo, de profesión electricista y un fanático de la producción radial. Como miembros de la Asociación motivó a otros para hacer un programa en colectivo que busca crear una imagen diferente del minusválido para que se sienta más integrado a la comunidad. Buscan ser vistos como personas capaces de trabajar y producir como cualquiera, además aportar en su programa a la convivencia. Por lo contrario, en este municipio hay muchos colectivos de producción de diferentes grupos, niños, jóvenes gente de teatro, mujeres, cacaoteros, lo que evidencia la existencia de una comunidad más organizada y participante, que lo demuestra a través de la radio. 24

c) El tercer ejemplo es el colectivo cultural de jóvenes de Pamplona, Norte de Santander, quienes tienen una serie de actividades de música, poesía, literatura, teatro, para lo cual se reúnen semanalmente, inclusive llegando a hacer espectáculos en el pueblo. Ese colectivo decidió también hacer un programa de radio semanal donde cuentan algunos de sus logros. Este programa ha sido muy positivo para ellos porque ha sido una forma de publicitarse y atraer más jóvenes al grupo cultural. A través de la radio también motivan a otros jóvenes a preferir las actividades culturales frente a otras formas de recreación como los juegos al azar y d maquinitas electrónicas.25

Y una cuarta forma de participación en la emisora es a través de la producción sectorial de programas. Esto es la existencia de entidades, organizaciones o personas que producen programas de interés para su sector, por ejemplo el hospital, los padres de familia, los maestros, las asociaciones de productores agropecuarios, los ganaderos, y demás grupos sociales, o, instituciones como el ICBF (instituto Colombiano de Bienestar familiar) o el SENA (Servicios Nacional de Aprendizaje). Esto se da ya sea de manera contractual, cuando estos grupos pagan por hacer el programa y transmitirlo, o ya sea porque ellos mismos lo hacen y pagan para transmitirlo. En estos casos la emisora se beneficia con el cobro de la emisión del programa. Pero, otras veces no se paga la emisión, cuando por ejemplo, hay personas muy comprometidas con una causa que hacen un programa y lo mantienen a lo largo del tiempo, para alcanzar un objetivo específico de beneficio de la comunidad.

Este último puede ser el caso de un par de profesores rurales del municipio de Santa Rosa del Sur de Bolívar que llevan haciendo varios años un programa semanal para niños del campo, especialmente de zonas donde se siembra coca. Ellos pretenden que estos niños tan familiarizados con la cultura de la siembra y procesamiento de coca, y ahora atropellados por la fumigación de estos cultivos, puedan tener un espacio de recreación y de expresión distinto a esta realidad tan dura que les toca vivir y que nos le permite vivir su infancia adecuadamente, pujes los impulsa a trabajar como adultos y los invita a divertirse como tales. Ellos han logrado una amplia participación de los pequeños oyentes porque hacen un programa muy infantil con concursos donde los niños pueden escribir y mandar sus aportes. Es una de las experiencias mas clásicas que hemos registrado donde un programa de este tipo ha logrado un gran impacto en un sector social.26

Esta participación que se hace desde la sociedad en la EC es toda voluntaria, en el sentido de que nadie cobra por sus servicios, pero porque no se ven como algo ajeno a si mismos. La participación y la relación de la comunidad con su emisora es fundamentalmente a partir de este involucramiento en la producción de programas.

En os aspectos administrativos y financieros, la comunidad poco aporta. En las asambleas de miembros socios de la organizaciones dueñas de la estaciones ocasionalmente se hacen aportes de tipo económico. Lo que su sucede es el desarrollo de actividades también ocasional para recoger

24 Los dos ejemplos mencionados arriba están documentados en el estudio de Cadavid, Durán, Rodríguez y Vega (2007)25 Esta caso está documentado en Cadavid y Fayad (2007)26 Este caso está ampliamente documentado en el video Voces del magdalena, comunicación para la paz de A Gumucio (2006)

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fondos ante una necesidad, por ejemplo rifas, fiestas bazares, recolectas. Si embargo esto se hace de manera informal. Definitivamente el equipo central de la EC es el responsable de su financiación.

Lo anterior de parte de la participación de la sociedad en la EC. Pero también está el punto de vista de la emisora frente a la sociedad y este se da cuando la EC desarrolla programas de solidaridad con su comunidad, que van más allá del cumplimiento de su mandato como servicio de información. Por ejemplo, cuando se aúna con campañas para el bienestar común, o para casos particulares. Existe una forma de apoyo desde las EC que son los radiotones; estas son jornadas de programación especial, que se generan en un espacio público como la plaza o el coliseo del pueblo, a donde se invitan los talentos locales para que hagan presentaciones especiales ya sea de música, de poesía, canciones, chistes y demás y esto atraiga donaciones por parte de la población para ayudar a alguien que necesita alguna resolver urgencia: un enfermo para ser trasladado y operado, o tratado, alguien quien perdió su casa o sus bienes en una tragedia, o para un entierro. Muchas causas donde la gente requiere ayuda, la EC hace un radiotón y allí llegan muchas donaciones que se destinan en su totalidad a la causa.

También hay muchos casos de programación especial para visibilizar un proyecto de la comunidad que se hace en una escuela rural o en el colegio, en el hospital o por parte de un grupo que quiere ser conocido por alguna razón. Allí la radio asiste al evento que puede ser un bazar, una presentación artística o deportiva, una exhibición de artesanías y desde el lugar de los hechos transmite para que el pueblo asista al evento, participe y así mostrar algo que de otra manera no sería posible.

3. EC: Un aporte a la Paz y a los DDHH

Las primeas emisoras comunitarias que fueron concedidas, en su gran mayoría estaban en zonas de conflicto, precisamente por su aislamiento, no contaban con otros medios de comunicación propios, y se fue uno de los criterios con los cuales se concedieron las primeras licencias. Este hecho marcó a estas emisoras de manera que han debido enfrentarse a la violencia y a la necesidad de divulgar y educar en DDHH. Este es uno de sus aspectos más característicos y más complejos.

Clemencia Rodríguez (2006) ha hecho un estudio comparativo de los aportes de tres casos de emisoras comunitarias a la paz (El Carmen de Bolívar, Belén de los Andaquíes y Santa Rosa del Sur) que muestra el papel fundamental que una emisora puede jugar en un momento dado tanto a la construcción de convivencia, como a la resolución de conflictos.

En 2004 muy preocupados por las dificultades que las emisoras comunitarias que son apoyadas por los Laboratorios de Paz27tenían para demostrar su impacto en la construcción de desarrollo y paz dentro de las comunidades, un equipo de profesores de las Universidades Javeriana, del Norte y Oklahoma, se asoció con la Red de Emisoras Comunitarias del Magdalena Medio. El propósito fue diseñar, implementar y probar una metodología de sistematización seguimiento y evaluación de su experiencia que se preguntara entre otros, por el papel que juegan las emisoras en la construcción de paz. La intensión fue lograr una metodología participativa y cualitativa que diera cuenta de manera clara del aporte de estas EC al fortalecimiento del tejido social, a la transformación de la sociedad y a la construcción de convivencia.

Durante tres años se hizo un trabajo de campo detallado y riguroso en la región del Magdalena Medio que levantó información básica, la cual ha permitido demostrar este aporte en muchas formas. El trabajo con esa metodología se ha venido extendiendo hacia otras zonas del país: Montes de María, Caquetá, Boyacá, zona indígena del Cauca, lo que hoy nos permite tener una visión más clara, amplia y fundamentada de lo que han sido estos aportes. El estudio de Cadavid, Duran, Gómez, Quijano, Rodríguez y Vega (2007) documenta de manera amplia el caso del Magdalena Medio mostrando al detalle los momentos y situaciones en las cuales las EC generan convivencia y paz.

27 Laboratorios de Paz son experiencias promovidas y financiadas por la Unión Europea y el Gobierno de Colombia, las cuales se vienen desarrollando desde 2003. Buscan desarrollar modelos, metodologías y resultados de desarrollo y paz dentro de comunidades vulnerables que viven en la pobreza y dentro de un duro conflicto armado. Dentro de ellos la comunicación juega un papel central. En esa medida apoyan los medios ciudadanos, entre ellos, las EC.

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Tomando como referencia este estudio, a continuación mencionamos algunas de esos momentos.

La EC aporta a la convivencia cuando construye lo público. Y esto lo hace generando espacios y condiciones para los encuentros. Por ejemplo, cuando lleva a rivales políticos que generalmente radicalizan a un pueblo pequeño, a plantear un debate a través de la emisora, en la cual el locutor solo sugiere preguntas y modera el debate. Allí, frente a su pueblo el político saca sus mejores argumentos y su más condescendiente actitud política. Con ellos educa de manera directa al pueblo en una forma abierta y argumentada de hacer política localmente. También cuando aboga por los intereses y derechos de la comunidad, buscando resolver problemas como proteger el uso del espacio público, la calidad de los servicios, pidiendo cuentas a los gobernantes sobre sus actuaciones, en un plano de tranquilidad y no de agresión. Cuando ofrece la palabra a personas composiciones diferentes para que debatan con altura. Cuando ofrece los micrófonos para que posiciones distintas por parte de la comunidad frente a un tema se expresen.

La rendición pública de cuentas a través de las emisoras es una función que cada día toma más importancia dentro de las EC. Este es un tipo de información básica que genera un gran bien en una comunidad, tanto en las autoridades, porque pueden plantear de manera abierta los resultados y dificultades de su gestión y responder a la elección de que fueron objeto. Y también a la población que se acostumbra y aprende a hacer veeduría y control sobre sus gobernantes a participar de manera concreta a valorar y exigir información clara y a aprender a conocer las necesidades y logros de su propio municipio. Muchas EC del país ya han entrado anualmente en las sesiones de redición de cuentas y se las exigen a sus gobernantes, así como a las instituciones, incluyendo ONGs que las poyan.

También aporta a la convivencia cuando cuestiona de manera amigable decisiones y actuaciones desconsideradas por parte de la Fuerza Pública, la Policía o las autoridades, lo hace de manera creativa y no ofensiva, pero atrae a la gente para que plantee diferentes puntos de vista y otro tipo de soluciones. Así lanza puentes entre el estado y la gente.

En las zonas de alta presencia del conflicto armado se cuida mucho de informar suficiente pero muy objetivamente. En los momentos de tomas militares a los pueblos deben suspender los informativos y entonces se refugian en la programación musical y light hasta que se vuelve a la normalidad. No provocan al opositor, sino bajan su perfil para no generar conflictos mayores, mientras se normaliza la situación.

Hay momentos en los cuales las EC deben limitar sus emisiones y su tipo de programación y a veces hasta cerrar por la guerra local. En todos los casos la EC sigue siendo un líder así no emita, pero sus equipos técnico juegan un rol dentro de la comunidad de orientación y de guía. En Rodríguez y González (1996) hay una bella narración acerca de una toma guerrillera y enfrentamiento con la Policía una noche de sábado en Belén de los Andaquíes, cuando muchos jóvenes del pueblo estaban en una celebración en la plaza del pueblo. Este fue un episodio típico de guerra, con bombardeo y toma armada que casi ocasiona una tragedia mayor. E este caso la Emisora orientó hasta donde pudo a la gente para calmar los ánimos y hacerlos llegar hasta sus casas o a lugares de refugio, mientras se terminaba la balacera.

Hemos encontrado un número importante de historias sobre casos en los cuales la EC de un pueblo ayudó a la gente en un momento de guerra contra el pueblo, orientando, tranquilizando ofreciendo información básica. La gente entrevistada durante el estudio afirmaba que se sentía siempre acompañada por su emisora.

Sin embargo también está el otro lado del conflicto y es que en zonas militarizadas hay dos temas que no se pueden tratar en el espacio público: los derechos humanos y el derecho internacional humanitario. Estas son palabras prohibidas en zona de conflicto y particularmente en Colombia son generadoras de sospecha por parte de los actores armados. Esto es algo de común conocimiento por parte de las EC de zonas de conflicto y tema imposible de ser tratado de manera abierta y clara en la programación.

Frente a ello y teniendo conciencia de la importancia que tienen las EC en la educación sobre DDHH y DIH, los grupos de producción radial se han inventado muchas maneras para hacer educación en DDHH sin nombrarlos, para no generar problemas y censuras en las localidades.

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Uno de esos casos es el del Colectivo de Comunicaciones de los Montes de María (Premio Nacional de paz 2003) quienes hicieron series de programas donde hablaban de los derechos de los niños, de las mujeres, de los ancianos, de los pescadores, pero siempre sin nombrar DDHH, como si fueran otra cosa, y de es manera y a través d esa estrategia han logrado difundir y educar a muchas personas en sus derechos, al tanto que hoy los niños de la localidad, tienen muy claros cuales son sus derechos.

En la medida en que las EC no se enfrentan a una división tan clara entre productores y audiencias, porque las audiencias participan en muchas maneras de la programación de la emisora, existe un flujo muy grande de información, conocimiento, compartir intereses entre la unos y otros. Esto ha generado un tejido de solidaridad en os pueblos alrededor de su emisora muy fuerte, al punto que muchas veces la gente no escucha directamente la emisora pero solo el hecho de que su pueblo tenga una propia les genera sentido de pertenencia y orgullo.

Las EC en Colombia, en su gran mayoría han sobrepasado la etapa de “las denuncias” tanto frente a irregularidades en el manejo de los recursos públicos, de los abusos del poder, o de los atropellos a los DDHH. Pero esto no porque no sientan un compromiso con ello, sino porque en medio de una guerra como se vive en casi la totalidad del territorio, esto no se puede hacer de manera abierta, como se mencionaba antes. Su actitud frente a la exigencia de los derechos es mas en forma de convocatoria para que se generen las condiciones para el diálogo y el entendimiento y en esa medida su gran aporte es encontrar esas maneras de llegar a los diferentes grupos y entidades para que se sienten a conversar a buscar soluciones a los problemas.

4. Los equipos de producción

Una de las grandes fortalezas de las EC es la gente que trabaja para ellas. Hemos encontrado que para ser radialista comunitario se requiere de una vocación que lleve a un compromiso “a prueba de fuego”.

Un la muestra de 66 radialistas que tomamos para el estudio entre directivos, productores, locutores y programadores, la totalidad (100%) afirmó que desde pequeños, el sueño de su vida era vincularse con la radio y que lo mas importante que les ha pasado en su vida es estar vinculados con una EC, a pesar de todas las dificultades que pudieran presentarse. Ninguno piensa dejar este trabajo, sino lo contrario, capacitarse más. Nosotros le llamamos a esto el “enamoramiento” por la radio.28

No solo quienes trabajan directamente en la radio, sino quien está en los colectivos, o en los grupos institucionales de producción sienten o desarrollan esta pasión por hacer radio. Profundizando un poco en lo que hay por detrás de este enamoramiento encontramos varias cosas. En primer lugar que hacer radio genera un reconocimiento y admiración por ellos, por parte del pueblo, de sus conocidos, su familia, sus compañeros y demás gente. Segundo, que hablar a través del micrófono les desarrolla habilidades y genera seguridad en si mismo, imagen, cierta fama, que resulta muy atractiva. Tercero, sienten que estar detrás de un micrófono es una manera muy importante de ayudar a su comunidad. Cuarto consideran que la radio construye su municipio, acerca a la gente, permite el diálogo, les da un poder de interlocución, es como si crecieran y desde allí pudieran hablar con todos, incluyendo las autoridades. Quinto, sienten un inmenso placer de conectar y complacer a los oyentes, de escuchar sus voces solicitando servicios o complacencias musicales y saber que ellos pueden ayudar y complacer. Sexto, tienen conciencia de que la radio les da liderazgo aún fuera de la EC, son buscados para ayudar, para guiar, para orientar.

Es una mezcla de placer personal con altruismo y sentido de servicio a su sociedad muy fuerte. De allí nace una ambición muy grande para superar obstáculos, lo cual se revierte en un deseo muy fuerte de capacitación.

Por ello el aspecto más interesante de inversión son los espacios y oportunidades de capacitación. Esta es prodigada inicialmente por el estado precia a la entrega de licencias de funcionamiento y luego a través de muchas entidades, incluyendo el Ministerio de Cultura, las redes, ONGs quienes

28 Cadavid, Duran, Gómez, Quijano, Rodríguez y Vega (2007)

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tienen programas de capacitación en producción, programación, administración y empresa y en aspectos técnicos, las cuales han logrado un muy buen desarrollo, nivel y calidad.

5. Sostenibilidad económica

¿De donde proviene la financiación de las EC? El estudio del 2002, dice que las fuentes de financiación de las EC son:

Venta de espacios para programas externos (36%) Venta de publicidad (35%) Patrocinios y especiales (24%) Venta de saludos y complacencias (23%) Bazares y bingos (16%) Actividades deportivas y artísticas (8%) Solicitud de recursos a autoridades (4%) Proyectos (3%) Programas especiales (3%) Convenios con entidades (3%) (Municipios (19%) el gobiernos nacional (6%), los hospitales (5%) y

las iglesias (4%))

Hasta aquí la información del estudio que es el único que da una información tomada de la realidad. Sin embargo estos resultados hoy con dudosos, y deberían ser confrontados con otros factores, por ejemplo, la función de las iglesias en el financiamiento de las EC. Pero también , han sido alterados en los últimos cinco años por el papel que han asumido en el apoyo financiero a las EC, ciertas ONGs, por ejemplo los Programas de Desarrollo y Paz, los Laboratorios de Paz, los proyectos institucionales que hacen convenios y compran servicios, como el de Radios Ciudadanas y el de Salud Sexual y Reproductiva.

Existen además experiencias que han extendido sus actividades a nuevos campos de la comunicación y han fundado otros medios o creado ONGs propias, por ejemplo, Comunarte en Belén de los Andaquíes: “El trabajo empezó realizando gestión para conseguir el dinero que les permitiera conseguir los equipos, entonces se conformó una organización que se llama Fundación Cultural para la Comunicación Comunitaria (Comunarte) y ya organizados se hicieron propuestas para hacer a la población cofinanciadora del proyecto, en principal objetivo era hacer socios de la emisora a los miembros de la comunidad, y desde este concepto de propiedad hacer que la emisora se convirtiera no en un bien privado, sino en un bien de la comunidad, un patrimonio que le pertenece y que debe responder a sus necesidades información y comunicación”29

También está el caso de canales locales de TV como Carmen de Bolívar, o, las alcaldías e instituciones como colegios han asumido las emisoras comunitarias para darles base financiera y permitir su fortalecimiento, como los casos de Betuliana estéreo o Campo Serrano estéreo en Aguachica, Cesar. El apoyo de los municipios depende del gobierno de turno y por ello no es estable como fuente de financiación.

Los aportes que provienen de estas instituciones solidarias se reflejan particularmente en a) Capacitación técnica a quienes administran y producen en las EC, b) Dotación de equipos y mantenimiento, c) Estudios técnicos, d) Sede y servicios públicos.

Sin embargo y a pesar de lo anterior, las finanzas de las EC son en su gran mayoría de sobre vivencia. Son muy pocos casos los que logran sostenibilidad financiera, lo cual repercute en varios factores, entre ellos, el mas relevante es la contratación de personal estable y con ello, la acumulación de un capital humano capacitado y entrenado que le de fuerza al proyecto de emisora.

Por ello, obtener recursos financieros para sostenerse es una prioridad y un afán permanente de las EC, y un análisis de situaciones particulares a lo largo del país, muestran que este tema depende de

29 González, Alirio (2006)

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los siguientes factores: a) El origen comunitario de la emisora; si esta surgen con apoyo de la iglesia (parroquias, diócesis), de ONGs, o de algún tipo de alianza preexistente, su sostenibilidad está altamente garantizada porque desde el comienzo hace parte de una estructura mayor que la cobija; b) El tipo de municipio donde esté ubicada; hay municipios prósperos donde la actividad comercial garantiza la posibilidad de vender servicios de publicidad, pero en los municipios pobres, esta garantía no existe; c) La capacidad de gestión que tenga o que adquiera el grupo que lideró y que obtuvo la concesión, y que le permite tanto buscar publicidad y vender servicios, como gestionar proyectos y donaciones con entidades. Muchas veces problemas de organización interna, de dificultades entre los miembros, o por lo contrario la existencia de un buen liderazgo, son factores definitivos en la búsqueda de este tipo de financiamiento estable, a partir de una buena gestión.

Los elementos anteriores permiten hacer una tipología de emisoras en Colombia según sus posibilidades financieras, la cual se logra de combinar los factores descritos. En un extremo estarían las emisoras que tienen y/o han desarrollado mayor capacidad financiera por alguno de los tres, o los tres factores anteriores y en el otro extremo estarían aquellas que carecen de los tres y que a duras penas sobreviven por épocas.

Dado que no hay datos de base que permitan hacer un diagnóstico nacional, no es posible construir esa tipología a este nivel, pero si es posible hacerlo para una red regional. Y para poner un ejemplo de este ejercicio tomaremos a AREDMAG la Red de Emisoras Comunitarias del Magdalena Medio, sobre la cual si existen varios estudios.

AREDMAG afilia 25 emisoras de 4 departamentos y para este caso tiene tres tipos de emisoras según su capacidad financiera. Emisoras A: Las que han logrado sostenibilidad porque han alcanzado un alto nivel de apoyo y gestión propia, casos como el de Puerto Wilches, San Vicente, Campo Serrano o Santa Rosa cuyas sedes y sostenimiento son un aporte de la parroquias, la alcaldía o el colegio; el equipo de la emisora vende servicios porque son municipios prósperos con posibilidades comerciales; y también han ganado una buena capacidad de gestión con las instituciones y con las empresas allí presentes. Emisoras B: aquellas que tienen apoyo de alguna institución, pero sus municipios no son prósperos y conseguir ingresos es muy complicado, lo cual los lleva a basarse solo en aportes de los oyentes por venta de razones, o a organizar eventos fuera de la emisora como bazares y fiestas, apenas sobreviven pagando una nómina muy pequeña y por horas y teniendo mínimos gastos. Ejemplos de ello son San Martín, Gamarra, Betuliana. Y Emisoras C: aquellas que comienzan con el solo esfuerzo de las comunidades quienes han conseguido todo, pero sin estabilidad y dependen mucho de los gobiernos de turno para apoyarlos, o de rachas de buena suerte que les traen proyectos o venta de servicios ocasionalmente, por ejemplo, Simití, Morales y las nuevas emisoras del sur de Bolívar, que corresponden a municipios muy pobres donde el comercio es escaso o inexistente y los municipios pobres también y/o corruptos.

Guardadas proporciones, esta es la situación de las redes regionales en general, en las cuales hay emisoras en diferentes niveles de desarrollo y capacidad económica, las cuales muchas veces viven también de la gestión de las mismas redes quienes buscan apoyos económicos para todas sus afiliadas.

Las dificultades de sostenibilidad financiera que se registran no significan que las emisoras y redes no trabajen y se esfuercen por superarlas. Por lo contrario es un tema siempre sobre la mesa, un espacio de intercambio y de creatividad, del cual han surgido estrategias que se han socializado. Hay cursos y materiales pedagógicos para conducir a las emisoras a la búsqueda de recursos que les permitan vivir, para capacitarlas en mercadeo de sus productos, para buscar que funcionen como empresas con todas las exigencias. Sin embargo este es un proceso que está todavía incipiente y que lleva a que el panorama sea la sostenibilidad económica “en el filo de la navaja”. Las emisoras sobreviven, y muchas de ellas quiebran, o están apagadas mucho tiempo por falta de recursos, que por ejemplo, les permitan reparar equipos dañados, o pagar servicios públicos. El factor que mas cuenta para su sostenibilidad es la voluntad, esfuerzo y trabajo duro de sus líderes.

La sostenibilidad económica sin embargo, como necesidad y como factor básico no puede reducirse a los aspectos aludidos, hay que enmarcarlo y reflexionar sobre él desde otra perspectiva, para hacer coherente el sentido de las EC.

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Dice Alfonso Gumucio Dagrón, que: “La trayectoria de supervivencia y desarrollo de los medios comunitarios se parece mucho a la de los artistas del circo que caminan en delicado equilibrio sobre una cuerda floja. A veces caen sobre la red y vuelven a subir para comenzar de nuevo. La diferencia es que en los medios comunitarios la mayoría de las veces no hay una red que amortigüe la caída, por ello muchos proyectos quedaron frustrados al poco tiempo de iniciarse, y no lograron establecerse en el seno de la comunidad. Son pocas las experiencias que han sobrevivido sin apoyo externo. Casi todas tienen el respaldo económico de instituciones de la sociedad civil, de iglesias progresistas o de la cooperación internacional. Esto lo pude constatar cuando realizaba la investigación para mi libro “Haciendo Olas: Comunicación Participativa para el Cambio Social30”: una mayoría de las cincuenta experiencias retratadas en el libro dependía en menor o mayor grado de aportes externos”. 31

Muchos otros estudios han llegado a conclusiones semejantes. Basados en los datos anteriores tenemos que la situación en Colombia no es diferente. Sería muy difícil esperar que las EC puedan sostenerse, supliendo todas sus necesidades y requerimientos y cumpliendo con todos sus deberes, de la pauta publicitaria o los servicios que prestan. Por varias razones, la primera y más importante es que de una parte, no se puede concebir una función de interés público, como es el que tienen las EC, en manos solamente de intereses comerciales, ni sujeto a que las empresas privadas de una localidad que pueden presionar, manipular o someter su aporte a lo que las EC puedan decir o dejar de decir, mas aún cuando son proyectos sociales, generalmente críticos, con una visión diferente y con una misión de construir lo público a través de la palabra cotidiana. De otro lado, la misma gestión de la pauta publicitaria se hace un trabajo arduo y complejo.

Estos puede llevarnos encontrar una ruptura entre este tipo de medios con intereses “ciudadanos” y la bien conocida “industria cultural”. Ruptura que comenzaría precisamente en la base de su existencia: su lógica de financiación. Dicen los estudiosos de este tema que “La industria cultural se refiere a la lógica industrial que produce artefactos y productos de “sentido” y obedece a los parámetros de la industria capitalista neoliberal incluyendo los mercados. Hay que comprenderlas desde el consumo de los mercados internos”32 Las emisoras al no concebir a sus oyentes como “mercados”, si no como el tejido social que constituye su razón de ser, comienza a tomar distancia de este lógica capitalista.

Sin embargo las EC deben sostenerse de alguna manera y deben salir a buscar esos recursos con base en sus capacidades y en el “producto” que finalmente es capaz de obtener. Pero, en la mayoría de los municipios donde las emisoras comunitarias son mas necesarias, la existencia de posible pauta local es muy reducida, porque los negocios o empresas son muy pocos y además, no existe la cultura de la pauta publicitaria, o, existen emisoras locales de mayor alcance que hacen mejor el trabajo y a menor costo, es decir, están en el juego capitalista de los mercados.

También sucede que quienes se involucran en el liderazgo y conducción de EC son generalmente líderes comunitarios con grandes talentos y capacidades para la comunicación, la radio, la movilización social, pero poco conocedores e interesados en los aspectos comerciales, de mercados y sin mayor experiencia en ello. Este es un tipo de industria, que, a diferencia de otros proyectos productivos – los que por su naturaleza cuentan con personas hábiles y que les gustan las ventas - no cuenta con personal ni capacitado, ni interesado en esta actividad. Por ello, o deben “entregarse” a manos de quienes si lo saben hacer, con grandes riesgos, o deben forzarse a aprenderlo, no siempre con tanto éxito como se quisiera.

Las cifras mostradas atrás muestran un panorama lamentable con respecto a la gestión de recursos. Está también la posibilidad de financiación por parte de otros lugares distintos a la lógica del mercado. Entre ellos el Estado quien podría propiciar alianzas entre las instituciones locales, regionales y nacionales con este fin. Se nota una tendencia a ello de manera más espontánea y coyuntural que institucional y formal.

30 Publicado por la Fundación Rockefeller en el año 2001. 31Tomado de su ponencia: “Arte de Equilibristas: la Sostenibilidad de los medios de comunicación Comunitarios”

32 VALENCIA, Daniel, Conferencia “El concepto de industrias culturales”, Cátedra UNESCO 2005, septiembre 28 de 2005

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Lo significativo en este problema es que el tema de la financiación es central para el comportamiento “democrático” y no puede perderse de vista como punto de “militancia” y movilización frente al Estado. De hecho en los últimos dos años algunos medios ciudadanos, especialmente en Bogotá han generado pequeñas movilizaciones frente a la Alcaldía Mayor para solicitar ser tratados como espacios de publicidad insertos en la lógica de la industria cultural, que compiten con los medios de comunicación masiva. Es un punto incipiente pero muy importante. Pero, también lo que indica es que todavía no hay claridad en si estos medios con intereses de no-lucro, serían o no serían parte de la industria cultural. Es decir, si ellos se consideran o no consideran parte de ella.

De alguna forma, las emisoras comunitarias podrían constituirse en nuevas formas que permiten un encuentro entre los ciudadanos y el Estado, en el intento de construir el espacio de lo público, siempre y cuando el Estado también adquiera conciencia de lo que ellas significan y tomen la acción que les corresponde en este sentido. Y en este debate, de igual manera queda pendiente la pregunta por cuál es la responsabilidad que le compete al estado en este logro de sostenibilidad económica.

Si bien las emisoras ciudadanas han sido concebidas, definidas y establecidas - como se

6. Compromiso con la información y la creación de opinión pública local

La función comunicativa fundamental que cumplen las EC se refiere a la producción de sentido con una direccionalidad clara: aquel que crea y fortalece civilidad, identidad, democracia y compromiso con lo local. Si bien también involucran importantes dimensiones de lo cultural, recreativo y del entretenimiento – pues pasan programas musicales, hacen concursos, transmiten deportes, etc. – estos, están referidos al marco de lo local y regional y en una dimensión formativa y no meramente de “pasar el tiempo”. Esto les da un carácter especial y diferente de la industria cultural como es definida por los estudiosos.

En el caso de la información, los noticieros radiales nacionales y regionales ofrecen una información importante a las comunidades locales, pero no responden a las necesidades de información que estas tienen para su desarrollo. Por esto, las EC cumplen esta función como una tarea fundamental.

Su condición de locales y de habitar en el corazón de la vida municipal las compromete grandemente con la creación de un periodismo de esta magnitud, que responda verdaderamente a las necesidades de las comunidades y sociedades en su expresión más básica, cual es el municipio, el corregimiento, la vereda, la cabecera, el barrio.

En este campo los retos asume y las dificultades que debe sobrepasar son muchas. En primera instancia, porque existen muchos y contrapuestos intereses en lo informativo y en la creación de opinión pública en todas las comunidades municipales y regionales. Intereses políticos (y politiqueros), intereses religiosos (intolerancia de algunas iglesias frente a otras opciones religiosas), intereses económicos (propiciar la ignorancia al respecto para “el pueblo y además fenómenos como que en las economías de enclave las grandes empresas no toleran ningún tipo de crítica o reclamo público a sus actuaciones), intereses sociales (protagonismos, enfrentamientos y competencias de entidades públicas, internacionales y organizaciones civiles).

Rey afirma que “Todas las formas de concentración de la información, la disminución de su capacidad de pluralismo o de restricción de la participación pública en la creación de opinión donde quepan las diferencias y se hagan visibles los problemas en su complejidad, so sin duda un handicap para la democracia”.33 Y son las EC un espacio ejemplar para superar este tipo de dificultades.

También son víctimas de los modelos informativos y de opinión pública impuestos y legitimados por los medios comerciales. Estos se caracterizan por la creación de estereotipos y pautas de lo que

33 REY, Germán: “Balsas y Medusas, visibilidad comunicativa y narrativas políticas”, Bogotá, Fescol, Fundación Social, Cerec, 1998.

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es “una noticia”, donde priman las chivas y el amarillismo e ignoran el uso obligado de varias fuentes. Parámetros que no permiten ni facilitan las operaciones elementales de un periodismo local, cuales son: (i) la construcción de agendas que correspondan a las necesidades y prioridades de edificar región y contribuir con una cultura de la participación y la democracia; (ii) Construir lo público y la ciudadanía desde la información y la creación de opinión propia, (iii) dar visibilidad y voz a los hechos y personajes que tienen verdadera relevancia en las localidades (y a cualquier ciudadano que lo requiera); e (iv) interpelen y tomen cuentas a sus gobernantes sobre sus actuaciones políticas al mando del estado, porque los medios ciudadanos tienen un mandato de control que, éticamente, no pueden dejar de lado.(v) Den prioridad a los hechos constructivos, positivos y creativos de su localidad y no solamente a los hechos de violencia, conflicto y dolor.

Además de imponer un estilo de “noticia” como el mencionado, también las emisoras comerciales han impuesto modelos de los que es “Programa de opinión” y han ignorado otros géneros periodísticos como lo son la crónica y el reportaje radiales. En el caso de los primeros, las EC tienen un inmenso campo que recuperar, pues es propio de la radio crear informar, crear opinión pública, consolidar imaginarios de paz y convivencia y hacerlo a partir de las fuerzas vivas que existen en el municipio. Ofrecer los micrófonos de manera equitativa y democrática a una variedad de opiniones, locales y regionales con respeto a reglas de juego establecidas y acordadas previamente, es una necesidad básica. Se necesitan más mesas redondas, paneles, debates políticos sobre temas específicos donde hablen las autoridades, los opositores, la ciudadanía, todo frente a la comunidad. El papel de la EC es de convocantes, de mediadores, de moderadores, de provocadores para estimular la libre, pero respetuosa, expresión de la opinión.

En cuanto a los segundo, las EC deben comenzar por explorar géneros tan importantes en comunidades que están tan cerca de las memorias y la cultura oral, de la historia y las historias contadas, como los son las crónicas y los reportajes. Recuperar la memoria, las visiones y la opinión de las personas que son los protagonistas de las comunidades porque esta es una manera no solo de dar a conocer y de crear una opinión pública enraizada en sus identidades y su historia, sino además, de permitir un marco, para mirar, entender y analizar la realidad, la actualidad, y el futuro mucho mas amplio, profundo y rico.

Otro reto lo tienen frente a los grupos armados y al margen de la ley, - pero también las fuerzas militares y de Policía - y a los grupos políticos que intentan siempre presionar e incidir sobre los noticieros y programas de opinión de la EC y han llegado hasta asesinar a periodistas34 que los critican, se oponen a sus plantes, o reclaman derechos ciudadanos, cuando la presencia de estos actores viola los DDHH o el DIH en las comunidades. Por ello, las experiencias en la mayoría de las regiones con presencia del conflicto armado que tienen EC con noticiero, es que estos actores armados los presionan para que informen a su manera, los prohíben, o cierran las EC, según las condiciones.

Si miramos las EC desde la perspectiva planteada por Omar Rincón35 de lo que son las industrias culturales, tendríamos que analizar los siguientes aspectos:

Son “industria” en tanto:

La producción es en serie: No existe en las EC, se parece mas a la producción artesanal pre capitalista, donde cada colectivo o programador hace su propio programa, uno por uno, dentro de un esquema, pero a veces ni siquiera obedece a él rigurosamente. Esto depende de las condiciones de la coyuntura de los hechos y de las posibilidades de producir en cada situación concreta. Pero tampoco hay condiciones por parte de las EC de producir en serie, esto requiere un mayor número de personas mas técnicamente entrenadas.Predomina la capacidad de comprender de las audiencias, por ello se produce para una audiencia masiva, compuesta por mucha gente sin rostro, pero predefinida en sus sensibilidades. Las EC no apuntas a audiencias masivas, sino a grupos de intereses que conforman la sociedad, algunas veces de manera predeterminada, otras, se van ajustando y recomponiendo en el camino.

34 Ver Informes de Periodistas sin Fronteras para Colombia años 2001 a 2004. En 2003 Colombia era el País con mayor número de periodistas asesinados (67), amenazados y desplazados del mundo.35 RINCON, Omar: “la Industria cultural” Conferencia en Cátedra UNESCO 2005, octubre 19, 2005

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Existe un interés claro de que lo que se produce es un negocio. Esta condición tampoco se da. Los productos de las EC no pretenden ser negocios ni producir dinero. Esto no significa lo contrario, es decir que tengan ánimo de pérdida, lo que hace que este aspecto se coloque en un “limbo”. Esto significa que se producen programas que deben llegar a la gente y producir un efecto, pero no necesariamente que haya que venderlos como lógica predominantemente capitalista y de lucro. Sin embargo, en ambos casos se busca que los oyentes escuchen los programas y gusten de ellos y se conformen en audiencias permanentes. La diferencia es el ánimo estrictamente económico que lo subyace.El contenido de entretenimiento predomina en la industria cultural, incluyendo su función informativa. Este contenido no es el predominante en las EC, aunque no lo excluye. Pero, se entretiene como una disculpa, para llegar a algo mas de fondo, que es consolidar imaginarios proclives a la conformación de un tejido social ciudadano y democrático.Existe un mercado. Aquí es la gran diferencia, como no funciona con lógica capitalista, las EC no manejan el concepto de mercados en este sentido, sino de fuentes de financiación por un lado de la cadena, y audiencias por el otro. Este es el aspecto que los tropieza cuando entran en competencia con los medios que si son parte de la industria cultural y funcionan con esta lógica.

Son “culturales” en tanto:

Trabajan con un “intangible que son los bienes simbólicos, con valor etéreo, pero fundamentales porque permiten construir felicidad”36 En las EC, la primera parte de la formulación se cumple, la segunda no es la única razón, pues si desde el punto de vista filosófico, se busca la felicidad, esta no se deriva de manera directa de escuchar la Radio, sino de las transformaciones sociales que pudieran ocurrir si la radio tuviera efecto sobre sus audiencias, en el sentido que esta lo indica (educación ciudadana, convivencia, respeto, desarrollo, etc.).Trabajan sobre “representaciones sociales que juegan modos de hacerse visibles en la sociedad”. Este es tal vez el aspecto mas relevante en el cual coincide y se ajustan las EC con las comerciales, porque es precisamente el hacer visible a sectores determinados y valores lo que la caracteriza.“En si misma las industria cultural es un lugar de expresión estética”. Son culturales en cuanto en si mismas son formas de expresión del ser humano. Y esto lo comparten con las emisoras comerciales, pero en direcciones diferentes.

Para terminar su disertación Omar Rincón establece que los medios audiovisuales son industria porque37:

(i) Tienen un mercado: Un sistema de producción suficiente y un sistema de distribución. (ii) Festivales donde se presentan los productos (iii) Teorías que los explican y expertos que construyen un su campo del saber(iv) Dispositivos de expresión específicos: radio, cine, televisión, DVD, etc.

Si miráramos desde allí a los medios ciudadanos podríamos afirmar que en ellos todo esto son incipientes, pero que el primer punto (tener mercado) no es una meta, ni un propósito fundamental, aunque se desarrolla como una infraestructura que ayuda a la circulación y que interesa porque se construye desde allí el “lugar otro” que se mencionaba al comienzo.

Pero a la vez, las EC son afectadas y víctimas de los modelos desarrollados por la industria cultural. Por ejemplo, los informativos y programas de opinión pública impuestos y legitimados por los medios comerciales de la industria cultural se caracterizan por la creación de estereotipos y pautas de lo que es “una noticia”, donde priman las chivas y el amarillismo e ignoran el uso obligado de varias fuentes. Esto es propio de la producción en serie que se orienta principalmente por las demandas de los consumidores.

Estos parámetros ya establecidos no permiten ni facilitan las operaciones elementales de un periodismo local, cuales son: (i) la construcción de agendas que correspondan a las necesidades y prioridades de edificar región y contribuir con una cultura de la participación y la democracia; (ii) Construir lo público y la ciudadanía desde la información y la creación de opinión propia, (iii) dar visibilidad y voz a los hechos y personajes que tienen verdadera relevancia en las localidades (y a

36 Rincón, O. : IBIDEM37 IDIDEM

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cualquier ciudadano que lo requiera); e (iv) interpelen y tomen cuentas a sus gobernantes sobre sus actuaciones políticas al mando del Estado, porque los medios ciudadanos tienen un mandato de control que, éticamente, no pueden dejar de lado.(v) Den prioridad a los hechos constructivos, positivos y creativos de su localidad y no solamente a los hechos de violencia, conflicto y dolor.

Además de imponer un estilo de “noticia” como el mencionado, también las emisoras comerciales han impuesto modelos de los que es “Programa de opinión” y han ignorado otros géneros periodísticos como lo son la crónica y el reportaje radiales. En el caso de los primeros, las EC tendrían un inmenso campo que recuperar, pues es propio de la radio crear informar, crear opinión pública, formar una cultura ciudadana y democrática, consolidar imaginarios de paz y convivencia y hacerlo a partir de las fuerzas vivas que existen en el municipio. Ofrecer los micrófonos de manera equitativa y democrática a una variedad de opiniones, locales y regionales con respeto a reglas de juego establecidas y acordadas previamente, es una necesidad básica. No se promueven formatos que permitan la presentación e intercambio de diferentes posiciones como mesas redondas, paneles, debates políticos sobre temas específicos donde hablen las autoridades, los opositores, la ciudadanía, todo frente a la comunidad. La gran pregunta aquí es si esto podría o no encajarse en la estructura de la industria cultural.

Si embargo, no toda la comunicación de una sociedad podría estar dirigida a aspectos de formación ciudadana y práctica democrática. Las demás necesidades y demandas de entretenimiento de a sociedad llevaría en cualquier esquema a ocuparse de ella.

En el campo de la información y la creación de opinión pública las EC tienen mucho espacio porque pueden comportarse como convocantes, mediadores, moderadores, provocadores para estimular la libre, pero respetuosa, expresión de la opinión. El punto aquí es que deben comenzar desde el principio a generar estas dinámicas, olvidadas por las comerciales. En esa medida, entonces, podrían verse como instancias complementarias y no superpuestas o rivales.Lo que podría concluirse de esta aproximación es que “por naturaleza” las emisoras y medios ciudadanos habitan y se desarrollan en ámbitos distintos a los de la industria cultural, pero que comparten con ella una serie de elementos. Satisfacen necesidades concretas en contextos igualmente establecidos. Muchos de ellos que no se tocan con las ofertas de la industria cultural, pero que tampoco se oponen o excluyen, simplemente son diferentes.

La industria cultural está dirigida a entretener, a reproducir ciertos valores sociales y a transformar otros. En alguna medida es funcional al modelo capitalista. La información institucional o pública es la base del funcionamiento del estado social de derecho que necesitamos consolidar y/o empresarial que requiere crear una cultura de la estabilidad y del consumo. Los medios ciudadanos previenen de la sociedad de base organizada localmente y desde abajo consolida el tejido que la hace visible y presionante frente a los otros dos.

¿Cuál es prioritaria? ¿Cuál podría desaparecer sin consecuencias? Ninguna, en una sociedad como la colombiana. Estas y las otras formas aludidas al inicio deben ser propuestas todas, en procesos de fortalecimiento. Lo que hay que garantizar es que para las tres haya las mismas oportunidades. Y, este es un aspecto que también interpela a la academia.

7. Proyectos especiales

El primer caso son las Radios Ciudadanas. Por la importancia y los resultados de este proyecto, una mirada a las radios comunitarias en Colombia debe obligatoriamente mencionarlo. Nació de la preocupación del Ministerio de Cultura de fortalecer la capacidad de informar apropiada y responsablemente que deben tener las EC, en función de una formación de ciudadanía útil a la participación responsable. Busca fortalecer a la institucionalidad a través del fortalecimiento de la sociedad a partir de la acción comunicativa.

Según una de sus creadoras, se propusieron: “…crear las bases… para hacer posible abordar en los medios locales la diversidad de temas y la presencia de sectores con pluralidad de visiones, demandas y necesidades que les son propias. Se busca… participación y reflexión en el dialogo público, se contribuya desde la comunicación al fortalecimiento de la democracia y la participación plural ciudadana. Con este propósito planteamos la creación y consolidación de: Franjas de Opinión y Análisis, en el mayor número posible de Radios Comunitarias y de Interés Público del

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país. Mediante esta propuesta se quiere incidir de manera efectiva en la construcción de agendas alternativas en el ámbito local y desde allí generar visibilidad y auto-reconocimiento de distintos sectores y eventualmente incidir en las perspectivas, visiones y espacios de decisión regional y del país”. (ElGazi, 2006)

Los dos primeros años este proyecto funcionó como piloto, en algunas emisoras comunitarias del país donde se encontraron grupos mas fuertes y experimentados de periodistas de base y comunicadores. Se quiso experimentar con ellos la producción de materiales informativos de diversa índole, desde noticieros hasta crónicas y radio revistas o clips dramatizados. Cada emisora producía una serie y destinaba una franja de emisión y a la vez se alimentaba con las emisoras vecinas, dentro de la red. Además había una producción centralizada que se enviaba a todo el país. Los mejores programas se rotaban y de esta manera todos podían compartir lo de todos.

En cada región se encargó a una persona para responsabilizarse de la Franja, quien trabajó con un equipo. En la mayoría de los casos estos responsables fueron jóvenes muy dinámicos, quienes recibieron una capacitación para ello y lograron producir muy buenas piezas. El proyecto fue tan exitoso y dio tan buenos resultados, después de una evaluación inicial, que ahora se ha extendido a todas las EC del país y en estos momentos está iniciando como proyecto ya consolidado. Uno de los aportes de este proyecto es el diseño de un módulo de seguimiento y evaluación que permitirá monitorearlo durante su desarrollo y hacer ajustes.

Ha habido una gran acogida a esta experiencia y se han hecho oír las voces de toso los lugares que participaron en el piloto.

El segundo caso se refiere a EC que han sido concedidas a minorías. Entre ellas sobresale el caso de las radios indígenas, que son las que han logrado conquistar esos espacios por su especificidad étnica. En todas las zonas indígenas hay RC en manos de estas comunidades, las cuales han sido manejadas de manera ejemplar en tanto son medios que dan voz y visibilidad a un pueblo. Han gozado de las mismas ventajas de las demás en cuanto a capacitación, asesoría técnica y dotación. La red SIPAZ, por ejemplo ha diseñado un diplomado en producción radial destinado solo a pueblos indígenas.

Un ejemplo de ello es Radio Payumat, “…una emisora indígena que busca fortalecer al pueblo Nasa, dando a conocer su cultura y la de otros que también se encuentran en un sector excluido. Su lema es la voz del pueblo. Tiene un cubrimiento de 300 kilómetros y una potencia de 101 Mhz. Buscan específicamente apoyar el camino de los Cabildos e instituciones, siendo un puente entre ellos para la realización de proyectos locales y zonales. También exigen el cumplimiento de los derechos indígenas, irrespetados frecuentemente.” (Colombia aprende: http://www.colombiaaprende.edu.co/html/home/1592/article-75545.html) El pueblo NASA también fue ganador del Premiso Nacional de Paz-2004 por su gestión social y medio ambiental y de allí la relevancia de su emisora. En territorio NASA hay varias emisoras que funcionan en cadena y emiten en su propia lengua, el Paéz.

ElGazi y Rodríguez (2006) hacen un estudio mostrando las características de la programación y la producción de las radios indígenas en Colombia para subrayar la importancia de la manera como ella generan una narrativa radial propia, acorde con su cultura, su tradición de oralidad, a la cual llaman “La poética de la radio indígena”.

En este momento la Universidad del Cauca se encuentra terminando un estudio evaluativo sobre las redes de EC indígenas de esa zona, aplicando una metodología como la mencionada y estamos todos a la espera de sus resultados y conclusiones.

8. Redes

La mejor estrategia de sobre vivencia de las EC ha sido la creación y fortalecimiento de las Redes. En este momento existe 23 de ella a nivel regional, algunas de las cuales comparten miembros en tanto están en la misma región:

REDES REGIONALES DE RADIO COMUNITARIA EN COLOMBIA

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RED REGION RESPONSABLE1 AREDMAG Magdalena Medio Orley Durán2 ASENRED Oriente

AntioqueñoJuan Diego Agudelo

3 ASOMECO Departamento del Huila

José Elías González

4 CANTOYACO Departamento de Nariño

Miguel Córdoba

5 ECOSURA Departamento de Antioquia

Juan Guillermo Cano

6 FEDECOTER Caldas y Eje Cafetero

Diego Fernando Cano

7 RADARCNS Departo de Norte de Santander

Marta Isabel Martínez

8 RECCO Departamento de Cundinamarca

Darío Alfredo Sabogal

9 RED ARAUCO Departamento de Arauca

Juan Carlos Cuadros

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RED CARIBE Costa Caribe Roman Abad Gutiérrez

11 RED CHOCO Departamento del Chocó

Padre Cesar Smith

12

RED DE LOS MONTES DE MARIA

Montes de María Soraya Bayuelo

13

RED GUACAMAYAS

Departamento del Caquetá

Rosa Leonor Fonseca

14

RED GUAVIARE

Departamento del Guaviare

Carlos Espinel

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RED PACIFICO

Costa Pacífica Luz América Arboleda

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RED PIJAO Departamento del Tolima

Miguel Marín

17

RED SINDAMANOY

Departamento del Putumayo

Jaime Conrado

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RED RADIAL CAFETERA

Departamento del Quindío

Argemiro Cárdenas

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RED TEQUENDAMA –

Sur occidente de Cundinamarca

Giovanni Roa

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REDBOY Departamento de Boyacá

Marlon Prieto

21

REDECOM Departo del Valle del Cauca

Alfredo Marín

22

RESANDER Departamento de Santander

Fernando Tibaduiza Araque

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VOCES Y SONIDOS

Departamento del Cauca

Ángel Ledesma

También están: SIPAZ el Sistema de Comunicación para la Paz que agrupa a todas las redes regionales a nivel nacional y AMARC Colombia que incluye las redes regionales en una red mundial. ALER la Red de Escuelas Radiofónicas de América Latina, una entidad inspirada en la Iglesia católica también tiene en Colombia cerca de 100 emisoras afiliadas. Esto muestra el papel

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importante que juega la iglesia en el respaldo, protección y orientación de un número significativo de EC.

Las redes juegan un papel muy importante en el tejido social y en la constitución de las emisoras como un movimiento social, que mencionábamos al comienzo de este texto. Lo hacen a través de las siguientes funciones: a) representación de sus miembros frente a las conversaciones y negociaciones con el estado y en los procesos de presión y reclamo por sus derechos, transformaciones de la ley, etc.; b) intermediarios para procesos de capacitación y asesoría técnica, fortalecimiento de sus emisoras y de los lazos de estas a nivel regional, c) orientadores y guías en proceso de adjudicación y renovación de licencias de funcionamiento, d) difusión e intercambio de información, e) generación de espacios de encuentro para el debate el intercambio de experiencias, la búsqueda conjunta de caminos y soluciones a problemas compartidos.

Las características de las redes son muy diferentes de unas a otras regiones, así como su nivel de cohesión y de democracia interna. El proceso de consolidación ha sido relativamente rápido en el tiempo, sin embargo ha sido arduo porque en Colombia no existe tradición de organización comunitaria perdurable. Generalmente las gente y las organizaciones se unen para propósito comunes de tipo coyuntural (interponer una Acción de Tutela, por ejemplo), pero se deshacen las organizaciones una vez se han alcanzado estos objetivos de corto plazo, cuesta mantenerse en el mediano y largo plazo.

Un ejemplo de esto fue la desaparición de RECORRA la red nacional de EC que representaba estas redes regionales, la cual existió durante un tiempo, fue muy activa, hizo varios encuentros nacionales de EC, pero desapareció por extinción de sus actividades y falta de liderazgo fuerte y representativo. De alguna manera SIPAZ y AMARC entraron a reemplazar estas funciones de RECORRA y a consolidar un trabajo a nivel nacional.

La Red de Emisoras del Magdalena Medio es una de las más antiguas y sostenibles, su papel de líder en la creación de otras redes ha sido importante, al igual que el de su vecina RESANDER. Junto con la red de Norte de Santander han logrado crear un frente de trabajo muy interesante en la zona oriental del país, intercambiando y asociándose en proyectos comunes. Hoy estas tres redes sobresalen por sus logros, que se ven en el número de nuevas emisoras adjudicadas y de nuevas licencias renovadas en sus regiones, de cursos de capacitación, equipos estables de producción, colectivos de trabajo, nuevas series y formatos radiales, etc.

ASENRED, la red del Oriente Antioqueño, cuyos miembros están en su mayoría amparados por parroquias de la iglesia católica, han jugado un papel central en el manejo del conflicto y la búsqueda de la paz esta región, que es una de las de mayor violencia del país. Ha sido una política de esta red proponerse acompañar con programas diarios a las personas que están secuestradas en la región, que sobresale por este flagelo. En un taller en 2005, un participante dio el testimonio de un hombre secuestrado que liberó la guerrilla en una carretera y lo primero que hizo fue ir a su emisora a abrazar a los locutores y con lágrimas en los ojos les dio que los cuatro años de cautiverio habían sido soportables porque todos los días escuchaba desde muy temprano la emisora de su pueblo y en ella muchas veces las voces de sus familiares, entre otros, dándole alientos. Un testimonio, muy impresionante por su fortaleza e importancia.

Si embargo esta posibilidad de tener la claridad para definir políticas de una u otra manera es proporcional a la madurez de cada red y por supuesto de sus miembros. Estos son algunos casos entre otros.

9. Seguimiento y evaluación

Este es uno de los aspectos más frágiles de las EC en Colombia. Actualmente se cuenta con nuestro estudio, varias veces mencionado anteriormente, el cual hace un aporte a otros contextos y como también se mencionó se ha aplicado con diseño equivalentes en cinco regiones del país: Magdalena Medio, Montes de María, Provincia de Sogamoso y pueblos indígenas del Cauca.

Esta propuesta metodológica busca hacer diseños novedosos que atiendan principalmente a las necesidades internas de las EC a mirar su propio proceso e ir ajustando. Se ha esforzado en responder a las particularidades de la emisión radiofónica comunitaria mucha de la cual se ha

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mencionado anteriormente. Tiene tres condiciones de partida: se participativa entre productores de las EC y académicos, en este arreglo los radialistas ponen los objetivos de la evaluación, el horizonte, la direccionalidad y las preguntas y los académicos elaboran y trabajan con ellos la metodología, los instrumentos y los aspectos de rigor y sistematicidad. Busca desarrollar aproximaciones y metodologías cualitativas para complementar las experiencias que ya se tienen en diseños cuantitativos. Y sobre todo, adquirir la capacidad para mirar los procesos de cambio y transformación de que son capaces las EC. Para ello hay que tener una mirada capaz de ver la densidad de la cultura y la actividad social, en su detalle. Por último, alimentar con los resultados, los procesos internos de la EC para madurarlas y fortalecerlas.

Esta metodología busca investigador todos los grupos que participan en la radio comunitaria, comenzando por quienes son responsables de administrarlas y producir, los radialistas; luego las organizaciones y entidades que a nivel local las apoyan y patrocinan, las del nivel regional y nacional y terminar en las audiencias.

Para cada ámbito se diseña un tipo especial de abordaje y de instrumentos, desde metodologías sociológicas como estudios de audiencias con base en encuestas y formularios, hasta aproximaciones etnográficas como son las metodologías de la recuperación de la memora, que dan espesor a las descripciones.

Esta propuesta también ha inspirado al proyecto de Radios Ciudadanas, el cual es el otro gran proyecto nacional que ha abordado de manera significativa el tema del seguimiento y la evaluación y actualmente se encuentra en periodo de prueba.

Con excepción de lo anterior, los proceso de evaluación llevados hasta el omento en el ámbito de las EC se reducen a dos aspectos: 1) La aplicación de los indicadores de resultados y de impacto provenientes de una planificación hecha con base en el Marco Lógico, que es lo que imponen las organizaciones y agencias nacionales e internacionales que las apoyan, como por ejemplo los Laboratorios de Paz. Esos indicadores de tipo cuantitativo que han sido hechos para proyectos económicos, o a lo mejor educativos o se salud, nunca logran mostrar ni levemente el papel que juega la comunicación ni las EC en pro del desarrollo y la paz, pues no pueden “agarrar” los hechos y las instancias que surgen de la acción radiofónica. Por eso siempre quedan evaluadas por debajo de las expectativas y por lado, nunca pueden mostrar lo que verdaderamente hacen. 2) La elaboración de algunos estudios de audiencia no rigurosos ni sistemáticos, pero que son interesantes en cuanto ponen a las emisoras en contacto con sus comunidades y con la mente abierta a acercarse y a conocerlas mejor. Estos estudios siempre son muy parciales, tienen defectos en todos los niveles, pero por el otro lado obligan a ejercicios que tienen otras rentabilidades.

Si embargo las EC de manera permanente siempre están reuniendo una cantidad de información que podría ser muy útil para construir otras formas de evaluación, entre estas formas están; las llamadas telefónicas a la emisora para pedir servicios o enviar mensajes o complacencias musicales, las cartas que llegan en abundancia, la acción y producción de colectivos y grupos de producción, los eventos especiales como radiotones, los montos de dinero en solidaridad que alcanzan. Esto serían otros indicadores para mirar su impacto, pero que no han sido todavía integrados a una metodología con reconocimiento y validez científica.

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Gómez, Gabriel (2002): Diagnóstico del servicio comunitario de radiodifusión sonora en Colombia, Bogotá, Dirección general de Comunicación Social del Ministerio de comunicacionesGonzález, Alirio (2006) Una emisora local para el desarrollo de belén de los Andaquíes, en Boletín Red de gestores sociales No. 26, agosto, Bogotá

González, Alirio, Hoyos Nelson, Carvallo, Orlando (2005): Encuentro, memoria y olvido, línea de vida Radio Andaquí, Belén de los Andaquíes, radio Andaqui

Gumucio-Dagron, Alfonso (2006): Voces del Magdalena, comunicación para la paz, Video documental, 35 min. Universidad Javeriana – Consorcio de Comunicación para el Cambio Social. http://gumucio.blogspot.com/2006/08/voces-del-magdalena.html / http://www.communicationforsocialchange.org/publications-resources.php?id=321

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Gumucio-Dagron, Alfonso (2001): Radio Sutatenza, en “Haciendo Olas, historias de comunicación para el cambio social”, Nueva York, The Rockefeller Foundation.La iniciativa de la comunicación: Asociación Red de Emisoras Comunitarias del Magdalena Medio, AREDMAG – Colombia

Havel, Vaclav (2002): Adiós a la Política Discurso pronunciado en Nueva York el 19 de septiembre por el presidente de la República Checa

Herrera, Silvia (2004): La radio comunitaria: estudio de caso La Calera Estéreo. Tesis para optar el título de Ciencia Política, Facultad de Comunicación y Lenguaje, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá

Ministerio de Comunicaciones (2004) Contratación del plan de formación para nuevas emisoras comunitarias, Bogotá

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Ministerio de Cultura (2004) Notas para que suenen las radios ciudadanas. Bogotá

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Montoya, Alma (2004): La radio y los desplazados en Colombia, ponencia en el seminario de Migrantes de WACC. http://www.wacc-al.net/wacc-SeminarioMigrantes/panel/montoya.htm

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Planeta Informa (2007): Radios comunitarias para las ciudades capitales, febrero 9http://www.planetapaz.org/planetainforma/boletin.shtml?x=457&cmd%5B12%5D=c-1-'151^

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http://www.cinep.org.co/pdf/sinopsisprogramas_radiosciudadanas.pdf



Annex 3

MALI

LA RADIO COMMUNAUTAIRE AU MALIBonnes pratiques et impact

Martin FAYE

Mai 07

Annex 3

SOMMAIRE

LE PAYSAGE MEDIATIQUE AU MALI 3

Situation de la radio communautaire au Mali 3Un foisonnement de la presse écrite 3Un secteur audiovisuel très pauvre 4Une corporation divisée par de multiples associations 5Des medias d’Etat contrôlés par l’exécutif 5Des medias privés économiquement malades 5

LES RADIOS COMMUNAUTAIRES DANS LE PAYSAGE MALIEN 6

Ce qu’est la radio communautaire 7Le cadre juridique malien 8Des radios de développement 10Organisation et fonctionnement 10Ressources financières 10Equipements 10Grilles de programmes et émissions 11Impact potentiel 12Ressources humaines 13Conditions de travail 14Les partenaires 14Les structures d’encadrement 15Fiche d’évaluation 16

REPONSES AUX QUESTIONS POSEES PAR LES TDR 17

VISITE DES RADIOS COMMUNAITAIRES DU MALI 25

Radio Daande Duwansa 25Radio Jamana de mopti 27Radio Parana de San 32Radio Bamakan 34Radio Diala Keneyeleen 36Radio Meguetan 38Radio Dionakan 40Radio Bélékan 41

ANNEXES 43

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LE PAYSAGE MEDIATIQUE AU MALI

La situation de la communication au Mali

Depuis la fin du régime de parti unique et l’avènement de la démocratie pluraliste au Mali, le paysage médiatique a connu de profondes transformations. Plusieurs expériences d’introduction de technologie des télécommunications ont été menées au Mali. Cela va de la téléphonie rurale à Internet en passant par la radiodiffusion sonore et télévisuelle. De toutes ces expériences, celle qui a eu le plus d’impact tant sur le plan social que celui de l’économie, est l’implantation de radios communautaires. Ce succès s’explique par le fait que c’est un média qui est accessible à tous que l’on soit analphabète ou lettré, car il s’adresse à chacun dans sa langue. La modicité des coûts liés à sa fonctionnalité et son encrage dans la réalité culturelle, en fait un moyen de communication adapté aux besoins et aux réalités locales. Dans une zone où le taux d’analphabétisme est très élevé - environ 80% des personnes ne savent ni lire ni écrire-, l’oralité assure encore le mode de communication le plus efficace.

L’architecture législative et réglementaire du Mali comprend plus d’une vingtaine de textes qui concourent à la mise en oeuvre de l’article 7 de la Constitution qui reconnaît et garantie la liberté de la presse.

Foisonnement d’une presse écrite urbaine et élitiste

L’ouverture démocratique s’est traduite par l’explosion d’une presse indépendante (jusqu’à 180 titres). La presse malienne est caractérisée par son non-professionnalisme. La chaîne de production est désorganisée. La presse n’a pas su se désenclaver (faute de distribution), elle est restée urbaine et élitiste38. Après l’explosion, on peut parler aujourd’hui d’effondrement de la presse écrite. Le lectorat s’est lassé du contenu trop politique des journaux. Une partie de la presse doit aujourd’hui se reconstruire un projet éditorial viable.

Par ailleurs, une enquête réalisée par la mission française de coopération auprès de sept journaux (dont deux fortement subventionnés) représentant les 2/3 des tirages des titres « réguliers », a montré que seuls deux titres (un quotidien et un hebdo) étaient en situation d’équilibre financier. Les points forts : un faible taux d’invendus et des coûts de fabrication limités, grâce notamment à un nombre de pages réduit.

La presse malienne est aux prises avec une double difficulté :- une augmentation des coûts de fabrication (45 % entre 1993 et 1995) essentiellement due à

la hausse du prix du papier (doublement), qui a entraîné une augmentation du prix de vente et une diminution de la pagination. Les coûts de fabrication représentent aujourd’hui environ 60 % des coûts de production. A lui seul, le coût du papier représente entre 40 à 50 % des coûts de fabrication

- un effondrement des ventes et des tirages en chute libre. Il n’est pas rare queles invendus atteignent 50 %. Les imprimeries de Bamako qui voient leur chiffre d’affaires baisser et rencontrent d’importants problèmes de recouvrement des créances, sont découragées. La seule stratégie à avoir paraît être la conquête d’un nouveau lectorat avec comme premier objectif, le marché intérieur. Mais elle se heurte à la faiblesse des réseaux de distribution. Chacun espère la mise en place d’une messagerie.

Le dernier rapport39 du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication du Mali indique que la presse malienne évolue dans un environnement sociopolitique où le mépris, la tolérance et l’indifférence se fondent en garantie de la liberté de la presse et, donnent à la presse malienne un pouvoir qui n’est pas le sien. «Le mépris et l’indifférence sont devenus les armes utilisées par les maliens abusés par une certaine presse qui

38 Enquête du GRET (Groupe de recherche et d’échanges technologiques) intitulée « viabilité économique de la presse en Afrique », septembre 200539 Rapport CSC 2003 – 2005, 59 pages

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ne distingue pas l’information de ses propres opinions et qui pense qu’il lui appartient de « régler » des comptes», a-t-il souligné.

Le document indique aussi que l’espoir né de la liberté de la presse depuis l’avènement de la démocratie s’est estompé très tôt. «Certains politiques ont mesuré et bien évalué le pouvoir de la presse, surtout dans une démocratie naissante. Ils ont créé et/ou soutenu des médias d’opinion sous le statut« privé et d’informations générales» qu’ils utilisent ou pour le marketing ou pour régler des comptes. Les pouvoirs publics s’appuient sur la puissance publique pour mettre la presse sous coupe réglée», dénonce-t-il.

Selon le rapport, la précarité économique et financière dans laquelle vit la presse malienne favorise toutes les formes de pression et de corruption du pouvoir économique et celui politique. Il précise que le citoyen malien est la seule victime du non respect des principes professionnels élémentaires de vérification et de recoupements des informations par les organes de presse. Cependant le rapport reconnaît que malgré ses lacunes, la presse écrite privée joue son rôle de 4ème pouvoir en dénonçant les abus, les violations des libertés et les tentatives de corruption tant politique qu’économique. Toutes choses qui tend à faire éviter certaines dérives des pouvoirs publics.

Un secteur audiovisuel privé très pauvre

Contrairement au secteur de la radiodiffusion privée, le secteur de la télévision privée malienne est un des plus pauvres de la sous région ouest-africaine. Cet espace n’étant occupé que par trois (3) opérateurs maliens. A savoir Malivision, Multicanal et Africable ainsi qu’un opérateur satellite Multi TV Afrique à travers Multicanal Satellite Horizons.

Le rapport soutient que le vide juridique quant à «la captation des émissions produites hors du territoire malien et leur mise à disposition du public par câbles, fibres optiques, faisceaux hertziens, satellite», ne saurait excuser le silence coupable des pouvoirs et des professionnels car, d’autres textes réglementant la Communication Audiovisuelle au Mali sont opposables à Multi TV Afrique et Multicanal.

Une corporation divisée par la création de multiples associations

La mission a recensé pas moins de 22 structures organisationnelles dans le secteur des medias ; Dans une même spécialisation, on peut retrouver deux structures concurrentes. C’est le cas pour les journalistes sportifs, les femmes communicatrices et les radios communautaires. Il semble évident que certaines structures ont été créées à des fins de positionnement. Ces réseaux de communicateurs sont généralement des prestataires de services plus que des groupes d’information. Ils se sont généralement unis sous la base d’une thématique « lucrative » et non pas nécessairement une expertise. Plusieurs fonctionnent par leur secrétaire général et n’ont pas nécessairement de capacité de mobilisation.

Des médias d’Etat contrôlés par l’Exécutif

Les médias publics maliens40 que d’autres continuent d’appeler médias d’Etat semblent plus proches de l’exécutif que du citoyen. Il parait évident que leurs liens

40 Il s’agit notamment des chaînes de l’ORTM (Office de radio télévision du Mali) au niveau national et régional ainsi qu du quotidien gouvernemental L’Essor

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avec l’Etat entravent leur liberté et leur indépendance éditoriales. Les directeurs sont toujours nommés par l’exécutif. Il faut reconnaître que le quotidien gouvernemental L’Essor, face à la concurrence des journaux privés, tire son épingle du jeu par la qualité de sa mise en page, son format et son professionnalisme.

Des médias privés économiquement malades

Les défis auxquels sont confrontés les médias privés sont nombreux mais, leur défi majeur est économique. Ces difficultés économiques ont pour noms, le manque de ressources financières, matérielles, logistiques et humaines ainsi que de professionnalisme lié au manque de formation, et le retard technologique. La plupart des interlocuteurs maliens rencontrés pour les besoins de cette étude sont d’avis que les contraintes économiques expliquent en grande partie les dérives et les violations de l’éthique et de la déontologie.

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LES RADIOS COMMUNAUTAIRES DANS LE PAYSAGE MALIEN

Le Mali a l’un des réseaux de radios communautaires les plus puissants d’Afrique. Après la chute du dernier régime à parti unique en 1991 et la fin d’un monopole d’Etat absolu sur les moyens de communications, les médias d’information ont prospéré. Aujourd’hui, le Mali compte près de 168 stations de radio41 privées dont 121 sont des radios communautaires ou associatives, installées dans les campagnes pour la plupart.

Le paysage médiatique malien a été, au cours des dix dernières années, le laboratoire privilégié du pluralisme radiophonique et des avancées les plus audacieuses en matière de libertés de presse. Ce riche paysage audiovisuel est néanmoins atypique puisque la mise en ondes des radios a précédé les textes législatifs et réglementaires. En effet, la première radio indépendante de la chaîne publique - la Radio Rurale de Kayes - a été créée le 1er août 1988 sur dérogation présidentielle et les premières radios libres d'après révolution de mars 1991 sont opérationnelles depuis fin 1991, alors que l'Ordonnance de libéralisation de l'espace audiovisuel date seulement de janvier 1992. Cette libéralisation a permis, en moins de dix ans, l'installation de plus de cent stations de radios locales privées de proximité.

L'enjeu de la démocratie à la base, la décentralisation ouvre de nouvelles perspectives. Le paysage radiophonique évolue vers un nouvel accroissement significatif du nombre de radios locales de proximité. L'implantation massive des stations de proximité et l'utilisation abondante des langues nationales sur les antennes dans une culture de l'oralité comme celle du Mali donnent à la radio un rôle de tout premier plan en terme de mobilisation sociale, et engendrent une impressionnante adhésion des populations rurales en très grande majorité analphabètes.

Au Mali, les radios communautaires rurales peuvent s'appeler ainsi seulement quand les populations les reconnaissent comme telles et investissent des fonds locaux pour assurer la mise en oeuvre de la radio et des infrastructures nécessaires à son bon fonctionnement. Le partenaire technique fournit les équipements tandis que l'Etat prend en charge les besoins de formation. Ce sont tous ces éléments qui en font une radio rurale. L'Assemblée représente tout le village. Sont élus par la communauté un Comité de gestion et un Comité de programmes. Enfin, un directeur est désigné. Tous ces éléments en font une radio locale dans un environnement rural.

Les radios rurales prennent une part de plus en plus importante du faible marché publicitaire malien et posent de sérieux problèmes de survie aux stations commerciales implantées en milieu rural.

A l’exception de 4 stations financées par la Francophonie, et de 4 autres financées par la FAO, toutes les autres ont été entièrement financées par les communautés elles-mêmes et généralement sur les fonds de la Taxe de Développement Local et/ou avec l'appui de certaines ONG.

Les campagnes d'éducation, d'informations sanitaires et agricoles des ONG, des projets de développement, des institutions et autres associations passent prioritairement par les radios de proximité où le don des animateurs et animatrices joue un rôle prépondérant surtout, dans la mobilisation sociale. La majorité des demandes d'installation de nouvelles stations provient des zones rurales pour lesquelles la radio constitue un véritable instrument de désenclavement dans la vaste entité territoriale malienne. Malgré le très fort développement des radios rurales au Mali ces dernières années, il y a encore beaucoup de travail à faire, étant donné la taille du pays.

Il existe aussi des limites et ses carences. Mentionnons notamment le manque évident de

41 Recensement effectué par l’URTEL (Union des radios et télévisions libres du Mali) en mars 2006. Voir annexes

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professionnalisme des animateurs recrutés sur le tas car, jusqu'à la fin des années 1990, le Mali ne disposait ni d'université ni d'institut de formation en communication. Ces animateurs de radio rurale, de niveau d'instruction générale faible dans l'ensemble, n'en sont pas moins de remarquables communicateurs qui deviennent de véritables vedettes parce qu'ils incarnent et reflètent bien les préoccupations de leur milieu social. La vétusté et l’obsolescence de l'équipement technique constituent un second obstacle pour bon nombre de ces radios qui n'ont pas les moyens financiers de remplacer des appareils, voire même une réelle menace à leur existence.

En outre, de graves problèmes de rentabilité apparaissent dans la gestion des radios qui touchent leur pérennité. La concentration du marché des annonceurs, le manque de professionnalisme des animateurs de radios et la médiocrité de certaines émissions produites sont les principales causes de la précarité économique dans laquelle vivent la plupart des radios rurales maliennes.

Grâce à l'aide de nos partenaires, de nombreuses radios locales situées dans la région de Tombouctou ou au Sud du Mali sont maintenant reliées à l'Internet.

Au Mali la communication en langue nationale est imparable. La vocation de la radio communautaire est de restée coller aux réalités du pays réel. C’est pour cela que le rôle de la radio au village ou dans le quartier s’avère primordial pour l’amorce d’un développement local. Par sa proximité et son instantanéité le médium est un vecteur efficace de mobilisation sociale. Dans le milieu des medias on soutient volontiers que l'Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision du Mali (ORTM) est la Voix du Mali et les radios de proximité la Voix des Maliens

Ce qu’est la radio communautaire

Dans le cadre de la présente mission, il convient de circonscrire ce qu’on entend par Radios Communautaires :

- La Radio Communautaire est un moyen de communication faisant appel aux membres des communautés tels que créateurs, réalisateurs et artisans, et constitue le moyen d’expression de la communauté. Elle fait des langues locales, ses principales langues d’émission.

- Elle est un service à but non lucratif contrôlé par une communauté précise qui en est le propriétaire.

- Elle revêt la forme d’une station de radio sous le contrôle d’une communauté qui en est le

propriétaire, laquelle communauté est définie en vertu de critères géographiques et/ou d’intérêts communs.

- La radio communautaire est contrôlée et gérée démocratiquement par la communauté. Elle est dotée d’un mécanisme lui permettant de rendre des comptes à ceux qu’elle est censée servir.

- La radio communautaire est apolitique, mais elle s’investit dans la diffusion de messages d’éducation citoyenne.

- La radio communautaire est enregistrée comme un organisme à but non lucratif. Elle n’est pas gérée comme un instrument de profit ni un projet destiné à réaliser des bénéfices, mais plutôt en tant que moyen de communication pour la communauté, dont la principale force est de servir la communauté en question.

- Cependant cela ne signifie nullement que la station ne peut pas générer de revenus par le biais de revenus publicitaires par exemple. Il est même souhaitable que la station de radio produise un revenu supérieur à ses frais généraux de base. L’excèdent ainsi généré doit être dépensé ou investi en faveur du développement de la station.

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- La radio communautaire n’a ni propriétaires individuels, ni actionnaires. La communauté est collectivement propriétaire de la radio et décide par conséquent collectivement (lors de sa réunion générale ou par le biais de ses représentants) comment utiliser les ressources excédentaires dont elle dispose. Cependant, ces surplus de revenus ne doivent en aucun cas être distribués à certains des membres de la communauté ou de la direction en guise de dividendes tels qu’ils sont versés aux actionnaires d’entreprises commerciales à but lucratif.

Le cadre juridique malien

Au Mali, les radios communautaires évoluent dans un environnement juridique bien défini. Des textes juridiques leur confèrent un statut légal ; Elles sont autorisées à s’installer par le Ministère de la Communication après étude des projets de création de radio soumis par les promoteurs. Parmi les textes et les dispositions, on peut citer notamment

- La constitution. Elle garantit la liberté de la presse

- La Loi N° 00-46/AN- RM du 7 juillet 2000 portant régime de la presse et délit de presse.

- la mise en place du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication. Le CSC est une instance de régulation des medias. C’est lui qui étudie notamment les demandes d’attribution de fréquences déposées par les promoteurs de radios, communautaires ou non.

- La loi N°93-001 portant loi organique relative à la création du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Médias d'Etat. Ce comité « veille à l'équilibre et au pluralisme de l'information en tenant compte des différentes sensibilités politiques, économiques, sociales et culturelles du pays, à une gestion équitable du temps d'antenne et de l'espace rédactionnel consacrés aux candidats et aux formations politiques pendant les campagnes électorales ».Le Comité peut être saisi de toute violation des dispositions législatives et réglementaires régissant l'égal accès aux média d'Etat. Il peut être saisi par toute personne physique ou morale et il statue en toute indépendance sur les litiges constatés par lui ou dont il est saisi. Il peut infliger des sanctions.

- Le Décret N°92-022, déterminant les conditions et procédures d’obtention, de suspension ou de retrait de l’autorisation de création de service privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence

- L’ordonnance portant N°92-337P portant autorisation de création de services privés de communication audiovisuelle: il stipule que « les Services privés de communication audiovisuelle concourent à l’expression pluraliste de l’opinion. Leur accès doit être équitable pour les partis politiques »

- L’Arrêté interministériel n°92 MC-MAT/CTSP/ASS-MSCP fixant cahier de charges des services privés de radiodiffusion par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence. Cet arrêté contient plusieurs articles qu’il est intéressant de souligner dans le cadre de cette étude.

« Article 8 : Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore ont le devoir de participer à l’éducation, à la sensibilisation, aux actions de promotion économique et sociale. Ils doivent constituer en cas d’insécurité, de situation grave ou de catastrophe, à la demande des autorités compétentes et sur la réquisition écrite, un relais pour les pouvoirs publics tendant, soit à appuyer ses forces, soit à calmer et à rassurer les populations.

Article 9 : Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore doivent veiller à la fourniture d’informations vraies et véritables et à éviter la diffusion d’information alarmistes et suspectes. Ils doivent contribuer à la promotion de la culture et s’abstenir d’ouvrir la rivalité entre les communautés humaines.

Article 10 : Tout service privé de radiodiffusion sonore est tenu de respecter un taux minimum d’émissions consacrées à la valorisation du patrimoine international, correspondant à 20% du temps d’antenne.

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Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore qui n’auront pas atteint ce quota seront mis en demeure de rattraper le retard sur leur heure d’écoute la plus élevée ou sur les tranches réservées à la publicité. »

Des radios de développement

La mission que s’assignent toutes ces radios est la même : informer, éduquer les populations de leurs localités respectives sur les problèmes liés au développement des communautés. Il s’agit en termes d’objectifs de mettre la radio au service des communautés en leur offrant des programmes qui portent entre autres sur la santé, les activités agropastorales, les problèmes de société, la conservation et la protection de l’environnement, l’éducation, la nécessaire scolarisation des filles, l’autonomisation des femmes, les droits de l’homme, la gouvernance...

Les radios communautaires tiennent également lieu de tribune pour le dialogue social et intra-communautaire ; elles appuient les organisations humanitaires, valorisent la culture et les expressions artistiques locales.

Organisation et fonctionnement

En règle générale, les radios communautaires du Mali possèdent 3 niveaux de structures de gestion : une Assemblée Générale des représentants de la communauté, un Comité de gestion et une Direction de la radio communautaire.

Les radios communautaires du Mali ne sont pas structurées en fonction d’un organigramme formel. Les postes que l’on retrouve le plus souvent sont, outre le Chef de station qui a la charge de la radio, le responsable de programmes, celui de la rédaction et le responsable technique. Une remarque importante :l’absence de technicien de maintenance porte préjudice aux équipements techniques.

Ressources financières

En ce qui concerne les ressources financières, celles-ci proviennent essentiellement des prestations de services que sont : les annonces ; les communiqués ; la publicité ; les dédicaces ; les contrats avec les ONG, les organismes internationaux et quelques subventions de certains partenaires au niveau national et local.

Les radios Communautaires ne bénéficient d’une aide de l’Etat pour la mission de service publique qu’elles assument au profit de la communauté.

Certains radios communautaires en plus des ressources gérées grâce aux prestations, reçoivent des appuis matériels de la part des bonnes volontés. C’est le cas de certaines stations qui fonctionnent à partir de l’énergie électrique mise gratuitement à sa disposition par certaines organisations.

Equipements

Une caractéristique partagée par la grande majorité des stations de radio communautaire du mali, c’est l’indigence matérielle. Les équipements de studio sont parfois rudimentaires et composés d’éléments amateurs acquis au grand marché de Bamako

La plupart des stations possèdent un minimum d’équipements de diffusion, de production et de reportage leur permettant d’assurer leur mission d’information et de communication. Les équipements sont semi professionnels ou amateurs. Ils sont de diverses marque : Yamaha, Sony, Sharp, Philips, Walkman. Certains équipements sont en bon état ;

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toutefois, certains sont en mauvais état ou carrément hors d’usage et limitent les capacités des stations. Il faut noter qu’ils sont insuffisants.

L’ensemble des stations rencontre des problèmes de maintenance et de pièces de rechange. La maintenance est parfois assurée par des techniciens de la Radiodiffusion Nationale ou des techniciens contractuels.

Le matériel de transport est inexistant pour l’ensemble des stations.

Grilles de programme et émissions

Dans le cadre de la production, les stations de radios communautaires sont très limitées. Aucune radio communautaire n’a les moyens d’une vraie politique de production. En général, elles sont ne disposent que d’un seul studio pour la production et la diffusion d’émissions. Les unités de reportage ne sont pas en quantité suffisante. Souvent un dictaphone acheté au marché sert à assurer les nombreux reportages. Du fait de ces contraintes, la méthode participative souhaitée pour les radios communautaires n’est pas ou est peu appliquée. La plupart des émissions sont directives. Les fongibles, surtout les cassettes sont utilisées plusieurs fois au détriment de la qualité sonore. Parmi les stations que la mission a visitées, une seule avait commencé sa migration technologique : passer de l’analogique au numérique.

La mission a noté cependant des efforts de programmation tenant compte des besoins et des préoccupations des auditeurs. Les besoins sont identifiés à partir des enquêtes, des interviews, des sorties sur le terrain. Les comités de gestion s’impliquent dans la collecte de ces éléments permettant l’adéquation entre l’offre programmatique et les attentes et besoins des populations. Dans les villages, des bénévoles, souvent des jeunes font office de correspondants de la radio. Ils sont chargés d’enregistrer, souvent avec des radios cassettes, des échos de l’actualité locale et de faire parvenir les éléments à la station. Ces mêmes correspondants jouent aussi le rôle d’agents de recettes, collectant sur place les avis et communiqués divers à faire diffuser, ainsi que le prix de la diffusion à reverser à la station.

Les thèmes souvent abordés par les programmes tournent autour de la santé, de l’éducation, les droits des enfants et des femmes, l’agriculture, l’élevage, la culture, les sports, les relations de bon voisinage. Les programmes sur la jeunesse sont également proposés aux auditeurs par la plupart des radios communautaires.

La plupart des stations émettent tous les jours de la semaine : la matin et le soir. La durée horaire en semaine varie entre 11 et 17 heures. En week-end, elle se situe entre 14 et 17 heures.

Toutes les radios communautaires accordent une partie prépondérante aux langues locales. Il est parlé de trois à cinq langues sur les stations et selon les zones de diffusion.

Du point de vue de l’évaluation des émissions, aucune station n’a pu évaluer à ce jour ces programmes par une méthode scientifique, en tout cas adéquate. Toutefois, les sorties sur le terrain permettent de recueillir les avis et les souhaits des auditeurs. Cette évaluation sommaire se réalise également par le biais du courrier des auditeurs, du téléphone et des groupes d’écoute.

Impact potentiel

A défaut d’une enquête par la technique de la Méthode Active de Recherche Participative qui aurait permis de mesurer l’influence et l’impact des radios sur des communautés qu’elles servent, il ressort des interviews faites par la mission que les radios communautaires sont bien acceptées dans leur milieu et rendent d’énormes services à leurs communautés respectives. Quelques exemples recueillis par la mission :

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A Niono, des marchands peu scrupuleux avaient escroqué les agriculteurs. Ceux-ci, fâchés, avaient décidé de ne pas rembourser les prêts du crédit agricole, la banque naturellement refusait tout nouveau crédit et les paysans n’avaient pas les moyens d’acheter les semences pour la nouvelle saison. Comment sortir de ce cercle vicieux ? La radio Cesiri a organisé une série de discussions d’une heure avec les villageois. Au cours de la deuxième émission déjà, la solution était trouvée : les emprunts seraient remboursés par des livraisons en nature et la banque acceptait de faire de nouveaux prêts.

La Radio Jamana de Koutiala, diffuse un bulletin metéo quotidien. Cette initiative est très appréciée des paysans qui s’intéressent notamment aux prévisions concernant les pluies et aux quantités de pluies. Ces éléments leur permettent de décider des moments favorables aux semis, au sarclage, au binage. Bref, grâce à la radio, le calendrier des activités agricoles est mieux maîtrisé.

« La Voix du Folona » dans la région de Sikasso, frontalière avec la Côte d’Ivoire a contribué à éviter des affrontements inter communautaires aux premières semaines de la crise ivoirienne. Des milliers de réfugiés et personnes déplacées qui fuyaient la rébellion se sont installées en territoire malien dans les villages frontaliers. Du coup, une énorme pression s’est exercée sur le foncier, sur les familles d’accueil et sur les prix des denrées. La radio s’est impliquée dans la diffusion de messages de tolérance, aidée en cela par des personnes ressources (notamment les chefs et les sages), rappelant la tradition africaine dans le domaine de l’hospitalité et de l’accueil de l’étranger. Ces messages apaisants ont désamorcé la tension.

Partout où la radio communautaire s’est installée, on peut constater ses bienfaits : elle favorise l’écoute d’instruments de musique traditionnels qui ont tendance à être supplantés par les guitares électriques et les installations modernes de sonorisation, elle améliore l’efficacité des campagnes sanitaires, elle diminue l’exode rural, elle contribue à l’élimination des feux de brousse intempestifs, elle favorise l’enracinement local de la démocratie, elle fait prendre conscience que certaines pratiques traditionnelles sont néfastes à la santé, etc.

Ressources Humaines

Le personnel des radios communautaires s’articule en deux catégories : les contractuels peu nombreux et les volontaires. L’effectif, toutes catégories confondues, varie entre 25 et 08 agents. Les volontaires occupent une place largement majoritaire au niveau des effectifs. Dans toutes les stations les femmes sont assez faiblement représentées.

Du point de vue de la formation académique les agents ont pour l’ensemble un niveau qui se situe entre la 6 éme et la 11 ème année de scolarité, ce qui correspond dans le système français, au certificat d’études primaires et baccalauréat.

S’agissant de la formation professionnelle, la situation des agents est différente d’une station à l’autre. Certains agents ont pu bénéficier de formation et d’autres non. On note deux types de formation : les sessions de formation sur site et celles régionales. Dans tous les cas, la mission a noté un énorme déficit dans le domaine de la formation. Les genres radiophoniques majeurs de la radio communautaires tels que la table ronde, l’interview, le magazine, le microprogramme, le jeu public ne sont souvent pas maîtrisés. Même remarque en ce qui concerne les modules de comportement : déontologie et éthique. Cette situation explique les maladresses en manquements constatés. Cette insuffisance ou même absence de formation des agents des radios communautaires constitue une entrave à la performance des stations. Les responsables des radios sont conscients de cette lacune qu’ils souhaitent vivement combler au plus tôt mais ils sont handicapés par des difficultés financières et autres.

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Conditions de travail

Les conditions de travail des radios communautaires sont précaires pour plusieurs raisons :

- Au plan des moyens techniques : les radios communautaires sont limitées dans leurs capacités de production et de diffusion par la défectuosité d’une partie du matériel technique et par l’insuffisance des équipements ;

- Au plan financier : les ressources produites par les prestations suffisent à peine à faire fonctionner les stations au point où rien n’est dégagé pour l’amortissement du matériel ;

- Au plan de la production les radios communautaires manquent de fongibles pour la collecte des informations et la réalisation des émissions. Elles sont obligées de recycler les cassettes au risque de pénaliser les auditeurs du point de vu de la qualité des émissions et de la mémoire de ces stations ;

- Au plan de la logistique : les radios communautaires manquent du matériel roulant pour les besoins de la production ;

- Au plan des effectifs : le personnel est constitué en majeure partie de bénévoles, ce qui à terme présente un risque pour les radios communautaires parce que cette catégorie de personnel n’est pas intéressée. Les responsables des stations comptent sur leur motivation. Il est indispensable pour les radios communautaires de penser à l’intéressement de cette catégorie de personnel qui exécute un travail non négligeable au sein des stations ou dont dépend le fonctionnement de celles-ci. Les conditions de travail des agents permanents sont incertaines ou dérisoires ; ils perçoivent à peine un traitement salarial mensuel. Leur traitement dépend du niveau de recettes. Seules quelques stations paient régulièrement leurs agents.

- Pour assurer la viabilité des radios communautaires et accroître de façon substantielle leurs potentialités, il est important que soient améliorées leurs conditions de travail et celles des agents qui y travaillent. Cette amélioration passe par la mise en œuvre d’un plan d’action qui doit s’articuler autour du renforcement des capacités techniques et professionnelles.

Les partenaires des radios communautaires au Mali

La radio communautaire, radio de proximité par excellence, trouve ses partenaires privilégiés d’abord au niveau local. Ce sont les différents services publics locaux de la santé, de l’éducation, de l’agriculture, de l’élevage. Les agents de ces services et d’autres encore s’appuient sur la radio pour leurs activités de vulgarisation, d’éducation, de sensibilisation et d’éducation. Ces actions se faisaient avec plus ou moins de bonheur à l’occasion des tournées dans les villages.

Au Mali, il existe une bonne collaboration entre les radios communautaires et les services décentralisés de l’Etat. Le calendrier de la tournée de l’infirmer ou du vétérinaire est diffusé par la radio. Le vulgarisateur agricole s’appuie sur la radio pour diffuser largement les informations sur les différentes filières agricoles. Les groupements de producteurs ou de femmes rendent compte de leurs activités sur les ondes de la radio et toute la communauté est ainsi informée.

Les ONG sont aussi des partenaires de la radio communautaire, surtout en milieu rural. De plus en plus, des structures, même installées dans la capitale, ont recours aux radios

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locales pour des actions ciblées dans leurs zones d’intervention. Ce partenariat peut revêtir des formes diverses : financement des sorties de la radio, achat d’un temps d’antenne, financement d’une campagne sur un sujet précis, organisation d’ateliers de formation pour les agents de la radio,…

Au plan international, la mission a relevé l’implication en faveur des radios communautaires du Mali des organisations telles que l’Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Elle a favorisé et financé l’installation dé 4 de stations (OIF). La FAO pour sa part a fiancé le Projet Radios communautaires du Sud et installé 4 stations. L’Institut Panos a installé ses services techniques pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest à Bamako. L’USAID est un des premiers partenaires, au niveau national du réseau malien de radios communautaires. Tous ces organismes partagent la conviction qu’une radio de proximité est le moyen de communication indispensable à tout effort de développement à la base. Leur implication est importante : des autorités naguère hésitantes voire hostiles à ces radios se sentent rassurées et mises en confiance au point de donner aujourd’hui leur feu vert à la création de radios similaires.

Les structures d’encadrement des radios communautaires

URTEL42 (Union des radios et télévisions libres). Elle fut créée en 1992 à Bamako. L’URTEl regroupe la plupart des radios de proximité du pays. La structure fonctionne bien malgré quelques dissensions. Ses instances (bureau assemblée générale, congrès se réunissent régulièrement. Les objectifs poursuivis par l’Union sont les suivants :

Élaboration et mise en oeuvre de mesures visant au développement et à la promotion des radios libres;

Assistance aux membres lors des négociations de toute nature;

Assurance du rôle de conseil et de centre de documentation;

Création des conditions favorables à la formation et au perfectionnement du personnel des organes membres;

Défense des intérêts matériels et moraux des membres;

Renforcement des liens de solidarité entre les radios.

ARCOM43 : Depuis l’année 2000, dix radios communautaires se sont retirées de l’URTEL. Elles se sont regroupées et ont créé « un réseau de radios communautaires capables d’influencer les décideurs politiques par la mise en commun, sur une radio centrale, de programmes émanant des radios communautaires rurales membres ». C’est de cette initiative des radios qu’est née l’Alliance des Radios Communautaires du Mali. Afin de représenter la diversité ethnique et géographique du pays, ces 10 radios communautaires sont reparties sur une bonne partie de l’espace géographique du Mali.

L’Alliance des Radios Communautaires du Mali se présente comme un regroupement apolitique qui réseaute plus de 50 radios sur l’ensemble du territoire malien. Depuis son existence, il a développé des liens durables de coopération et de partenariat entre les diverses radios communautaires, associatives et paysannes du Mali d’abord, puis avec d’autres radios communautaires africaines et du Nord grâce 42 www.urtel.radio.org 43 www.arcom.africa-web.org

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http://www.arcom.africa-web.org/

http://www.urtel.radio.org/

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à des échanges à tous les niveaux. L’ARCOM compte sur le réseautage, le partage de connaissances techniques et professionnelles entre d’animateurs, techniciens et journalistes pour favoriser et développer un mode de communication répondant aux besoins d’une population à 61,4% analphabète.44

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FICHE D’EVALUATION SEPO DES RADIOS COMMUNAUTAIRES DU MALI

SUCCES- un réseau dense- un degré d’appropriation par les populations élevé- une incitation à la prise de parole- des passerelles de collaboration avec un mouvement associatif fort- de nombreuses campagnes d’éducation et d’éveil avec la société

civile et les autorités - un réel engagement des partenaires au développement aux côtés

des radios- des émissions axées sur les aspects de développement- une implication significative dans la gouvernance- un recours aux langues locales- une promotion de la culture et du patrimoine local- un cadre juridique bien défini et un appui de l’Etat- des structures de gestion impliquant les communautés- un regroupement en associations structurées et fonctionnelles- un exercice d’une part importante du service public de la radio- des agents enthousiastes et motivés- stabilité politique du pays

POTENTIALITES

- s’impliquer davantage dans la formation citoyenne des populations

- favoriser une culture de paix entre les différentes ethnies et les différentes confessions

- mener des campagnes radiophoniques sur les gros problèmes de santé, d’éducation

- sauver des pans entiers de l’histoire et des traditions des localités couvertes par la collecte et l’archivage des éléments encore disponibles

- relayer les journaux de la radio nationale- faciliter l’accès des populations aux NTIC en servant

d’interface

ECHECS

- une indigence matérielle avec des équipements parfois rudimentaires - une indigence financière au niveau du fonctionnement (faiblesse des

recettes)- une absence de mobilité- des solutions informelles comme stratégies de survie à court terme- un énorme déficit dans le domaine de la formation- des dissensions et rivalités au sein et entre les structures

d’encadrement (URTEL et ARCOM) - une Insuffisance de feedback- un déséquilibre du réseau entre les villes et les campagnes- une absence de marketing- une dominante de la radio de divertissement- une identité encore floue

OBSTACLES

- la permanence de l’électricité n’est pas toujours assurée

- le manque de formation des agents des radios- précarité de l’existence des radios (leur durabilité

n’est assurée)- dissensions internes dés qu’il est question d’argent

à gérer

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REPONSES AUX QUESTIONS POSEES PAR LES TERMES DE REFERENCE

1. Participation communautaire et bénévolat : Quels sont les meilleurs cas de participation mis en place par la radio communautaire pour une bonne implication des populations. A quel niveau se situe cette implication et comment se manifeste-t-elle ?

On peut affirmer sans risque de se tromper qu’au Mali, la radio communautaire est devenue un outil essentiel dans l’affirmation de l’identité des communautés. Il existe un phénomène de valorisation des localités et des populations par l’implantation d’une station de radio. Ceci peut expliquer le grand nombre de stations dans le pays. Il y a aussi la rivalité bien connue entre villages voisins (« tel village dispose d’une radio, pourquoi pas nous »).

Dés lors il n’est pas étonnant que les plus grands porteurs de projet de radios communautaires soient d’abord les villageois eux-mêmes, à travers les associations de village. Un état de fait qui suscite enthousiasme et engouement de la part de chaque membre prompte à répondre positivement aux premières sollicitations.

La participation communautaire se manifeste sur plusieurs plans :

- mise à disposition d’un terrain pour abriter la future station

- mobilisation des ressources nécessaires à la construction de locaux fonctionnels

- mise en place de structures devant accompagner la réalisation du projet (assemblée générale, comite de gestion ou de pilotage)

- quand la mise en ondes est effective, le plus souvent l’équipe d’agents est composée de bénévoles ;

2. Relations avec la Communauté : Comment les radios communautaires sont-elles la voix de la communauté ? Comment les populations participent-elles au fonctionnement de la radio ? Sont-elles impliquées dans la programmation, si oui, comment ? Quelle est la proportion d’émissions basée sur les questions de la communauté ? Comment sont produites ces émissions ? Comment les populations participent-elles à la gestion, au financement et à l’évaluation de la radio? Les populations défendent-elles leur radio face aux autorités locales, organisations et les milieux d’affaires ?

Il est remarquable que la plupart des radios communautaires s’identifient par rapport à ce qui caractérise la zone couverte ou leur site d’émission. Souvent, la station porte le nom de la localité et devient « la Voix de… ». Ce souci d’identification est un élément fort qui montre bien qu’aux yeux des populations, la radio communautaire est d’abord leur radio et par conséquent leur porte-voix.

La mission a noté que ces mêmes populations, à défaut de pouvoir toujours répondre aux sollicitations financières des responsables de la radio pour assurer son bon fonctionnement, sont en revanche très exigeantes dés lors qu’il est question de grille de programme et de contenu des émissions. Ils veulent être consultés et surveillent qu’il soit tenu compte de leurs remarques et de leurs désirs. En général, la grille de programme, les aménagements à y apporter et les propositions de nouvelles émissions sont discutés chaque année lors de l’assemblée générale. C’est aussi lors de l’assemblée générale que le comité est renouvelé et qu’une proposition est soumise, s’il y a lieu, pour le poste de chef de station. Comme on le voit, c’est véritablement la communauté qui gère et qui contrôle la radio par délégation.

Le souci partagé par tous est que l’essentiel des émissions soit consacré aux activités prioritaires des populations et à leurs préoccupations. Il s’agit presque des thèmes liés au secteur agropastoral, mais aussi des femmes, de la culture et de l’éducation. Partout, les émissions-phare des radios sont celles qui suscitent leur participation (table ronde, jeu

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public, émission interactive, dédicace…) ou qui les concerne directement au plan culturel (histoire de villages, contes, légendes…)

Il faut toutefois noter que les radios ont un problème d’identité. De nombreuses stations s’octroient le label de radio communautaire sans en respecter les principes. Elles sont nées d’initiatives privées et fonctionnent effectivement comme des entreprises privées commerciales. Rendre des services à la communauté ne suffit pas pour se dire radio communautaire.

S’agissant du feedback, il faut noter, devant les mécanismes mis en place pour son exploitation : le courrier des auditeurs, les émissions interactives, les visites à la station et aussi le réseau des correspondants de la station disséminés dans les localités couvertes. Ils font office d’agents de recettes, descendent à la station au moins une fois par semaine, en général les jours de marché et partagent avec les agents les réactions enregistrées.

3. Rétroaction – Eléments sur la responsabilité et la gouvernance : Citez de bons exemples d’émissions de radio destinées à favoriser l’accès aux services publics et les investissements, plus de transparence et de responsabilité de la part du gouvernement - et expliquez les résultats obtenus.

On peut considérer que le rôle de la radio communautaire dans la gouvernance décentralisée comprend au moins quatre fonctions :

- Une fonction d’avocat pour la défense des intérêts des populations.

- Une fonction de prestation de services au niveau local dans les domaines de l’éducation, de la santé, de l’assainissement, etc.

- Une fonction de partenaire du gouvernement dans la planification du développement, la mobilisation des ressources et la promotion d’une meilleure compréhension du système de décentralisation.

- Une fonction de surveillant de l’activité gouvernementale. La radio de proximité qui organise régulièrement des tables-rondes sur l'étendue des pouvoirs décentralisés viendra plus facilement à bout de la résistance des fonctionnaires locaux que des recours au ministère de l'intérieur (décentralisation) ;

Quelques exemples :

- Radio Diaka Kènè Yeleen de Tenenkou à Mopti produit chaque semaine « Débat dans les villages » : cette émission fait dialoguer toutes les composantes du village pour débattre d’un problème, occasion pour chacun de donner son point de vue. Ces débats dans les villages ont surtout un caractère instructif et éducatif. Ils favorisent la prise par le plus grand nombre et permet de poser les vrais problèmes des populations dans leur propre perspective. L’émission est souvent l’occasion de dénoncer les abus des autorités ou pratiques considérées comme tels.

- Radio Dande Douentza dans la région de Mopti. Son émission « Débats politiques » permet aux populations de s’adresser directement aux élus locaux, et de leur demander des comptes sur leurs réalisations et les engagements pris pour se faire élire. L’obligation de rendre compte est ainsi imposée aux maires, aux députés, aux responsables des associations et des groupements.

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- Radio Bamakan : « Kouyaté ani Samaké » : cette émission fait la parodie du conseil des Ministres. L’animateur, dans un style caustique et des mots bien à lui, imite le porte parole du gouvernement lors des séances de breafing. Il exploite la dérision pour accrocher les auditeurs rendre compte de ce qui s’est dit d’important au niveau du gouvernement.

- Radio Jamana Mopti : « C’est pas normal » ce rendez-vous hebdomadaire est très couru par les populations de Mopti. C’est une des émissions-phare de la station. Les auditeurs téléphonent pour dénoncer des situations tirées de leur vécu quotidien. Des comportements aussi bien individuels que collectifs sont dénoncés. Les pratiques de corruption dans les services publics de l’administration sont également dénoncées. Résultat, les responsables ont été contraints de prendre des notes de service rappelant que l’accès à ces services est gratuit et menaçant de sanctions les fonctionnaires qui encaisseraient indûment de l’argent.

4. Dans le domaine du droit : comment les radios communautaires traitent-elles la question des droits humains et des abus ? Comment aident-elles à ce que le droit soit respecté par les autorités ?

Au Mali, les autorités ont conçu et mis en œuvre avec les partenaires au développement le programme décennal de développement de la justice, PROJED. C’est aux radios communautaires qu’a été confié le volet vulgarisation du droit et c’est l’URTEL qui siège au comité de pilotage du projet. Dans cette campagne, les radios mettent l’accent par exemple sur les dispositions du code foncier, qui donnent des droits aux villageois sur leur environnement de proximité, pour les amener à refuser de faire cadeau de leurs arbres au premier marchand venu et, peut-être même, à mettre en valeur leurs ressources naturelles (empowerment) ; un autre thème de campagne est l'inscription au registre de l'état-civil, un service gratuit qui peut encourager le public à refuser les exigences d'un fonctionnaire malhonnête (lutte contre la corruption).

De plus, les professionnels des médias ne sont pas bien outillés pour traiter l'information juridique et judiciaire et la diffuser dans un langage simple et compréhensible pour la population en général. Parmi les raisons identifiées, le langage hermétique des juristes, les lacunes de la formation, l'insuffisance des ressources et le manque de transparence des intervenants dans le secteur. Le PROJED organise des formations à l’intention des agents des medias pour les familiariser avec le milieu du droit, son fonctionnement et son langage

Les radios communautaires, à travers l’URTEL sont membres de la coalition contre le traitement des femmes et des enfants en Afrique. Elles produisent à ce titre et diffusent des émissions traitant des violences faites aux femmes et contre le trafic des enfants si actif dans la sous-région.

Concernant les volets " Droits de la personne " et " Information - Education et Communication ", il est nécessaire de faire connaître et comprendre les textes en mettant en exergue les droits des femmes, des enfants et des personnes handicapées. A cet effet, une vaste campagne d'information et de sensibilisation est entreprise par les radios communautaires avec l’appui de l’USAID, en vue d'une correcte application des dispositions sur les droits de la personne. C’est dans ce cadre qu’il a été procédé à une relecture des codes et à leur traduction en langues nationales.

5. Durabilité des radios : Quels sont les méthodes et les mécanismes les plus utiles et les plus pratiques mis en œuvre pour les stations de RC pour devenir financièrement durables ?

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Quelles sont les stratégies les méthodes réussies de mobilisation des ressources financières locales ? – par exemple les avis et communiqués, les cotisations des associations, les sponsors, les activités génératrices de revenus ?

La grande majorité des radios communautaires du Mali sont déficitaires. Des responsables de l’URTEL avancent même un pourcentage de 90%. Les recettes collectées n’atteignent pas un niveau suffisant pour couvrir le budget annuel. Pourtant les sources de recettes sont variées : les contrats de diffusion de messages signés avec les ONG et autres partenaires locaux représentent 75% de ces recettes ; vient ensuite l’achat de temps d’antenne par des structures produisant leur propre émission. Enfin, il y a la rubrique des avis, communiqués et dédicaces très prisée par les populations. Mais le prix de ces dernières prestations est tellement modique (rarement plus d’un dollar) qu’elles représentent environ 2% des recettes selon nos interlocuteurs. Au niveau de certaines stations, il a été aussi fait cas de contributions des populations en nature (mil, denrées, bétail) revendue au marché.

Pour la mission, c’est l’absence de marketing qui est à la base de cette situation de déficit, laquelle met en péril la durabilité des stations. Les cotisations annuelles versées par les membres de la communauté naguère consistantes, sont très réduites actuellement et ont même disparues complètement dans certaines radios. A la place, c’est une contribution de chaque village qui tend à devenir la norme.

La mission s’est interrogée sur le fait que dans un pays où la vie associative est foisonnante, les nombreux groupements de producteurs, de femmes ne contribuent pas ou si peu au bon fonctionnement de la radio locale. Même remarque en ce qui concerne les collectivités locales telles que les mairies. Il s’y ajoute le manque de sollicitation de l’importante diaspora malienne. Celle-ci s’investit énormément dans la construction d’infrastructures communautaires au profit de leur village d’origine (écoles, dispensaires, maternités, mosquées…) Il semble qu’elle n’a pas encore investit, ou pas assez, le secteur de la communication, sans doute faute d’une bonne sensibilisation.

Comme on le voit, la durabilité des radios communautaires au Mali est loin d’être assurée. Le manque de ressources financières rend précaire leur existence. Dans aucune station, la mission a constaté l’existence d’un compte d’amortissement pour le renouvellement des équipements. Cette imprévoyance se traduit par des pannes assez longues pendant lesquelles des stations sont réduites au silence faute d’être en mesure d’acquérir une pièce ou changer une partie des équipements.

Y a-t-il de bons exemples de mécanismes de financements publics des radios communautaires, au niveau national. Existe-t-il un système d’impôts et de taxes en faveur des radios ?

L’Etat malien accorde chaque année une aide à la presse d’un montant total de 200 millions de francs CFA (environ 400 mille dollars). Sur cette enveloppe 75 millions sont versés à L’URTEL pour les radios communautaires. La répartition de l’aide est faite en tenant compte d’un arrêté ministériel fixant les critères d’éligibilité et de notation. Les radios ne reçoivent donc pas toutes le même montant.

Quant aux taxes, la redevance des radios communautaires est fixée par un décret présidentiel qui date de 1992 (année du premier texte sur les radios libres au Mali), à 100 000f CFA par an (environ 200 dollars). Mais l’Etat malien n’a jamais exigé son paiement et jamais aucune radio ne s’en est acquittée. Les responsables de l’URTEL ont expliqué avoir exercé un intense lobbying pour obtenir la suspension de cette taxe en raison de l’indigence financière dans laquelle évoluent les stations. En tout cas il faut considérer cette « remise de dette » est aussi une forme de subvention supplémentaire de l’Etat malien accordée aux radios communautaires.

6. Rôle des réseaux des radios communautaires. Quels sont les associations et réseaux de radios communautaires (nationaux et régionaux) qui s’impliquent dans l’encadrement et le

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développement des stations. Quelles sont les questions soulevées par la manière dont les réseaux sont structurés et fonctionnent ?

Au Mali, il existe 2 réseaux de radios communautaires. La plus représentative, parce que regroupant les 2/3 des stations demeure l’URTEL (Union des radios et télévisions libres). La seconde est l’ARCOM (Alliance des radios communautaires du Mali). Elle compte une cinquantaine de membres.

L’URTEL s’est positionnée comme un interlocuteur valable dans le domaine de la radio communautaire. C’est l’Union qui négocie et coordonne les campagnes radiophoniques impliquant les membres de son réseau. Elle organise également des activités de formation. Grâce à sa son lobbying et à la capacité de mobilisation de ses dirigeants, elle a fait adopter des textes comme les cahiers de charges des radios communautaires et obtenu que ces radios bénéficient du fonds d’aide à la presse alloué chaque année par le gouvernement malien.

L’URTEL bénéficie de l’appui matériel et financier de plusieurs partenaires tels que l’USAID, l’Unesco, la Fondation Friedrich Ebert, l’Institut Panos.

7. Rôle des radios communautaires dans les conflits et les situations de post-conflits : quel rôle les radios communautaires jouent-elles dans la prévention des conflits, la résolution des conflits, les processus de réconciliation et reconstruction ? Donnez des exemples où au contraire la radio a provoqué un conflit ?

La mission s’est beaucoup intéressée à la gestion et à la prévention des conflits par les radios communautaires du Mali. Les discussions lors des visites de terrain ont été complétées par l’exploitation du rapport d’un séminaire-atelier sur le sujet7. Les travaux avaient privilégié la méthode des études de cas. Il est remarquable que sur 13 cas présentés, 12 traitaient de questions liées à la gestion des ressources naturelles : contrôle des pâturages, des points d’eau, des zones champêtres, litiges fonciers, périmètres maraîchers le long du fleuve Niger. 1 cas concernait une crise liée à la religion (crise interconfessionnelle), crise née du fait de l’intolérance d’une partie de la communauté.

Les participants avaient été frappés de remarquer la persistance de conflits vieux parfois de 40 ans. Ils avaient surtout noté que certaines régions du Mali, (Mopti, alentours et boucle du Niger notamment) sont une poudrière, tant les conflits y sont nombreux et permanents. Une première conclusion importante tirée de la réflexion : ces conflits sont de nature de hypothéquer les efforts et entreprises de développement des localités concernées, et par extension celui du mali tout entier.

Les autres conclusions concernaient la nécessaire coordination et le travail en équipe (pas de travail en solo à la radio, pas de franc-tireur). En cas de crise, un dispositif spécial de veille doit être activé. Ce dispositif doit aller jusqu’à une coordination entre radios diffusant pour la même aire, mêmes concurrentes ; non seulement pour partager les informations, mais s’accorder sur la conduite à tenir et les éléments à diffuser. Chaque station de radio essaie avec plus ou moins de bonheur de « gérer » les crises qui surviennent dans sa zone. Certaines préfèrent « la communication par le silence ». Ne rien dire et ne diffuser sur le sujet que ce que les autorités veulent bien dire et que la radio peut relayer. Cette attitude n’est pas l’apanage des seules radios régionales de service public comme on pourrait le penser. Les exemples sont nombreux où la radio communautaire a attendu l’intervention des autorités étatiques et leur autorisation pour enfin évoquer une situation de crise se déroulant dans leur localité d’installation. D’une manière générale les crises liées à la religion et à la chefferie traditionnelle sont considérées comme des sujets tabou. Les agents de mécontenter une des parties, laquelle pourrait exercer sur eux des représailles.

7 « La gestion des crises par la radio de proximité au Mali ». Séminaire-atelier organisé par IOntermedia Consultants à Bamako en mai 05. Animé par l’auteur de ce rapport

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Mais tous les interlocuteurs de la mission ont pris conscience qu’il faut éviter que les crises dégénèrent en violence, lorsqu’elles dégénèrent, il faut en limiter les dégâts, qu’il faut aussi agir en amont (faire de la prévention).

La mission n’a pas enregistré d’informations sur une crise provoquée par la radio. En revanche, elle a noté de nombreux cas où la radio, par sa maladresse dans le traitement d’une crise à l’antenne, a contribué à envenimer la situation au lieu de l’apaiser. Dans un cas, une station s’est engagée dés l’éclatement du conflit dans un débat « qui a tort, qui a raison ». Dans un autre, elle a donné la parole à des interlocuteurs va-t-en guerre qui tenaient des propos extrémistes.

8. Pensez-vous que le système des licences est approprié et efficace ? Citez des exemples particulièrement bons et mauvais (et des modèles à travers des pays) concernant l'accès de CR aux ondes hertziennes et la liberté de fonctionner efficacement ; quelles sont les conséquences des décisions politiques dans ce domaine et leurs impacts ?

Il faut rappeler deux dispositions importantes contenues dans les textes législatifs régissant les radios communautaires au Mali :

- L’attribution de la fréquence relève du Conseil Supérieur de la communication

- L’obligation d’émettre en modulation de fréquence

- Le niveau de la taxe annuelle à payer est fonction de la puissance de l’émetteur.

Ces dispositions sont respectées mais quand on examine la carte des radios à l’échelle nationale, on note une concentration de celles-ci dans les villes, notamment la capitale et les grandes villes de l’intérieur et très peu de radios dans la zone nord (Tombouctou et Gao par exemple). Il n’existe pas vraiment un équilibre dans ce domaine, ni une politique visant à favoriser l’implantation de radios dans les zones qui ne sont pas encore suffisamment couvertes. Les responsables du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication ont confié à la mission qu’ils sont attentifs à cette situation, mais la solution passe par une révision des textes. Ceux-ci doivent limiter les fréquences pour chaque zone pour éviter la saturation d’une part, ce qui est déjà le cas de la capitale, d’autre part pour inciter les promoteurs et les partenaires à viser la couverture de zones défavorisées.

9. Suivi et rétroaction de CR. Quels dispositifs de surveillance sont mis en place au niveau des radios communautaires et quelles questions posent-elles : pertinence du dispositif quant aux intérêts des auditeurs, les impacts sociaux, impacts sur le développement, sur le gouvernement) et quelles méthodes ils emploient ? Est-ce que des enquêtes d'auditoire sont effectuées, et si oui, combien de fois ?

Il n’existe pas véritablement de dispositif de suivi et de rétroaction au niveau des radios communautaires et des réseaux dont ils sont membres. Toutefois les responsables des radios ont recours aux clubs d’auditeurs, quand ils existent, pour obtenir des éléments de rétroaction sur les émissions diffusées. La mission a attiré l’attention des responsables de l’URTEL sur cette nécessité d’entreprendre des études d’auditoire au risque de conduire les yeux fermés.

Dans les textes réglementaires, il est aussi fait mention dans un arrêté interministériel visant le fonctionnement des radios communautaires que « les organisations et associations de consommateurs peuvent à tout moment attirer l’attention des autorités sur les dangers que comportent la publicité sur la vie des auditeurs et son impact sur l’économie et la culture ». Selon nos interlocuteurs, la seule réaction dans ce cadre a été la dénonciation de la publicité faite en faveur de personnes se disant capables de soigner certaines maladies, sans aucune preuve, ni qualification. Les autorités du ministère de la santé ont réagi pour interdire ce type de messages publicitaires à tous les supports, notamment les radios.

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Concernant les études d’auditoire, il faut relever que le réflexe d’entreprendre une telle pratique n’est pas encore ancrée dans le milieu de la radio communautaire. Faute de moyens8 mais aussi en raison de la routine. Mais la plupart des responsables de radios rencontrées affirment songer à entreprendre une telle étude. La mission a expliqué des outils simples et peu coûteuses tirés du diagnostic participatif permettent désormais aux radios de proximité, sans grands moyens de réaliser une étude d’auditoire. Elle a suggéré le regroupement dans ce cas des radios installées dans la même localité ou couvrant la même zone, afin de réduire la contribution financière de chaque station.

La mission a enregistré tout de même deux études réalisées au cours de l’année 2006 par les radios Parana de San et Jamana de Mopti. Les responsables avaient suivi à Dakar et mis en pratique une formation sur l’étude d’auditoire par la méthode qualitative.

8 La radio Bélékan de Kati cherche depuis plus d’un an sans succès le financement d’une étude d’auditoire. Les frais sont de l’ordre de 3 millions de francs CFA (environ 6000 USD).

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VISITE DES RADIOS COMMUNAUTAIRES DU MALI

Radio Daande Duwansa

« Radio DAANDE DUWANSA » qui signifie en Peulh « La VOIX de DOUENTZA » a officiellement vu le jour le 8 juillet 1993 pour répondre aux besoins d’information et d’éducation des populations du cercle de Douentza par l’Association APROCOR (Association pour la Promotion de la Communication Rurale) avec l’appui de la NEF (Near East Foundation) et son partenaire OXFAM/UK.

La radio a été créée suite aux constats suivants : Difficultés d’accès de la grande majorité des habitants du cercle aux sources d’information

officielles existantes à l’époque (radio nationale, régionale, journaux.) Analphabétisme de la franche la plus importante de la population limitant l’accès aux

messages diffusés en français Faible participation au processus de développement local du fait des limites liées à la

sous information et à la méconnaissance des politiques et législations Enclavement des villages compte tenu de la taille du cercle et des difficultés de

communication et de la vétusté des infrastructures de transport.

Depuis sa création, la radio s’est forgée un réel ancrage dans le tissu social, économique et culturel. Sur le plan technique, son rayon de couverture s’est progressivement étendu au point qu’à ce jour elle est captée dans 12 des 15 communes du cercle. En raison du relief, elle arrive à couvrir des zones du sud au Burkina Faso, de korientzé dans le cercle de Mopti et du plateau Dogon au Sud-Ouest.

Les activités de la radio produites et réalisées suivant une grille de programme organisée sous diverses formes médiatiques comprennent des microprogrammes, des interviews, des causeries-débats, des spots, des magazines etc. La production et la réalisation des émissions reposent sur les principes de la participation des bénéficiaires et le recours aux personnes ressources locales ou externes.

Sur le plan social, le programme de la radio n’est exclusif à aucune catégorie sociale ; elle prend en compte les besoins de l’ensemble des ethnies du cercle en mettant l’accent sur les langues Peulh, Bamanan et Dogon comme véhicule de communication, compte tenu de la prédominance de ces groupes et du fait que ces langues sont largement partagées. Il n’en demeure pas moins que les autres langues telles que le Tamashek ou Sonrhaï sont utilisées en cas de disponibilité de personnes ressources.

Sur le plan thématique, les émissions produites sont le produit de besoins d’information exprimés par les populations, les projets ou l’Etat à travers ses démembrements locaux. Ils comprennent l’environnement, la santé, l’éducation, la décentralisation, la démocratie, l’agriculture, l’élevage, la pêche etc.

Sur le plan institutionnel, la radio dépend de l’Association Aprocor. Stratégiquement, cette structure, avec l’appui de la NEF, a œuvré à son autonomisation par la mise en place et l’exécution d’un plan de développement et de gestion financière et administrative. Aussi sur le plan économique, les activités de la radio sont-elles conçues sous forme de prestations de services aux demandeurs éventuels, prestations dont le taux et les modalités sont définis par le conseil d’administration.

Daande Duwansa est la première radio au Mali a fonctionné à l’énergie solaire. Elle dispose deux antennes, la première, d’une puissance de 20 Watts, est implantée dans la ville de Douentza et est relayée par une seconde plus puissante (500 Watts) située sur la colline de Fombori au sud-est de Douentza à 500 mètres d’altitudes. Ce système d’antenne relais permet la couverture de 12 des 15 communes du Cercle pour une population totale d’environ 192 000 habitants. A noter que Radio Daande Duwansa est la seule qui diffuse sur le secteur. Si en 1995, le taux d’écoute était estimé à 55%, en 2002 suite au partenariat stratégique avec le Programme d’appui aux initiatives de base, il était de 65%. Depuis 2004, Radio Daande Duwansa bénéficie de la technologie Vsat

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(Very small satellite) de la part de l’USAID Mali et Hellen Keller International. Avec l’acquisition de cet équipement la radio est connectée au net et offre son service aux populations.

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RADIO JAMANA DE MOPTI

Créée le 12 decembre1997, la Radio Jamana de Mopti est l’une des douze radios de proximité de la Coopérative Culturelle Multimédia JAMANA, le premier groupe de presse au Mali.

Les objectifs de la Radio Jamana de Mopti sont ainsi définies dans le document de projet :

L’élargissement l’espace d’expression, La promotion des cultures locales, des artistes et artisans

locaux, La protection de l’environnement, La participation à la promotion et à la défense des droits de la

Femme et de l’enfant, La vulgarisation des nouvelles techniques culturales et

piscicoles, La promotion de la santé publique La valorisation du savoir et du savoir-faire des populations ; La possibilité aux populations de s’exprimer et d’échanger sur

des sujets qui les préoccupent ; L’appui des programmes de développement des O.N.G

(organisations non gouvernementales) et autres services techniques ;

La satisfaction des besoins d’information et de communication des populations et des intervenants en milieu rural ;

La promotion du développement rural (agriculture, élevage, pêche, aviculture, commercialisation, etc.)

La promotion des cultures et langues des terroirs villageois.

Portée de la radio :

La radio Jamana de Mopti couvre en moyenne 60 à 70 km de rayon. Cependant, certains endroits distants souvent de moins de 45 km ont des difficultés de réception de la radio, à cause de la nature de la bande F.M. et du relief accidenté de certaines zones de la région

Paradoxalement, la radio est captée à plus de 100Kms dans d’autres directions. Elle couvre ainsi une grande partie du cercle de Mopti quelques villages des cercles voisins de Badiangara, Djenné, Teninkou et Youwarou

Les équipements :

Installés depuis sa création, les équipements de haute fréquence doivent leur survie au suivi régulier de leur entretien ; on y trouve un émetteur de 20 watts, un amplificateur de 500 watts, un pylône de 42 mètres surplombé par quatre dipôles

Les matériels de basse fréquence ont subi des remplacements car ayant des durées de vie relativement plus courtes en raison de leur plus fréquent usage. Ce sont :

Deux consoles dont une en panne

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Quatre lecteurs de cassettes · Deux minis disques · Un récepteur squeeze box Deux ordinateurs PC dont un pentium4et un pentium3 tous deux

équipés logiciels de son comme Quartz Audio Pro, Cool Edit, Sound Forge ·

Quatre microphones de studio · Trois postes récepteurs · Une radio numérique Worldspace · Un lecteur CD

Il faut signaler que la radio Jamana de Mopti dispose d’une connexion permanente à Internet depuis plus de deux ans.

Le personnel de Radaio Jamana:

La radio Jamana est gérée et animée par une équipe de jeunes hommes et femmes polyvalents. Ils occupent près de 35 % de l’effectif total du personnel de la radio. De façon générale, les agents de la radio sont quasiment à leur premier emploi. Ils ont en charge l’animation, la production et la technique, ils ont été pour la plupart, recrutés et formés sur place et par la suite ont bénéficié de formations professionnelles continues, des sessions de recyclage, de voyages d’études, des séminaires et ateliers de formation, des bourses de perfectionnement et de spécialisation.

On distingue trois catégories de travailleurs à la radio Jamana de Mopti :

Le Personnel Permanent : Il s’agit des salariés ceux qui sont régis par un contrat avec la coopérative Jamana. Ils sont sept (7) dont trois (3) femmes et quatre (4) hommes parmi lesquels le directeur. Ils jouissent tous d’allocation sociale et de congés annuels.

Le collaborateur extérieur à la radio Jamana est d’abord un salarié d’un autre service. Ils ne perçoivent pas de salaire à la radio mais peuvent jouir d’avantages comme la gratuité de certaines prestations à caractère social. Son travail à la radio Jamana n’est point rémunéré mais il peut bénéficier de ristournes pour les marchés apportés.

Les autres catégories stagiaires et bénévoles ont ces mêmes statuts et traitement mais leur intervention à la radio est beaucoup plus ponctuelle et se fait assez souvent suivant le besoin. Ils sont généralement des jeunes qui veulent faire carrière à la radio et qui ont un certain niveau de formation. Ils font pratiquement tout et assistent les permanents. Ils viennent à la radio pour « juste apprendre le métier » ou « par amour pour la radio » mais leur apprentissage dure plus que prévu et prennent même souvent la radio en otage en se rendant quelques fois incontournables.

Le nombre relativement réduit du personnel de la radio oblige les travailleurs à une certaine polyvalence c'est-à-dire dire être techniciens, producteurs, animateurs ou

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journalistes à la fois. Les agents sont sous la coupe d’un Responsable de la radio qui rend compte à au Directeur Général de JAMANA à Bamako à travers à un rapport d’activités mensuel. La radio Jamana est structurée ainsi :

La direction Une division des programmes chargée de la production de

l’animation et la gestion du personnel Une division marketing chargée des relations avec les

partenaires, Une division information, Une division comptabilité, Régie- secrétariat tenue par une

même personne Une division technique

Toutes ces divisions ont à leur tête des agents permanents appuyés par des collaborateurs extérieurs des bénévoles, des personnes ressources et des stagiaires.Les Collaborateurs Extérieurs les bénévoles, les stagiaire et les Personnes ressources sont plus nombreux, au total vingt trois, ils travaillent à la radio pour le compte de leurs communautés pour le cas des langues nationales parlées à la radio ; ou pour participer à la réalisation d’émissions thématiques pour le compte de certaines structures bien précises.

Le contenu des programmes :

La radio Jamana a une vocation essentiellement culturelle et rurale. Elle se veut une radio de proximité au service du développement. La grille des programmes et le contenu des émissions sont généralement élaborés avec la participation des populations locales. Les notabilités, les partenaires au développement, les amis de la radio, les personnes ressources ou collaborateurs extérieurs régulièrement sont consultés pour sa réadaptation.

A Jamana, l’esprit est que la radio de proximité doit avoir un programme flexible, régulièrement révisé et adapté au besoins des populations de sa zone de couverture c’est en cela que celles-ci s’y reconnaissent. Les populations tout comme les autres intervenants sont aussi impliqués dans l’évaluation de l’impact des programmes diffusés.

La quasi-totalité des émissions se fait principalement en langues locales. Les langues parlées à la radio Jamana de Mopti sont :

Le bamanan : cette langue est parlée par la grande majorité des habitants de la région ou du moins ceux qui ne la parlent pas la comprennent. En effet, les bambara représentent près de 40% de la population et les royaumes bambara ont longtemps régné sur la zone et y ont laissé plusieurs de leurs traces culturelles au nombre desquelles la langue, des pratiques, la religion…etc.

Le peulh : les derniers grands règnes de l’empire peulh se sont déroulés dans le delta central du Niger notamment dans le Macina, le Pondori, le Kounari et le bambara. Sékou Ahmadou, Boubou Ardo Gallo (poulo Ségou bambara Kounari) en

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sont des figures emblématiques. Le rayonnement de l’empire peulh sur la zone lui confère aujourd’hui le statut de région peulh une ethnie moins nombreuse que les bambara mais tellement colonisatrice que ses trace ont été les plus indélébiles.

Le sonrhaï : la présence de cette langue se justifie par le fait que la région de Mopti est le du mali, le tampon entre le nord et le sud, le carrefour commercial par excellence qui était jusqu'à une époque relativement récente la porte du Mali sur le Ghana, (Koumassi), la Cote d’Ivoire (worodougou) ou le pays de la cola, le nord malien (kokodougou) le pays du sel et le sud du Mali. L’ethnie sonrhaï, très mobile y a trouvé un centre d’affaires qui lui permettait de s’y installer. D’où la présence de la langue et des traits culturels.

Le dogon : les dogons, venus du mandé à la chute de l’empire ont envahi le plateau de Badiangara en chassant les telem premiers occupants qui se seraient repliés vers le sud. Kani Bonzo fut le premier site des dogons puis les autres localités. Leur langue est parlée dans près de quatre vingt (80) dialectes ne se rencontre que dans le plateau essentiellement.

Le bozo : ils sont les premiers occupants de l’actuelle place de Mopti autrement appelée Saghan. Se reconnaissant pêcheurs, ils peuplent les hameaux de pêche qui jonchent le fleuve Niger et le cycle de l’eau rythme leur vie. Leur langue est parlée dans les dagas ou campements dont l’animation culturelle est assurée par la l’abondance des saisons.

Le tamasheq : commerçants de sel, l’importance numérique du cheptel dans la région a favorisé leur implantation. Ils ne sont pas nombreux mais s’intéressent beaucoup à la radio car c’est pour eu un trait d’union entre eu et leur culture car elle joue leur musique et diffuse les informations dans leur langue.

Le bobo : deuxième ethnie en nombre dans la région et par rapport à la superficie, les bobos ont subi la domination des peulh et des bambaras dans leurs conquêtes respectives. Ils sont d’une richesse culturelle exceptionnelle et participent à hauteur de souhait à toutes les rencontres artistiques de la région et du Mali.

Le moore : communauté voisine de la région de Mopti, ils y résident en très grand nombre. Trois cercles de la région de Mopti font frontière avec le Burkina Faso. Un quartier de Mopti porte leur nom (mossi kin en bambara et mossinkore en peulh) et un important bosquet situé entre Mopti et Sevare signe l’amitié entre les deux communautés qui ont d’ailleurs renforcé leur coopération dans un cadre de jumelage entre Mopti et ouahigouya .

L’émission mossi est un point de rencontre et d’échange des nouvelles du pays et des courriers y provenant.

Le français (5%) : langue officielle du pays, son usage sur la radio Jamana de Mopti est réservé à la diffusion de journal parlé français, les avis et communiqués avec mention à lire en français,quelques magazines dans le cadre des echanges de programmes .

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La production et la diffusion

Les productions et la diffusion se font généralement sur place. Elles se font soit sur la demande des partenaires, soit sur initiative de la radio en fonction de l’actualité, des préoccupations des populations ou des objectifs de Jamana.

La radio Jamana de Mopti entretient des relations de partenariat avec l’administration locale, les O.N.G, les services d’encadrement du monde rural, les organisations paysannes, les organisations de société civile, et autres usagers de la radio. Il faut signaler que les programmes sont conçus et produits pour favoriser la mise en confiance des paysans face aux interventions des services d’encadrement.

Les thèmes abordés de part et d’autre permettent d’harmoniser les actions des intervenants avec les préoccupations des populations rurales pour un développement durable. Bref, l’action de radio est d’élaborer des émissions thématiques pour appuyer les intervenants dans leurs approches participatives. La radio Jamana traite dans sa grille des programmes des sujets dans tous les domaines de développement : éducation, alphabétisation, agriculture, gestion du terroir. L ’ossature des programmes est constituée des thèmes sur la santé, l’hygiène, l’environnement, la culture, l’éducation, l’agriculture et l’élevage.

La radio Jamana de Mopti participe à l’instauration d’un dialogue constant et fécond entre décideurs, planificateurs et villageois, entre encadrement et paysan. Son secret : la réalisation d’émissions participatives, l’usage des langues locales et la prise en charge des préoccupations des habitants des localités desservies. La radio Jamana conçoit, réalise et diffuse des messages de sensibilisation, d’information, d’éducation, de mobilisation sociale sous forme d’émissions spéciales. Elle propose plusieurs genres radiophoniques selon le sujet à traiter, son importance et sa pertinence, l’approche à privilégier, l’objectif recherché par l’intervenant.

Ces genres peuvent être des magazines, des documentaires, des débats ou tables rondes, des émissions publiques, des théâtres radiophoniques ou des micro programmes à diffusion répétitive. Elle propose aussi des émissions de distraction à des fins de promotion de comportements positifs et de développement.

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RADIO PARANA A SAN

Radio Parana sise à San (au Mali) est une initiative et une propriété du diocèse de San. Elle fonctionne depuis le 22 Juin 1995. Elle couvre les cercles, de Bla à l’Ouest, de Yorosso au Sud-est, une partie du cercle de Djenné au Nord-est, le cercle de Tominian et certains villages de la république du Burkina Fasso dans sa limite Est. Radio Parana émet en modulation de fréquence sur 100.6. Sa vocation est de contribuer au développement et à la promotion de l’Homme dans toutes ses dimensions. Selon les rapports d’écoute, radio Parana est captée aisément dans un rayon de 80km.

Une radio rurale de développement : La population estimée à environ 600 000 personnes que couvre radio Parana est essentiellement rural et ses activités principales sont agro pastorales. La zone est un peu isolée à cause de son éloignement des grandes villes maliennes. Les quelques ONG qui interviennent dans la région se battent avec plus ou moins de bonheur, mais la grosse difficulté est l’enclavement de la zone (son accessibilité) d’où un problème de communication. Leurs problèmes est comment faire passer le message à une population désespérée sur environ 30 000 hectares, soit une superficie de 200 km d’Est en Ouest et de 150 km du Nord au sud où l’accès est très difficile à cause du manque de routes praticables.

Radio Parana se révèle être, dans le contexte de cette zone, le cadre idéal pour enseigner aux populations dans leur langue les réflexes et gestes de bases au plan de la santé, pour faire de la vulgarisation agricole, pour susciter des actions de développement à la base c’est également le cadre idéale pour les ONG qui, autrement ont du mal à diffuser des messages d’éveil et d’éducation. Radio Parana c’est aussi le meilleur cadre pour les populations elles mêmes d’échanger entre elles leurs expériences dans les domaines qui les concerne. La radio rapporte aux uns les expériences positives ou négatives des autres.

La division de la zone de rayonnement de la radio en 5 cinq secteurs, avec une équipe de correspondants, permet la couverture des activités dans presque toutes les localités et la diffusion régulière d’informations venant de tous les points. Les auditeurs ont vraiment la parole sous les ondes et le fait que la radio soit une entreprise de l’église n’en fait nullement une radio confessionnelle comme beaucoup ont tendance à le croire. Une analyse de la grille des émissions place les émissions religieuses au 4e rang (16,6%), derrière les émissions de développement (22%), Les tranches d’informations (18%) et la culture (16,20%). La notion de radio chrétienne trouve une justification dans la ligne éditoriale de radio Parana : « une radio rurale chrétienne ouverte à tous les acteurs de développement…, ainsi qu’une fenêtre ouverte sur le dialogue avec tous »

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Organisation de la radio Parana

La radio compte 6 agents permanents et 3 bénévoles. Pour les procédures de travail, il existe : un document directeur (cahier de charge du personnel), une direction générale qui oriente, coordonne, vérifie, et assure la ligne éditoriale de la radio ; un service chargé de la programmation, du suivi évaluation des grandes émissions et la tenue quotidienne de l’antenne ; un service d’animation chargé de relier les émissions entre elles par la production de micro programmes ;un service de reportage qui s’occupe de la récolte, du traitement et de la réalisation des émissions ; un service technique qui assure l’entretient et, si besoin est, les réparation des équipement de la station, veille à la rotation pour la tenue de la console

Langues d’émission

Radio Parana émet 49 heures par semaine. Essentiellement en trois langues locales : le BORE (60%), le BAMBARA (20%) et le Français (10%). Le Minianka avec 7% y est parlé souvent les mardi soir dans l’émission « Vie des secteurs ». Il en est de même pour le Peuhl et Sonrhaï (3%), parlées lors de l’animation des dimanches après midi. Ces langues sont aussi souvent utilisées pour le passage des messages ayant fait l’objet d’un contrat avec la radio.

Tout en prenant en compte les préoccupations des populations de sa zone de couverture, radio Parana traite des thèmes suivants : les informations, l’agropastoral, les infos services, la santé, la femme, l’éducation et la société, la culture, la musique, la religion, l’histoire, et la jeunesse.

Compt

Chef des Programmes

Technique

Information

Ani

Correspondants

To

To

Mandiakuy

Directeur

Général

Comite de Gestion

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RADIO BAMAKAN

Elle est située à l’extrémité nord du marché de Médine et à quelques pas de la colline du Point G à Bamako. Radio Bamakan ou la « voix du kafo » est la première radio créée dans la capitale Bamako et ses environs. Les raisons de son succès : contrairement à la radio nationale, elle propose un programme entièrement en langues nationales.

C’est en 1991 que Radio Bamakan « la voix du Kafo » commence à émettre sans autorisation légale. C’est avec elle que commence le printemps radiophonique au Mali. Elle sera suivie plus tard par Radio Liberté, Kayira, Tabalé, FR3, Klédu, Jèkafo,Guitan, Patriote etc...

Elle ouvre officiellement le 13 septembre 1991 et émet sur un rayon de 60 km à la ronde au tour de Bamako. « La Voix du Kafo », radio associative émet sur les 100.MHZ et a fait une rentrée remarquable dans le paysage radiophonique malien. Dans un entretien, le Président de son comité de gestion dira : « que son émergence marque une brèche dans le monopole de la radiodiffusion détenu par l’Etat.

En créant Bamakan « la voix du Kafo », les initiateurs ont voulu se démarquer des vieilles habitudes des médias d’Etat. A l’époque les initiateurs ambitionnaient de créer une radio agréable libérée de certaines pesanteurs et remplissant une mission de service public. En un mot « nous voulions promouvoir une radio agréable à écouter avec beaucoup d’informations »9.

Explorer la filière des langues nationales :

Pour réaliser ses objectifs, radio Bamakan a mis en place une stratégie efficiente d’utilisation des langues nationales. Car l’histoire nous a appris que la manière la plus sûre pour convaincre rapidement une personne est de s’adresser à elle dans sa langue maternelle.

Fort de ce principe, radio Bamakan a accordé une large place dans sa grille des programmes à la langue bambara, la langue la plus parlée à Bamako, la capitale. Au cours de leurs différentes prestations les animateurs en langue nationale bambara ont inventé une forme de traitement journalistique de l’information et des faits divers dans un style tout à fait original. Style que l’on retrouve un peu partout aujourd’hui sur la plupart des radios FM émettant à Bamako, la capitale. Il consiste à traiter l’information ou le fait divers avec une bonne dose d’humour appuyée par des citations et des proverbes et le tout est fondu dans le « sanankuya » ou le cousinage à plaisanterie.

D’une manière générale tous les genres radiophoniques (journal, reportage, revue de la presse, interviews, dossiers, etc...) sont traités sur radio Bamakan par des journalistes et animateurs ayant une très bonne maîtrise de la langue bambara. Ces animateurs émérites ont par leur verbe et leur style contribué de façon très concrète à la prise de conscience citoyenne. La naissance de la radio Bamakan et bien d’autres encore ont permis à beaucoup d’animateurs et de journalistes de mettre en exergue leur talent en raison de leur grande maîtrise de la langue du terroir. Parmi ceux-ci, on peut citer Sy Souleymane Sy, Abdoul Razak, Magma Gabriel Konaté et feu Mamadou Coulibaly. Tous ont opté pour les langues maternelles dans lesquelles ils excellent. Ils ont par leur talent apporté une touche nouvelle aux informations en 9 Nous citons Modibo Diallo,Initiateur de la Radio Bamakan

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langues nationales. Des vocables abandonnés ou ignorés jusque là sont réapparus sur la scène linguistique c’est-à-dire le parler quotidien. La plus grande prouesse jusqu’à présent inégalée réalisée par radio Bamakan a été la traduction simultanée français-bambara du procès « Crime de sang » dans son intégralité. A cela s’ajoute la traduction de la Constitution et la retransmission en direct et en langues nationales des grands événements sportifs (Can 2002, Coupe et Championnat du Mali). C’est pourquoi cette radio a pu s’attirer 60 à 70 % de ceux qui ne savent ni lire, ni écrire et qui ne comprennent pas le français. Plus intéressant encore pour l’auditoire, toutes les émissions sont ponctuées de proverbes et de dictons pour valoriser la langue. Les populations se reconnaissent dans cette radio d’où leur participation massive à ses activités.

Quelques exemples d’émissions :

En plus du journal et de sa revue hebdomadaire en bambara, radio Bamakan produit et diffuse toute une série d’émissions en langues nationales. Ce sont entre autres :

Cèsiri jala : une émission qui parle de la vie du couple.

Femme au foyer : le ménage, la santé, la vie au foyer.

Kouyaté ani Samaké : cette émission fait la parodie du conseil des Ministres. La parodie du briefing du porte parole du gouvernement, une dérision pour accrocher les auditeurs.

An ba ka jamana ban don : « connais-tu mon beau pays ? ». Cette émission nous promène à travers le Mali culturel avec des contes et des devinettes.

Le grin : une tribune libre où tous les sujets sont traités avec la participation des auditeurs dans les règles de l’art et la courtoisie.

Dankoro baw ka kènè : cette émission est destinée à la confrérie des chasseurs.

La grande innovation de radio Bamakan demeure l’utilisation des langues nationales dans tous les genres radiophoniques. Ces productions en langues nationales occupent plus de 80 % de la grille des programmes. Selon Modibo Diallo, Directeur de la Radio « l’utilisation des langues nationales sur Bamakan a contribué à décloisonner l’information et la rendre accessible à la grande majorité des citoyens ». A en croire les promoteurs des radios de proximité certaines langues nationales sont des langues fédératrices.

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RADIO DIAKA KENEYELEEN DE TENENKOU OU RDK

A l’instar de sa consoeur de Bamako, la RDK est aussi la première radio de proximité qui a vu le jour à Tènenkou. Diaka Kènèyeleen ou RDK est née après les évènements de mars 1991. Elle a été créée avec l’appui d’hommes d’église pour évangéliser dans un cercle à 98 % musulmans. Suite à certains constats la RDK a réorienté ses objectifs. De la radio confessionnelle, elle est devenue une radio généraliste avec comme missions fondamentales : informer, sensibiliser et divertir les populations de sa zone de couverture. Au fil du temps la RDK s’est concentrée sur le monde agro-pastoral dont les besoins sont immenses : besoin de recevoir des informations et besoin de reconnaissance.

Avant l’arrivée de la RDK, le cercle de Tènenkou vivait un double enclavement qui avait pour noms, absence de radio et éloignement de la capitale. L’arrivée de Diaka Kènèyeleen a levé en partie le premier obstacle. Avec ses émissions en fulfuldé, en bozo et accessoirement en bambara et en sonhraï, la station touche toutes les différentes catégories professionnelles de la zone. Il faut signaler que les émissions en langues nationales abordent des thèmes tels la santé, l’environnement, la citoyenneté, la gestion des conflits etc…

Du point de vue thématique, la RDK tient désormais compte des nouveaux objectifs que s’est fixé la radio. Son but étant, rappelons-le, d’apporter des connaissances nouvelles au monde rural afin de valoriser son savoir, son savoir être, son savoir-faire dans le but de son auto-promotion. Dans ce cadre précis de nombreuses émissions sont élaborées avec professionnalisme par les jeunes animateurs dont la maîtrise des langues nationales ne fait l’ombre d’aucun doute.

L’utilisation à grande échelle des langues nationales ouvre de sérieuses perspectives à la RDK. A Tènenkou la contribution de la radio dans la prévention et dans la gestion des conflits lui a valu le titre de radio de paix et de développement. Car sans paix point de développement. Par ailleurs pendant l’épidémie de choléra qui a sévi à Tènenkou, la RDK a constamment élaboré et diffusé des messages en langues nationales pour informer, éduquer et sensibiliser les populations sur le mode de transmission et de prévention du choléra. Ces messages ont été salutaires car ont contribué à sauver beaucoup de vies humaines.

Contrairement à Bamakan en milieu urbain, la Radio Diaka Kènè Yeleen de Tenenkou a un personnel très réduit. 6 agents. Malgré leur manque de formation, les animateurs-producteurs de cette radio parviennent à satisfaire la population en leur offrant des émissions appréciées en langue nationale.

Les prometteurs des radios de proximité avaient pour soucis de rapprocher la radio des auditeurs, d’être les échos de leurs préoccupations. Le personnel était recruté

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dans les zones où les radios sont implantées. La qualification n’était pas recherchée. Il faut être disponible et avoir une maîtrise d’une des langues parlées dans la zone d’implantation de la radio.

Types d’émissions en langues nationales :

En plus du journal en langues nationales, la RDK produit et diffuse une série d’émissions dans les principales langues du terroir. Ce sont entre autres :

« Débat dans les villages » : une émission qui met ensemble toutes les composantes du village pour débattre d’un problème, occasion pour chacun de donner son point de vue. Ces débats dans les villages ont surtout un caractère instructif et éducatif.

« Nboologaal » : le vestibule, un symbole en Afrique. Dans cette émission ce sont les anciens qui sont invités pour parler de leur vécu. Ils font une comparaison entre la vie autrefois et celle d’aujourd’hui.

« Kaalnden koo joogi naafa» : un magazine de 15 mn, magazine au cours duquel l’invité et l’animateur lancent des messages utiles que les populations vont s’approprier en vue d’un changement de comportement.

« Echos de nos villages » : une émission pour faire l’état des actions de développement entreprises dans nos villages. Elle met en exergue les grands évènements en cours de réalisation et annonce les évènements à venir.

« Priorité santé » : une émission qui traite des mesures d’hygiène, des actions à entreprendre pour une prévention contre les maladies.

« L’antenne aux jeunes » : émission qui donne la parole aux jeunes pour parler de leurs préoccupations et de leur participation aux actions de développement.

« Ndeengal yoo yadiou » : cette émission vise à faire ressortir les vocables aujourd’hui peu usités, amener les jeunes à une plus grande maîtrise de la langue.

Le fait marquant dans les programmes de la radio Diaka kènè yeleen, c’est l’utilisation constante des langues nationales : le fulfuldé, le bozo, le bambara et le sonrhaï.

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RADIO MEGUETAN A KOULIKORO

La radio rurale et communautaire Meguetan est née de la volonté manifeste d’un groupe de jeunes diplômés sans emploi désireux d’apporter leur contribution au développement du Cercle de Koulikoro en s’engageant dans le domaine de la communication. Dans un premier temps, ils s’engagent dans un partenariat avec une radio de Bamako écoutée à Koulikoro. Ils servent de correspondants à cette dernière pour assurer une bonne visibilité à leur localité. L’idée vient ensuite de disposer d’une radio libre.

Ces jeunes ont su mobiliser les populations et rassembler par le biais des cotisations la somme nécessaire au lancement en 1993, de la station FM, la première de cette région. Les objectifs des initiateurs de la radio sont les suivants :

Libérer la parole paysanne

Renforcer la démocratie et la bonne gouvernance au niveau local

Mettre à la disposition des acteurs un outil de développement à la base

La radio Meguetan est dirigée par un comité de gestion de 7 membres. Un administrateur délégué s’occupe de la gestion quotidienne : personnel, finances, relations avec les clubs d’auditeurs. Il rend compte périodiquement au comité.

Les émissions sont produites et diffusées par une équipe de 15 personnes dont 5 femmes. Radio Meguetan émet tous les jours à raison de 15 heures par jour. La grille est élaborée avec la contribution des auditeurs et des partenaires au développement. Elle est composée d’une vingtaine d’émissions qui traitent de l’actualité locale et de thèmes divers tels que l’agriculture, la santé, la culture, l’éducation et le droit. Ces émissions sont produites essentiellement en langue bambara (80%). Viennent ensuite le français, le sonrhaï, le peulh, le soninké.

La radio organise chaque année des journées portes ouvertes qui lui permettent d’enregistrer les remarques des auditeurs et les propositions d’émissions ou de thèmes à traiter.

Quant aux moyens financiers de la station, ils sont assurés par

Les cotisations membres de l’assemblée générale

Les subventions des partenaires extérieurs

Les recettes provenant des annonces et de la couverture des manifestations publiques

Les contributions des collectivités locales

L’aide à la presse.

Naturellement ces ressources sont loin d’assurer les coûts liés au fonctionnement de la radio. Celle-ci a donc recours aux cotisations exceptionnelles des clubs d’auditeurs pour honorer les factures de loyer, d’électricité et de téléphone. Il n’existe pas de salaires. Tous les 15 agents sont bénévoles. La grande contribution des clubs au fonctionnement de la station a conféré à ceux-ci un droit de regard sur le

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déroulement des activités. A plusieurs reprises, les clubs ont exigé des explications sur l’absence d’émissions ou la légèreté de certains agents à l’antenne.

Les difficultés de la radio sont davantage d’ordre technique. Elle fonctionne depuis 10 ans avec les mêmes équipements de diffusion (émetteur, dipôles, ampli). Ceux-ci sont devenus poussifs et en fin de vie. Mlagré tout, l’émetteur de 20 watts et l’ampli de 250 watts permettent la couverture d’un rayon de 60 kms environ. Un petit émetteur de 5 watts offert par un ressortissant, assure la retransmission en direct des manifestations en ville.

Quant aux équipements de production, à l’exception de la table de mixage, ils ont vraiment rudimentaires et ne permettent pas un confort d’écoute. .a mission a enregistré à Meguetan deux cas où la radio a pris la défense courageusement les populations

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RADIO DIONAKAN A KOULIKORO

Ses promoteurs dont Abdoulaye Diabaté, vice-président de la maison de la Presse, la présente comme une radio associative et communautaire. Elle a été créée en décembre 1995. Au départ une idée de l’Association des Jeunes de Koulikoro (AJK), soutenue par une autre association, le Club des Amis de la nature et de l’environnement. La motivation était tellement forte que le groupe s’est engagé dans l’acquisition à crédit des équipements nécessaires au lancement de la station. Les 8 millions de francs CFA de matériel ont été remboursés intégralement au bout de 3 ans.

Cette importante acquisition fait de radio Dionakan (Dignité en bamanan) une des radios communautaires parmi les mieux équipées du Mali. Le matériel a été acheté auprès de fournisseurs d’équipements professionnels. Un émetteur de 500 watts permet la couverture d’un rayon de 60 kms. La radio couvre ainsi 6 communes sur les 9 que compte le cercle de Koulikoro.

Les objectifs sont ambitieux et louables :

Fournir une information facilement accessible aux populations

Promouvoir les langues nationales et les cultures locales

Promouvoir la démocratie et la gouvernance

Promouvoir le genre

Faire participer la population au processus de prise de décision sur les questions d’intérêt commun

Promouvoir la croissance de nouvelles idées nécessaires pour un changement social, qualitatif et quantitatif

Contribuer à l’amélioration de la qualité des soins de santé primaire et de l’hygiène

Contribuer à l’amélioration du cadre de vie

Valoriser et vulgariser les actions menées par les acteurs de sdéveloppement

Pourtant, il semble bien que l’élan du début s’est brisé. Les responsables avouent aujourd’hui que les comités installés dans les villages alentour et à Koulikoro pour gérer la radio ne fonctionnent pas depuis longtemps. Pourtant le comité de gestion de la radio composé de 5 membres est censé se réunir au moins une fois chaque trimestre. L’assemblée générale, elle, s’est réunie une seule fois en plus de 10 ans. Résultat, la démobilisation a gagné les populations qui ne semblent plus s’intéresser à cette radio.

Autre signe négatif de la situation de Radio Dionakan, l’absence d’une grille de programme. Depuis longtemps également, certains producteurs brillent par leur absence. Les derniers mobilisés assurent une antenne qu’ils remplissent à quelques rares exceptions de musique. Pour remédier à cette situation, les responsables

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disent attendre la redynamisation de l’assemblée générale et des comités ; une grande réunion de relance est convoquée en août 2007 dans cette perspective.

RADIO COMMUNAUTAIRE BELEKAN

Radio Belekan, diffusant à Kati est une station de radio communautaire soutenue parRadio Belekan, diffusant à Kati est une station de radio communautaire soutenue par l’USAID à concurrence de 47 millions de francs pour l’acquiisition des premiersl’USAID à concurrence de 47 millions de francs pour l’acquiisition des premiers équipements en 2000, année de démarrage de la station. Ses objectifs sont ainsi définis :équipements en 2000, année de démarrage de la station. Ses objectifs sont ainsi définis :

Renforcement de la démocratie et de la bonne gouvernance locale ;

Mise à la disponibilité des acteurs d’un outil de développement servant d’interface entre les différentes sensibilités de la société.

Les instances de gestion sont les suivants :

L’assemblée générale : Elle est l’instance supérieure de l’association. Elle définit les grandes orientations de développement.

Le comité de gestion : Il est chargé de faire exécuter par la Direction Générale les décisions prises par l’AG. A cet effet, il élabore la stratégie de développement de la radio. Le Comité de Gestion est composé de neuf membres.

La direction générale : Dirigée par une Directrice Générale, chargée du fonctionnement correct de la radio sur le plan technique et administratif.

Le personnel de la radio est composé de 8 agents permanents dont 3 femmes et de 12Le personnel de la radio est composé de 8 agents permanents dont 3 femmes et de 12 bénévoles. bénévoles. Quant aux ressources, elles proviennent des sources suivantesQuant aux ressources, elles proviennent des sources suivantes ::

Les prestations de service

La vente des cartes d’émissions

Les activités génératrices de revenus (soirées culturelles)

Location de matériels de sonorisation

Exécution de projet

Contrat

La programmation de Belekan

Pluralité dans les informations : Les informations locales sont prioritairement le travail du Comité de rédaction de Bèlèkan et nous y accordons une importance particulière car étant l’information de proximité. Pour ce qui est des informations internationales, nous relayons tous les jours de la semaine les informations internationales de la Deutsche Welle (édition de 16heures GMT)

Programme plus tourné sur le monde rural (radio d'information, d’éducation et de sensibilisation) : le public cible de Bèlèkan est majoritairement rural. Nous leur consacrons donc plus de 85% du programme en terme d’émissions d’éducation de sensibilisation et d’information aussi bien qu’en terme de prise en charge du patrimoine folklorique du Bèlèdougou10.

10 Bèlèdougou est la localité principale couverte par la radio et dont les populations tiennent à la conservation de leur patrimoine culturelle (surtout folklorique) en voie de disparition.

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Radio proche de son auditoire : avec beaucoup d’interaction avec les auditeurs, à travers les émissions publiques, les courriers d’auditeurs et les appels téléphoniques lors des émissions.

Radio qui exploite la langue de son public dans sa façon de penser, de parler et d’agir : Toutes les émissions sont réalisées en conformité avec l’esprit du milieu. C’est dire que nous privilégions souvent les formats plus proches de réalités de l’oralité du milieu (par exemple les sketches pour des sujets sensibles tels l’espacement des naissances ou d’autres sujets en rapport avec le sexe et même les contes)

Trois émissions phare :

Ciwara : c’est une émission en direction des agriculteurs et éleveurs. Elle traite des techniques culturales à travers des échanges d’expériences entre agriculteurs, agriculteurs et éleveurs d’une part et agriculteurs/éleveurs et services techniques d’autre part. Au cours de la dite émission, agriculteurs et éleveurs se parlent et discutent des problèmes liés à la cohabitation. Les formats utilisés sont variés : sketches, microprogrammes, magazine et souvent même des témoignages. Cette émission passe tous les matins de 6h00 à 8h00 avec une pause de trente minutes pour les avis. Elle rythme les activités matinales du paysan : réveil, petit déjeuner et chemin du Champ.

Droits humains femme et développement : C’est surtout sous forme de magazine et s’adresse aux femmes et tous ceux qui œuvrent pour la promotion des droits humains de la femme. Quelque fois nous adoptons le portrait ou l’entretien avec des femmes qui se sont illustrées dans tel ou tel domaine d’activité. Des table rondes sont également animées avec des personnes ressources et surtout des microprogrammes.

Droits de l’enfant : C’est un espace pour les enfants et avec les enfants. Il traite des questions liées aux droits des enfants. Cette émission est faite avec les enfants et très souvent en direct avec de rubriques comme mes droits et mes devoirs, je respecte mes parents, je protège mon environnement, etc. L’émission a deux volet : le premier, de trente minutes (le samedi) sous forme de magazine réalisé par l’animateur de la radio ; le second, d’une heure donne la parole aux enfants et comporte les rubriques citées plus haut.

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ATTACHMENTS TO ANNEX 3

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Attachment 1 : Le Mali, en bref11

Population et Politique

La population malienne est estimée à 11.910.000 habitants dont 71% de ruraux.

Elle est très jeune avec 49% de moins de 15 ans. Le taux de scolarisation dans le primaire reste faible avec 54% des enfants scolarisés.

De nombreuses ethnies cohabitent : Bambara (35%), Peuhl (12%), Touareg et Maure, Senoufo, Sarakolé, Songhaï, Malinké, Bobo, Minianka, Toucouleur, Somonono, Bozo, Dogon, etc.

Le pays connaît une forte émigration, notamment vers la France, des populations sarakolé de la région de Kayes.

Densité : 9,6 hab/km2, l’une des plus faibles du monde.

Capitale : Bamako

Langues : Le français est la langue officielle mais le bambara est bien plus utilisé (environ 60% de la population). Quelques autres langues africaines (peul, sénoufo, soninké, tamasheq, Sonrhaï, dogon...) se partagent le reste.

Religion: Environ 85 % de la population malienne est de religion musulmane, 8 % sont animistes, 5 % sont chrétiens, mais des traces d'animisme substistent chez la plupart des habitants.

Monnaie : Le franc CFA, 1€= 655 F CFA

PIB 2005: 370 $ / hab , au delà du centième rang mondial

Président de la République, M. Amadou Toumani TOURE

Économie du MaliLe Mali est l’un des pays les plus pauvres du monde. L’indicateur de pauvreté humaine (47,3 %) le classe 81e sur 88 pays en développement alors que l’indice de développement humain (IDH) positionne le Mali en 164e sur 173 en 2000.

Le Mali, classé parmi les pays les moins avancés (64% de la population vit sous le seuil de pauvreté), sort à peine d’une crise économique sous-tendue par les turbulences dans le secteur coton, seconde ressource d’exportation du pays après l’or.

Le taux de croissance du PIB à prix constant a été de 4,3 % en 2002, 7,2 % en 2003 et de 2,2 % en 2004. En 2004, cette détérioration est, selon le FMI, due à la baisse de la production aurifère (principale ressource) mais est aussi imputable à des chocs extérieurs : invasion acridienne, chute des cours du coton, hausse des cours du pétrole, dépréciation du dollar par rapport à l’Euro et crise ivoirienne.

Pour 2005, le FMI prévoit un écart de financement important, notamment en raison du retard pris dans la restructuration d’ensemble de la filière coton, dominée par la Compagnie malienne des textiles (CMDT) dont l’Etat est actionnaire majoritaire. La faiblesse des cours du coton constitue une menace pour un pays tel que le Mali. Aussi, il s’est associé au Bénin, au Tchad et au Burkina Faso pour demander à l’OMC la mise en place d’un système de réduction du soutien à la production cotonnière (subvention que les pays du Nord accordent à leurs

11 Source : www.koulouba.pr.ml

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http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Main.Animisme

http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Main.Islam

http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/mali/bamako.htm

http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Main.Dogon

http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Main.Bozo

http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Main.Bobo

http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Main.Songha%EF

http://nezumi.dumousseau.free.fr/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Main.Bambara

http://www.koulouba.pr.ml/

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propres producteurs) en vue de sa suppression et l’adoption d’un mécanisme d’indemnisation au bénéfice des pays producteurs du Sud. La France appuie cette demande.

Le potentiel minier est également très important. Au-delà, l’économie malienne demande à être diversifiée. Les privatisations, qui accusent un lourd retard, devraient attirer les investisseurs. Le Mali dispose d’un code des investissements comparable à celui des autres pays de l’UEMOA. Depuis 1987, une quarantaine d’entreprises publiques ont été privatisées. Le Mali a atteint en juillet 2003 le point d’achèvement de son programme PPTE (initiative pour les pays pauvres très endettés). Il devrait ainsi bénéficier de la récente décision du G8 relative à l’annulation de la dette multilatérale qui s’élèverait à 0,6 % du PIB par an, à moyen terme. En 2004, l’aide publique au développement, par habitant, est de 37,4$ en versements nets.

Le revenu par habitant au Mali, estimé à 370 $ est très inférieur à la moyenne pour l’Afrique Subsaharienne (510 dollars). En 2001, 63,8% de la population vit dans la pauvreté et 21 % dans l’extrême pauvreté.

Le Mali souffre de son enclavement. Ne possédant aucune façade maritime, il est dépendant des ports des pays de la sous-région, Abidjan était le principal port utilisé jusqu’au déclenchement de la Guerre civile de Côte d'Ivoire. Depuis, les ports de Lomé au Togo et Nouakchott en Mauritanie, ainsi que Dakar au Sénégal ont pris la relève. Mais les infrastructures routières insuffisantes sont un frein.

L’économie du Mali est avant tout agricole. 80 % de la population active travaille dans ce secteur qui représentait 44 % du PIB en 1995 (16 % pour le secteur secondaire et 40 % pour le secteur tertiaire). Mais la production agricole est faible, souffrant à la fois d’un manque d’infrastructure en milieu rural, de rendement faible trop lié aux variations climatiques. En dehors de la région de Sikasso, l’autosuffisance alimentaire n’est pas assurée.

Les industries de transformations sont peu développées et essentiellement concentré à Bamako. La plus grande partie de la population travaille dans le secteur informel. Les politiques d’ajustement structurel imposées par le Fond monétaire international (FMI) depuis les années 1970 a conduit les gouvernements à réduire les budgets sociaux consacrés aux dépenses d’éducation et de santé.

La dévaluation du franc CFA en janvier 1994 a plongé un nombre important de famille dans des situations d’extrême précarité. Ces politiques, tout comme la démocratisation du pays, ont cependant rassuré les investisseurs étrangers. Le Mali reste dépendant de l’aide étrangère. L’argent envoyé par les émigrés en Europe et particulièrement en France, originaire principalement de la région de Kayes, est une source de revenus essentielle, dépassant l’aide au développement octroyée par les « pays riches ».

Le Mali, avec les mines d’or de Sadiola, Morila et Yatela, est le troisième producteur d’or en Afrique (derrière l’Afrique du Sud et le Ghana) avec une production de 63 tonne en 2002, production qui a doublé entre 2000 et 2002. Cette production représente 12 % du produit intérieur brut du Mali et 67% des produits d'exportation (300 milliards de francs CFA). Entre 1997 et 2005, la production d’or a rapporté au Mali plus de 600 milliards de francs CFA.

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Attachment 2 : Carte du Mali

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Attachment 3 : Loi N° 00-46/AN- RM du 7 juillet 2000portant régime de la presse et délit de presse

L'Assemblée Nationale a délibéré en sa session du 16 juin 2000Le Président de la République promulgue la loi dont la teneur suit :

Chapitre 1 : Dispositions générales

Article 1 : La presse au Mali est constituée par les organes médiatiques dans lesquels sont employés ou collaborent des journalistes

Article 2 : Sont considérés comme organes médiatiques au sens de la présente loi, les organes de presse écrite, de la radiodiffusion et télévision et les agences de presse diffusant régulièrement des informations générales ou spécialisées. Les organes médiatiques doivent faire l'objet d'une déclaration de parution ou d'une autorisation légale d'existence et remplir les conditions fixées par la législation en vigueur.

Article 3 : Ne sont pas assimilables aux organes médiatiques malgré l'apparence de journaux, revues ou organes de radiodiffusion ou télévision qu'ils pourront présenter, les publications et programmes audiovisuels ci-dessou:

a) feuilles d'annonces, prospectus, catalogues ;b) ouvrages publiés par livraison et dont la publication embrasse une période de temps limité qui

constitue mise à jour d'ouvrages déjà parus ;c) publication ou diffusion ayant pour objet principal la recherche ou le développement des

transactions commerciales, industrielles, bancaires, instruments de publicité ou réclames,d) publications ayant pour objet principal la publication d'horaire, de programmes, de cotisations,

modèles ou dessins,e) publications qui constituent des organes de documentation strictement scientifique, artistique,

technique ou professionnelle quelle que soit leur périodicité,f) installation de radioélectricité privée ainsi que tout autre organe ne répondant pas aux critères de

la législation en vigueur

Article 4: Le journaliste est celui qui, titulaire d'un diplôme de journalisme ou d'un diplôme d'études supérieures avec une année d'expérience professionnelle, a pour activité principale rétribuée la collecte, le traitement et la diffusion d'informations et de nouvelles, dans le cadre d'un organe médiatique public ou privé, écrit ou audiovisuel.

Article 5: une convention collective régit les rapports entre employeurs et employés des organes médiatiques.

Chapitre 2:De l'imprimerie et de la librairie

Section I: De la Création

Article 6: L'imprimerie et la librairie sont libres.

Article 7: Avant la publication de tout journal ou écrit périodique, il sera fait au parquet du tribunal de Première Instance une déclaration de parution contenant:

1) le titre du journal ou écrit périodique et son mode de publication,

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2) le nom et l'adresse du Directeur de publication,3) l'indication de l'imprimerie où il doit être imprimé,4) le tirage moyen prévu.

Article 8:Tous les changements aux prescriptions ci-dessus énumérées sont déclarés dans les trente jours qui suivent.

Article 9:Tout journal ou écrit périodique doit lors de sa création remplir les conditions suivantes :

a) porter l'indication du nom et du domicile de l'imprimeur de même que le siège du journal b) avoir un Directeur de publication dont le nom est imprimé sur tous les exemplaires ;c) effectuer le dépôt légal.

Article 10: Tout écrit rendu public à l'exception des ouvrages typographiques de ville, portera l'indication du nom et du domicile de l'imprimeur sous peine contre celui-ci d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F CFA.La distribution des imprimés qui ne porteraient pas la mention exigée à l'alinéa précédent est interdite et en cas de récidive la peine est portée au double.

Section II: Des propriétaires

Article 11: Tous propriétaires et actionnaires majoritaires d'un organe de presse doivent être de nationalité malienne. Article 12:Toute personne convaincue d'avoir, d'une manière quelconque prêté son nom au propriétaire ou actionnaire majoritaire d'un organe de presse pour lui permettre d'échapper à la règle édictée à l'article 10 est punie d'une peine d'emprisonnement d'un à trois ans et d'une peine d'amende de 50.000 à 150.000 de francs.

Section III: Du directeur de publication

Article 13: Le Directeur de publication est responsable du contenu du journal. Il doit être âgé de 21 ans révolus, avoir au moins trois ans d'expérience professionnelle, jouir de ses droits civiques et avoir son domicile ou sa résidence au Mali.Article 14: Lorsque le Directeur de publication jouit de l'immunité parlementaire dans les conditions prévues par la Constitution, il doit désigner un codirecteur de publication parmi les personnes ne bénéficiant pas de ce privilège.Lorsque le journal ou écrit périodique est publié par une entreprise de presse ; une société ou une association, le codirecteur est choisi parmi les membres du Conseil d'Administration.

Article 15: Les auteurs qui remettent des articles non signés ou utilisent un pseudonyme sont tenus de donner par écrit avant insertion de leurs articles, leur véritable identité au Directeur de publication qui a l'obligation d'exiger que ces indications lui soient fournies.

Article 16: En cas d'infraction aux dispositions des article 7, 9 et 14 le propriétaire, le Directeur de publication ou le Codirecteur de publication seront solidairement punis d'une amende de 25.000 à 50.000 F.La peine sera applicable à l'imprimeur à défaut du propriétaire ou du Directeur ou, dans les cas prévus à l'article 14 du codirecteur de publication.Le journal ou écrit périodique ne pourra continuer sa publication qu'après avoir rempli les formalités ci-dessus prescrites, sous peine, si la publication irrégulière continue d'une amende de 50.000 F prononcée solidairement contre les mêmes personnes pour chaque numéro publié à partir du jour du prononcé du jugement de condamnation si ce jugement est contradictoire, et au troisième jour qui suivra sa notification, s'il a été rendu par défaut, et, nonobstant opposition ou appel ou si l'exécution provisoire est ordonnée.

Section IV: Du Dépôt légal

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Article 17: Au jour de la publication, il est déposé deux exemplaires signés du Directeur de publication:

- à Bamako : au Ministère chargé de l'administration territoriale et au Parquet du Tribunal de Première Instance du siège du journal,,

- dans les chefs lieux de régions : au Haut Commissariat et au Parquet du Tribunal de Première Instance,

- dans les autres localités: au bureau du Chef de la collectivités territoriale ainsi qu'au Parquet de la Justice de Paix à Compétence Etendue.

Ce dépôt est effectué sous peine d'une amende de 18.000 F contre le directeur de publication.Les Chefs des Collectivités Territoriales concernés, transmettent sans délai au Ministère chargé de l'Administration Territoriale les deux exemplaires objet du dépôt.Ce dépôt ne se confond pas avec celui de la Loi N°85-04/AN- RM du 11 février 1985 instituant le dépôt légal.

Section V: Des journaux ou écrits périodiques étrangers

Article 18: On entend par publication étrangère, toute publication dont la déclaration de parution est faite ailleurs qu'au Mali.

Article 19: La circulation, la distribution ou la mise en vente sur le territoire de la République du Mali de journaux ou écrits périodiques peuvent être interdites parla décision du Ministre chargé de l'Administration Territoriale, à la condition qu'ils portent atteinte à l'intégrité territoriale ou à l'unité nationale ; dans ce cas publicité doit être faite de cette interdiction. Cette interdiction peut également être prononcée à l'encontre des journaux ou écrits de provenance étrangère, imprimés sur le territoire ou hors du territoire de la République du Mali.La mise en vente, la distribution ou la reproduction de journaux ou écrits interdits, sont punies d'un emprisonnement de trois mois à deux ans et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000F. Il en est de même de la reprise sous un titre différent de la publication d'un journal ou d'un écrit interdit. Toutefois, en ce cas l'amende est portée au double.Il est procédé à la saisie administrative des exemplaires et des reproductions de journaux ou écrit interdits, et de ceux qui en reprennent la publication sous un titre différent.

Chapitre 3 : De l'affichage, du colportage et de la vente sur la voie publique

Article 20: Dans chaque Commune, le Maire désigne, les lieux exclusivement destinés à recevoir les affiches de loi et autres actes de l'autorité publique.Les Chefs de Circonscription Administrative procèdent à cette désignation dans les autres centres.Il est interdit d'y placarder des affiches particulières. Les affiches des actes émanant de l'autorité publique sont seules imprimées sur le papier blanc.Toute contravention aux dispositions du présent article est punie d'une amende de 5.000 francs CFA à18.000 francs CFA.

Article 21: Les professions de foi, circulaires et affiches électorales peuvent être placardées, à l'exception des emplacements réservés par l'article précédent, aux emplacements désignés par les autorités visées à l'article précédent et particulièrement aux abords des salles de scrutin.

Article 22: Ceux qui auront enlevé, lacéré, recouvert ou altéré par un procédé quelconque, de manière à les travestir ou à les rendre illisibles, des affiches apposées par ordre de l'administration dans les emplacements réservés, seront punis d'une amende de 50.000 francs CFA à 150.000 francs CFA.

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Si le fait a été commis par un fonctionnaire ou un agent de l'autorité publique la peine sera d'une amende de 50.000 francs CFA à 150.000 francs CFA et d'un emprisonnement d'un à six mois ou de l'une de ces deux peines seulement.Seront punis d'une amende de 50.000 francs CFA à 150.000 francs CFA ceux qui auront enlevé, lacéré, recouvert ou altéré par un procédé quelconque de manière à les travestir ou à les rendre illisibles, des affiches électorales émanant de simples particuliers, apposés ailleurs que sur leurs propriétés de ceux qui auront commis cette lacération ou cette altération.Article 23: Quiconque voudra exercer la profession de colporteur ou de distributeur sur la voie publique ou en tout autre lieu public ou privé, de livres, écrits, brochures, journaux, revues ou autres feuilles périodiques devra en faire la déclaration au Ministère chargé de l' Administration Territoriale, à la Mairie de la Commune dans laquelle doit se faire la distribution, ou au bureau du Chef de Circonscription.Article 24: La déclaration contiendra les nom, prénoms, profession, âge et lieu de naissance du déclarant. Il sera délivré immédiatement et sans frais au déclarant un récépissé.Article 25: L'exercice de la profession de colporteur ou de distributeur sans déclaration préalable ainsi que la fausseté de la déclaration seront punis d'une peine d'emprisonnement de un à six mois ou de ces deux peines et une amende de 50.000à 150.000 francs.

Chapitre 4: De la rectification et du droit de réponse

Section I: De la rectification

Article 26: Le Directeur de publication est tenu d'insérer gratuitement en tête du plus prochains numéros du journal ou écrits périodiques toutes les rectifications qui lui seront adressées par un dépositaire de l'autorité publique, au sujet des actes de sa fonction qui auront été inexactement rapportés par le journal ou écrit périodique.Toutefois, les rectifications ne dépasseront pas le double de l'article auquel elles répondront. En cas de contravention, le Directeur sera puni d'une amende de50.000 à 150.000 F.

Article 27: Le Directeur de publication sera tenu d'insérer dans les trois premiers jours de leur réception, les réponses de toute personne nommée ou désignée dans le journal ou écrit périodique quotidien sous peine d'une amende de 50.000 à150.000 francs sans préjudice des autres peines et dommages et intérêts, auxquels l'article pourrait donner lieu.En ce qui concerne les journaux ou écrits périodiques, le Directeur de publication sous peine des mêmes sanctions est tenu d'insérer la réponse au plus prochain numéro qui suivra la réception de la lettre rectificative.Cette insertion devra être faite à la même place dans les mêmes caractères que l'article qui l'aura provoquée et sans aucune intercalation.Non compris l'adresse, les salutations, les réquisitions d'usage et la signature qui ne seront jamais comptées dans la réponse, celle-ci sera limitée à la longueur de l'article qui l'aura provoquée.Toutefois, elle pourra atteindre cinquante lignes alors même que cet article serait d'une longueur moindre ; elle ne pourra dépasser 200 lignes alors même que cet article serait d'une longueur supérieure.Les dispositions ci-dessus s'appliquent aux répliques, lorsque le journaliste aura accompagné la réponse de nouveaux commentaires.La réponse sera toujours gratuite. Le demandeur en insertion pourra excéder les limites fixées au paragraphe précédent en offrant de payer le surplus.La réponse ne sera exigible que dans l'édition ou les éditions où aura paru l'article. Toute fois lorsque le plaignant aura faire publier sa réponse dans un autre organe de presse, le directeur de publication n'est plus tenu de publier ladite réponse dans son journal.

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Article 28: Est assimilé au refus d'insertion et puni des mêmes peines sans préjudice de l'action en dommages et intérêts, le fait de publier, dans la région desservie par les éditions ci-dessus, une édition spéciale d'où serait retranchée la réponse que le numéro correspondant du journal était tenu de reproduire.Le tribunal se prononcera dans les dix jours de la citation sur la plainte en refus d'insertion.Il pourra décider que le jugement ordonnant l'insertion, mais en ce qui concerne l'insertion seulement sera exécutoire sur minute nonobstant opposition ou appel. S'il y a appel, il sera statué dans les dix jours de la déclaration au greffe.Le Directeur de l'Organe médiatique audiovisuel sera tenu de diffuser dans les trois premiers jours de leur réception les réponses de toute personne nommée ou désignée dans l'émission concernée, sous peine d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F sans préjudice des autres peines et dommages et intérêts auxquels l'émission pourrait donner lieu. La diffusion devra être faite dans les mêmes conditions de durée et de présentation que l'émission qui l'aura provoquée et sans aucune intercalation. Toutefois, elle pourra atteindre deux minutes, alors même que cette émission serait d'une durée moindre.Les dispositions ci-dessus s'appliquent aux répliques, lorsque le journaliste aura accompagné la réponse de nouveaux commentaires. la réponse sera toujours gratuite.

Article 29: Pendant toute la période électorale, le délai de trois jours prévu pour l'insertion à l'article 27 de la présente loi, sera pour les journaux quotidiens de 24 heures.La réponse devra être remise 6 heures au moins avant le tirage du journal dans lequel elle devra paraître.Dès l'ouverture de la Campagne électorale, le Gérant ou le Directeur de publication du journal sera tenu de déclarer au parquet sous peines des sanctions édictées à l'article 26 de la présente loi, l'heure à laquelle, pendant cette période il entend fixer le tirage de son journal. Le délai de citation pour refus d'insertions sera réduite de 24 heures sans augmentation pour les distances, et la citation pourra même être délivrée d'heure à heure sur ordonnance spéciale rendue par le Président du Tribunal.Le jugement ordonnant l'insertion sera exécutoire, mais en ce qui concerne cette insertion seulement, sur minute, nonobstant opposition ou appel. Si l'insertion ainsi ordonnée n'est pas faite dans le délai fixé par le premier alinéa du présent article et qui prendra cours à compter du prononcé du jugement, le Directeur de Publication sera passible d'une peine d'emprisonnement de quinze jours à trois mois et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F.L'action en insertion forcée se prescrira un an révolu à compter du jour où la publication aura lieu.Le Directeur de l'Agence médiatique audiovisuel est tenu aux obligations de rectification contenues dans la présente section.

Section II: Du Droit de réponse

Article 30: Toute personne physique ou morale citée ou mise en cause dans un organe médiatique dispose du droit de réponse dans les mêmes conditions fixées à la section Ici-dessus.La réponse doit être diffusée ou publiée dans les conditions techniques équivalentes à celles dans lesquelles a été diffusé ou publié le message contenant l'imputation invoquée.

Article 31: La demande d'exercice du droit de réponse doit être présentée à l'organe médiatique dans les deux mois suivant la diffusion du message incriminé.

Chapitre 5: De l'aide à la presse

Article 32: L'Etat ale devoir d'aider les organes de communication qui contribuent à la mise en œuvre du droit à l'information.Les organes médiatiques peuvent recevoir de l'Etat une aide dans le cadre de leur mission de service public et de défense du droit à l'information.Un décret pris en Conseil des Ministres détermine les conditions d'éligibilité, d'attribution et de gestion de cette aide.

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Chapitre 6: Des crimes et délits pouvant être commis par voie de presse ou tout autre moyen de publication

Section I :Incitation aux crimes et délits

Article 33: Seront punis comme complices d'une action qualifiée crime ou délit ceux qui, soit par discours, cris ou menaces, proférés dans les lieux ou réunions publics, soit par des écrits, des imprimés vendus ou distribués, mis en vente dans les lieux ou réunions publics, soit par tous autres moyens de diffusion offerts par les organes médiatiques, auront incité le ou les auteurs à commettre ladite action, si l'incitation a été suivie d'effet. Cette disposition sera également applicable lorsque l'incitation n'aura été suivie que d'une tentative.

Article 34: Ceux qui par l'un des moyens énoncés à l'article précédent, auront directement incité au vol, soit aux crimes de meurtre, de pillage, d'incendie, de destruction volontaire d'édifices, habitations, digues chaussées, navires, ponts voies publiques ou privées ou d'une façon générale de tous objets mobiliers ou immobiliers de quelle que nature qu'ils soient, soit au dépôt sur la voie publique ou privée, dans une intention criminelle, d'un engin explosif, soit à l'un des crimes ou délits contre la sûreté extérieure de l'Etat, seront punis dans le cas où cette incitation n'aurait pas été suivie d'effet de trois à cinq ans d'emprisonnement et de 50.000 à 150.000 F d'amende.Ceux qui par les mêmes moyens auront directement incité à l'un des crimes contre la sûreté intérieure de l'Etat, seront poursuivis et punis comme complices lorsque l'incitation aura été suivie d'effet ; lorsqu'elle n'aura pas été suivie d'effet, la peine sera de six mois à un an d'emprisonnement et d'une amende de50.000 à 150.000 F.Seront punis des peines prévues à l'alinéa précédent ceux qui, par l'un des moyens énoncés à l'article33, auront fait l'apologie des crimes de guerre ou des crimes et délits d'intelligence avec l'ennemi.Tous cris, chants séditieux et notamment ceux de caractère raciste ou régionaliste proférés dans les lieux ou réunion publics seront punis d'un emprisonnement de un à cinq ans et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F ou de l'une de ces deux peines seulement.

Article 35:Toute incitation par l'un des moyens énoncés à l'article 33 adressée aux forces Armées et de Sécurité dans le but de les détourner de leurs devoirs militaires et l'obéissance qu'ils doivent à leurs chefs dans tous ceux qu'ils commandent pour l'exécution des lois et règlements sera punie d'un emprisonnement de trois à cinq ans et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F.

Section II : Délits contre la chose publique

Article 36: L'offense par le moyens énoncés à l'article 33 à la personne du Chef de l'Etat de la République du Mali est punie d'emprisonnement de trois mois à un an et d'une amende de 50. 000 à 600. 000 francs ou l'une de ces deux peines seulement.Article 37: La publication, la diffusion, ou la reproduction, par quelque moyen que ce soit, de nouvelles fausses, de pièces fabriquées, falsifiées ou mensongèrement attribuées à des tiers lorsque, faite de mauvaise foi, elle aura troublé la paix publique, sera punie d'un emprisonnement de onze jours à six mois et d'une amende de 50. 000 à 150. 000 francs ou l'une de ces deux peines seulement.Les mêmes faits seront punis d'un emprisonnement de onze jours à six mois et d'une amende de 50.000 à150.000 F lorsque la publication ou la reproduction faite de mauvaise foi, sera de nature ébranler la discipline ou le moral des forces des armées et de sécurité.

Section III: Délits contre les personnes

Article 38:Toute allégation ou imputation qui porte atteinte à l'honneur ou à la considération de la personne ou du corps auquel le fait est imputé est une diffamation.

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La publication directe ou par voie de reproduction de cette allégation ou de cette imputation est punissable même si elle est faite sous forme dubitative ou elle vise une personne ou un corps non expressément nommé, mais dont l'identification est rendue possibles par les termes du discours, cris, menaces, écrits ou imprimés.Toute expression outrageante, terme de mépris ou invective qui ne renferme l'imputation d'aucun fait est une injure.

Article 39: La diffamation commise par l'un des moyens énoncés à l'article 33envers les Cours, Tribunaux, les Forces Armées et de Sécurité les Corps Constitués et les Administrations Publiques, sera punie d'un emprisonnement de onze jours à six mois et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F ou de l'une de ces deux peines seulement.

Article 40: Sera punie de la même peine la diffamation commise par les mêmes moyens en raison de leur fonction ou de leur qualité, envers un ou plusieurs membres de l'Assemblée Nationale, un ou plusieurs membres de la Haute Cour de Justice, un citoyen chargé d'un service ou d'un mandat public temporaire ou permanent, un juré ou un témoin en raison de sa déposition.La diffamation contre les mêmes personnes concernant leur vie privée relève de l'article 41ci-après.

Article 41: La diffamation commise envers les particuliers par l'un des moyens énoncés à l'article 33 sera punie d'un emprisonnement de onze jours à six mois et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F ou de l'une de ces deux peines seulement.La diffamation commise par les mêmes moyens envers un groupe de personnes non visés à l'article40 de la présente loi, mais qui appartiennent par leur origine, à une race, une région ou une religion déterminée, sera punie d'un emprisonnement de onze jours à six ans et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F lorsqu'elle aura pour but d'inciter à la haine.

Article 42: L'injure commise par les mêmes moyens envers les corps ou les personnes désignées par les articles 39et 40 de la présente loi, sera punie d'un emprisonnement de onze jours à trois mois et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 Fou de l'une des deux peines seulement.L'injure commise de la même manière envers les particuliers lorsqu'elle n'aura pas été précédée de provocation, sera punie d'un emprisonnement de onze jours à un mois et d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000 F ou de l'une de ces deux peines seulement. Le maximum de la peine d'emprisonnement sera de six mois, celui de l'amende de500.000 F si l'injure est commise envers un groupe de personnes qui appartiennent, par leur origine, à une race, une région ou une religion déterminée dans le but d'inciter à la haine.Si l'injure n'est pas publique, elle ne sera punie que des peines de simple police.

Article 43: Les articles 40, 41, 42 ne seront applicables aux diffamations ou injures dirigées contre la mémoire des morts que dans les cas où les auteurs de diffamation ou injures auraient eu l'intention de porter atteinte à l'honneur ou à la considération des héritiers, époux ou légataires universels vivants. Que les auteurs de diffamation ou injures aient eu ou non l'intention de porter atteinte à l'honneur ou à la considération des héritiers, époux ou légataires universels vivants, ceux-ci pourront user dans les deux cas, du droit de réponse.

Article 44: La vérité du fait diffamatoire mais seulement quand il est relatif aux fonctions, pourra être établie par les voies ordinaires, dans le cas d'imputation contre les corps constitués, les forces Armées et de Sécurité, les administrations publiques et contre toutes les personnes énumérées à l'article 40.La vérité des imputations diffamatoires et injurieuses pourra être prouvée sauf :

a) lorsque l'imputation concerne la vie privée de la personne,b) lorsque l'imputation se réfère à des faits qui remontent à plus de dix années,

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c) lorsque l'imputation se réfère à un fait constituant une infraction amnistiée ou prescrite, ou qui a donné lieu à une condamnation effacée par la réhabilitation ou la révision.

Dans toute autre circonstance, lorsque le fait imputé est l'objet de poursuite commencée à la requête du Ministère Public, ou d'une plainte de la part du prévenu, il sera durant l'instruction sursit à la poursuite et au jugement du délit de diffamation. Article 45: Toute reproduction d'une imputation qui a été jugée diffamatoire sera réputée faite de mauvaise foi, sauf preuve contraire par son auteur.

Section IV : Délit contre les chefs d'Etats et agents diplomatiques

Article 46: L'offense commise publiquement envers le Chef de l'Etat, le Chef du Gouvernement, les Chefs d'Etat Etrangers, les Chefs de Gouvernement Etrangers, sera punie des peines prévues à l'article 36 de la présente loi.Ces mêmes dispositions sont applicables à ceux qui auront offensé les Présidents des autres Institutions de la République.

Article 47: L'outrage commis publiquement envers les députés, les Ministres maliens ou ceux d'un Etat étranger, les Ambassadeurs, les Envoyés spéciaux, les Chargés d'Affaires ou Agents Diplomatiques accrédités auprès du Gouvernement du Mali, sera puni d'un emprisonnement de quinze jours à trois mois et d'une amende de 50.000à 150.000 F, ou de l'une de ces deux peines seulement.

Section V: Publications interdites, immunités de la défense

Article 48: Il est interdit de publier ou de diffuser des actes d'accusation et tous actes de procédure criminelle ou correctionnelle avant qu'ils aient été lus en audience publique, et ce sous peine d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000F.Est punie de la même peine la publication par tous moyens, de photographie, gravures, dessins, portrait, films ayant pour objet la reproduction de tout ou partie de circonstances des crimes et délits de meurtre, assassinat, parricide, infanticide, empoisonnement, coups et blessures volontaires, homicide, blessures involontaires, ainsi que toutes les infractions portant sur les mœurs.Toutefois, il n'y aura pas de délits lorsque la publication aura été faite sur la demande ou l'autorisation écrite du juge chargé de l'affaire.Cette demande ou cette autorisation restera annexée aux dossiers.Il est interdit de publier ou de diffuser par l'un des moyens énoncés à l'article 33 ci-dessus, le compte rendu des débats, du jugement et toutes indications concernant l'identité et la personnalité des mineurs délinquants sous peine d'une amende de 50.000 à 150.000F.Cependant, en cas de nécessité constatée par le juge, le jugement peut-être publié ou diffusé sans le nom du mineur puisse être indiqué même par une initiale sous peine de sanctions spécifiées à l'alinéa précédent.

Article 49: Il est interdit de rendre compte des procès en diffamation dans les cas prévus aux alinéas a, b, c, de l'article 44 de la présente loi ainsi que des débats des procès d'avortement.Dans toutes les affaires civiles, les Cours et Tribunaux pourront interdire le compte rendu du procès.Il est également interdit de rendre compte des délibérations des Cours et Tribunaux. Toutes infractions à ses dispositions sera punie d'une amende de 5.000 à 18.000 F.

Article 50: Il est interdit d'ouvrir ou d'annoncer publiquement des souscriptions ayant pour objet d'indemniser des personnes condamnées à des peines d'amende ou de dommages et intérêts en matière criminelle ou correctionnelle sous peine d'une amende de 50.000à 150.000 F.

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Article 51: Ne donneront lieu à aucune action les reproductions des discours tenus pendant les sessions de l'Assemblée Nationale ainsi que les rapports ou toutes autres pièces imprimées par ordre de l'Assemblée Nationale.Ne donneront lieu à aucune action les comptes rendus des séances publiques de l'Assemblée Nationale, faits de bonne foi.Ne donneront lieu à aucune action en diffamation, injure ou outrage, ni le compte rendu fidèle fait de bonne foi des débats judiciaires ni les discours prononcés ou les écrits produits devant les Tribunaux.Les juges, saisis de la cause et statuant sur le fond pourront néanmoins prononcer la suppression des discours injurieux, outrageant ou diffamatoires et accorder des dommages et intérêts. Les juges pourront dans le même cas faire des injonctions aux avocats et aux officiers ministériels.Les faits diffamatoires étrangers à la cause pourront néanmoins donner ouverture, soit à l'action publique, soit à l'action civile des parties et des tiers.

Chapitre 7: Des poursuites et de la répression

Section I : des personnes responsables des crimes commis par voie de presse

Article 52: Dans l'ordre ci-après sont passibles des peines applicables des crimes et délits commis par voie de presse:

- les Directeurs d'organe d'information audiovisuel, les Directeurs de publication ou les éditeurs quelles que soient leur profession ou leur dénomination et, dans les cas prévus au deuxième alinéa de l'article 16 les codirecteurs de publication;

- à leur défaut, les auteurs ;- à défaut des auteurs, les imprimeurs ;- à défaut des imprimeurs, les vendeurs, les distributeurs et afficheurs .

Dans les cas prévus à l'article 14, la responsabilité des personnes visées aux numéros 2è et 4è du présent article est engagée comme s'il n'y avait pas de Directeur de publication n'a pas été désigné.

Article 53: Lorsque les Directeurs d'organes médiatiques audiovisuels, les Directeurs ou codirecteurs de publication ou les Editeurs seront en cause, les auteurs seront poursuivis comme complices, ainsi que toutes autres personnes auxquelles la qualité pourra s'appliquer. Le présent article pourra s'appliquer aux imprimeurs pour fait d'impression sauf dans le cas d'atteinte à la sûreté intérieure de l'Etat, ou à défaut de codirecteurs de publication dans les cas prévus au 2è et au 4ème alinéa de l'article 52. Toutefois, les imprimeurs pourront être poursuivis, comme complices, si l'irresponsabilité pénale du Directeur ou du codirecteur de publication était prononcée par les tribunaux. En ce cas, les poursuites seront engagées dans les trois mois du délit ou au plus tard, dans les trois mois suivant la constatation judiciaire de l'irresponsabilité du Directeur ou du codirecteur de publication.

Article 54: Les propriétaires des organes médiatiques sont responsables des condamnations pécuniaires prononcées au profit des tiers contre les personnes désignées aux articles précédents. Dans les cas prévus aux 2ème et 4ème alinéas de l'article 52, le recouvrement des amendes et dommages et intérêts pourra être poursuivi sur l'actif de l'entreprise.

Article 55: L'action civile résultant des délits de diffamation prévus et punis par les articles 39 et 40 ne pourra, sauf en cas de décès de l'auteur du fait incriminé ou amnistié, être poursuivi séparément de l'action publique.

Section II: De l a Procédure

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Article 56: La poursuite des délits et contraventions de simple police commis par voie de presse ou par tout autre moyen de publication ou de diffusion aura lieu d'office dans les conditions ci-après:

1) dans le cas d'injure ou de diffamation envers un ou plusieurs membres de l'Assemblée Nationale, la poursuite n'aura lieu que sur la plainte de la personne ou des personnes concernées;

2) dans le cas d'injure ou de diffamation envers un ou plusieurs membres de l'Assemblée Nationale et des Présidents des autres Institutions de la République, la poursuite n'aura lieu que sur la plainte de la personne ou des personnes intéressées ;

3) dans le cas d'injure ou de diffamation envers les fonctionnaires publics, les dépositaires ou agents de l'autorité publique autre que les Ministres et envers les citoyens chargés d'un service ou d'un mandat public, la poursuite aura lieu soit sur leur plainte, soit d'office sur la plainte du Ministère dont ils relèvent ;

4) dans le cas de diffamation envers un juré ou du témoin, la poursuite aura lieu sur plainte du juré ou du témoin

5) dans le cas d'offense envers les Chefs d'Etat, les Chefs de Gouvernement ou outrage envers les Ministres, les Agents Diplomatiques étrangers, la poursuite aura lieu sur leur demande expresse et écrite adressée au Ministère chargé de la Justice, ou à défaut au Ministère chargé des Relations Extérieures ;

6) dans le cas de diffamation envers les particuliers prévu par l'article 41, dans le cas d'injure précis par l'article42, alinéa 2, la poursuite n'aura lieu que sur plainte de la personne diffamée ou injuriée. Toutefois, la poursuite pourra être exercée d'office par le Ministère public lorsque la diffamation ou l'injure commise envers un groupe de personnes appartenant à une race, une région ou une religion déterminée, aura pour but d'incitation à la haine ;

7) en outre, dans les cas prévus par les alinéas 2è 3è 4è 5è ci-dessus, ainsi que dans les cas de non impression du nom du Directeur de publication, la poursuite pourra être exercée à la requête de la partie lésée.

Article 57: Dans les cas de poursuites correctionnelles ou contraventionnelles , le désistement du plaignant arrêtera la poursuite.

Article 58: Si le Ministère Public requiert l'ouverture d'une information, il sera tenu dans son réquisitoire introductif, d'articuler ou de qualifier les incitations, outrages, diffamations et injures en raison desquels la poursuite est intentée, avec indication des textes dont l'application est demandée, à peine de nullité du réquisitoire de ladite poursuite.

Article 59: Immédiatement après le réquisitoire, le juge d'instruction peut ordonner la saisie de quatre exemplaires de l'écrit du journal, du dessin, du film ou de la bande incriminés.Toutefois, dans les cas prévus aux articles 33, 34 (alinéas 1,2,3)35, 37 ci-dessus, la saisie des écrits ou imprimés, des placards ou affiches, des films ou bandes aura lieu conformément aux dispositions du Code de Procédure Pénale.

Article 60: Si l'inculpé est domicilié au Mali ; il ne pourra préventivement être détenu sauf dans les cas prévus aux articles 33, 34 (alinéa 1, 2 et 3) 35, 37ci-dessus.

Article 61: La citation précisera et qualifiera le fait incriminé, elle indiquera le texte de loi applicable à la poursuite. Si la citation est la requête du plaignant, elle contiendra élection de domicile dans la ville où siège la juridiction saisie et sera notifiée tant au prévenu qu'au Ministère Public. Toutes ces formalités seront observées à peine de nullité de la poursuite.

Article 62: Le délai entre la citation et la comparution sera de 20 jours francs outre un jour de plus par cent Kilomètres.Toutefois en cas de diffamation ou d'injure pendant la campagne électorale contre un candidat à une fonction électorale, ce délai sera réduit à 24 heures.En outre le délai de distance et les dispositions des articles 63 ne seront pas applicables.

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Article 63: Quand le prévenu voudra être admis à prouver la vérité des faits diffamatoires conformément aux dispositions de l'article 44 de la présente loi, il pourra à tout moment, après la signification de la citation, faire signifier au Ministère public ou au plaignant au domicile par lui élu, suivant qu'il est assigné à la requête de l'un ou de l'autre:

- les faits articulés et qualifiés dans la citation desquels il entend prouver la véracité ;- les noms, profession et demeure des témoins par lesquels il entend faire la preuve. Cette

signification contiendra élection de domicile près le Tribunal Correctionnel, le tout à peine d'être déchu du droit de faire la preuve.

Article 64: Le plaignant ou le Ministère Public, suivant le cas, sera tenu de faire signifier la prévu au domicile par lui élu, les copies des pièces, les noms, profession et demeure des témoins par lesquels il entend faire la preuve du contraire.

Article 65: Le tribunal correctionnel ou le tribunal de simple police sera tenu de statuer au fond dans le délai maximum d'un mois à compter de la date de la première audience. Dans le cas prévu à l'alinéa 2 de l'article 62 la cause ne pourra être remise au delà du jour fixé pour le scrutin.

Article 66: Le droit d'interjeter appel ou de se pourvoir en cassation appartient au condamné et à la partie civile. L'un et l'autre seront dispensés de consigner l'amende.

Article 67:L'appel devra être interjeté 15 jours au plus tard après le prononcé du jugement, au Greffe du Tribunal qui aura rendu la décision. Dans les 15 jours qui suivent, les pièces de la procédure seront envoyées à la Cour d'Appel.Le pourvoi devra être formé dans les trois jours au Greffe de la Cour qui aura rendu la décision.Dans les huit jours qui suivront, les pièces de la procédure seront envoyées à la Cour Suprême. L'appel contre les jugements ou le pourvoi contre les arrêts de la Cour d'Appel qui aura statué sur les incidents et exceptions d'incompétence ne sera formé à peine de nullité qu'après le jugement ou l'arrêt définitif et en même temps que l'appel ou le pourvoi contre ledit Jugement ou arrêt.Toutes les exceptions d'incompétence devront être proposées avant toute ouverture du débat sur le fond.

Article 68: Sous réserve des dispositions des articles 58, 59 et 60 ci-dessus, la poursuite des crimes aura lieu conformément au droit commun.

Section III :des dispositions spéciales relatives aux peines complémentaires, circonstances atténuantes et à la prescription

Article 69: S'il y a condamnation, le jugement pourra, dans les cas prévus aux articles 34 (alinéas1, 2 et 3), 35 et 37, prononcer la confiscation des écrits ou imprimés, placards ou affiches, films ou bandes saisies et la suppression ou la destruction de tous les exemplaires qui seraient mis en vente, distribués ou exposés au regard du public. Toutefois, la suppression ou la destruction pourra ne s'appliquer qu'à certaines parties des exemplaires saisis.

Article 70: En cas de condamnation, en application des articles 33, 34, 35 et 37 la suspension du journal ou du périodique pourra être prononcée par la même décision de justice pour une durée qui n'excédera pas trois mois. La suspension de l'organe médiatique sera sans effet sur les contrats de travail qui liaient l'exploitant, lequel reste tenu de toutes les obligations contractuelles ou légales en résultant.

Article 71: Encas de conviction de plusieurs crimes ou délits, les peines ne se cumuleront pas et la plus forte sera seule prononcée.

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Article 72: Les circonstances atténuantes sont applicables dans tous les cas prévus par la présente loi.

Article 73: L'action Publique et l'action Civile résultant des crimes, délits et contraventions prévus par la présente Loi se prescrivent par trois mois révolus, à compter du jour où ils auront été commis ou du jour du dernier acte de poursuite, s'il en a été fait.

Article 74: Indépendamment des poursuites et de la saisie judiciaire opérée en vertu de l'article 59 de la présente loi, le Ministre chargé de l' Administration Territoriale peut, dans les cas prévus aux articles 33, 34 (alinéa 1, 2 et 3) 35et 37, ordonner la saisie administrative des écrits, imprimés placards, affiches, films et bandes susceptibles par leur contenu de porter atteinte à la sûreté de l'Etat.

Chapitre 8 : Dispositions finales

Article 75: La présente Loi abroge toutes dispositions antérieures contraires, notamment celles de la loi N°92-037/AN- RM du 24 décembre 1992.

Attachment 4 : Décret N° 892-191/P-RM instituant une commission de la carte de presse.

Chapitre I : Création

Article 1: Il est institué une Commission de la Carte de Presse. Cette Commission est seule habilitée à statuer sur la délivrance de la Carte de Presse. Le siège de la Commission est à Bamako, au Ministère chargé de la Communication.

Article 2: La Carte de Presse est une Carte d'identification du journaliste.

Chapitre II : Composition, fonctionnement, attribution

Article 3: La Commission de la Carte de Presse se compose comme suit:

- un représentant du Ministre de la Communication ;- deux représentants des Directeurs de journaux désignés par leurs pairs ;- quatre représentants des journalistes désignés par leurs organisations

professionnelles.

Des membres suppléants désignés dans les mêmes conditions que les membres titulaires peuvent être appelés à suppléer ceux-ci en cas d'absence et à remplacer les membres titulaires démissionnaires ou décèdes entre deux renouvellements.La Commission élit en son sein un Président, un vice-président et un Secrétaire Général. Un arrêté du Ministre chargé de la Communication fixe la liste nominative des membres titulaires et suppléants de la Commission.

Article 4: Les directeurs de journaux et journalistes, pour être membres de la Commission de la Carte de Presse, doivent justifier de l'exercice de leur profession depuis deux ans au moins et jouir de leurs droits civils et civiques.

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Article 5: Les membres de la Commission de la Carte de Presse sont désignés pour deux ans. Les membres sortants peuvent être reconduits une seule fois. Toute fois, tout membre sortant peut-être désigné à nouveau pour siéger au sein de la Commission après une interruption d'au moins un mandat.

Article 6 : La Commission de la Carte de presse établit son règlement intérieur. Elle siège en présence des deux tiers au moins de ses membres. Les décisions portant délivrance, renouvellement, conditions de retrait provisoire ou définitif de la Carte de presse doivent être prises à la majorité absolue des membres présents.

Article 7 : Le postulant à la Carte de presse doit fournir à l'appui de sa demande :1) un extrait d'acte de naissance ou une pièce d'identité ;2) un extrait de casier judiciaire datant de moins de trois mois;3) un Curriculum Vitae ;4) une déclaration sur l'honneur que le journalisme est sa profession. Cette

affirmation devra être établie; a) soit sur la base de l'identification des publications auxquelles le postulant

aurait déjà loué ses services; b) soit par la justification des services rendus ‡ un organe de presse comme

pigiste ou journaliste indépendant ; c) soit par la production d'un diplôme d'une Ecole de journalisme reconnue

par la République du Mali; 5) une attestation d°ment établie et signée par le Directeur de la publication à

laquelle le postulant à la carte loue ses services au moment où il adresse sa demande à la Commission de la Carte de presse ;

6) l'indication, le cas échéant, des autres occupations régulièrement rétribuées ;7) trois photos d'identité ;8) un engagement de tenir la Commission de la carte de presse informée de tout

changement intervenu dans sa situation, engagement qui comportera l'obligation de rendre la carte de presse à la Commission dans le cas où le titulaire perdrait la qualité de journaliste. Cet engagement sera mentionné sur la carte de presse.

Article 8: A titre exceptionnel, la Commission peut attribuer la Carte de presse pour un an non renouvelable aux journalistes professionnels en attente d'emploi. Mention en sera faite sur la carte.

Article 9: La carte de presse est retirée à tout journaliste:

1) ayant subi une condamnation afflictive ou infamante non amnistiée ;2) ayant violé de manière flagrante la déontologie de la profession.

Article 10: La Commission de la Carte de presse est seule habilitée à retirer la Carte du Journaliste. Sa décision est notifiée à l'intéressé par lettre recommandée.

Article 11: Le recours contre les décisions de la Commission s'exerce devant la juridiction administrative.

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Article 12: Toute personne qui aura fait une déclaration inexacte, en vue d'obtenir la Carte de presse ou qui aura fait usage d'une Carte de Presse frauduleusement obtenue, périmée ou annulée pour acquérir des avantages sera passible des peines prévues par la loi.

Article 13: La Carte de presse du journaliste porte la photographie du titulaire, sa signature ,l'indication de ses nom, prénoms, nationalité et adresse de l'organe auquel il est affilié. Sa validité est de trois ans .La carte de presse est revêtue de la signature du Président de la Commission et de celle du Ministre chargé de la Communication. Sa possession est un acte d'adhésion à la déclaration des droits et devoirs du journaliste.

Chapitre III : Dispositions finales

Article 14: Le présent décret qui abroge toutes dispositions antérieures contraires, notamment celles du décret n8250/PG- RM du 7 Juillet 1961 sera enregistré et publié au Journal Officiel.

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Attachment 5 : N°92-038/ portant création du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication

Titre I : Dispositions générales

Article 1: Il est créé en République du Mali, un Organe dénommé Conseil Supérieur de la Communication.

Article 2: Le siège du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication est à Bamako. Il peut être transféré en tout autre lieu de la République du Mali. Article 3: Au sens de la présente Loi, la Communication se définit comme toute mise à la disposition du public ou de catégorie de public, par un procédé de télécommunication par l'imprimé, de signaux, d'écrits, d'images, de sons ou de messages de toute nature qui n'ont pas le caractère d'une correspondance privée.

Titre II : Attributions

Article 4: L'avis du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication peut-être requis sur toutes questions relatives aux conditions de production, de programmation, de diffusion et de publication en matière de communication écrite et audiovisuelle ainsi que sur toutes celles portant sur la garantie de la liberté de communication.

Article 5: Sans préjudice de la réglementation sur les conditions et procédures d'obtention, de suspension et de retrait de l'autorisation de création, de services privés de radiodiffusion et de télévision, le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication statue sur l'attribution et le retrait des fréquences aux stations de radiodiffusion et télévision. Il veille au respect par celles-ci de leurs cahiers de charges.

Article 6: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication est consulté avant adoption de toute mesure législative ou réglementaire portant sur l'organisation des activités de communication écrite ou audiovisuelle.Il tient compte des impératifs de communication du monde rural et favorise l'intégration culturelle, la valorisation et la pleine diffusion des langues nationales.

Article 7: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication peut initier toute étude ou recherche visant à promouvoir la Communication écrite et audiovisuelle. Il peut en outre proposer des plans d'aides aux médias.

Article 8: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication statue sur toutes pratiques restrictives de la libre concurrence ou favorisant la constitution de cartel dans l'industrie des communications.Les autorités parlementaires, administratives ou judiciaires ou toute personne physique ou morale peuvent requérir l'avis du Conseil sur toute question relevant du domaine de la communication.

Article 9: Le Ministre chargé de la Communication peut prendre l'avis du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication sur tout projet d'intérêt national touchant le secteur de la communication.Article 10: Le Conseil Supérieur de la communication peut émettre un avis sur l'activité de tout établissement public chargé de la préservation, la conservation et la restauration des fonds d'archives imprimés, sonores ou visuels du patrimoine culturel national.

Article 11: Il est consulté pour la définition de l'option du Mali dans les négociations internationales sur les activités relatives à la radiodiffusion sonore à la télévision et à la presse écrite.

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Article 12: Le Conseil Supérieur de la communication établit et publie chaque année un rapport sur la situation du secteur de la Communication au Mali et sur ses perspectives d'évolution.Ce rapport, dont copie est adressée au Ministre chargé de la Communication rend compte également des activités propres du Conseil.

Titre III : Composition

Article 13: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication se compose comme suit :

- Trois membres désignés par le Président de la République ;- Trois membres désignés par le Président de l'Assemblée Nationale ;- Trois membres désignés par le Président du Conseil Economique Social et Culturel.

Les membres du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication sont nommés par Décret pris en Conseil des Ministres.

Article 14: Ne peuvent être membres du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication que les personnes qui remplissent les conditions suivantes:

- être de nationalité malienne ;- être âgé de 21 ans accomplis au moins ;- résider sur le territoire de la République du Mali;- jouir de ses droits civils et civiques.

Tout membre du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication qui ne remplit plus une de ces conditions, perd sa qualité de membre. Il est procédé à son remplacement suivant le mode prévu à l'article 13 de la présente Loi.

Article 15: Le mandat des membres du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication est de trois ans ; il n'est renouvelable qu'une seule fois. Les membres du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication ne peuvent être révoqués que dans les conditions prévues aux articles 13 et 18 de la présente Loi.La révocation est prononcée par Décret pris en Conseil des Ministres.

Article 16: En cas d'interruption du mandat d'un membre du Conseil, il est pourvu à son remplacement dans les 45 jours qui suivent. Le remplaçant est nommé conformément à l'article 13 de la présente Loi et ne peut siéger que pour le mandat interrompu.

Article 17: Les fonctions de membres du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication sont incompatibles avec tout mandat électif. Les membres du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication ne peuvent détenir d'intérêts dans une entreprise de l'audiovisuel, du cinéma, de l'édition, de la presse, de la publicité ou des télécommunications. Toutefois, si un membre du Conseil détient des intérêts dans une telle entreprise, il dispose d'un délai de 30 jours à compter de sa nomination pour se mettre en conformité avec les dispositions de la présente Loi. Article 18: Tout membre du Conseil qui aura manqué aux obligations définies à l'article 17 ci-dessus, sera révoqué de ses fonctions.

Titre IV : Du fonctionnement

Article 19: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication crée en son sein des Commissions de travail ; il peut faire appel à toute personne ressource en raison de sa compétence technique particulière.

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Article 20: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication élit en son sein un Président et dispose d'un Secrétaire permanent. Le Secrétaire permanent n'est pas membre du Conseil. Il est nommé par Décret pris en Conseil des Ministres sur proposition du Ministre chargé de la Communication. Il a rang et prérogatives de Conseiller Technique des Départements Ministériels.

Article 21: Pendant la durée des sessions, les membres du Conseil perçoivent des indemnités alignées sur celles accordées aux Agents de la Catégorie II B en mission à l'intérieur du pays, conformément à la réglementation en vigueur. La durée d'une session ne peut excéder cinq jours par mois.

Article 22: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication adopte son programme d'activités ; il examine et délibère sur les questions, études et documents qu'il initie ou qui lui sont soumis. Il soumet son projet de budget à l'Etat pour approbation.

Article 23: Le Conseil Supérieur de la Communication élabore et adopte le règlement intérieur qui fixe les modalités de son fonctionnement. Les charges de fonctionnement du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication sont assumées par le Budget d'Etat.

Titre V : Dispositions finales

Article 24: La présente loi abroge toutes dispositions antérieures contraires.

Attachment 6 : Loi N°93-001 / Portant loi organique Relative à la Création du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Médias d'Etat.

Titre I : Dispositions générales

Article 1: Il est créé en République du Mali, conformément à l'article 7 de la Constitution, un organe indépendant dénommé Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat.Article 2: Le siège du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat est à Bamako ; il peut être transféré en tout autre lieu de la République du Mali.

Titre II : Attributions

Article 3: Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat assure l'égal accès de tous aux média d'Etat dans les conditions fixées par les lois et règlements en vigueur. A ce titre, il veille:

- à l'équilibre et au pluralisme de l'information en tenant compte des différentes sensibilités politiques, économiques, sociales et culturelles du pays ;

- à une gestion équitable du temps d'antenne et de l'espace rédactionnel consacrés aux candidats et aux formations politiques pendant les campagnes électorales.

Article 4: Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat peut être saisi de toute violation des dispositions législatives et réglementaires régissant l'égal accès aux média d'Etat. Il peut être saisi par toute personne physique ou morale.

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Article 5: Il statue en toute indépendance sur les litiges constatés par lui ou dont il est saisi. Il peut infliger les sanctions suivantes:

- l'avertissement;- la mise en demeure;- la rectification de tout ou partie du programme;- la suspension de tout ou partie du programme.

Ces différentes sanctions sont infligées aux organes pris en la personne de leur Directeur ou de leur Directeur de Publication.

Article 6: Le recours contre les sanctions ci-dessus spécifiées est exercé devant le juge administratif territorialement compétent.

Article 7: Dans le cadre de sa mission, le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat propose au Gouvernement des mesures d'appui aux média d'Etat.

Article 8: Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat établit et publie chaque année un rapport d'activités. Ce rapport est adressé à toutes les Institutions prévues par la Constitution.

Titre III : Composition

Article 9: Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat comprend sept (7) membres:

- un membre désigné par le Président de la République;- un membre désigné par le Premier Ministre;- un membre désigné par le Président de l'Assemblée Nationale;- un membre désigné par le Premier Président de la Cour Suprême;- un membre désigné par le Président de la Cour Constitutionnelle;- un membre désigné par le Président du Haut Conseil des Collectivités Territoriales- un membre désigné par le Président du Conseil Economique Social et Culturel.

Article 10: La liste des membres du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat est fixée par décret pris en Conseil des Ministres.

Article 11: Le mandat des membres du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat est de trois (3) ans ; il n'est renouvelable qu'une seule fois. Les membres du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat remplissent leur mandat cumulativement avec les fonctions qu'ils exercent habituellement.

Article 12: Les membres du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat ne peuvent être poursuivis pour les avis et opinions émis par eux dans l'exercice de leur fonction.

Titre IV : Fonctionnement

Article 13: Les membres du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat se réunissent en session ordinaire une fois par trimestre sur convocation de leur Président. Ils peuvent cependant se réunir en session extraordinaire chaque fois que les circonstances l'exigent. La durée d'une session ne peut excéder dix (10) jours.

Article 14: Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat peut faire appel à toute personne ressource en raison de sa compétence technique particulière.

Article 15: Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média de l'Etat adopte son programme d'activités, il examine et délibère sur les questions, études et documents qu'il initie ou qui

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lui sont soumis. Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat élit en son sein un Président et dispose d'un Secrétaire permanent. Le Secrétaire permanent n'est pas membre du Comité, il est nommé par le Président de la République après avis des membres du Comité National. Ses attributions sont fixées par le règlement intérieur. Il a rang et prérogatives de Conseiller Technique de Département Ministériel. Pendant la durée des sessions, les membres du Comité National perçoivent des indemnités égales aux 3/4 de celles accordées aux députés.

Article 16: Le remplacement normal des membres du Comité s'effectue 15 jours au moins avant la fin de leur mandat.

Article 17: Lorsqu'une vacance se produit avant la date normale d'expiration des mandats, il est procédé dans le délai de 45 jours à une désignation complémentaire conformément aux dispositions de l'article 9 de la présente Loi. Le nouveau membre termine le mandat de son prédécesseur et ne peut briguer qu'un seul mandat. Article 18: La démission d'un membre du Comité se fait par lettre adressée au Président du Comité qui en saisit le Comité. La démission acceptée par le Comité est immédiatement communiquée au Président de la République. Article 19: La désignation du remplaçant intervient au plus tard dans les 45 jours qui suivent conformément aux dispositions de l'article 9 de la présente Loi. La démission prend effet à compter de la date de nomination du remplaçant.

Article 20: Trois absences non motivées d'un membre du Comité National d'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat au cours d'une même session équivalent à une démission.

Article 21: Le Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média de l'Etat élabore et adopte le règlement intérieur qui fixe les autres modalités de son fonctionnement.

Article 22: Les charges de fonctionnement du Comité National de l'Egal Accès aux Média d'Etat sont assurées par le Budget d'Etat.

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Attachment 7 : DECRET N°92-022 :DETERMINANT LES CONDITIONS ET PROCEDURES D’OBTENTION, DE SUSPENSION OU DE RETRAIT DE

L’AUTORISATION DE CREATION DE SERVICE PRIVES DE RADIODIFFUSION SONORE PAR VOIE HERTZIENNE TERRESTRE EN MODULATION DE FREQUENCE

Le Premier ministre

Vu l’Acte Fondamental N1 /CTSP du 31 mars 1991; Vu l’Ordonnance N 92-002/P-CTSP du 15 janvier 1992 portant autorisation de Création de services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence ; Vu le Décret N 91-458/P CTSP du 27 décembre 1991 portant nomination des membres du Gouvernement

DECRETE

TITRE : DISPOSITIONS GENERALES

Article 1: Le domaine d’intervention des services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence couvre notamment la fourniture d’information, la promotion culturelle, le sport, la publicité commerciale et industrielle, la formation du citoyen, les distractions non prescrites par les textes en vigueur.

Article 2: Les Pouvoirs publics, pour des contraintes liées au service public, peuvent inclure dans un cahier de charges, des clauses de nature à permettre un appui aux médias d’Etat aux fins de diffusions d’informations d’intérêt national ou stratégique notamment en cas de catastrophe ou calamités.

TITRE II : DE L’AUTORISATION DE CREATION, D’INSTALLATION DE SERVICES PRIVES DE RADIODIFFUSION SONORE PAR VOIE HERTZIENNE EN MODULATION DE FREQUENCE

Article 3: L’autorisation de création, d’installation et d’exploitation est accordée aux personnes physiques ou morales de nationalité malienne, jouissant de leurs droits civiques.Article 4 : La liberté de création des services de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence est limitée par :

- le respect de la dignité de la personne humaine;- la liberté et la propriété d’autrui;- le caractère pluraliste de l’expression des courants de pensée et d’opinion;- la sauvegarde de l’ordre public; - les besoins de la défense nationale;- les exigences du service public; - les contraintes techniques inhérentes aux moyens de communication.

Article 5 : L’autorisation visée à l’article 3 est délivrée par arrêté conjoint des Ministres chargés de la Communication et de l’Intérieur dans un délai de quinze jours (15 jours qui court à partir du dépôt de la demande auprès du Ministre chargé de la Communication, et après avis de la commission nationale de services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne, terrestre en modulation de fréquence. L’autorisation est strictement personnelle et valable trois renouvelables. Dans le cas de décès du titulaire de l’autorisation, les ayant droit doivent demander l e renouvellement de l’autorisation, dans un délai de trois (3) mois faute de quoi, l’autorisation est caduque.

Article 6: Tout pétitionnaire doit indiquer, son nom, adresse, raison sociale, le cas

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échéant, les fréquences d’émission souhaitées, la localisation, la dimension de l’antenne, la zone si possible de couverture, les caractéristiques techniques du matériels et la notice en français (ou en langues nationales), le nombre d’heures d’antenne, la grille des programme, la composition et la qualification du personnel chargé de l’exploitation et de la maintenance des équipements.

Article 7: Le titulaire de l’autorisation adresse trois (3) mois avant l’expiration de celle-ci une demande de renouvellement au Ministère chargé de la CommunicationSi dans un délai de quinze jours, les Ministres chargés de la Communication et de l’Intérieur ne font pas parvenir aux pétitionnaires leur accord ou refus motivé, un silence vaut accord et l’autorisation est reconduite d’office pour trois (3) ans.

Article 8: il est créé une commission nationale de services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne en modulation de fréquence.La dite commission a pour mission de donner un avis technique sur les demandes d’autorisation.

Article 9: La Commission nationale citée à l’article 8 est composée comme suit:- Un représentant nommé par le Ministre chargé de la Communication ; - Un représentant nommé par le Ministre chargé de la Sécurité ; - Un représentant nommé par le Ministre chargé de la Culture , - Un représentant désigné par les radios privées ; - Un représentant désigné par les Consommateurs

Les membres de la commission sont désignés pour un mandat de deux ans renouvelables une seule fois. Cette commission nationale peut faire appel aux personnes ressources de son choix

TITRE III : DE LA SUSPENSION ET DU RETRAIT DE L’AUTORISATION

Article 10: Les émissions portant atteintes aux mœurs ou préjudiciables au développement harmonieux de certaines couches sensibles de la population, notamment les enfants et les adolescents sont proscrites. Sont également proscrites, conformément à la loi, toutes les émissions incitant à des crimes et délits de caractère racial, régionaliste ou religieux.Toute émission radiodiffusée est soumise au respect des règles de déontologie en la matière.

Article 11: Le retrait de l’autorisation est prononcé par arrêté conjoint des Ministres chargés de la Communication et de l’Intérieur, après avis de la commission nationale aux motifs suivants:

- Violation du secret des correspondances- Non acquittement de la redevance annuelle- Violation du cahier de charges - Violation des textes en vigueur

Article 12: Le Ministre chargé de l’Intérieur après consultation du Ministre chargé de la Communication est habilité, à titre conservatoire, à procéder à la fermeture d’office de tout service privé de radiodiffusion dont l’émission porte atteinte aux intérêts de la défense nationale ou à l’unité nationale.Sauf à saisir les juridictions compétentes, le Ministre chargé de l’Intérieur dispose au plus de 7 jours pour lever la mesure conservatoire.Les services privés peuvent à tout moment demander main levée de la mesure conservatoire aux juridiction compétentes

TITRE IV : DISPOSITION PARTICULIERE ET FINALES

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Article 13: Les membres de la commission nationale et les agents mandatés du Ministère chargé de la Communication bénéficient d’un droit de visite dans les locaux des services privés de radiodiffusion.

Article 14: Le Ministre chargé du Budget, après consultation du Ministre chargé de la Communication, fixe par arrêté le montant de la redevance.

Article 15: Un arrêté conjoint des Ministres chargés de la Communication, de la Culture, de l’Intérieur et de la Sécurité fixe le cahier des charges.

Article 16: Le Ministre de la Communication, le Ministre du Budget, le Ministre de la Défense Nationale et de la Sécurité Intérieure, le Ministre de l’Administration Territoriale chargé des Relations avec le CTSP et les Associations, le Ministre des Sports, de la Culture et de la Promotion des Jeunes et le Ministre Délégué à la Sécurité Intérieure, sont chargés, chacun en ce qui le concerne, de l’exécution du présent décret qui sera enregistré et publié au Journal Officiel.

Bamako, le 18 janvier 1992 Le Premier Ministre

Attachment 8 : ORDONNANCE N° 92-337/P-CTSP PORTANT AUTORISATION DE CREATION DE SERVICES PRIVES DE

COMMUNICATION AUDIOVISUELLE

Le Président du Comité de Transition pour le Salut du Peuple

Vu l’Acte Fondamental N°1/CTSP du 31 mars 1991 ;Vu la Loi N 88-58/RM du 6 mai 1988 relative à la presse et aux délits de presse ; Vu la Loi N° 84-26/ANRM du 17 octobre 1984 abrogeant et remplaçant l’Ordonnance N°77-46/CMLN du 12 juillet 1977 fixant le régime de la propriété littéraire et artistique en République du Mali ; La Cour Suprême entendue en sa séance du 21 avril 1992 ; Le Conseil des Ministres entendu en sa séance du 29 avril 1992.

ORDONNE

Article 1: IL est autorisé la création libre de service privé de communication audiovisuelle.Article 2: Les Services privés de communication audiovisuelle concourent à l’expression pluraliste de l’opinion. Leur accès doit être équitable pour les partis politiques

Article 3: L’exercice de cette liberté visée à l’article 1er

ne peut être limité que par le

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respect de la personne humaine et de l’intérêt public conformément aux dispositions en vigueur notamment:

- la liberté et la propriété d’autrui ; - le caractère pluraliste de l’expression des courants de pensée et d’autrui ; - la sauvegarde de l’ordre public ; - les besoins de la défense nationale ; - les exigences du service public ; - les contraintes techniques inhérentes aux moyens de communication

Article 4: L’exercice des activités de communication audiovisuelle est soumis au paiement de redevances, au droit de réponse reconnu en matière de presse, aux dispositions légales relatives à la presse et aux délits de presse et aux lois et règlements sur la propriété littéraire et artistique.

Article 5 : Quiconque aura installé ou mis en exploitation un service privé de communication audiovisuelle en violation des textes en vigueur, sera puni d’un emprisonnement de 6 mois à 2 ans et d’une amende de 500 000 à 3 000 000 de francs ou de l’une de ces deux peines seulement, sans préjudice de toute autre sanction administrative.

Article 6 : Un décret fixe les conditions et procédures d’obtention, de suspension ou de retrait de l’autorisation de création des services privés de communication audiovisuelle.

Article 7 : La présente ordonnance sera exécutée comme Loi de l’Etat.

Bamako, le 14 mai 1992Le Président du Comité de Transition pour le Salut du Peuple

Lt Colonel Amadou Toumani TOURE

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Attachment 9 : ARRETE –INTERMINISTERIEL N°92 MC-MAT/CTSP/ASS-MSCP

FIXANT CAHIER DE CHARGES DES SERVICES PRIVES DE RADIODIFFUSION PAR VOIE HERTZIENNE TERRESTRE EN

MODULATION DE FREQUENCE

Le Ministre de la Communication, Le Ministre de l’Administration Territoriale, chargé des Relations, Le CTSP, et les Associations ;Le Ministre des Sports, de la Culture et de la Promotion des JeunesLe Ministre Délégué à la Sécurité Intérieure

Vu l’Acte Fondamental n°1/CSTP du 31 mars 1991 ; Vu l’Ordonnance n°92-002/CTSP du 15 janvier 1992 portant autorisation de création de services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence ;

Vu le décret n°92-022/PM-RM du 18 janvier 1992 déterminant les conditions et procédures d’obtention, de suspension ou de retrait de l’autorisation de création des services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence

Vu le Décret n°91-458/P-CTSP du 27 décembre 1991 portant nomination des membres du Gouvernement

ARRETENT :

Chapitre 1: DISPOSITIONS GÉNÉRALES

Article 1: Le présent arrêté fixe le cahier des charges des services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence.

Article 2: Le contrôle du fonctionnement des services privés de radiodiffusion sonore notamment la conformité aux normes techniques édictées par le présent cahier des charges de la CommunicationA cet effet, chaque service privé de radiodiffusion sonore doit tenir un registre d’antenne et un cahier de bord à la disposition de cette équipe.

Chapitre II : CONDITION D’INSTALLATION

Article 3: Toute personne physique de nationalité malienne ou toute personne morale de droit malien peut être autorisée après avis de la Commission Nationale à créer, installer, et exploiter un service privé de radiodiffusion sonore à condition de diffuser ses programmes à partir du territoire national et de se conformer aux prescriptions ci-après.

Article 4: La demande écrite d’autorisation de création, d’installation et d’exploitation de service privé de radiodiffusion est adressée au Ministre chargé de la Communication ; elle est dispensée de droit de timbre.Elle doit obligatoirement porter:

- les indications prescrites à l’article 6 du Décret n°92-022/PM-RM du 18 janvier 1992 susvisé.- le compte d’exploitation prévisionnel- le public visé et ses caractéristiques

Article 5: La demande d’autorisation susvisée doit contenir les données techniques et physiques suivantes, devant faire l’objet de contrôle technique sur les sites d’implantation par l’équipe technique désignée par le Ministre chargé de la Communication :

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- la zone de service ; - la fréquence assignée ; - le nom de la station d’émission et les sites d’implantation ; - les coordonnées géographiques et l’emplacement de l’antenne d’émission en degré et minute,

altitude au-dessus du niveau de la mer.- la hauteur de l’antenne au-dessus du niveau du sol ne peut être inférieure à 20 mètres ni

supérieure à 75 mètres.- la polarisation horizontale, verticale ou mixte- le système (mono ou stéréo)- le système (mono ou stéréo)- la puissance apparente rayonnée totale en décibel par rapport à un watt (sdbw)- la puissance apparente rayonnée maximale de la composante à la polarisation horizontale (Dbw)

I KW maximum- le type d’antenne non directionnelle ou directionnelle- la hauteur équivalente maximale de l’antenne en mètres- le gain d’antenne

Chapitre III : CONDITION D’EXPLOITATION

Article 6: L’autorisation de création, d’installation et d’exploitation peut faire l’objet de retrait si, dans les trois mois ayant suivi son octroi, le titulaire n’a pas commencé l’exploitation de la station.

Le Ministre chargé de la Communication procède en même temps au retrait des fréquences.

Article 7: L’autorisation susvisée spécifie les conditions générales et particulières d’utilisation de la station.Le bénéficiaire en retour accuse réception et s’engage par écrit et se conforme aux conditions exigées, par le présent cahier des charges.

Article 8: Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore ont le devoir de participer à l’éducation, à la sensibilisation, aux actions de promotion économique et sociale. Ils doivent constituer en cas d’insécurité, de situation grave ou de catastrophe, à la demande des autorités compétentes et sur la réquisition écrite, un relais pour les pouvoirs publics tendant, soit à appuyer ses forces, soit à calmer et à rassurer les populations.

Article 9: Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore doivent veiller à la fourniture d’informations vraies et véritables et à éviter la diffusion d’information alarmistes et suspectes.Ils doivent contribuer à la promotion de la culture et s’abstenir d’ouvrir la rivalité entre les communautés humaines.Article 10: Tout service privé de radiodiffusion sonore est tenu de respecter un taux minimum d’émissions consacrées à la valorisation du patrimoine international, correspondant à 20% du temps d’antenne.Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore qui n’auront pas atteint ce quota seront mis en demeure de rattraper le retard sur leur heure d’écoute la plus élevée ou sur les tranches réservées à la publicité.

Article 11: La publicité commerciale et industrielle doit privilégier les produits nationaux, locaux ou imposés par notre adhésion à une organisation sous-régionale africaine ou internationale, sans exclure les produits étrangers demandés et consommés dans le respect de la réglementation en vigueur.

Article 12: Les organisations et associations de consommateurs peuvent à tout moment attirer l’attention des autorités sur les dangers que comportent la publicité sur la vie des auditeurs et son impact sur l’économie et la culture.

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Article 13 : Les émissions qui ont pour cible les enfants, doit être diffusées à des moments favorables au repos, à la détente de la famille et des enfants, à l’éducation. Tout abus peut faire l’objet de mise en demeure.

Article 14: Toute communauté humaine peut s’opposer à toute émission radiodiffusion de nature à la dégrader ou l'avilir.Lorsque les personnes, des entreprises ou des organisations sont concernées par un programme d’émission d’un service privé de radiodiffusion sonore, il est recommandé de requérir leur avis, de les aviser d’avance du temps d’émission et de l’utilisation future du programme par le service privé concerné.

Article 15: Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore ne peuvent user de contraintes ou de pressions pour obliger leurs employés à adhérer à une quelconque organisation syndicale.L’employeur s’engage à respecter en la circonstance la clause de conscience, et à ne pas confier au journaliste ou au technicien un travail incompatible avec sa dignité d’homme.Le travailleur ne peut être astreint à diffuser des informations contraires à al réalité. Le refus par un journaliste ou un technicien de services privés de radiodiffusion sonore à but non lucratif de diffuser une publicité ne peut en aucun cas être retenu comme une faute professionnelle.

Article 16: Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore s’engagent à respecter la fonction première de la presse qui est d’informer correctement et de diffuser sans distinction ni prétention malveillante les faits, les informations, les divers courants de pensées et de sensibilités.

Article 17: Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore doivent développer avec le service public des relations de complémentarité sur le plan d’exploitation et s’abstenir de diffuser des éléments sonores susceptibles d’inciter les auditeurs à la haine ou à la rébellion.

Article 18: Toute station est tenue de se faire identifier à l’ouverture et à la fermeture de l’antenne et au moins une fois toutes les heures. Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore peuvent, en accord avec les médias d’Etat, utiliser le surplus de leur capacité d’équipements techniques (pylônes), antennes, liaisons, (FH) sous forme de prestation, de services rémunérés comme tels. Il est de même de la compétence technique d’agents disponibles auprès des médias ou d’autres organismes d’Etat.

Article 19: Les services privés de radiodiffusion sonore doivent veiller au respect de la réalité des installations techniques afin d’éviter toute perturbation du fait desdites installations.

Chapitre IV : DISPOSITIONS FINALES

Article 20: Le présent arrêté qui prend effet pour compter de sa date de signature sera enregistré, publié et communiqué partout où besoin sera.

Bamako, le 7 avril 1992Le Ministre de l’Administration Territoriale chargé des Relations avec le CSTP et les

AssociationsColonel Bréhima Siré Traoré

Le Ministre Délégué à la Sécurité IntérieureLe Ministre de la Communication

Sada DiarraLe Ministre des Sports, de la Culture, et de la Promotion des Jeunes

Diadié Yacouba Dagnoko

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Attachment 10 : ARRETE N°95 0331 MFC-CAB FIXANT LES REDEVANCES APPLICABLES AUX SERVICES PRIVES DE

COMMUNICATION AUDIOVISUELLE

Le Ministre des Finances et du Commerce

Vu la Constitution ; Vu l’Ordonnance n°92-037/P. CTSP du 14 mai 1992 portant autorisation de création de services privés de communication audiovisuelle ; Vu la Loi n092 du 27 août 1992 portant Code de commerce ; Vu l’Ordonnance n° 92.021/P CTSP du 13 avril 1992 instituant la liberté des prix et de concurrence ;Vu le décret n°92.156/P.PM-RM du 14 mai 1992 déterminant les conditions et procédures d’obtention, de suspension ou de retrait de l’autorisation de création de services privés de communication audiovisuelle,Vu le Décret N°94 .333/P. RM DU 25 octobre 1994 portant nomination des membres du gouvernement.

ARRETE

Article 1: Le présent arrêté fixe les redevances applicables aux services de communication audiovisuelle et détermine leurs modalités d’application.

Article 2: Les redevances applicables aux services privés de communication audiovisuelle sont :

- Les frais de constitution du dossier ; - Les frais de visite ; - La redevance annuelle.

Ces redevances sont versées à la SOTELMA.

Article 3: Les frais de constitution du dossier sont perçus une seule fois et ne sont pas remboursables. Ils sont fixés à la somme de 382 000 F CFA.

Article 4: La visite est effectuée au moins une fois par an. Les frais de visite sont calculés en coût réel majoré de 25%. Ils sont payables à chaque visite.

Article 5: La redevance annuelle ou droit d’usage est la taxe payable pour une année pleine quelle que soit la date d’installation.Le payement de la redevance ne peut faire l’objet d’acompte.

Article 6: Le taux de la redevance annuelle est fixé en fonction de la largeur de la bande utilisée pour la télévision et de la taxe de base téléphonique qui est égale à 85 F CFA.Article 7: Les taux de redevance annuelle sont fixés ainsi qu’il suit :

pour les télévisions dont la largeur de bande est inférieure ou égale à 6 MHZ :

1 canal de qualité A : 300 voies téléphoniques

TBV1 85 F X 300 = 25 000 FJusqu’à 100 watts 10 TBV1 = 10 X 85 X 300 = 255 000 FDe 101 à 500 watts 15 TBV1 = 382 000 FDe 501 à 1000 watts 30 TBV1 = 765 000 FDe 1001 à 5000 watts 50 TBV1 = 1 275 000 FDe 5001 à 75 00 watts 75 TBV 1 = 1 912 000 FDe 7001 à 10 000 watts

75 TBV 1 + 30 TBV1 par tranche indivisible

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de 1000 watts. (75 + 3X30) 25 500 = 4 207 500 F

pour les télévisions dont la largeur de bande est comprise entre 6 MHZ et 12 MHZ : 1 canal T.V. de qualité B : 600 voies téléphoniques

TBV2 85 F x 600 = 51 000 FJusqu’à 100 watts 10 TBV2 = 10 x 85x 600 = 510 000 FDe 101 à 500 watts 15 TBV2 = 30 x 510 000 = 765 000 FDe 5001 à 1000 watts 30 TBV2 = 30 x 510 000 = 1 530 000 F De 1001 à 5000 watts 50 TBV2 = 50 x 510 000 = 2 550 000 FDe 5001 à 7500 watts 75 TBV2 = 75 x 510 000 = 3 825 000 FDe 7501 à 10 000 watts 75 TBV2 + 30 TBV2 par tranche indivisible de 1000 watts

Pour les télévisions dont la largeur de bande est supérieure à 12 MHZ :

Taxe de base TBV3 85 F X 900 + 76 500 FJusqu’à 100 Watts 10 TBV3 = 85 X 900 = 765 000 FDe 100 à 500 watts 15 TBV3 = 15 X 76 500 = 1 147 000 FDe 500 à 1000 watts 30 TBV3 = 30 X 76 500 = 2 295 000 FDe 1000 à 5000 watts 50 TBV3 = 50 X 76 500 = 2 295 000 FDe 5001 à 7500 watts 50 TBV3 = 50 X 76 500 = 3 825 000 FDe 7500 à 10 000 watts ………

75 TBV3 + 30 TBV3 par tranche indivisible de 1000 watts. 75 + 30 X 76 500 = 12 622 500 F

Article 8: Le paiement de la redevance annuelle n’exclue pas celui des autres taxes prévues par la réglementation en vigueur sur les entreprises commerciales.

Article 9: Le premier paiement de la redevance annuelle est exigible au plus tard six (6) mois après l’obtention de l’autorisation.Dans les autres cas elle est exigible à partir du 31 Mars de chaque année.

Article 10: Tout retard de plus de trois (3) mois dans le payement de la redevance annuelle entraîne le retrait de l’autorisation.Toutefois, compte tenue de la conduite du titulaire , de la nature de ses programmes, de la taille du public visé, les Ministres chargés de la Communication et de l’Intérieur, sur demande du titulaire, et après avis de la Commission Nationale des services privés de communication audiovisuelle, peuvent procéder à la levée de la sanction.Dans ce cas, outre la redevance annuelle, le titulaire est tenu au paiement d’une pénalité égale à 25% du montant à verser.

Article 11: La clé de répartition des redevances sera déterminée par décision du ministre chargé de la Communication ;La pénalité de retard de 25% n’est pas concernée par la clé de répartition. Cette pénalité est intégralement versée au trésor public.

Article 12: Le présent arrêté qui prend effet pour compter de sa date de signature sera enregistré, publié et communiqué partout où besoin sera.

Ampliations - Original 1- P. RM-CS-CC-CESC-SGG-AN 1- Primature et tous Ministères 16- Tous Gouvernorats 9- Toutes Directions Nles /MFC/MCC 13- Archives 1

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- JORM 1

Bamako, le 16 Février 1995Le Ministre des Finances et du Commerce

Soumaïla CISSE

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Attachment 11: Décret N°02-227/P-RM du 10 mai 2002

Portant statuts type des services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence

Le Président de la République

Vu la constitution ;

Vu l’ordonnance N° 92-002/P-CTSC du 15 Janvier 1992 portant autorisation de création des services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence

Vu la loi N° 00-46 du 07 juillet 2000 portant régime de la presse et délit de presse ;

Vu le décret N° 92-022/ PM-RM du 18 Janvier 1992 déterminant les conditions et procédure d’obtention de suspension ou de retrait de l’autorisation de création de services privés de radiodiffusion sonore par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence ;

Vu le décret N° 02-132/P-RM du 18 mars 2002 portant nomination du Premier Ministre ;

Vu le décret N° 02-135/P-RM du 19 mars 2002 portant nomination des membres du Gouvernement, modifié par les Décrets N° 02-160/P-RM du 29 mars 2002 et N° 02-211/P-RM du 25 avril 2002 ;

STATUANT EN CONSEIL DES MINISTRES

DECRETE :

Article 1: Le présent décret fixe le statut type des services privés de radiodiffusion par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence.

CHAPITRE 1 : TYPOLOGIE

Article 2 : Les services privés de radiodiffusion par voie hertzienne terrestre en modulation de fréquence se répartissent en deux catégories :

- les radios associatives,- les radios commerciales.

Articles 3 : Les radios associatives sont des radios urbaine, périurbaine ou rurale dont les activités sont essentiellement consacrées à la satisfactions des besoins de la communauté qu’elle desservent.

Elles ont pour mission en particulier , la conception, la production, la réalisation et la diffusion de programme de radiodiffusion, de vulgarisation , d’éducation, de sensibilisation, d’information, de divertissement des populations.

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Elles sont chargées en outre de la promotion de la culture locale.

Elles peuvent contribuer à faciliter l’accès des populations aux moyens modernes de communication.

Article 4 : Les radios associatives regroupent les radios associatives de type privé, les radios communautaires et les radios confessionnelles.

Article 5 : Le titulaire de l’autorisation d’une radio associative de type privé, communautaire ou confessionnelle est une association à but lucratif ou une coopérative.

.La radio associative ne tire pas l’essentiel de ses ressources de la publicité commerciale.

Article 6 : Les radios commerciales sont des radios urbaine, périurbaines ou rurale a vocation commerciale. Elles ont pour mission principale, la production, et la vente de prestations de communication.

Article 7 : Le titulaire de l’autorisation d’une radio commerciale est une société ou une personne physique ;

Article 8 : Tout service privé de radiodiffusion à l’obligation d’offrir des prestations d’intérêt public en cas de besoin à la demande des pouvoirs publics ou des populations desservies.

Article 9 : La grille de programme des services des radios privées doit comporter au moins 70 % de programme nationaux.

Article 10 : La constitution de réseau de radiodiffusion sonore est autorisée dans les conditions définies par le règlement en vigueur.

CHAPITRE 2 : Organes d’Administration et de gestion

Article 11 : Les organes d’Administration et de gestion des radios associatives comprennent :

- l’Assemblée Générale; - le Comité de gestion;- la Direction Technique.

Article 12 : L’Assemblée Générale a pour mission de :

- Adopter le règlement intérieur ; - Approuver le budget, le programme annuel, le bilan financier et moral, le plan de

développement institutionnel et le programme d’équipement et d’investissement de la radio ;

- Définir les priorités, les orientations et la ligne éditoriale ; - Approuver l’adhésion de la radio à un réseau, une union, une association un

groupement d’intérêt économique de radiodiffusion ;

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L’Assemblée Générale prononce la dissolution de la radio.

Article 13: La composition du comité de gestion est déterminée par l’Assemblée Générale. Le comité doit comprendre au moins une commission finance, une commission technique et une commission des programmes.

Article 14 : Le comité a pour mission de:

- Préparer le budget le programme annuel, le bilan financier et moral, le plan de développement institutionnel et le programme d’équipement et d’investissement de la radio ;

- Adopter les tarifs de prestations et le plan de recrutement du personnel nécessaire au bon fonctionnement du service ;

- Préparer les sessions de l’ Assemblée Générale- Analyser toutes les propositions de programme, de budget d’équipement et

d’investissement que lui soumet le Directeur de la radio ; - Soumettre à l’approbation de l’Assemblée générale toute document et projet de

décision et d’orientation ; - Recruter et licencier le personnel conformément à la réglementation en vigueur ; - Fixer les règles de gestion financières et le montant des cotisations, des droits

d’adhésion après avis de l’Assemblée Générale.

Article 15 : L’Assemblée Générale peut déléguer certaines de ses attributions au comité de gestion.

Article 16 : La direction est structurée en services correspondant aux activités menées par la radio.

En ce qui concerne l’activité de radiodiffusion, ces structures comprennent les divisions ou département administratifs, financiers, techniques et animation.

Article 17 : La direction de la station a pour mission de :

- Gérer les ressources de la radio- Exécuter les décisions, orientations et directives de l’Assemblée Générale ;- Gérer le matériel, les équipements et le personnel ; - Appliquer les programmes d’émission, d’équipement et d’investissement ; - Rendre compte comité de gestion de l’exécution de décision, directives,

orientations et différents programmes.

CHAPITRE 3 : Financement

Article 18 : La radio associative doit disposer de ressources et couvrir ses charges dans le cadre d’un budget annuel .

Article 19 : Les ressources de la radio associatives sont constituées principalement par :

- les cotisations des membres de l’association ou de la communauté ;

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- les recettes spécifiques provenant de la diffusion d’émissions de sensibilisations de messages et de communiqués d’ordre social ou d’intérêt collectif ;

- l’aide de l’Etat, des collectivités territoriales et partenaires- les subventions, dons et legs.

Article 20 : Est interdite toute aide en numéraire ou en nature, toute subvention, dons et legs provenant d’un parti politique.

Article 21 : Toute radio associative doit rendre public la tarification de ses prestations et tenir une comptabilité régulière.

Article 22 : Elle doit s’acquitter des redevances, taxes et impôts auxquels elle peut –être assujettie conformément à la réglementation en vigueur.

Article 23 : Les radios commerciales sont soumises quant à leur organisation et fonctionnement aux dispositions en vigueur relatives aux sociétés.

CHAPITRE 4 : Dispositions transitoires et finales

Article 24 : Des arrêtés interministériels fixent pour chaque type de radio le cahier des charges relatifs aux services privés de radiodiffusons.

Article 25 : Les services privés de radiodiffusion adapteront leur organisation et fonctionnement dans le délai d’un an à compter de l’entrée en vigueur du présent décret.

Article 26 : Le Ministre des Domaines de l’Etat, des Affaires Foncières, de la Communication, le Ministre de l’Administration Territoriale et des Collectivités Locales et le Ministre de la Culture sont chargés, chacun en ce qui le concerne, de l’exécution du présent décret qui sera enregistré et publié au Journal officiel.

Bamako, le 10 Mai 2002

Le Président de la République : Alpha Oumar KONARE

Le Premier Ministre : Modibo KEITA

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Radio Communautaire Bèlèkan 105.4 MhzInformer pour mieux former

BP.: 133A Kati

( 227-28-84Email: [email protected]

GRILLE DES PROGRAMMES

Horaire

LUND

I

MARDI

MERCREDI

JEUDI VENDREDI

SAMEDI

DIMANCH

E

06h00-6h05

Sigida ka foli

SIGIDA KA FOLISigida ka foli

Sigida ka foli

Sigida ka foli

Sigida ka foli

Sigida ka foli

06h05 Ciwa C C Ciwara Ciwara Ciwara Ciwar

Annex 3

Horaire

LUND

I

MARDI

MERCREDI

JEUDI VENDREDI

SAMEDI

DIMANCH

E

-07h00

ra iwara

iwara

a

07h00-

07h30

Avis et

com

Avis et

com

Avis et

com

Avis et com

Avis et com

Avis et com

Avis et com

07h30-

08h00

Ciwara

Ciwar

a

Ciwar

a

Ciwara Ciwara Ciwara Ciwara

08h00-

09h00

Mali foli

Mali foli

Mali foli

Mali foli

Mali foly

Mali foli

Wassolon

Foly09h00

-09h1009h10

-09h30

Avis et

com

Avis et

com

Avis et

com

Avis et com

Avis et com

Avis

Gnini baw sako

Avis et com

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Horaire

LUND

I

MARDI

MERCREDI

JEUDI VENDREDI

SAMEDI

DIMANCH

E

09h30-

10h00

N’tji ni

N’Golo

N’tji ni

N’Golo

N’tji ni

N’Golo

N’tji ni N’Golo

N’tji ni N’Gol

o

Circulation

routière

10h00-

10h05

Auto prom

o

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

10h05-

10h3010h30

-11h00

Jeu radio jakuma juru

Jeu radio

kissè

kelen fili

Jeu radioOun oun ayi

SumuKènè

Dinè massal

aInterm

ède

Jeu radio

Barakono fen

Demisèniw

Ka kènè

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Annex 3

Horaire

LUND

I

MARDI

MERCREDI

JEUDI VENDREDI

SAMEDI

DIMANCH

E

11h00-

11h30

Dinè massala

Muna a tè fo

Guada Baro

Sur le chemin

du seigneu

r

Offre d’empl

oi

Muna a tè fo

Sur le chemin du

seigneur

11h30h-12h00

Santé

Intermèd

e

Mara tchèmaboly

Intermède

Intermède

Intermède

Santé

12h-12h10

Flash Info

Flash Info

Flash Info

Flash Info

Flash Info

Flash Info

Flash Info

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Horaire

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JEUDI VENDREDI

SAMEDI

DIMANCH

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12h10-

13h3013h30-15h00

Pause

Paus

e

Paus

e

Sugu damu

Pause

Pause

PauseSugu damu

Pause

15h00-

15h10

Ouverture

Ouverture

Ouverture

Ouverture

Ouverture

Ouverture

Ouverture

15h10-

15h15

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

15h15-

15h30

Avis et

com

Avis et

com

Avis et

com

Avis et com

Avis et com

Avis et com

Avis et com

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Horaire

LUND

I

MARDI

MERCREDI

JEUDI VENDREDI

SAMEDI

DIMANCH

E

15h30-

16h00

N’tji ni

N’Golo

N’tji ni

N’Golo

N’tji ni

N’Golo

N’tji ni N’Golo

N’tji ni N’Gol

o

Histoire de

l’Afrique

Necker et les jeunes

16h00-

17h00

DW DW DW DW DW DW DW

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Horaire

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17h00-

17h30

EPRA

Histoire de

l’Afriqu

e

17h30-

18h00 DROIT

(Rediffusion)

EDUCATION

Fitinè yélenw ka kènè

Chronique de l’environnem

ent

Droit Kibaru duman

Rencontre et

Profils EDUCATION

(rediffusion)

Chronique de l’environnement(Rediffusion)

Fitinè yélenw ka kènè

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Horaire

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Auto prom

o

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

Auto promo

18h05-

18h35Déli faramandi

Kalata

jèmouka

n

OFFR

E D’EMPLOI

REDI

FFUSION

Musique rétro

Mara tchèma

boly (Rediffusion

Dambé Kènè

Revu hebdomadaire de la presse

18h45-

18h5518h55

-19h00

Avis Avis Avis et comm

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Horaire

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19h00-

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Info InfoINFO

19h15-

19h30

Avis Avis Avis

19h30-

20h00

RCI RCI Kibaru

duma

Furu Bulon

MaanaInfo

Avis

RCI BIENNA

L

20h00-

21h00

fulfulde

Sonrhaï

An Kanubaw ka kènè

Bobo Salsa A nous les mic

Donso foly

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Horaire

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Sigida

folifen

Sigida

folifen

Togoda DONSO

FOLI

22h00-

23h00Radio fermée Radio fermée

Tendance M

Nid des stars

Siguida foly

Radio fermé

e

23h00-

23h05

Radio fermé

e

Radio fermée

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NEPAL COMMUNITY RADIO COUNTRY STUDY

RAGHU MAINALI

May, 2007

Annex 4

Table of Contents ................................................................................................... ................... i

Introduction ................................................................................................................... ........... 1

About this report ................................................................................................................. ....... 1

Structure of the report ........................................................................................... .................... 2

What is Community Radio? .................................................................................. ................... 4

Many definitions of community radio ............................................................................ ............. 5

The Countries ................................................................................................................... ........ 7

Colombia ......................................................................................................................... .......... 7

Mali .................................................................................................................. ......................... 8

Nepal ...................................................................................................................................... ... 9

Peru .................................................................................................................................... ..... 11

South Africa ....................................................................................................................... ...... 12

The Issues .......................................................................................................... .................... 14


Volunteers and paid staff ............................................................................................ ... 14

Types of volunteers ........................................................................................... ........... 15

Roles of volunteers ................................................................................. ...................... 20

Volunteer recruitment, training and incentives ..................................... ......................... 21

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 23


Programming ....................................................................................... ......................... 25

Ownership, participation and control .................................................................. ........... 26

Conclusions ........................................................................................ ......................... 28


Educating about rights ........................................................................... ....................... 29

Monitoring and advocating for rights ............................................................ ................ 31

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 33


Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 37

Role of Community Radio Associations & Networks ............................................ ................... 37

Annex 4

Peru’s CNR: A decentralised network ................................................... ........................ 38

Colombia’s many networks ....................................................................... .................... 39

Nepal: An evolving situation ............................................................................. ............. 40

AMARC ............................................................................................................. ............ 41

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 42


How much does it cost to run a radio station? ..................................... ......................... 43

Local and national revenue .............................................................................. ............. 44

Public financing and support ............................................................................ ............. 47

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 49

Community Radio in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations ....................................... ............... 49

Human rights and culture of peace .......................................................... ..................... 50

Conflict resolution .............................................................................. ........................... 51

Coping with conflict ....................................................................................... ................ 52

Conclusions ......................................................................................... ......................... 52

Conclusions & Recommendations ....................................................................... ................. 54





Role of Community Radio Associations and Networks ......................................................... ... 56


Community Radio in Conflict & Post-Conflict Situations ....................................................... ... 57

Bibliography ............................................................................................................. .............. 58

Annexes ................................................................................................................................ .. 59

Terms of Reference ........................................................................................................... ........ 1

Annexes ........................................................................................................ ........................... 4

Terms of Reference: Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios -- Issues Important to Their Effectiveness ........................................................... ........................ 1

Introducción ............................................................................................................ ................. 7

1. Existencia, legislación, reglamentación y apoyo por parte del estado ............................... 9

2

Annex 4

Une corporation divisée par la création de multiples associations .......................................... 4

Attachment 1 : Le Mali, en bref1 ................................ ........ 42

Population et Politique ............................................................................ ...................... 42

Économie du Mali ............................................................................... .......................... 42

Attachment 5 : .................................................................................................... .................. 59

N°92-038/ portant création du Conseil Supérieur de la Communication ................................. 59

BP.: 133A Kati ............................................................................ ........................ 78

Sigida ka foli ............................................................................................................... ............ 78

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Flash Info .......................................................................................................... ...................... 81

Pause ............................................................................................................................. ......... 82

Pause ............................................................................................................................. ......... 82

Pause ............................................................................................................................. ......... 82

EPRA ............................................................................................................... ....................... 84

Droit ........................................................................................................................... ............. 84

Education ........................................................................................................ ....................... 84

Education ........................................................................................................ ....................... 84

Offre d’emploi .................................................................................................................. ....... 85

Rediffusion ............................................................................................................ ................. 85

Avis ............................................................................................................. .................. 85

Info ..................................................................................................................................... ..... 86

Biennal .................................................................................................................................. .. 86

Donso foli ........................................................................................................... .................... 87

Introduction: .................................................................................................................. .......... 6

National Context ..................................................................................................................... .. 6

Beginning of Community Radio in Nepal ................................................................................ ... 7

3

Annex 4

Spread of Community Radio .................................................................................. ................. 9

CR in Nepal: an Overview ................................................................................. ....................... 9

Media Ecology in Nepal .............................................................................. ........................... 10

Participatory Processes and Volunteerism .................................................................... .......... 13

Human Resource (HR) involved in CR sector .............................................................. ........... 14

Human Resource by type of Community Radio ............................................... ....................... 14

Share Structure in Cooperative Radio* ............................................................... .................... 14

Board of Directors involved in CR sector with gender and ethnicity ........................... ............. 15

Volunteers vis-à-vis work area ......................................................................... ....................... 15

Relationship with Community: .......................................................................................... .... 16

Passive Model .................................................................................................................. ....... 17

Active Model .......................................................................................................................... . 18

Democratic Model ............................................................................................... ................... 18

Exertion of Right ....................................................................................... ............................ 19

Accountability and Good Governance ................................................................................ .. 22

Role of Networks ........................................................................................................ ............ 22

Sustainable Financing ....................................................................................................... .... 24

Annual Income of 20 -Community Radio stations ........................................... ........................ 24

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 50 watts transmitter ....................................... ....... 25




Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 1000 watts transmitter .................................. ........ 27

Role of CRs in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations ...................................... ..................... 28

Conclusion: ........................................................................................................ ................... 28

Reference Books (in Nepali) ....................................................................... ........................... 30

Reference Books (in English) ........................................................................ ........................ 30

Acknowledgements: .................................................................................... .......................... 30



Nepal CR Case Study 3 ............................................................................................. ............... 2

4

Annex 4


Nepal CR Case Study 5 ....................................................................................... ........... 4

Role of Community Radio in Rule of Law .............................................................................. .... 4


COMMUNITY STATION SUMMARY ...................................................................... ....... 12

P O Box KA 9482, Accra, Ghana ........................................................................ ...................... 1

E-mail : gcrn @ghana.com ..................................................................................................... ... 1

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Annex 4

Community Radio in Nepal

A Choice of Different Future

By Raghu Mainali

Introduction: Communication is the fuel of society. The light of social, cultural, physical and human development cannot reach to all the sectors and members of society without communication. In Nepal, all the developmental activities to date have been defined as the “gift” carried by the traditional political elites to rural people when they visit villages. Consequently, developmental initiatives lack people’s ownership and rights. Development aspired by the people has not begun yet in Nepal. The light of development begun without mutual communication, discussion and consent has not reached to everywhere. As a result, there is eclipse of development in most of the parts of the country like Nepal. The eclipse is the inequality and injustice in terms of social, racial, linguistic, gender and infrastructure development.

Existing new opportunities, scientific achievements and social progress develop and prosper in accordance with the situation of special social power and mutual condition of communication. Community media is also the powerful process of activities that give life to the knowledge, wisdom and skill to be transferred from one generation to another, and to opinions and emotions that are generated from the special social relation of human beings. Community communication has an important role in the whole process of socialization. Community media makes the social discourse easy and extensive. In this context, community communication is undeniable rights of the people.

The best experiences of the past are the source of knowledge to the present generation and the experiences of the present are to the future generation. Social discourse should be made easy for the continuation of these sources of knowledge. Therefore, community media or pro-people media has an important role in different levels of social change.

National Context

The reinstatement of democracy in 1990 opened the door of new hope and potential for the all-round development in Nepal. The new Constitution promulgated in 1990 in the new political environment explicitly and prominently guaranteed the fundamental rights of the Nepalese people citizens. Like in the countries with systems of democratic governance, the Nepalese Constitution accepted the right to information as a directive principle of state policy. It also guaranteed freedom of opinion and expression, and freedom of print and publication, which are believed to be necessary for human development. To sum up, the Constitution ensured all the rights relating to press freedom explicitly.

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The enforcement of the National Communication Policy and the National Broadcasting Act in 1993 in the spirit of the Constitution, paved the favorable way for possible involvement of private sector in establishing FM radios in Nepal. Then, the National Broadcasting Regulations, 1995, defined process and method necessary for establishing FM radios in Nepal.

Nepali journalism before the reinstatement of democracy in 1990 had two clear divisions – pro- Panchayat regime press and anti-Panchayat regime press. (The party less Panchayat system ruled Nepal for 30 years before the reinstatement of democracy.) It was the compulsion of the Nepalese press to play role in the democratic movement that culminated in re-establishment of democracy in 1990. There were only two state-owned broadsheet dailies, two broadcasting organizations – Radio Nepal and Nepal Television -, and a news agency before 1990. There were also small-sized dailies like Samaj and some weeklies published from the non-government sector. The reach of these newspapers owned by individuals was very limited due to political and administrative pressure, and financial crisis.

After the reinstatement of democracy, the newspapers that used letter press as printing technology, started using computer, offset press, digital and satellite technologies. Color newspapers also hit the market. Marking the arrival of private sector for the first time in the business of newspaper, Goyanka Publications Pvt. Ltd started publishing two broadsheet dailies, namely Kantipur and The Kathmandu Post, in 1993. Then the government monopoly in media was gradually broken. Following the footsteps of the success of these newspapers, other dailies were also launched. Then the Nepalese media sector gradually evolved as media industry after 1993. The number of media also kept on increasing, bringing diversity in the Nepalese media.

In the country like Nepal where there was a very dismal information flow system and where people did not get information unless they sought, the reinstated democracy made Nepali people the owner of information. At the same time, the then growing debates of international trade gradually shook the age-old government monopoly in information flow. And the racial, gender and social movements further increased the necessity of communication in Nepal.

However, the state-owned media, which gave priority to post and rank of an individual in their coverage, remained busy in collecting, producing and disseminating cultural activities of the elite and the people in power to over 80 percent rural people just like a one-sided traffic. Even the private dailies were new on the one hand while their editorial policy, on the other hand, pivoted around the daily chores of the elite and the people in power, sex, politics, and imported and elite culture. They tilted their editorial policy to business.

A sharp and serious distance was seen between the government media and the private media over the time. The state-owned media were characterized by over bureaucratization while commercialization was the feature of the private media. This distance made the information flow imbalanced. The reach of newspaper and television was limited and weak because of high illiteracy rate, low income, low access to (only 20 percent people have access to electricity) electricity and limited transportation bottlenecked by difficult physical terrain of Nepal. According to a study then, daily newspapers could be found in 40 district headquarters out of 75 right on the day of publication. The compound circulation of all the dailies, weeklies and fortnightlies in 1996 was around 500,000. Only 2.5 million people had access to newspapers on the basis of general assumption of journalism that five persons read a newspaper.

Beginning of Community Radio in Nepal

Generally speaking, the overall political environment was favorable to the Nepali mass media and cheap FM technology became readily available after 1990. However, the unstable political environment, a visionless political leadership and a bureaucracy used to old ways turned out to be a major obstacle to the growth of the media.

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The story of the struggle for independent radio broadcasting in Nepal is very long and difficult. The struggle began right from the time of drafting the National Media Policy in 1992. Much effort was concerted to include a provision in the policy for private sector participation in the media sector in the policy. Following the enforcement of the policy, Nepal Forum for Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ) applied for a license for radio broadcasting at the Ministry of Information and Communications on October 24, 1992, the first-ever effort from the non-government sector in Nepal. But no decision was taken on the application. However, FNJ continued its efforts to obtain the license and kept on applying for a license at the ministry time and again. In the meantime, NEFEJ held a discussion with UNESCO on establishing a radio. UNESCO showed its interest in supporting the NEFEJ’s initiatives. A technical team of UNESCO prepared a technical proposal of Radio Sagaramatha project. The then Nepalese ambassador to UNESCO Keshav Raj Jha presented the proposal in a program called International Program for Development Communication of UNESCO. And, UNESCO was prepared for supporting the Radio Sagarmatha Project.

But the government adopted a new strategy to retain its monopoly on broadcasting. The government started FM Kathmandu under the state-run Radio Nepal on November 16, 1994, without obtaining license. The move drew protests since the government, on the one hand, operated the FM without a mandatory permission while the government, on the other hand, remained undecided on the application of Radio Sagarmatha. Radio Nepal applied for an operation license for its FM on December 5, 1994, 20 days after FM Kathmandu was launched. The government awarded with a license to the state-owned Radio Nepal to run FM Kathmandu, 13 days after the FM radio began its regular programs. There two clear objectives of the government behind running the FM radio under Radio Nepal – to reduce the loss of Radio Nepal and to retain the government monopoly on broadcast media. The FM started selling its broadcasting time to private companies from the next day of its launch. Then the government claimed that “this is the participation of private sector in broadcast media”.

Generally, three tier of broadcasting system – public, community and commercial- are in practice across the world. But the existing laws of Nepal lack this classification. The National Broadcasting Act does not have provision to register any media organization. But the same Act is referred for call sign and frequency. As the radios are called community ones because they are independent and non-profit-making, run by institutions registered under Organizations Registration Law and Cooperative Law, by educational institutions and local governments. Similarly, commercial radios which are registered under Company Registration Act in the name of companies and the radios run by the government are called government radios in Nepal. Ministry of Information and Communications issues broadcasting license to radios in Nepal. There is no independent regulatory body to monitoring radios in Nepal.

The founders of Radio Sagarmatha remember their struggle for five years to obtain operation license thus [Raghu Mainali 2004. “Radio Nepal: Golardhaka dui Cheu.” In Sekhar Parajuli and P Onta (eds)]:

“We had completed many processes towards establishing a radio. We had brought in the equipment sent by UNSECO through the diplomatic parcels after paying one percent custom duty. On Chait 18, 2052 BS (March 31, 1996) we broadcast the first signals on FM 102 MHz from Kaldhara without obtaining a license. For this purpose a British engineer Martin Allard had come to Kathmandu. I (Raghu Mainali), Upendra Aryal, Roshan Bista, Yadav Thakur and Martin Allard had spent three days testing the equipment. In order to make it difficult for the government to trace the violation of law we had played tapes that had previously been broadcast by the Voice of America. At the time the frequency we had used was being used by the Nepal Police. (After the broadcasts) The police went to Radio Nepal to ask it why it was using their frequency. They were confused after Radio Nepal convinced them that it was not using the frequency. I came to know about the incident. But we were not starting a clandestine radio. Instead it was a protest against the government which had not granted us a license after three (sic) year of efforts. … In the paper-pushing game with the Ministry of Information (and Communication) and Radio Nepal and us, we wrote applications and follow-ups for four years. In the end on May 18, 1997 at 5 pm in the evening we won the battle and obtained the prize, the broadcasting license for Radio Sagarmatha… and the then

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Chairman of NEFEJ Murari Siwakoti received the license from the Ministry of Information and Communication.

Spread of Community Radio

The establishment of Radio Sagarmatha marked the transfer of control over broadcasting from the government to the people. But the radio was based in Kathmandu, where the people had access to many alternatives for education, information and entertainment. Therefore the radio was unable to address to the communication needs of the people living outside the capital, who were deprived of information, education and entertainment for years. However, the establishment of Radio Sagarmatha opened avenues for new hope and possibilities across the country.

The groups working for social justice and balanced development gradually became active by questioning the existing unfair distribution of development. Many believed that only the people in power and elites could establish radios. On the one hand establishing a radio station was expensive while the people in power, on the other hand, believed that general people should not be allowed to run radios. Besides, radio technology was new to Nepal. It was very difficult for the Nepali people who are less familiar with technology to establish a radio station. Still the drive for establishing FM radios took momentum gradually. According to an available data as of March 2007, there are 27 community radios in operation while 58 community organizations have received operation license.

CR in Nepal: an Overview

Station On Air (regular transmission) 20Station On Air (test transmission) 7New broadcasting licenses in hand 58District with Community Radio 56 out

of 75 district*

Total percentage of population covered by CR broadcasting including new licenses

70%*

Table 1*These calculations Included with new community radio licenses.

CR according to Transmission power

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Watts Number of CR

20 150 3100 42250 12500 231000 4

Table 2

CR according to Ecological Distribution Region Number

of CRMountain 13Hill 43Inner Tarai

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Tarai 20Table 3

CR according to OwnershipOwnership Number

of CRNon governmental organization (NGOs)

59

Cooperative organization (Co-op)

21

Local Government

2

Educational Institutions

3

Table 4

Around two hundred license has been issued to government, community and commercial FMs in Nepal. Altogether 27 community radios are in operation, including seven in the phase of test transmission, as of the official record of first three months of 2007. Similarly, 58 community organizations have already received license to establish community radios in the country. Besides, state-owned Radio Nepal has one license while remaining 114 licenses have been awarded to business companies, including those 38 FMs already in operation. Most of the commercial FM radios are urban based. Altogether 26 commercial FMs are based in Kathmandu, capital, alone. The state-owned Radio Nepal , which began 57 years ago, is being broadcast in amplitude modulation band. It has been airing program by using three short wave and six medium wave frequencies.

Media Ecology in Nepal

(Pre and after the emergence of Community Radio)

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Before community radio was begun in Nepal in 1997, there were only mainstream media with political and business motive. These media depended on advertisement for their more than 75 percent revenue. Even the state-owned media were given only ten percent of their total expenditure by the government; they had to compete in the market for revenue to cover their operation expenses. This compelled the government and the private media to compete in the market for their revenue. This situation gradually changed the structure and output of the Nepalese media. The ownership of the media fell either on the hand of the government or the rich or big houses. Even the news sources were only the traditional power centers, so-called intellectuals, political elites, businessmen and industrialists. Press releases issued by the traditional power centers, their press conferences, mass meetings, public address, receptions, promotional activities, and information from spokespersons and public relations officers were the news of the media. Even the content and the audience were commodified. Journalism was regards as the routine production. Only the elite had access to media. The role of the audience was not participatory; it was limited to being honest supporters of the power centers. Diversity in and choice of media was very low. The only objective of these media was to flow information to the rural area from the center. These media were completely guided by the market. Consequently, the monopoly of the traditional elite became more institutionalized. And the possibility and potentiality of alternative media was almost nil. In this way, the media were developed as an integral part of the corporate system at that time.

Community radio began in Nepal some ten years ago as an alternative of the monopoly of the rich over media. It began broad-based and collective ownership. News sources expanded. Community radio served filed-based reports, investigative reporting, critical perspectives to the audience instead of press conferences, press releases, and even the issues of the common people were started getting reported. Journalism was made process-oriented in place of the event-oriented. And creativity in terms of news production was seen. Both the senders and receivers participated in news production in community communication, breaking the traditional relation between the senders and receivers. Even the flow of information changed: flow of information from periphery to periphery and periphery to center began. Common people realized their access to information. People received diverse and alternative source of information and news. Free societies instead of free market started driving these media. Consequently, discrimination, injustice and discrepancies in terms of development were investigated and exposed. People gradually became aware of their rights. In this way, community journalism established as an integral part of the democratic society (See Chart 1).

If freedom of expression and right to information were to be accepted as the fundamental rights of people, means of mass communication should not be guided by free market. Free market has mainly two characteristics. Capital is free, independent and charismatic. It attracts rules of markets as well. But people’s rights do not concern with these two things. Only the journalism guided by an free society can advocate for people’s rights. An individual is to be free, independent and charismatic in the free society. Community communicators started questioning that market rules cannot be applicable in the means of mass communication. For market rules to be applicable, two conditions should be fulfilled. The conditions are: 1) The buyer and consumer should be the same, and 2) The final authority on choosing goods rests on the consumers. These two conditions are not applicable in the case of media. Advertisers and sponsors are the buyers of mass media while consumers are audience. Now a question arises: whose interest is to be considered in the time of selection of mass media content? Consumers' interest or buyers'? The answer is obvious: the buyers. Similarly, media professionals are a final authority to select media content. Thus, the past 10 years of running community radio, Nepal has established a debate that mass media should not be driven by free market but by free society.

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Comparison between Nepalese Main stream Media and Community Media

Basis of

compari

son

Mainstream

media

Community

media

Ownership Concentrated Collective/ Broad

basedSourcing Traditional power center:

Government Political parties So called Experts Business person

Diverse

Media

outreach

Press releases Press Conferences Reception Promotional event Public Address/ Mass

meeting Spokesperson or public

relation officers Other motivation

Field report

Actualities

Testimonies

Investigative story

Critical viewpoint

People as content

Content Commodification Rights of citizen Orientatio

n

Event Process

Production Routine Creative/innovative Access Privileged class Common peopleRole of

audience

Spectators

Subordinate to power

Participants

Driven by Free market Free SocietyFollow of

informatio

n

Centre to

Periphery

Periphery to Periphery

Periphery to Centre

Result An integral part of the corporate system

Reinforcing of monopoly of traditional political elites

An integral part of the democratic society

Exposing and exploring an inequality, injustice and disparity.

Chart 1

An attempt has been done here to describe some remarkable effects on the fronts like good governance, political accountability and social movements after the establishment of community radio in Nepal. Besides, attempt has been done to analyze how community radio has got legitimacy in Nepal, social perception of presence of community radio and the communication initiatives that are likely to get sustainability in the society, with relevant data. The data

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presented here are related to the long established 20 community radios in Nepal. This excludes the situation analysis of the radios which are in the phase of test transmission.

Participatory Processes and Volunteerism

Donation of labor is the age-old tradition of rural Nepal. Be it development activities in villages, construction of schools and health posts or conservation of local temples, community is involved in rural Nepal. Besides, modern volunteerism is in vague in Nepal. On the basis of structure and purpose, Nepali volunteerism is divided into two categories: 1) Individuals and organizations who volunteer for the same community where they are from, and 2) Social workers, development workers, human rights activists and environment activists, who work for others and have more than one objectives, which are known as non-governmental organizations.

Both types of volunteers have involved in community radio in Nepal. They are involved since they have realized the importance of community radio in their life and movement. For them, the community radio has been an easy means of obtaining their collective goals. The relation of the individuals in the field of traditional volunteerism is functional, mutually amicable and devotional. Their sentiment and goals are common due to similar geographical, cultural and national situation. Social harmony is based on sentiment, necessity and localness. They have coordination, not competition. Community radio is the cheap, simple and easy means for them to disseminate their initiatives to many at the same time. The traditional volunteers have been volunteers in radios since they are concerned with the problems faced by others and have enthusiasm and eagerness to contribute to the public life.

The second category of volunteer has certain agendas for social change since they are involved in rights movements. The movement for community radio is a conscious initiative taken for social change. Both community radio and rights volunteers joined hand together after they create common agenda through mutual meetings. And rights volunteers become active to make people aware through radios while radios provide energy in their initiatives.

Volunteers are the pillars of community radios. Community radios should not be based on sources of traditional market to keep them away from business motives and political interference. For this, the only alternative is to reduce operational cost. Community radio cannot be run without true participation of volunteers. The important way of making community radio sustainable is to mobilize volunteers.

Volunteers can participate in community radio in two processes. First is through common consensus on movement in which modern volunteers and board of directors of community radio discuss together. They agree on certain activities. They distribute responsibility and works. Radios provide time and skill as per the distribution and modern volunteers produce programs for radios. These volunteers are committed to this movement and own the movement. They just need conducive working environment in radio.

According to another process, particular radio accesses the need of volunteers. It then arrives on a conclusion on the issues like honoring the efforts of the volunteers, their duties, terms and conditions and rights and the reasons of working at the radio. Then, the radio publicly appeals for traditional aspiring volunteers to joint it. Their interest and capacity is analyzed. They are then trained as per their need. They are also encouraged to be involved in social responsibility by educating them about community radio movement.

There should be certain aspects in community radio to encourage the feeling of volunteerism. Equal opportunity, transparency, collective ownership and democratic leadership are required to encourage volunteerism. The leadership of community radio should discard completely the traditional post-based and institutional style. The leadership that intends to encourage volunteerism should have unity in vision, diversity in skill and dedication.

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There are three types of ownership of community radios in Nepal. Some are owned by non-governmental organizations while others are under the ownership of cooperative organizations. The third kinds of community radios have been run by local government bodies. Among the 20 community radios in operation as of now, 12 are run by non-governmental organizations, six by cooperative organizations and two by local government bodies. Around 600 people are employed in these 20 community radios, and 45 percent of the human resources are volunteers (See Table 5).

Human Resource (HR) involved in CR sector

Categories Number of HR

Paid staff 330Volunteers 270Total 600

Table 5

When compared, more volunteers have been working in the community radios run by cooperative organizations than the radios owned by non-governmental organizations and local government bodies (see Table 6).

Human Resource by type of Community Radio

Ownership No of paid staff

No of volunteer

No of Total Human Resource (HR)

NGOs owned 185

125 310

Cooperative owned 80 105 185Local Government owned

65 40 105

Total 330

270 600

Table 6

But it cannot be said that every community radio run by cooperatives has more volunteers. The number of volunteers depends on equal opportunity, transparency and working environment. Many willing people have not been able to be involved in the community radios run by cooperatives due to high prices of shares. The national per capita income is US$ 310. If we see the share structure of the cooperatives-run community radio, general public cannot afford to buy the shares of community radios excluding Radio Rupakot and Bijaya FM (See Table 7). Thus this situation has limited the ownership of radios to local elites. The rate of the share of Madhyapashimanchal FM is 12 times higher than the the national per capita. Similarly, the rate of the share of Radio Lumbini is two times higher than the national per capita. Consequently, the number of volunteers in radios like Madhyapashimanchal FM, Radio Lumbini is less than the staffs on the payroll.

Share Structure in Cooperative Radio*

Station Minimum share pre person(Amount in

Minimum share pre person(Amount in USD)

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Nepalese Rupees, NRs)

Madhapashimanchal FM

250,000 3845

Radio Lumbini 40,000 615Muktinath FM 31,000 477Bijaya FM 5,000 77Radio Rupokot 100 1.5

Table 7

*National annual per capita income 310 USD (CBS, 2005)

Community radios in Nepal generally comprise of six separate departments – policy making department, program production, technical department, administration, account and library. And volunteers are involved in the first three departments. A total of 152 people, all volunteers, are involved in policy making in 20 community radios operational in Nepal (See Table 8).

Board of Directors involved in CR sector with gender and ethnicity

Ethnicity No. of Board of Director(Male)

No. of Board of Director(Female)

Total

Dalit 5 - 5Ethnic Minorities

31 6 37

Braman/ Chhetri

95 15 110

Total 131 21 152Table 8

Similarly, 264 are involved in program production and six are in technical side. There is not a single volunteer in administration, account and library. Volunteers are also involved in occasional off-air programs (See Table 9).

Volunteers vis-à-vis work area

Work area No. of Volunteer

Programme 264Technical 6Administration -Account -Library -

Table 9

Among the human resources involved in program production of community radios in Nepal, seventy percent are of age group between 17-30. Altogether 52 Dalits (who are considered low caste people in caste system) are involved in program production and technical side,

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which is nine percent of the total human resources. Similarly, 162 people from minority Janjati (indigenous people), some 27 percent of the total human resources, are working in community radios. Likewise, a total of 214 women work in community radios in Nepal, which is around 36 percent of the total human resources (see Table 10). Organizers of trainings, fellowships allocate certain quotas for women, Janjati, disabled and Dalits working in the community radios while radio stations have been found encouraging people of these groups. A physically challenged person and a visually impaired woman have been working as program producers in Radio Swargadwari while a visually impaired man ha been hosting a program in Himchuli FM for the last five years.

HR with gender and ethnicityEthnicity No.

of HRMale

No of HRFemale

Total

Dalit 27 25 52Ethnic Minorities

92 70 162

Braman/ Chhetri

267 119 386

Total 386 214 600Table 10

Relationship with Community:

Local community is involved in community radio at two levels – policy making level and program production and operation. Local community is directly involved in policy making level ranging from the board of directors, program production committee, volunteers mobilization committee, planning and human resources development committee, account committee, monitoring and evaluation committees to other subcommittees. These committees define goal and objectives of the radio and plan strategies for implementation. Besides, the committees hold collective discussions in the community, collect suggestions, as per the need.

Non-governmental organizations and community based organizations working for overall welfare of women and local distinguished women, local mother’s group and cooperatives run and managed by women are members of the committee that produces program on women. They and the program producers jointly select the subject of next program and also assign priority to programs.

Second level of participation is the local community involvement in program production and operation. Local community is the main source of content for community radios. Over 75 percent of programs of community radios relate to local issues. This is to look for self-respect of the local people. They need their own identity for self-respect, which is possibly only through conservation of the local culture. Nepal is rich in cultural diversity. Over 100 languages are spoken in the country with 24 million populations. As Nepal has recognized only the Nepali as the official language and the language of education, other many languages are at risk. Many local dialects are spoken in the reach of a single community radio. Each community radio has been running programs in three to seven local languages, depending on places, to ensure equal realization in terms of pride and self-respect to all the local people. If the programs aired in repetition are to be excluded, the community radios across the country have been producing and broadcasting programs in 25 local languages. Local linguistic groups are involved in producing the programs in their languages.

Likewise, national awareness programs on women, anti-untouchability, public health, education, children, development, culture, languages and so on are produced in partnership with the campaigners of such national awareness

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programs. In some places, radios and the campaigners jointly draw the editorial policy, and radios provide their studios and time to the campaigners to broadcast their programs. Similarly, some community radios have produced and broadcast programs by mobilizing campaigners’ resources. In this way, the local community itself is the main source of content of community radios.

The community is the receiver of the content served by community radio, which is another aspect of community participation. Radio broadcast has no meaning at all without receivers. Community is the consumer of the news and other informative, educational and entertainment programs aired by community radios, and it is the community that benefits from the news and programs. The acts of community like listening to the materials served by community radios, internalizing the content, translating the content into practice and encouraging the even neighbors are other aspects of community participation.

It is the community that analyzes whether the content broadcast by community radios are useful; whether the content benefits for the community, whether the radios are active in making society more civilized; whether the radios are causing distortion to local cultures; whether their objectives are right and logical. In this sense, community is the auditor of the content of community radios. Besides, it also the society that holds final authority to take decision on whether to accept the agenda put forward by the radio for social change and to put the agendas in the process of socialization. In this way, community is involved in legitimizing the content relating to new progressive concepts, thoughts, new possibility and potentiality of development, social justice, and so on, broadcast by radios.

Still, the main aspect of community participation in community radio is the participation in the ownership of community radio. Radio and community has accepted the ownership in terms of membership. On the basis of an observation of nature of membership, numbers and operation system from the perspective of community participation in radio, Nepali community radios fall in three models:- passive model, active model and democratic model.

Passive Model

The first model of Nepalese community radio is passive model in terms of community participation. Radio Sagarmatha run by a non-governmental organization in country capital Kathmandu and Radio Lumbini based in industrial district of Rupandehi in the western region of Nepal, run by a cooperative fall under this model.

Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists runs Radio Sagarmatha and it is an organization of environmental Journalists. It has 125 members (journalists and environmental experts) and holds election each year to choose its executive committee. The executive committee selects board of directors of Radio Sagarmatha. The board of directors formulates the radio’s goals, objectives, plans and policies.

Lumbini Information and Communication Cooperative Ltd runs Radio Lumbini. It has 220 members. According to the regulations, the cooperative organization should always leave its members open to all. But, the average Nepali cannot afford to the shares of Madhyapaschimanchal FM and Radio Lumbini (See Table 7). Therefore, people’s participation has been restricted from economic grounds. A cooperative board is chosen by its members in every three years. This board also works as the board of Radio Lumbini as well. The board formulates the radio’s goals, objectives, plans and policies. Radio Lumbini adds new members only when it needs financial resource.

These kinds of radios depend more on paid staffs than on volunteers. They have employed professional human resources and program production is up to the mark. The professional human resources identifies the priority of the community, and produce and broadcast programs for the community. They serve quality programs. The programs are useful to the community. But the community does not involve directly in making policies of the radios.

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Active Model

This is the second model in terms of community participation. Solu FM run by an NGO in the mountainous district of Solukhumbu, Bijaya FM based in Nawalparasi district in the southern plain of Nepal and Radio Palung in Makwanpur district in the central Nepal fall in this model. Both radios run by cooperative.

Young Star Club runs Solu FM, and the Club is based on membership. It has 300 members. It has a separate council to run the radio. The council is the supreme body of the radio. The council comprises of three members from the club, representatives from ethnic organizations registered in the district, listeners’ club, representatives from the political parties registered in the Election Commission, some distinguished individuals who have contributed to art, literature or sports, representative of district NGO Federation, tourism entrepreneurs, a local social worker, a representative from the village development committee (VDC) and a VDC ward representative where radio located. At present the council has 45 members. The council chooses a radio board. The board chalks out vision, goals, objectives, and plans and policies of the radio.

Community Information and Communication Cooperatives Limited runs Bijaya FM. It has 200 individual members and 24 organizational members. In order to increase community participation, the cooperative has given membership to local community forest users’ group, mother’s group, schools, hospitals, and agricultural cooperative groups, among others. The FM has about 50,000 direct and indirect members. The joint meeting of the direct and indirect members selects board of directors. The board draws goals, objective, and plans and policies of the radio.

Democratic Model The democratic model of community radio has begun recently in Nepal. Newly established Radio Rupakot, which is based in indigenous-people-dominated Khotang district in the eastern Nepal has been practicing the democratic model of people’s participation. Rupakot Information and Communication Cooperative Limited own the radio. It has launched a drive to make a member from each family in the broadcast coverage area. Within two months period of membership scheme lunching, altogether 1,200 families are the members of the radio and process is continuing. Share rate is also very affordable (USD 1.5 only) for every household. Besides, district-based community organizations and professional organizations are also its members. According to the manual issued for radio management, the broadcast coverage area will be divided into 20 representative zones. The radio has recognized the zones as its constituency for the Radio council election. The council representatives are elected on the basis of the number fixed as per the family density and geography. And the elected representatives from these 20 zones are the members of the council of Radio Rupakot. The council is the apex body of the radio. The council decides the vision, goals, objectives, and programs and policies of the radio. The council forms a board of directors to executive day-to-day activities of the radio.

Even the ownership structure of Radio Rupakot is different from the ownership of other community radios in Nepal. In the radio of this kind, clear norms and values, culture and working style has been stated for running its activities. Community is faithful to the council and vice versa. All are clear about what the community should do for the radio and what the radio should help the society. An open-ended network for participation in the radio has been established and the network is well functioning. Consequently, each individual can help the radio but no one has private ownership over the radio. The ownership pattern as shown in the chart (See below) is common. Thus, the combined effort of trust, norms of action, networks and reciprocity creates a strong community with shared ownership over radio resources. It is known as the commons.

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Democratic model of CR ownership

Chart 2

Exertion of Right

There are many examples of the role played by community radios to advocate for people’s rights. The community radios have played role in making the backward and marginalized people informed. Informed citizen can take informed decisions, which helps democracy and democratic culture to be taken to the grassroots level through discussions, interviews, reports, etc.

Free education for the disabled can be taken as an example here. The Supreme Court of Nepal ruled four years ago that state should provide free education to the disabled. The ruling was not abided by in different parts of the country. And even some disabled people did not know about free education. Dang in the mid-western region of Nepal was one of the districts in which the disabled were deprived of free education despite of the court ruling. Radio Swargadwari raised this issue frequently. Consequently, free education was managed to the disabled in the district. Even the radios have launched campaigns for food and shelter for the ex-Kamaiyas (former bonded laborers). Besides, they have raised voices against the structural and cultural violence meted out to women. Radio Palung gave its whole 12-hour broadcast time to advocate for women rights from March 8-15, 2007. Kathmandu-based Radio Sagarmatha launched clean air campaign round the year in 1999. The radio,

The Com

Trust

Community Radio

Participation Network

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with support from Danish donor agency DANIDA, informed the people of the level of air pollutants in different parts of the capital under this campaign. And at the end of every week, the radio aired a discussion program with experts on air pollution, analyzing the level of pollution throughout the week. The campaign raised awareness of air pollution in the capital, thus helping create pressure on the government to take measures to deal with rising level of air pollution. Consequently, the government was compelled to take a decision of phasing out polluting vehicles and three-wheeler diesel-run Bikram Tempos out of the capital.

Community radios have played a significant role in promoting civil rights and human rights in Nepal. The latest example was seen during the 15-month long autocratic regime of the King Gyanendra, who seized power in a bloodless coup on February 1, 2005. The fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution were suspended throughout the rule. Army was posted in the offices of community radios and other independent radios. The then royal government issued a written order to the radios to broadcast only “music”, A ban on broadcast of news and informative programs was placed. Still the community radios remained active for the rights of people. They broadcast about constitutional provisions on fundamental rights, process of suspending these rights, articles of the Geneva Convention, international treaties and covenant ratified and signed by the Nepal government in their bid to make people of aware of their rights, including their right to information. They also frequently broadcast about ban on news broadcast and how the people’s right to information was infringed. Consequently, people gradually became conscious to get back their infringed rights.

Most of the political leaders, student leaders, leaders of the wings of the political parties of Nepal, trade union leaders were arrested when King Gyanendra orchestrated the bloodless coup. Nepal Bar Association filed habeas corpus petitions in the Supreme Court of Nepal on behalf of the detained leaders. Senior Advocate at the Supreme Court Radhe Shyam Adhikari says, “Community radios and local radios helped for the success of the habeas corpus petitions. The radios frequently broadcast the constitutional provisions on the habeas corpus petitions, informed people about the time of hearing on the petitions. Consequently, a considerable number of people started coming to the court to listen to the hearing, which gave psychological pressure on judges to order for the release of the detained leaders. The leaders were then released.”

The network of community radios joined hands with commercial broadcasters, Secretariat of the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) Asia Pacific and promoters of radios to forge an alliance of Save Independent Radio Movement (SIRM) to forward the movement of civil rights and human rights in Nepal during King Gyanendra’s direct rule. SIRM also involved in the alliance of Federation of Nepalese Journalists (FNJ), Nepal Bar Association, Nepal Medical Association, Nepal Engineers’ Association and University Teachers’ Association during the King’s rule. SIRM launched extensive street protests for freedom of expression and right to information

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even during the difficult time during the King’s rule when even the political parties and their sister organizations had not dared to come to the street. SIRM organized musical concerts, poem recitation, comedy show in favor of freedom of expression, urged mainstream media to write editorials for solidarity in its movement for freedom of expression, asked cartoonists to sketch cartoons in favor of radio rights. In this way, poets, musicians and singers, litterateurs, artists were involved in the movement for people’s freedom of expression.

AMARC extended very important assistance to the SIRM. An international advocacy mission of 12 media rights organizations, led by UNESCO’s Assistant Director General Abdul Waseed Khan and coordinated by Executive Director of International Media Support Jesper Hojbjerg, visited Nepal in July 2005. The mission increased the morale and courage of the movement of the Nepali radios.

The movement begun initially by the civil society, professionals and journalists over the time turned into the people’s uprising that ended the direct rule of King Gyanendra and established democracy in Nepal in April 2006. The role played by radios to make people conscious of their rights was clearly seen during the movement. History shows that the political movements of Nepal in the past were based only in urban areas but the movement against King Gyanendra’s direct rule spread even to rural areas. Around four million people came to the street in a single day to protest the King’s rule. Such a huge participation of the people for the political change was never recorded in the pages of the Nepalese history in the past. The epoch-making uprising dumped the rule of King Gyanendra.

The democratic government formed after the success if the uprising announced in the annual budget speech a plan to waive off the renewable fee and fifty percent of the royalty for one year to honor the role played by community radios in establishing democracy in Nepal in April 2006. In the past, successive democratic governments were hesitant to issue operation license to community radios. Before the political change, the government over the span of past 12 years had issues operation license to 20 community radios and 36 commercial radios. But the democratic government formed after the April uprising has issued license to 65 community radio and 114 commercial radios in the last nine months since April 2006.

Community radios have been more successful in modernizing the traditional knowledge, disseminating the knowledge and developing critical thinking in people. They are playing role in identifying, preserving and promoting local knowledge, skill and wisdom. They have been very helpful in adding new knowledge in the society by coding the experiences of individuals. Similarly, community radios have been functioning as an educator of practical knowledge to illiterate people in the society. Thus they have given a new mode to the educational system based on knowledge earned form books and classroom environment. As the language used in reading materials differs form the language used by farmers in day-to-day life, the knowledge learned in the classroom is difficult to translate in practice. “Mix five litters of pesticide with one liter of water” is the language used in books. Rural farmers do not

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understand this language. When community radios tell the quantity of water and the pesticide in the language of the farmers, the farmers understand the message easily and translate it into practice. In this way, Nepali community radios have been more useful to common people as they give more priority to the language of experience than to the language of knowledge.


Nepal Government has not adopted a well-functioning system in which people can automatically get information they have sought. It is difficult to get information in general. People are compelled to live without information due to lack of a system of informing and making transparent government budget, development priorities from the government level. This type of no-transparency has provided breeding grounds for irresponsibility and corruption in the country.

Irregularities, delays and corruptions in the government offices based in village to the district level have been the subject matter of news of the community radios in Nepal. All the community radios produce weekly radio magazines containing discussions, reports and drama on good governance.

Community radios have raised the issues of discrimination in terms of caste, language, gender and geographical region. Nepali citizens were not given citizenship from the name of mother until recently. But the community radios raised this issue as the structural gender discrimination. Besides, the community radios have been raising voices against the existing planning process. For instance, let take an issue raised by a community radio in this context. The average life expectancy of Nepali is 58 years. But it is 38 years for women and 40 for men in the mountainous district of Mugu in Nepal. Similarly, it is around 80 for the people in Kathmandu. But the National Planning Commission drafts plans on the basis of the national average life expectancy. Community radios have raised the questions over this planning process.

Besides, community radios have also brought to the light the agendas on development activities, plans, daily services that the government should provide to the people, and so on. They have dug out corruptions in the construction of local bridge, road and offices. The radios inform people about the budget of development projects. They directly and indirectly record the discussions in the meeting of the district development committees, municipalities and even parliament and broadcast for the people. Reports on corruption even in the allowance to the elderly people, delays in the government services can be listened from community radios.

The radios have made people aware of their rights and responsibility. Consequently, the people, who once could not dare even to talk to government officials, have begun to ask for answers to their questions from the same government officials. If they do not get satisfactory replies from the officials, they come to the offices of radios. Most of the community radios have regular column where they broadcast the questions of victims and ask the concerned authorities to reply the questions. This has led to reduce inconvenience of the victims and delays in government offices (See Case Study 4 and 5).

Role of Networks

It was necessary in Nepal to expand radios in a strategic way after the success of Radio Sagarmatha, which broke the government monopoly over radio waves in South Asia by being the first community radio in the region. Upon realization of this need, Nepal Forum for Environmental Journalists (NEFEJ), which runs Radio Sagarmatha, prepared a national concept paper and strategy for the possible expansion of community radios in Nepal. Then

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NEFEJ established a Community Radio Support Center (CRSC) in 2000 on the basis of the concept paper. The center had ten objectives, including making people to realize the importance of running radios in villages, demystifying the radio technology, extending technical assistance to organizations willing to establish radios, developing required human resources, publishing reference materials for radios and lobbying and advocating for creating conducive environment to establish community radios in the country.

The CRSC then joined hands with Radio Lumbini and Radio Madan Pokhara, which had already obtained the license but were not able to being broadcasting due to lack of experience and technical know-how.

It organized an exhibition of mobile radio in different parts of the country, with slogan entitled “Demystification of Radio Technology”, in its bid to make people realize the importance of radio and to give a message that a radio can be run at the people’s level. The community radios expended gradually. The CRSC helped free of cost aspiring community radios to prepare professional, technical and financial proposals to be submitted to the government while applying for operation license; it provided counseling, gave orientation and lobbied for obtaining licenses; helped establish radio stations, train human resources and prepare strategy and mobilize economic resources if necessary.

CRSC then organized seminars, in its bid to make its lobbying and advocacy strong and effective. In 2001, Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (ACoRB) led by CRSC was formed in a seminar organized by CRSC. Then ACORAB and CRSC jointly started lobbying and advocacy while CRSC busied itself in expanding radio stations, developing human resources, publishing reference materials. Nepal Press Institute played a significant role in developing required human resources. In its bid to forward the community radio movement more systematic, CRSC come up with a slogan entitled “One District One Community Radio.” It established Community Radio Support Fund with the help of the Netherlands-based Free Voice. Under the initiation of CRSC and with the assistance from the fund and technical assistance from the Danish donor agency DANIDA, altogether 20 community radios were established by the end of 2004. It has published ten reference books for the community radios.

CRSC has adopted a new concept to reduce operational cost of radios in its bid to give sustainability to the radios in operation. For instance, it is very expensive for a radio station to hire engineers and take to villages for repairing, and to address this problem, a community radio focal studio has been established under the initiatives of CRSC. Three focal stations have been established each in central, western, and in mid-western and far-western regions of Nepal. The focal stations have work stations where repairing works can be done. Two technicians each from the stations have been given advanced level training. A focal point management committee comprising members from each community radio in each region has been formed to mange the focal stations. The members chair the committee in rotation and the committee fixes the charge of repairing. The committee has also issued its regulations for the management of the focal points.

Now the ACORAB has developed as a capable organization to do lobbying and advocacy for community radio. It has been easier for community radios of Nepal for lobbying and advocacy even due to the office of AMARC Asia Pacific in Kathmandu. CRSC has started works towards establishing Radio Knowledge Center.

The network has facilitated in the exchange of useful programs among radios stations. Under the initiative of CRSC, the programs produced by Radio Sagarmatha in Kathmandu on the issues like women, public health, Dalits and education are being provided to other radio stations in different parts of the country. Now there are many organizations who produce programs in Kathmandu and provide to radio stations across the country. Communication Corner, established in 2001, has been producing news and informative programs and distributing to radios across the country. Besides, Antenna Foundation, Equal Access and Education Journalists Group have also been producing program and distributing to radios. Radios based outside of Kathmandu have been airing the programs produced in Kathmandu for 2-3 hours daily. This movement has raised a serious question in the movement of the community radio. As these programs prepared from the perspective of the center are aired in

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the prime time, there is a question that how localness is maintained in the local radios. Where will this trend take the community radio movement? Community radio journalists have begun to sense the possible threat on the sustainability of community radios from these kinds of programs prepared without clear editorial policy.


There is no classification between community radio and commercial media in Nepal. As a result, the community radios have to pay a big amount to the government as license renewable charge every year where they should been given waiver and subsidy by the government. All the community radios in Nepal pay nearly 154,000 US dollar to the government as renewable charge annually.

The total annual income of 20 community radios that are now in full operation is 540,000 US dollar. They depend on local sources for 24 percent of their income while they fetch 17 percent of their income from the national market and productions. Similarly, they earn 11 percent of their income by broadcasting the message of local public service, 20 percent by broadcasting the message of national public services. Likewise, they depend on the programs produced and cosponsored by national and international non-governmental organizations involved in social campaign and development for 22 percent of their income. Similarly, the share of their income by selling cards, program CDs, cassettes, listeners’ contribution and friendship scheme is around six percent (See Table 11).

It seems from the figure that each community radio station should have been earning 27,000 US dollar but the urban-based radio stations are accumulating more revenue than the ones based in rural areas. Similarly, the urban-based radio stations and the ones having bigger broadcasting capacity, have been found to have earned up to 65 percent of their revenue from the local and national market while the radio stations based in the rural areas have collected only 15 percent of their income from the business market.

Annual Income of 20 -Community Radio stations

Particular Income (in NRs amount)

Income (in USD)

Income (in percentage)

Local Commercials (advertisement, Sponsorship etc).

85,00,000 130,800

24%

National Commercials (advertisement, Sponsorship etc).

58,00,000 89,200 17%

Local Public Service Announcement

40,00,000 61,500 11%

National 70,00,000 108,00 20%

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Public Service Announcement

0

Co-production and Partnership

77,00,000 118,500 22%

Other Sources (Selling Cards, Cassettes and CD, Listeners contribution, friendship scheme etc)

20,00,000 30,800 6%

Total 3,50,00,000

538,800

100%

Table 11

The operational cost of community radios differs from one to another, depending largely on their broadcasting capacity. It needs 1508 US dollar per month to run a 50-watt community radio for 16 hours a day. A total of 51 percent of the income has been spent to give salary to employees even if 55 percent of the total works is got done by volunteers. The expenditure to be reduced by getting the service of volunteers for the sustainability of community radios is the salary. The compulsory expenditure than cannot be reduced while running a 50-watt radio and a 100-watt radio is less than the expenditure in salary (See Tables 12 and 13).

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 50 watts transmitter

(Based on Radio Palung, Broadcast hours: 16hrs)

Particular Expenditure (in NRs amount)

Expenditure (in USD )

Expenditure (in percentage)

Salary 50,000 770 51%House Rent 8,000 123 8.2%Electricity 7500 115 7.6%Phone/Fax 15,000 231 15.3%Consumable (Cassette, CD, Battery etc)

8,000 123 8.2%

Maintenance

9,000 138 9.2%

Renewal fee/Royalty

500 8 0.5%

Total 98,000 1508 100%Table 12


(Based on Radio Solu and Bulbule, Broadcast hours: 16hrs)


Expenditure (in USD)


Salary 55,000 846 51%

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House Rent 8,000 123 7.4%Electricity 10000 154 9.3%Phone/Fax 15,000 231 13.8%Consumable (Cassette, CD, Battery etc)

8,000 123 7.4%

Maintenance

10,000 154 9.3%

Renewal fee/Royalty

2000 31 1.8%

Total 108,000 1662 100%Table 13

Table 14 shows the monthly expenditure to be incurred while running a 250-watt radio for 16 hours daily. In the station like this, the number of volunteers and the employees on the payroll is almost same. In this kind of station the average expenditure in salary is 46 percent while the average expenditure that cannot be reduced is 53 percent. This figure is seven percent higher than the expenditure in terms of salary. (See Table 14).

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 250 watts transmitter(Based on Radio Ghodaghodi and Very Aawaj, Broadcast hours: 16hrs)




Salary 55,000 846 46.6%House Rent 8,000 123 6.8%Electricity 12000 185 10.1%Phone/Fax 15,000 231 12.7%Consumable (Cassette, CD, Battery etc)

8,000 123 6.8%

Maintenance

10,000 154 8.5%

Renewal fee/Royalty

10000 154 8.5%

Total 118000 1816 100%Table 14

The bigger the radio stations is the more their monthly expenditure is. and the more they depend on commercial market for resources. This situation has invited economic and commercial interference to radios which has led to reduction of the spirit of community radio in programs. These bigger radios have seen a decreasing trend of participation of volunteers and have ultimately depended on the employees on the payroll. This has led to increase of electricity tariff, license fee, repair expenditure- permanent type of expenditure-, salary and other expenditure, bringing the figure of overall expenditure very high. The monthly expenditure of the radio station with the 500-watt transmitter is two times higher than the corresponding expenditure of the radio station with 100-watt transmitter. Similarly, the monthly expenditure

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of the radio with 1000-watt transmitter is much more than two times higher than that of the radio with 100-watt transmitter (See Table 15 and 16).


(Based on Radio Lumbini and Radio Swargadwhari, Broadcast hours: 16hrs)




Salary 100,000 1538 53.7%House Rent 12,000 185 6.5%Electricity 15000 231 8%Phone/Fax 25,000 385 13.4%Consumable (Cassette, CD, Battery etc)

10,000 154 5.4%

Maintenance

12,000 185 6.5%

Renewal fee/Royalty

12,000 185 6.5%

Total 186,000 2863 100%Table 15

Monthly Expenditure of radio stations with 1000 watts transmitter(Based on Radio Rupandhi and Bijaya FM, Broadcast hours: 16hrs)




Salary 110,000 1692 46.8%House Rent 10,000 154 4.3%Electricity 25000 385 10.6%Phone/Fax 15,000 231 6.4%Consumable (Cassette, CD, Battery etc)

10,000 154 4.3%

Maintenance

15,000 231 6.4%

Renewal fee/Royalty

50,000 769 21.2%

Total 235,000 3616 100%Table 16

(Note: Exchange rate 1 USD = 65 NRs)

In this way, the bigger the radio station is the more the permanent type of expenditure incurs. This kind of radio is likely to compromise with the market for economic resources. The compromise, on the one hand, is likely to gradually end the sustainability of community radio while it is likely to reduce the feeling of volunteerism and thus to bring the monthly salary bill up. This situation increases the challenges of sustainability of community radio. As the

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image of the radio turns to be business-oriented, the radio gradually looses its loyal and committed listeners, which will invite a risk of causing the friends of social and development campaigners to seek for an alternative. If this happens, community radios will have to loose its stakeholders who contribute 22 percent to the total revenue of the community radios in Nepal.

Role of CRs in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations

Nepali people did not experienced conflict before the Maoist insurgency began in February 1996. As the armed insurgency, which claimed around 15,000 lives in ten years, intensified, even villages had to face curfews and emergencies. People did not know what the emergency and curfew means in the begging. It is the community radios that spread information relating to emergencies and curfews to common people and taught them ways to minimize the damage on human life and property. Community radios disseminated information about relief materials during the direct conflict time or wartime. They aired information on the situation of the injured, human settlements in the conflict areas, food, medicine and clothing of the conflict-affected people. Besides, they also disseminated information on the situation of the displaced people and their relatives, search for the disappeared, tried to minimize the rumors spread during the conflict time.

Similarly, community radios make the parties to the conflict aware of the Geneva Convention and international humanitarian laws that are required to be abided by them. They also warned the parties to the conflict of the danger of mine explosion and of right abuses.

Community radios faced pressure from both the conflicting parties- the government and the Maoists. Both exerted pressure on and even interfered with the community radios to air news in their favor. But the community radios resisted all such pressure and interferences with determinism. In the meantime, the Maoists raided Ghodaghodi FM based in the far-western region of Nepal and looted the broadcasting equipment of the community radio while the government took away the broadcasting equipment of Radio Sagarmatha on charge of not it. Radio Sagarmatha was closed down its service for 48 hours and resumed its broadcast after the Supreme Court of Nepal stayed the government not to close the radio. Community radios at the rural areas were trapped between two guns.

The 10-year old armed conflict ended when the government and the Maoists signed in the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA)) in November 2006. They agreed on seeking solutions to the outstanding political problems through the elections of the Constituent Assembly. The community radios, after the signing of the CPA, have concentrated themselves on assisting to hold the elections. The uprising in April last year has brought all the political parties of Nepal together. After the success of the April uprising, the peace process began. In the meantime, community radios and Latin American experts hold a three-day interaction in Kathmandu in July 2006 to discuss their role to contribute to the peace process. Then ACoRAB brought out a manual on the role of community radio in the peace process based, on the basis of the interaction. Then the community radios became involved in the establishing peace and the campaign for the Constituent Assembly. In the meantime, new conflict has begun in the southern plains of Nepal. On the one hand the country is head on the path of peace while a new force has in the seen with a new conflict in Nepal. This situation has created a difficult situation for the community radios of Nepal.

Conclusion:

The community radios in Nepal are active for a different future. They have potentials for making the Nepalese society equitable. The community radios are committed to raising the issues, excluding politics, like social, cultural and gender in an objective way, a challenge to the mainstream media. But the community radios are compelled to have frustrated experience as there is no

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legal definition of community radios and commercial radios on behalf of the state even after one decade of operation of community radios in the country. The government policy has remained the main obstacle to natural and planned development of the community radios in Nepal.

The community radios played an important role in taking the access to news and information, which was limited to the urban elite till recent years, even to the grassroots level. They are active in establishing them as the right authority of information and news to the general public. Besides, the community radios have contributed to giving momentum to social right movement, to making general public aware of their rights and duties, to promoting culture and languages, to modernizing the people’s knowledge and to encouraging people’s participation in development process. The role the community radios have played in national awareness campaign is unprecedented in the country like Nepal where over 50 percent people are illiterate. Similarly, they have set a precedent of affecting the mainstream politics by being in the frontline of freedom movements in Nepal.

The community radios have been the watchdog in the direction towards making the government accountable and establishing good governance. They disseminated right information during the armed conflict of the Maoists that ended with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in November 2006. Besides, they played an important role in making rescue works effective, and disseminated information necessary for the people to cope with the challenges and problems created by the conflict. These roles played by the community radios in the past have brought social legitimacy to the community radio movement in Nepal. The rural society of Nepal has accepted the community radios completely, a major factor behind the fast development and spread of community radios in the country. It is estimated that around 70 percent of the total population of Nepal has access to community radio within the span of 10 years since its establishment.

Despite all these, there are certain challenges of community radios. There is lack of clear laws, required human resources. The smaller stations have been more successful in making them sustainable, keeping themselves away from business interest and political interference, than the bigger stations. It is necessary for the community radios to improve people’s participation and situation of volunteers’ contribution, and to establish common ownership.

The Nepalese Constitution has ensured right to information and freedom of expression as fundamental rights of the people. It has already been established that the media influenced by political interference and growing market interests cannot safeguard these fundamental rights. In this context, the politicians and business people have started showing their interest in these small radios as well.

The mainstream media are guided by the market, and are focused more on business than on larger social interest, and the community radios took effective steps in ending this trend over the last one decade. The community radio movement is more focused in making audience as well-informed and

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empowered citizens rather than making them as consumers. Thus, the community radios are gradually establishing a principle that mass media should be controlled and directed by free society rather than by free market. But, the community radios still has to struggle hard with care for keeping themselves away from business interest and political interference, and for managing alternative economic resources to make them sustainable.

Reference Books (in Nepali)

Parajuli Shaker and Onta P (eds). 2005. Grown up with Radio. Kathmandu. Martin Chautari.

Mainali R., Khadka O, Poudel B and Adhakari H. 2001. Community Radio Broadcasters Guideline. Kathmandu. Community Radio Support Centre (CRSC), NEFEJ

Mainali R. 2003. Radio System. Kathmandu. Nepal Press Institute.

Subba B. and Mainali R. 2004. Community Radio: Strategic Planning Manual.Kathmandu. CRSC, NEFEJ.

Subba B., Chapagain Y. and Mainali R. 2005. Community Radio: Joint Marketing Strategy Plan. Kathmandu. CRSC, NEFEJ.

Mainali R. 2002. Radio Pledge. Kathmandu. CRSC, NEFEJ.

Mainali R. and Ghimire R (eds). 2004. Community Radio: Problem and Solution. Kathmandu. CRSC, NEFEJ.

Reference Books (in English)

Poudel B. and Mainali R. 2007. News in Crisis. Kathmandu. Centre for Investigative Journalism-Himal Books.

Perkins Ishmael.2000. The African Community Radio Manager's Handbook. Johannesburg, AMARC Africa and Institute for the Advancement of Journalism.

Girard Bruce (eds.). 2003. The One to Watch: Radio, New ICTs and Interactivity, Rome, FAO.

World Bank Institute. 2002. The Right to tell: The Role of Mass media in Economic Development. Washington D.C. The World Bank.

Acknowledgements:

Bharat Bhoosal, Founding President and Former Station Manager, Radio Lumbini.

Kiran Chapagain, Sub Editor, Kathmandu Post.

Ghamaraj Luitel, Program Director, Radio Sagarmatha.

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Nepal CR Case Study 1

Community Radio in Conflict Mitigation (Experience of Radio Bheri)Radio Bheri, a community radio based in the mid-western region of Nepal, has cherished a unique experience of the Maoist conflict time about how a community radio can play role in mitigating conflict. Here is the experience of the community radio.

The whereabouts of Narendra Karki, a local student leader affiliated with the then outlawed Communist Party of Nepal (Maoists), was unknown ever since his arrest by the then Royal Nepalese Army (RNA) in Surkhet district on November 15, 2004. Despite appeals from human rights community and journalists, the army and the administration refused to make public the whereabouts of Karki. All Nepal National Independent Students Union- Revolutionary (ANNISU-R), the Maoist student wing, announced closure of local schools in protests of the arrest. As the closure affected the study of around 20,000 school children, the civil society and the Radio Bheri jointly appealed the ANNISU-R to withdraw the strike and submitted a memorandum to the administration as well.

Then the student wing appealed the Radio Bheri to help find out the whereabouts of Karki. In the meantime, ANNISU-R announced to shut down the school indefinitely. The deadlock then became more intense.

“On December 4, 2004, we aired a press release of ANNISU-R stating that the student wing is ready to withdraw the strike if the whereabouts of Karki is made public. Then the representatives of Radio Bheri and ANNISU-R held rounds of talks on ending the strike,” said Narayan Koirala, station manager of the Radio Bheri, sharing an initiative taken to mitigate a conflict at an odd hour.

In response to repeated appeal of the Radio Bheri, the army finally revealed the whereabouts of Karki. Then the radio aired the news that Karki was held by the army and his condition was alright. Then the public exerted pressure on the administration to shift Karki to a local jail from the army detention. Similarly, the radio aired the news of appeal of the civil society and the political parties to the Maoists to withdraw the indefinite school closure. It also held a meeting with the local Maoist leadership on ending the strike. But the Maoists adhered to their demand that the schools would be closed down till Karki was released.

Then, the local administration held a meeting with the representatives of Bheri Radio on opening the closed schools. The administration maintained that it could not make public the whereabouts of Karki due to the charge Karki was facing. Then the representatives of Bheri Radio held talks with the local Maoist student leadership again in its bid to seek the impasse. The student leaders then agreed to withdraw the strike if they were assured that Karki’s condition was alright.

Then Radio Bheri asked the local administration to permit to its representatives to meet Karki. The administration finally permitted journalists and human rights activists to meet Karki in the detention. The community radio then aired the news that Karki was alright and

Annex 4

was not tortured in the detention. Then the radio again held talks with the Maoist student leaders and handed over a recorded conversation with Karki to the student leaders. Finally, ANNISU-R agreed to withdraw the school strike. Then the schools opened after three weeks.

Thus, the conflict that intensified due to lack of information flow was mitigated through flow of information.


Community Radio and Widow MovementIn Nepal widows do not generally get married. Society does not allow them even to use red colored clothes and other jewelry as well. Young widows are deprived of care and love in the society, and meted out mental and social torture. Activities of these young widows are taken suspiciously by their families and society.

The number of young widows has increased significantly in Dang district in the mid-western region due to the 10-year old Maoist insurgency. Realizing that the voices and situation of these young widows should be raised, Radio Swargadwari, a community radio, began a program to draw the attention of the society to the situation and problems of the young widows.

The radio station aired an interview of Huma D.C., a young widow, in September 2002. Through the radio, she appealed widows like her to be organized to change the situation of widows in the society.

Through its program, the radio urged the widows to wear red colored clothes, bangles and red tika (which is put on forehead as ornament by Hindu women), which are banned for widows in the Nepalese society. Finally, the widows began a movement for wearing red colored clothes by organizing public programs. Altogether 150 widows wore read clothes in a single day. Radio Swargadwari urged the public the support the move of the widows. It also provided red clothes to the widows. Then other organizations came forward to support the movement of the widows in the district. The radio disseminated the activities of the widows for social reform. Now around three thousand widows are organized under the Widows Concern Center, an organization of the widows in the district, according to D.C, who heads the Center.

“The movement has instilled confidence in the widows and the widows have been perceived positively in the society these days,” says D.C. She further says that the society is changing its taboo regarding remarriage of the widows. “We are thankful to Radio Swargadwari for its contribution to change the status of the widows,” she says.


Community Radio: A Good Friend of the Elderly

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For those families who do not care their elderly parents in Dang district in the mid-western region of Nepal, Radio Swargadwari, a community radio, has been a big threat these days.

It is because the radio every Wednesday evening airs a program on the elderly people, a forum where the senior citizen can share their stories, including how they are being treated at home by their sons and daughters-in-law. Senior citizens above the age of 70 take part in the program.

Consequently, sons and daughters-in-law have started caring their elderly parents in a better way, fearing possible defamation and humiliation in the society in case the radio air their mistreatment and disrespect to their old parents.

Says Dadhiram Subedi, Chairman of Radio Swargadwari, “When an elderly woman from Laxmipur Village Development Committee said in the radio program that she was not being properly fed and clothed by her son and daughter-in-law, her grandson started caring her. She is now fed and clothed properly. There are many instances of improvement of the situation of the elderly people after the radio aired the situation of senior citizens.”

As a result of the radio program, the senior citizens of this district have been organized for their rights. “Radio Swargadwari inspired us to be organized,” says 82-year old Khaga Raj Lohani, Chairman of Jestha Nagarik Sarokar Kendra (Senior Citizen Concern Center). He said that senior citizens have formed the center after being inspired from the program of Radio Swargwadwari. Besides, he has donated some land to the center while another senior citizen has donated a house to the center. Now they have arranged for a regular health check-up facility at the center for the elderly people.

Lohani further adds, “The senior citizens are getting better care and respect these days due to the radio program. And we are also being organized [for our rights].

This is just the tip of the iceberg about how the community radios have been advocates or can advocate for the rights of the elderly citizens in the least developed country like Nepal where the rights of the senior citizens is not still an issue of concern.


Community Radio for Good GovernanceGood governance is still a matter of dream in the country like Nepal. Successive moves for good governance from the government and non-government sectors have proved just like water in the sand. Worst is the situation of good governance in the remote parts of the country. Even the people are less aware of what the “good governance” means. But these days, community radios are making a difference in some remote places as far as good governance is concerned. Here is a case study.

During the time of the Maoist armed conflict, which claimed around 15,000 lives over the last ten years since it began in 1996, all the

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government offices and corporations were limited to the district headquarters of Jumla district, one of the least developed and remotest districts of Nepal. People were not aware of why these offices and corporations were there. Delay, favoritism and irregularities characterized government services to the people.

Radio Karnali, a community radio in Jumla district, had begun its operation just two months ago. Two trainee journalists brought a reporting that the local government-owned salt depot was not opened till the noon, irrespective of the queue of around 200 people waiting for the depot to be opened. (The people had come to the depot after walking for a day.)

As reporting was being edited for airing, a depot staff accompanied by three others walked to the radio office to let the journalists know that the depot started selling salt. The staff then asked the journalists not to air the news of the closure of the depot till the noon. The three were the buyers of salt, brought to the radio station to serve as the evidence that the depot started selling salt to the public.

But the journalists were not convinced. They then walked to the depot to see whether salt was being sold. But they found that the depot was not selling salt. Even the staffs and the chief of the depot knew the presence of the journalists in the scene. Fearing that the radio would disclose that the depot was not selling salt, the chief opened the depot and started selling salt to the public who had walked to the depot from the far-flung villages of the district. Then the radio aired the news of the incident thus: The depot started selling salt after the noon, fearing disclosure of the fact that the depot was not opened till the noon.

The news became the talk of the town. The news sent a strong message to the government employees working in the district that their wrongdoings could be news of the radio. A gradual change in government service delivery was observed in the district after the depot-closure incident was reported by Radio Karnali. Then the local people started coming to the radio station once their works were not done by or they had complaints against the government employees in the district.


Role of Community Radio in Rule of Law

Radio Sagarmatha, the first community radio in South Asia and Nepal, has been airing a radio magazine called Bidhiko Sashan (Rule of Law) for the last one and half years. This program advocates for independent, impartial, affordable and speedy justice from judicial and quasi-judicial bodies in Nepal. Besides, it also raises issues like transparency, reform, corruption and irregularities in the country’s judiciary, common people’s access to justice, delay in justice delivery and other issues related to the judiciary. The main purpose of this program is to contribute to the rule of law in the country. Here are two case studies.

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1. Missing Files found in CourtThe radio raised a case of missing files of 89-year old Tulasa Devi Ghimire in the Nepalese courts in Bidhiko Sashan program. A resident of Biratnagar in the eastern Nepal, Ghimire was fighting a legal battle with her own son and daughter-in-law. Her case was in the Supreme Court of Nepal. Her case was put on hold as the files of the case were “missing” for the last three years. Her lawyer was tired of continuing the case. The radio prepared a feature story of the missing files for the Bidhiko Sashan and aired. Til Prasad Shrestha, joint registrar of the Supreme Court, was also interviewed for comments on the missing files. He was asked what he could do now to find out the missing files. Shrestha had told the radio that he would find the files within two days. He found the files and scheduled the hearing on the case.

The victim thanked Radio Sagarmatha after her files were found following the broadcast of the report. Even Shrestha informed Radio Sagarmatha that the files were found.

2. Increase in Budget of Supreme CourtThe Supreme Court of Nepal has long been complaining that it has not been allocated sufficient budget. On March 30, 2006, Radio Sagarmatha held a discussion on the budget of the judiciary in its radio program called Bidhiko Sashan. Supreme Court Spokesperson Dr Ram Krishna Timalsena and Subarna Lal Shreshta, Joint Secretary and the Head of the Budget Division at the Ministry of Finance, were invited for the discussion. Dr Timlasena, in the discussion, said that the judiciary was not given sufficient budget in the discussion. They discussed their limitations and constraints. And Shrestha said that the ministry was ready to increase the budget of the judiciary if the judiciary approached to it in a planned way. The budget was increased as committed by Shrestha in the fiscal year 2006/2007. Dr Timalsena latter said he was thankful to Radio Sagarmatha thanked Radio Sagarmatha in public programs for rise in the budget to the judiciary.


Appointment due to Radio News In Nepal it is common to have government offices without staffs in rural areas. Government employees are reluctant to go to rural areas. And offices in rural areas generally lack employees, and appointment in vacant posts is ignored for a long period. Consequently, rural people are reprieved of services they are entitled to receive from the government. Even the policy makers and concerned authority do not know this situation simply because these issues are not reported in traditional mainstream media and commercial media. But in rural areas where community radios are in operation, this is not the situation these days. Here is a case study of Radio Tulshipur.

In September 2006, … reported that the local veterinary office was without health assistants and was being run by peon for 14 months. It had affected the farmers of three village development committees. The peon was providing emergency and all sorts of medical services to

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livestock, which was against the existing laws and regulations of Nepal. As the situation was reported, the District Veterinary Office immediately promised that heath assistants would be sent to the local veterinary office within one month. A health assistant was appointed in the local veterinary office 17 days after the report was aired. The farmers were happy to see a health assistant in the local veterinary office after 14 months.

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PERU

Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios:

Issues Important to Their Effectiveness

Reporte de PERÚ

por Carlos Rivadeneyra [email protected]

mayo de 2007

mailto:[email protected]

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Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios:Issues Important to Their Effectiveness

Reporte de PERÚ

Tabla de Contenido

Introducción 30. El Contexto Nacional 4

El crecimiento del número de estaciones de radio 4Sin licencia = piratas 5El marco legal y modelos de radiodifusión 5La radio comunitaria en el Perú 6

1. Los procesos participativos y el voluntariado 9Reclutando y fortaleciendo a los voluntarios 11La importancia de los voluntarios 13

2. Relación con la comunidad 15Co-producción de programas con las organizaciones de la sociedad civil 16Producción de programas teniendo como aliados a especialistas de organizaciones de la sociedad civil 17

3. El esfuerzo por los derechos 184. Accountability y buen gobierno 22

Programas informativos 22Programas de debate 22Programas participativos 23

5. El papel de las redes de Radio Comunitaria 24Internacional: AMARC y ALER 24Nacional: la CNR 24

Interconectando emisoras 27Regional 28

6. Financiamiento sostenible 29De la cooperación a la publicidad 29Actividades comerciales 29Servicios a terceros 30La colaboración desde el gobierno 30Competitividad y sostenibilidad 30Sostenibilidad: ¿de qué costos hablamos? 31

7. Las radios comunitarias y los conflictos 32Democracia y evangelización 32Jóvenes por una cultura de paz 33Movimiento “Para que no se repita” 33

8. Instituciones de apoyo a la comunicación comunitaria 349. Conclusiones 3510. Bibliografía 37

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INTRODUCCIÓN

La radio comunitaria en Perú tiene una historia de varias décadas, sus logros están escritos en la historia de los medios de comunicación del país y en el proceso de la democracia peruana que ha tenido muchos altibajos.

Su incidencia social logra ser muy interesante por haber superado en la mayoría de los casos el carácter difusionista de las estaciones de radio comerciales e ingresar a un rol de intermediación social y política y haberse convertido, en algunos casos y determinados temas, en actor social relevante.

Su sostenibilidad social está basada en su fuerte vínculo o relación con las comunidades a las que sirven y de las que -en muchos casos- son producto. De otro lado su sostenibilidad económica continúa siendo un reto que ha sido enfrentado con optimismo y, en varios casos, creatividad.

Las radios comunitarias en Perú muestran un buen trabajo en redes de comunicación que trabajan en diversos ámbitos y ayudan a una mejor incidencia social y política.

La violencia política sufrida por el país en la década del 80 y 90, ha dejado una profunda herida social que las radios comunitarias luchan por ayudar a sanar y superar, en ese sentido su trabajo a favor de una cultura de paz y por un enfoque de desarrollo inclusivo y equitativo anhela que las situaciones sufridas en décadas pasadas no se repitan.

El escenario de la radio comunitaria en tierras inkas es muy diverso y emocionante, entregamos las siguientes líneas con el fin de conocer de manera breve el panorama de la radio comunitaria peruana.

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0. EL CONTEXTO NACIONAL

El crecimiento del número de estaciones de radioLa radio es el medio más extendido en Perú, existen poco más de dos mil emisoras de radio que transmiten de manera formal, es decir cuentan con licencia expedida por el Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones (MTC). Sin embargo en los últimos 25 años el paisaje de la radio –y en general de los medios masivos- cambió mucho en Perú.

Para ofrecer una mirada acerca de la evolución del número de estaciones de radio el siguiente gráfico muestro el desarrollo cuantitativo de la población de radioemisoras en los últimos 50 años.

Gráfico elaborado con información de: Anuario estadístico (1954, 1966), Perú en Números (1990), Compendio estadístico INEI (1980, 1982, 1984, 1988, 1990), MTC (2005, 2007).

El aumento del número -donde no se discrimina por tipo de estación según su finalidad, sino que muestra el total- de radioemisoras se debe a varios factores entre los que destaca la política de fomento a las empresas de medios de comunicación masiva impulsada y defendida por el segundo gobierno de Belaúnde (1980-85), el primero de García (1985-90) y el de Fujimori (1990-2001), que mediante un marco legal promotor colaboró a que el dial peruano se llene de emisoras.

La evolución en el número de emisoras a nivel nacional, ha originado las principales características de la radio peruana del nuevo milenio.

Aparición de grupos empresariales de carácter industrial en la radio, empresas de gran poderío económico. Entre las dos principales manejan trece cadenas de radioemisoras vía satélite que basados en Lima retransmiten su señal a las principales ciudades del país (Rivadeneyra, 2004). También aparecieron en los últimos 25 años varios emprendimientos radiales cuyo objetivo no era la empresa comercial sino más bien el apoyo a procesos de desarrollo social, nos referimos a las radios educativas y –de carácter- comunitario. El avance tecnológico del último cuarto de siglo facilitó el acceso a los equipos de radiodifusión, eso explica –en parte- la aparición de cientos de emisoras que, sin licencia, funcionan en diversas zonas del país (incluso en Lima), emisoras que comúnmente reciben el calificativo de piratas, ya que transmiten una señal utilizando el espectro radioeléctrico sin tener autorización,

Sin licencia = piratas

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Evolución del # de emisoras radiales a nivel nacional

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1954 1966 1980 1985 1990 2005 2007

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En los primeros años del segundo quinquenio de los 80 se llamaban clandestinas a las estaciones de radio que transmitían sin autorización explícita del MTC, ya que se escondían de las autoridades debido al temor de no tener autorización, sin embargo conforme el tiempo fue pasando y esta modalidad fue haciéndose más conocida las emisoras sin licencia dejaron de ser clandestinas, empezaron a dar la cara a su audiencia.

No existe estadística oficial sobre las radios sin licencia que funcionan en Perú, sin embargo podemos observar que hay hasta de tres tipos:

Aquellas emisoras que tienen la intención de tramitar su licencia, incluso algunas han iniciado dicha formalización, pero los requisitos y el centralismo del MTC, hace muy difícil cumplir la formalización. En este caso encontramos emisoras de carácter comercial de cobertura local (distrital) y las de comunidades urbano-marginales y rurales.Un segundo tipo de emisoras sin licencia son aquellas gestionadas por organismos del gobierno, existen ejemplos desde aquellas que se hacen llamar emisoras municipales y que son manejadas por gobiernos locales en varios distritos del interior del país. También las hay aquellas que son manejadas por un proyecto de desarrollo agropecuario del Ministerio de Agricultura.Por último podemos señalar que existe un gran grupo de emisoras de profunda vocación informal, es decir que con afán comercial y sin ninguna señal de querer formalizar su actividad de comunicación invaden el espectro radioeléctrico. Los problemas de causan este tipo de emisoras es grande, de un lado está la interferencia que causan en determinadas zonas urbanas, pero creemos que lo peor es la pobre calidad de programación que ofrecen, básicamente de carácter musical y cuando presentan programas informativos estos ponen en evidencia parcialidad con determinados intereses políticos.

El marco legal y modelos de radiodifusiónEn julio de 2004 se aprobó en Perú la primera Ley de Radio y Televisión en la que se definen tres modalidades de radiodifusión:

a) Servicios de Radiodifusión Comercial: Son aquellos cuya programación está destinada al entretenimiento y recreación del público, así como a abordar temas informativos, noticiosos y de orientación a la comunidad, dentro del marco de los fines y principios que orientan el servicio.

b) Servicios de Radiodifusión Educativa: Son aquellos cuya programación está destinada predominantemente al fomento de la educación, la cultura y el deporte, así como la formación integral de las personas. En sus códigos de ética incluyen los principios y fines de la educación peruana.Las entidades educativas públicas, sólo pueden prestar el servicio de radiodifusión educativa.

c) Radiodifusión Comunitaria: Es aquella cuyas estaciones están ubicadas en comunidades campesinas, nativas e indígenas, áreas rurales o de preferente interés social. Su programación está destinada principalmente a fomentar la identidad y costumbres de la comunidad en la que se presta el servicio, fortaleciendo la integración nacional.

Esta definición legal de la radio comunitaria en Perú resulta muy restrictiva y ambigua. Sin embargo se debe tomar en cuenta que nunca antes norma legal alguna hizo referencia directa y explícita a la radio comunitaria como una modalidad de radiodifusión, entonces su aparición en la Ley de Radio y Televisión resulta un avance.

El marco legal que define a la radio comunitaria en Perú es restrictivo, la resume a su ubicación rural a partir de emprendimientos de comunidades campesinas (en

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costa y sierra) y nativas (en la selva), y en los lugares de preferente interés social lo cual resulta muy ambiguo ya que en Perú el 51,6% de la población se encuentra en pobreza (PUCP, 2006), y creemos que dichos sectores serían de preferente interés social (2006).

A pesar de las críticas entendemos que la Ley de Radio y Televisión es un avance ya que existiendo marco legal las emisoras de las comunidades campesinas y urbanas y de emprendimientos de las ONG, y la sociedad civil en general podrán tramitar su licencia de radio comunitaria, y no tendrán que esconderse detrás de una licencia de carácter comercial o educativa, como ha venido ocurriendo hasta el momento. Sin embargo también hay que mencionar que a mayo de 2007 el Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones (2007) no ha otorgado ninguna licencia de radio comunitaria a pesar de que éstas han sido solicitadas en varias ocasiones (Rivadeneyra, 2006). La respuesta oficial del MTC ha sido que no se tienen actualizado el estudio técnico de canalización de Frecuencias en el lugar donde se solicita la licencia, lo cual impide el inicio de cualquier trámite de formalización de una emisora de radio.

La radio comunitaria en PerúHasta antes de 2004, en la ley 19020 (1971), en Perú los medios de comunicación estaban normados por la Ley de Telecomunicaciones y no se consideraba el modelo comunitario, sólo se tomaba en cuenta la radiodifusión comercial y la educativa, ésta es una de las razones por las cuales las radios comunitarias peruanas son llamadas radios educativas, ya que formalmente tienen ese tipo de licencia, sin embargo no debemos dejar de mencionar que entre emprendimientos de radio educativa y radio comunitaria existen algunas diferencias que detallaremos a lo largo de estudio pero que sin embargo, difieren de forma clara del modelo comercial que entiende a los oyentes de radio como objetos para los anunciantes de publicidad que financian la radioemisora, mientras que las radios comunitarias los entienden como ciudadanos y participantes de la emisora sino sus propietarios, promotores y productores de programas (Lewis y Booth, 1992).

Como sucede en toda América Latina, el continente radiofónico por excelencia (Geerts et al, 2004), la radio comunitaria en Perú es un modelo complejo y multiforme, tal como afirma Peppino (1999, p. 41-42)

Una radio comunitaria no la define la cobertura (mayor o menor potencia), ni sus características técnicas (AM, FM, OC), ni la propiedad del medio (de una comunidad, de una ONG, una iglesia, un grupo de jóvenes, un grupo de mujeres), ni el modo de producción (profesional o aficionado), ni siquiera el de transmitir o no anuncios comerciales en la programación. Lo que la distingue es la esencia de lo comunitario los objetivos sociales por los que lucha.

La definición propuesta por Peppino es amplia y abarcadora, es una definición muy utilizada en Perú para referir a las radios comunitarias y educativas, que concuerdan con lo planteado por Villamayor y Lamas (1998, p. 218) cuando señalan las características que definen una radio comunitaria.

Son caracterizados por sus objetivos políticos del cambio social, su búsqueda para un sistema justo que considere derechos humanos, y hacen energía accesible a las masas y se abren en su participación. Pueden también ser reconocidos por el hecho de que son no lucrativos…

Los objetivos sociales de Peppino son los objetivos políticos de cambio social de Villamayor y Lamas y son los objetivos de las radios comunitarias y educativas en Perú. Pero el debate no se cierra en este punto y más bien tiene la posibilidad de extenderse mucho. Sin embargo queremos plantear el tema de la participación de la comunidad como fundamental y esclarecedor para conocer la diferencia entre

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radio comunitaria y radio educativa en Perú. Con tal objetivo citamos a Girard (2002, p. 2) quien señala.

Mientras los oyentes de la radio comercial pueden participar en la programación de modo limitado -a través de tribunas libres por línea telefónica o pidiendo su canción favorita- los oyentes de la radio comunitaria son a la vez los productores, gerentes, directores, evaluadores y aún los dueños de las estaciones.

En Perú la comunidad es propietaria de las radios comunitarias sólo de ámbito rural, las radios -que se definen comunitarias- que persiguen objetivos sociales ubicadas en espacios urbanos son propiedad de ONG y la Iglesia (Católica como Evangélica) que buscan y diseñan diferentes modalidades y estrategias para lograr la participación de las comunidad en la emisora, pero que no dejan de tener la propiedad de la misma.

En Perú entendemos como radios comunitarias, a aquellas identificadas con la comunidad en la que operan (variable geográfica) o la comunidad a la que responden y atienden (audiencia), son emisoras sin fines de lucro, que tienen una apuesta de contenidos basados en la democracia, la inclusión social, la equidad de género, la defensa del ambiente, la amplia participación de la sociedad y de sus organizaciones como oyentes y productores de mensajes. La propiedad de la estación le dará algunas características particulares a cada una de las experiencias, pero tanto emisoras comunitarias como educativas (modelo al que podríamos considerar como un sub-tipo y que se diferencia de los otros sólo por el tipo de propiedad) luchan por el desarrollo social a partir de principios democráticos.

Por último debemos decir que las radios comunitarias en Perú son aproximadamente 200 emisoras de gran diversidad, pueden ser pequeñas y muy artesanales, estaciones de radio de 50 vatios de potencia y un equipamiento mínimo indispensable, o radioemisoras tecnológicamente bien implementadas con 10 mil vatios y emisión simultánea en varias bandas, son emisoras que tienen licencia (la misma que puede ser educativa o comercial) o que no la tienen (como muchas emisoras comunitarias rurales, que tratan de obtener su licencia pero las trabas burocráticas se lo impiden), pueden ser emisoras que tienen vida a partir del trabajo de cinco personas voluntarias, como son aquellas que tienen en planilla cerca de una veintena de profesionales. Es decir hablar de radio comunitaria en Perú es hablar de un modelo de radio complejo, aún en proceso y en constante evolución al igual que la sociedad peruana.

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1. LOS PROCESOS PARTICIPATIVOS Y EL VOLUNTARIADO

En las emisoras comunitarias de Perú el voluntariado es una modalidad extendida de manera inversamente proporcional con el tamaño, vatiaje (potencia) y cobertura de la emisora. Podemos afirmar que cuanto más pequeña la emisora comunitaria (básicamente rural o urbano marginal) el voluntariado se hace más importante, mientras que cuanto más grande es la emisora comunitaria el voluntariado no desaparece sólo se hace más especializado y asume roles no jerárquicos. Observamos las siguientes modalidades de voluntariado:

1. Miembros de la comunidad y propietarios: Cuando la emisora comunitaria es de propiedad de una comunidad determinada son sus miembros los que la dirigen y se convierten –además- en sus principales voluntarios. Este caso se observa mejor en varias emisoras comunitarias rurales y urbano marginales (Chaski Radio en Ayacucho, La Voz de Sepahua en Ucayali, etc.).

2. Radialistas voluntarios de la comunidad: Son los miembros de la comunidad que sin ser los propietarios directos de la emisora son personas de gran espíritu de colaboración y que se acercan de forma espontánea y colaboran cotidianamente en la grabación de los programas, son grupos de señoras, jóvenes, niños, etc., con cualidades innatas para la producción radial, que colaboran semana tras semana en la producción de programas radiales en general. Sin embargo estos radialistas voluntarios no logran ningún grado de decisión en la emisora ya que cumplen órdenes de los que dirigen la estación.

A este grupo de voluntarios pertenecen los periodistas corresponsales, personas que desde diferentes lugares del ámbito de cobertura de la emisora remiten información de su localidad a la estación de radio, estos corresponsales por su participación en la emisora se convierten –en su localidad- en actores sociales muy importantes.

3. Representantes de las organizaciones sociales: También participan como voluntarios en las radios comunitarias de Perú las personas que trabajan (o son a la vez voluntarios) en las organizaciones sociales con las que la emisora tiene una alianza o son en parte propietarios o promotores de la emisora. Este tipo de voluntarios suelen ser profesionales o expertos en la temática de las organizaciones sociales en las que trabajan o participan. Sus gastos suelen estar cubiertos por dicha organización no significando carga alguna para la emisora comunitaria. Suelen ser profesionales que han descubierto en la comunicación radial de carácter comunitario una nueva y gran oportunidad de incidencia de su trabajo y una herramienta muy útil para su labor de desarrollo social.

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INSTITUCIONES ALIADAS: UN GRAN EQUIPO DE VOLUNTARIOS

Este caso se observa en radio Marañón ubicada en la provincia de Jaén (región Cajamarca) en la zona montañosa del norte de Perú, esta emisora cuenta con varias instituciones aliadas a su trabajo de comunicación, como por ejemplo la Pastoral de la Salud, los 60 promotores rurales de dicha institución, personas que velan por la salud de la población rural son a la vez voluntarios de la emisora. Los promotores de la Pastoral de Salud reciben capacitación en salud y comunicación, responden a un perfil de líderes de su comunidad y cuentan con una gran motivación de servicio a favor de su comunidad. La radio visibiliza el trabajo de dichos promotores legitimándolo socialmente obteniendo por eso un reconocimiento público que, incluso, trasciende su comunidad.Con los 60 promotores de la Vicaría del Medio Ambiente sucede lo mismo, en este caso el trabajo de defensa ambiental de los promotores se manifiesta directamente en la programación de la emisora ya que son responsables de una producción radial.

Como observamos en estas tres modalidades precedentes de voluntariado, las prácticas participativas que tienen más sentido son aquellas realizadas por las organizaciones sociales de base y los mismos miembros de la comunidad. Cuando por ejemplo en una emisora (del altiplano sur andino de Perú como Pachamama Radio) un grupo de mujeres artesanas o madres de familia se organizan, reciben capacitación y logran producir programas de radio, ese proceso genera un compromiso participativo muy profundo ya que al conocer sobre producción radial se convierten en radialistas y la emisora las asume como parte del grupo humano estable de la estación haciendo de los voluntarios parte de la organización de la radioemisora y su problemática, opiniones y propuestas parte de la agenda de contendidos de la radio comunitaria.

4. Estudiantes universitarios con interés en la comunicación comunitaria: Son aquellos voluntarios que realizan prácticas pre-profesionales, son estudiantes universitarios fundamentalmente de Comunicación y Periodismo -aunque se encuentran casos de estudiantes de Antropología, Sociología y Psicología- de los últimos semestres que tienen como proyecto de vida trabajar por el desarrollo social desde la comunicación y participan de forma activa en las radios comunitarias, éstas le brindan todo el conocimiento práctico de una estación de radio.

Reclutando y fortaleciendo a los voluntariosPodemos afirmar que existen tres modalidades para reclutar a los voluntarios:

la más usual, es el no-reclutamiento o el voluntariado espontáneo, que se da cuando son los miembros de la comunidad asumen como propio (compromiso y responsabilidad) el trabajo en su emisora comunitaria.la más sencilla, es por conocimiento de la organización en la que participan, como p.e. una asociación/comité/federación de productores agropecuarios, un comité de madres de familia, un club de migrantes que habitan diversas zonas urbano marginales de las grandes ciudades, un grupo de jóvenes (católicos) participantes en la parroquia del distrito, etc., en este caso la emisora

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comunitaria ha establecido una alianza con la institución o grupo social lo que posibilita contar con voluntarios de forma sostenida.

la segunda, se da cuando la emisora necesita un grupo especializado en alguna materia o actividad de la estación, entonces convoca a estudiantes universitarios (fundamentalmente de Comunicación o Periodismo) para que éstos realicen prácticas pre-profesionales, bajo esta modalidad los estudiantes universitarios -de último año- se incorporan a la emisora con su conocimiento teórico sobre alguna materia en particular.

y por último una modalidad que podríamos llamarle búsqueda, en la que la emisora busca a un miembro de la comunidad en algún lugar determinado o con conocimiento de algún tema en particular.

Usualmente toda persona que ingresa a una emisora comunitaria como voluntario debe recibir un proceso de capacitación, que puede ser corto (una semana) o largo (dos o tres meses) para poder realizar la actividad en la que colaborará. Los procesos de capacitación se hacen a la par de su incorporación a la emisora, es decir es una capacitación en la práctica, y en algunos casos –los más técnicos, p.e. operación de equipos de sonido- se hacen a partir del acompañamiento a la persona que realiza dicha labor en la radio.

Para la producción radial se necesita un proceso de capacitación específico que combine teoría y práctica, la misma que se planifica en sesiones periódicas durante algunas semanas, los responsables de dicho proceso de capacitación son –en la mayoría de casos- los miembros de la emisora. Además podemos afirmar que el otorgamiento de procesos de capacitación no es un factor determinante para que un ciudadano se postule a ser voluntario de una emisora de radio comunitaria.

Los voluntarios pueden estar en diferentes colocaciones de la emisora desde asistentes de producción de algunos programas radiales, redactores, reporteros y corresponsales de los servicios informativos en las radios comunitarias de regular o gran tamaño (que cubren un valle, una provincia o una región), en las emisoras comunitarias locales (rurales o urbano marginales) los voluntarios pueden llegar a ser hasta el(la) director(a) de la emisora.

Consideramos que la principal motivación de un voluntario es participar de la experiencia de una emisora de radio comunitaria, porque la entiende y la siente diferente a otras experiencias, una radio comunitaria le ofrece la posibilidad de dialogar y discutir propuestas en su interior y de defender y trabajar por y con principios democráticos para la sociedad, de otro lado una radio comercial le pagará un pequeño sueldo pero no tendrá la oportunidad de discutir los lineamientos de la estación, deberá seguir las órdenes de los empresarios dueños de la emisora que muchas veces no concordarán con sus propios puntos de vista.

Un caso singular de enfoque del voluntariado es el que tiene radio Cutivalú (Piura) en la costa norte de Perú, que a lo largo de su evolución ha tenido tres tipos de voluntarios en tres momentos de su historia, primero fueron comunicadores populares, luego corresponsales y hoy en día son agentes de comunicación para el desarrollo. Ofrecemos algunos detalles adicionales para entender cada una de éstas etapas y tipos de voluntariado piurano:

Los comunicadores populares correspondieron a un modelo de radio llamado popular, porque acompañaba a los sectores y movimientos populares en sus reivindicaciones y luchas sociales, estos comunicadores no tenían mucha formación –en técnicas radiofónicas- para su participación en la emisora, sino que al ser parte del movimiento popular eran fieles representantes del mismo y llevaban la voz propia del pueblo a las emisoras de radio.

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Los corresponsales, representan la segunda generación de los voluntarios en Radio Cutivalú y –en algunos casos- son los comunicadores populares luego de procesos de capacitación en técnicas de periodismo y producción radial. Su labor ya no estaba centrada en llevar la opinión con enfoque popular, sino básicamente de entregar de forma técnica y eficiente la información de su entorno a la emisora, con el fin de que la audiencia logre formar su opinión.

Los agentes de comunicación para el desarrollo, son voluntarios que no se limitan a ser periodistas corresponsales o llevar la voz y el enfoque político de los sectores populares, sino que participan como miembros de la emisora y como actores sociales en su comunidad. En ese sentido estos agentes son una versión más amplia y acabada de la utilidad social de las radios comunitarias y sus voluntarios, superando el momento instrumental de los comunicadores populares y la visión difusionista de los periodistas corresponsales.

Sobre los actuales voluntarios que asumen el rol de agentes de comunicación para el desarrollo, podemos afirmar que trabajan en relación directa con su propia comunidad, colaborando desde su enfoque local para el diseño de la agenda informativa y la programación de la emisora, sin embargo su trabajo no se limita a enviar información noticiosa de su entorno a la emisora u opinar en la definición temática de la agenda, sino que asumen un rol de intermediador y promotor del desarrollo local. A los agentes se les brinda por lo menos dos reuniones de capacitación al año, donde se abordan básicamente dos temáticas, de un lado está la cuestión técnica de producción radial y de otro lado está la formación temática en materias de actualidad y formación política como descentralización, globalización, desarrollo, etc. A la fecha la emisora piurana cuenta con 40 agentes de comunicación para el desarrollo en igual número de localidades rurales.

COMUNICACIÓN INTERMEDIADORA EN LAS LOMASLas Lomas es un distrito ubicado a una hora de Piura, donde la población estaba cansada de reclamar la construcción del alcantarillado. Allí el alcalde recién electo, el ex alcalde –y perdedor de la reelección- y el gobernador (representante del presidente de la república) se disputaban la autoría del proyecto con el fin de fortalecer su imagen pública, esta pelea lo único que lograba era que el proyecto no se realice, hasta que intermedió el agente de comunicación para el desarrollo quién con inocencia y aguda mirada social preguntó “quieren el alcantarillado?”, y como toda la población reclamaba la obra y todos querían que se realice, el agente promovió la realización de una reunión de concertación y logró que la obra tuviera tres padres y no sólo uno. Entonces La Lomas tuvo alcantarillado.

La importancia de los voluntariosLa presencia y labor de los voluntarios en emisoras comunitarias es muy importante. Para medir el peso de su participación no es recomendable comparar su número con la cantidad de personal de planta (es decir empleados, trabajadores de la estación). Ya que como hemos informado en Radio Marañón se tienen 120 voluntarios de las organizaciones sociales aliadas de la emisora, ese número versus los 20 trabajadores que tiene la emisora en este momento es muy grande; lo mismo sucedería al comparar los 40 voluntarios (agentes de comunicación para el desarrollo) de Radio Cutivalú versus sus 15 trabajadores, un caso similar se observaría en el caso del personal (3 personas) y los 8 voluntarios de Chaski Radio

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de Ayacucho, una radio comunitaria rural. Creemos que para tener un indicador más veraz de la importancia de los voluntarios en la emisora debemos calcular el tiempo dedicado a su trabajo.

La siguiente tabla muestra el detalle del cálculo por cada uno de los ejemplos y la relación comparativa del tiempo de trabajo entre empleados y voluntarios:

Emisora Propiedad Empleados

Tiempo diario

de trabajo

de Empleados Voluntarios

Cutivalú ONG 15 120 40Marañón Iglesia 20 160 120

ChaskiComunidad Campesina 3 24 8

Relación del tiempo trabajado por empleados VS voluntarios

0

50

100

150

200

ho

ras

Empleados Voluntarios

Empleados 120 160 24

Voluntarios 40 60 16

Cutivalú Marañón Chaski

Se observa con claridad como en el caso de Radio Cutivalú por cada tres horas de trabajo de un empleado, le corresponde una hora de labor del voluntario, mientras que por cada tres horas de trabajo de un empleado de Chaski Radio se dan dos horas de trabajo de los voluntarios. Este detalle estadístico nos muestra una diferencia entre las emisoras comunitarias con propiedad institucional (ONG o Iglesia) en comparación con las de propiedad comunitaria.

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2. RELACIÓN CON LA COMUNIDAD

La razón de ser de las radios comunitarias es la comunidad, ser la caja de resonancia de sus voces, sus cantos, sus anhelos, sus historias. Ser la portadora de la lucha por sus derechos, de sus denuncias y reclamos, y por supuesto ser el vehículo de sus propuestas.

Las radios comunitarias son también un rico medio de expresión cultural donde se expresa la sonoridad de las culturas que la comunidad reúne, las voces de los niñas y niños, los cantos e historias casi fantásticas de los ancianos. Y ¿cómo aseguran esta presencia de la comunidad en las ondas que expiden las antenas de las radios comunitarias?, esa excelente pregunta parece tener dos respuestas en el escenario de las radios comunitarias en Perú. De un lado están las radios implementadas como fruto de un emprendimiento comunitario sea de un distrito urbano marginal (como es el caso de Stereo Villa, en el distrito de Villa El Salvador; una comunidad campesina o nativa como el caso de Chaski Radio en Ayacucho o la Voz de Sepahua en Ucayali), y otro es el caso de una emisora promovida por una ONG laica o de la iglesia.

RADIO DE LA COMUNIDAD LA VOZ DE SEPAHUACuando en una asamblea comunal un miembro de la comunidad nativa (de la selva peruana) de Sepahua propuso la idea de tener una emisora de radio, las sugerencias para producir contenidos y programas en dicha emisora aparecieron antes de que la misma asamblea apruebe la idea. Y no pasó más de un año para que dicha comunidad nativa empezara a manejar su emisora de radio a la que llaman Radio de la Comunidad: La Voz de Sepahua, nunca mejor puesto el nombre. Resulta que la comunidad nativa de Sepahua no es una comunidad típica de la selva peruana, ya que cuenta entre sus integrantes a familias de varias étnias, y es que el –ahora- distrito de Sepahua (ubicado en la parte baja del Río Urubamba) fue un espacio de refugio de cientos de familias expulsadas de las riberas del río Tambo por la violencia de Sendero Luminoso. La primera medida que tomó la radio fue organizar un comité de dirección conformado por miembros de la comunidad de diferentes étnias lo cual aseguró la pluralidad en el contenido de su programación. Luego de tres años de vida Radio de la Comunidad: La Voz de Sepahua tiene una programación con franjas horarias dedicadas a la familia, los niños y jóvenes y los ancianos. Las iglesias y el municipio distrital también están presentes.

Este ejemplo de Sepahua nos hace ver como las emisoras comunitarias fruto del esfuerzo de los integrantes de una comunidad determinada refleja sin mucho problema los intereses y voces de la comunidad.

Pero cuando el emprendimiento es desde una institución de la sociedad civil la radio suele proponer una programación participativa (incluso se hace llamar radio educativa-comunitaria o popular-comunitaria).

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PROGRAMACIÓN PARTICIPATIVA“Cuando Radio Cutivalú de Piura salió por primer vez al aire, su propuesta fue contar con una programación participativa, es decir la radio se vinculaba directamente con organizaciones sociales como comunidades campesinas, rondas campesinas, gremios agrarios, cooperativas agrarias, federaciones de pueblos jóvenes, juntas vecinales, es decir todo el tejido social existente a mediados de los 80.Pero luego de una década de funcionamiento, a mediados de los 90 gran parte del tejido social, sino todo, había desaparecido o estaba muy debilitado.Durante la década de los 90 el totalitarismo de Fujimori produjo una fragmentación social que hizo muy difícil que la relación de las radios comunitarias y las organizaciones sociales se fortalezca. En el nuevo milenio las relaciones sociales se redefinen construyendo nuevos liderazgos, una nueva institucionalidad democrática bajo la propuesta de colectivos ciudadanos o de sociedad civil. Estamos en un proceso de transformación del tejido social y de recomposición del relacionamiento de las radios comunitarias y este tipo de organizaciones con la institucionalidad democrática.”Rodolfo Aquino, Director de Radio Cutivalú, Piura.

Entre éstas dos alternativas las radios comunitarias tienen varias modalidades para su relacionamiento con las organizaciones de la sociedad civil y lograr ser la voz de la comunidad:

1. Co-producción de programas con las organizaciones de la sociedad civil. Una co-producción significa una producción de a dos, una producción compartida, en igualdad de condiciones. Muchas veces éste es el camino que adoptan emisoras luego de un largo período de conocimiento con algunas organizaciones de sociedad civil, podemos afirmar que este escenario es fruto de un largo camino de alianza. Esta modalidad significa también, que la emisora valora el aporte comunicacional de la institución co-productora, y a la inversa. Este tipo de co-producciones se da habitualmente en programas especializados del fin de semana. Por ejemplo destaca el programa de Rondas Campesinas que se emite todos los domingos por Radio Marañón, o el programa sobre educación sanitaria que hace los días domingo la Posta Médica en el distrito de Sepahua en la Radio de la Comunidad. En este tipo de programas la emisora se compromete en ofrecer el horario dentro de su programación y las facilidades técnicas en general, además de encargar a uno de sus productores, periodistas o locutores que apoyen dicho programa, la institución co-productora asume algunos costos de producción y sobretodo su experiencia y especialidad en el tema a tratar. Si el programa logra conseguir auspiciadores/patrocinadores entonces el dinero obtenido se repartirá en partes iguales.

Decíamos que el caso del programa radial de las Rondas Campesinas es muy interesante porque se trata de una organización de base constituida por campesinos que en su idea original, en la década del 80, surgieron para hacer frente a la delincuencia rural en especial el abigeato, es decir el robo de animales y cosechas. Pronto se extendieron en diferentes zonas del Perú para hacer frente a la violencia terrorista y a partir de los 90 defienden además los derechos ambientales y de propiedad de los recursos naturales por parte de las comunidades rurales.

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2. Producción de programas teniendo como aliados a especialistas de organizaciones de la sociedad civil. Esta modalidad brinda la oportunidad que la radio comunitaria establezca alianzas de colaboración con organizaciones de la sociedad civil y cuenta con la posibilidad de tener invitados permanentes. En ésta modalidad la producción y dirección del programa sigue bajo la responsabilidad de la emisora pero cuenta con la permanente visita y colaboración de los aliados que muchas veces son los profesionales de instituciones de la sociedad civil especializados en determinadas temáticas. Hay casos en que estos programas son sólo los fines de semana, aunque vienen aumentando los ejemplos en los que este tipo de programa son de frecuencia diaria. En estos programas los recursos para la producción son proveídos por la emisora y los ingresos económicos, si los hubiera, son también de forma íntegra para la estación.

En este tipo de producción suelen abordarse temas como salud sexual y reproductiva, asistencia médica, consultas psicológicas, asesoramiento en técnicas agronómicas, consejos técnico-mecánicos para el hogar, entre otros.

En la mayoría de los casos las radios comunitarias en Perú no tienen la oportunidad de contrastar de forma directa la opinión de sus oyentes. En la mayoría de países las empresas de investigación de mercados se limitan a los estudios cuantitativos de audiencia, lo que logra que los datos entregados sean bastante superficiales y dependientes del momento en el que hace el estudio. Se sabe poco de qué opina la audiencia sobre los programas informativos de determinada estación, o sobre los programas musicales de tal emisora.

La forma en que la emisora toma el pulso de la valoración/opinión de la audiencia con respecto a la programación que ofrece es cuando cuenta con un equipo de voluntarios/corresponsales que representan a una determinada localidad, la opinión de dichos personajes es muy importante, ya que son los que están en constante contacto con la audiencia. También se toma en cuenta la participación telefónica de la audiencia y en más de una ocasión los mismos locutores de una emisora han solicitado a los oyentes de la comunidad al aire y en vivo sus opiniones sobre la emisora.

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3. EL ESFUERZO POR LOS DERECHOS

Hacer valer los derechos de los ciudadanos en países con democracias débiles es una tarea muy grande, los medios de comunicación tienen un rol motivador, investigador, de denuncia de los abusos y de acompañamiento de la defensa de los derechos ciudadanos.

La defensa de los derechos no es una labor exclusiva de las emisoras pero si es el rol de ellas colocar en agenda ante la opinión pública la violación de éstos y la lucha por defenderlos. Muchas veces las acciones encaminadas en éste sentido son sólo una parte de un gran esfuerzo social, pero la participación de la radio comunitaria en estos emprendimientos es fundamental.

EL PROBLEMA DE LA SEGURIDAD CIUDADANAEn Jaén la delincuencia ha producido muchas muertes, entonces ante dicha emergencia la población se acercó a radio Marañón denunció y pidió que se investiguen los casos, esto se dio cuando instituciones como la Policía no cumplía de forma adecuada su labor. Entonces muchas organizaciones sociales promovieron una marcha por la Paz, y muchas radios de Jaén dejaron de transmitir su programación y emitieron la señal de Radio Marañón que había sido designada para cubrir dicha movilización social ya que esta emisora es considerada como líder en temas sociales y por el desarrollo. De esta manera las autoridades de la policía se vieron obligadas a invertir su mejor esfuerzo en el tema.

Los problemas por la lucha de la defensa de los derechos, no son locales, sino globales. Así la Coordinadora Nacional de Radio, CNR, de Perú ha organizado con varias de sus emisoras socias la ejecución de un proyecto que busca mejorar las condiciones de las mujeres y los jóvenes en la zona norte del país, una de las experiencias obtenidas del proyecto -aún en ejecución- es que el trabajo coordinado de las emisoras genera mayor incidencia política.

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LA MACRONORTE: POR LAS MUJERES Y JÓVENES“La CNR cuenta con una organización geográfica basada en cuatro Macroregiones (Norte, Sur, Centro y Oriente). En la macroregión Norte se viene ejecutando un proyecto en el que intervienen 12 emisoras de tres regiones de la costa norte del país. Están trabajando con las organizaciones de la sociedad civil y los gobiernos locales y regionales. Lo primero que se ha desarrollado es un diagnóstico situacional para saber bien cuál es la situación de las mujeres y jóvenes. Luego se ha propuesto una agenda de actividades que promocionen los derechos de mujeres y jóvenes la misma que está siendo negociada con los gobiernos locales. Para luego realizar reuniones y proponer políticas públicas a favor de los derechos de la mujer y los jóvenes, las mismas que se trabajan con líderes, con redes de la sociedad civil y ONGs especializadas en los temas. La comunidad participa a través de los programas radiales creados especialmente para este fin, sobretodo el programa semanal en el cual participan todas las emisoras socias de la CNR del norte del Perú y donde se debaten los temas. El proyecto busca mejorar la calidad de vida de estos dos grupos, y hasta ahora hemos conseguido ordenanzas municipales muy buenas, el ámbito de los gobiernos regionales está aún pendiente. . .” Liz Quiroz, Directora del Programa de Incidencia y Opinión Pública de la Coordinadora Nacional de Radio, CNR.

El proyecto de las emisoras del norte del Perú, socias de la CNR, es un ejemplo de cómo una red de emisoras comunitarias puede plantear a los órganos de gobierno –como municipios locales y gobiernos regionales- participar en la construcción de la agenda de desarrollo, asumiendo un rol de actor social y negociando con dichas instancias la realización de actividades (como ferias por la equidad de género, festivales deportivos y artísticos de jóvenes, etc.) que luego sean institucionalizadas desde el mismo gobierno. Lo que se busca obviamente no es quedarse con el activismo, sino lograr que las instancias de gobierno definan lineamientos de su política a favor de las poblaciones que sufren vulneración de sus derechos como, en este caso, las mujeres y los jóvenes.

Otro de los problemas es el ambiental que si bien están localizados en muchas zonas del planeta, tanto en los espacios rurales como urbanos, es un deber mundial defender la vida de las poblaciones vulnerables como las que habitan la selva amazónica sudamericana y su medio ambiente como patrimonio de la humanidad. Bajo esta idea general radio La Voz de la Selva (LVS) se sumó a la defensa de la vida de la comunidad Ashuar en la amazonía peruana y protagonizó unos de los casos más importantes de los últimos años en el Perú.

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LOS INDÍGENAS Y LA CONTAMINACIÓN“Las comunidades nativas denunciaron la contaminación del río Corrientes por parte de una empresa petrolera. Por eso la emisora se dedicó a investigar y logró que la sede central del Ministerio de Salud, ubicada en Lima, examine la sangre de los pobladores nativos que viven a orillas de dicho río sin embargo dichos resultados no se dieron a conocer. Luego de mucho esfuerzo e investigación nuestros periodistas lograron obtener la información de los exámenes de sangre donde se comprobaba que la población ribereña tenía plomo y cadmio en la sangre. Esta información produjo un gran escándalo en la población de Iquitos (capital de la región Loreto), por eso levantamos el tema a nivel nacional en alianza con la CNR y la Defensoría del Pueblo, los nativos tomaron el oleducto por donde circula el petróleo, y logramos contar con el apoyo y la solidaridad de todas las instituciones sociales de la región Loreto. Entonces se formó una mesa de negociación entre la empresa petrolera, el estado, los indígenas y las tres instancias pidieron que sea la emisora la que participe en dicho proceso he informe del mismo, como mecanismo de transparencia, logramos nuestro objetivo.”Oraldo Reátegui, Director de Radio La Voz de la Selva, Loreto

Los casos en los que se defienden los derechos ciudadanos con éxito no son muchos pero cuando se logran los objetivos dejan una marca importante en la historia, por eso es que las radios comunitarias son reconocidas por su aporte social.

“Radio Cutivalú definitivamente es un actor social y ha logrado cambios. Con la radio hemos desarrollado varias campañas como la de transparencia para los procesos electorales, el derecho a acceder a la información pública, sin que nadie nos lo impida, el tema de las torturas en los cuarteles, el ejercicio de los derechos ciudadanos frente a las autoridades y otros.”Dra. Eugenia Fernand Zegarra, representante de la Defensoría del Pueblo de Piura. En Geerts et al (2004, p. 170)

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4. ACCOUNTABILITY Y BUEN GOBIERNO

El proceso de fortalecimiento de la democracia es largo y complejo, exige esfuerzo y dedicación, pero sobretodo es un proceso social, es decir es un proceso en el cual participa la ciudadanía, sus instituciones y los diferentes niveles de gobierno. En las instituciones sociales están las radios comunitarias que tienen como objetivo fortalecer los valores democráticos a partir de la participación de diversas voces en su programación y promover el bueno gobierno a partir de mecanismos útiles de vigilancia y fiscalización de su actuación.

La modalidad de actuación de las radios comunitarias en este tema no es muy diversa, y se resumen básicamente en tres opciones:

1. Programas Informativos: La mayoría de emisoras comunitarias reciben el día brindándoles a sus oyentes servicios informativos, conocidos comúnmente como noticieros, cuya mayor diferencia con los informativos de las emisoras comerciales es su agenda informativa que está definida desde los intereses de la comunidad, en ese sentido las noticias sobre denuncias, malos manejos y reclamos sobre los servicios y servidores públicos tiene un espacio definido.

INFORMACIÓN PARA LA VIGILANCIA CIUDADANA“En Radio Marañón tenemos tres ediciones del noticiero y en estos espacios durante tres veces al día se levantan (tratan, abordan) los temas de vigilancia ciudadana, no son campañas sino temas permanentes y se ha logrado en que las autoridades reconozcan la rendición de cuentas como un derecho de la ciudadanía y un deber de su función pública, y esto ha llevado a que las autoridades realicen asambleas informativas o cabildos abiertos. La radio cubre estas reuniones, no sólo las transmite en vivo (que se hace pocas veces por problemas técnicos) sino que se informa poco a poco y en detalle durante todos los días de la semana. Incluso mucha gente y autoridades llegan a la radio para que por la radio se convoque a un cabildo abierto. Además se ha logrado que la ciudadanía sepa que tiene derecho a la información pública ...” Edgar Cárdenas, Jefe de Programación de Radio Marañón

2. Programas de debate: Uno de los principales ejemplos se encuentra en Radio Cutivalú de Piura, en la costa norte peruana, donde a partir de la participación de la población, las autoridades y los representantes de las organizaciones sociales se hacen denuncias, y se buscan los consensos.

UD. JUZGA es –según sus productores- un talk show que se presenta todos los sábados por la mañana desde los estudios de Radio Cutivalú, sus temas siempre son calientes, espinosos, polémicos, el éxito del programa no se basa en el escándalo que pueda generar el debate de los participantes, donde se cuentan vecinos, representantes de las organizaciones sociales, especialistas de ONG y funcionarios y autoridades públicas; sino en lo que se pueda sacar a luz, poner las razones de los problemas al descubierto y cómo luego del debate se logran ver y salen a flote las soluciones y los acuerdos para hacerle frente a los problemas.

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El éxito del programa se observa cuando los vecinos de un distrito denuncian irregularidades, los periodistas de la emisora investigan el tema y luego en el programa y al aire se contrastan con las informaciones de las autoridades. Muchas veces descubrir irregularidades, vigilar y fiscalizar la gestión pública ha logrado que algunas malas autoridades políticas no sean reelegidas o que se inicien procesos administrativos a malos funcionarios.

La trascendencia de UD. JUZGA ha sido tan grande que algunos distritos han solicitado a la emisora que transmita las audiencias públicas de los municipios o que participe en los Consejos de Coordinación Local para la preparación de los Presupuestos Participativos a nivel de municipio distrital.

3. Programas participativos: En la mayoría de las emisoras se informa sobre los problemas, y cada vez es más notoria la presencia –en las radios comunitarias- de espacios donde se trata de buscar no sólo la denuncia sino también las soluciones. Observamos por lo menos las siguientes tres modalidades:

a. Los programas participativos con micrófono abierto, donde se reciben denuncias, reclamos a la función pública y que los periodistas de la emisora anotan para investigar.

b. Las mesas redondas, donde a partir del análisis de los problemas se reúne a los responsables para dialogar sobre el tema, la idea es presentar el problema y conocerlo mejor, si se le encuentra solución será muy bueno.

c. Los consultorios: Muchas veces las autoridades locales, regionales y nacionales están muy alejadas de la comunidad, entonces la radio se convierte en el espacio público para intermediar entre pobladores y autoridades. En algunas ocasiones las denuncias no son graves problemas sino falta de información, y la radio sirve para eso: relaciona, aclara, informa y brinda la posibilidad de llevar adelante un mejor gobierno.

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5. EL PAPEL DE LAS REDES DE RADIO COMUNITARIA

En primer lugar debemos señalar que el trabajo con redes de comunicación radial en Perú es intenso y lo podemos clasificar en tres niveles.

1. Internacional: AMARC y ALEREn Perú hay emisoras comunitarias miembros de AMARC ALC (Asociación Mundial de Radios Comunitarias para América Latina y Caribe) y socios de ALER (Asociación Latinoamericana de Educación Radiofónica), ambas tienen como red representante nacional a la CNR. Las acciones de las dos redes están coordinadas por CNR y resultan complementarias si ALER realiza talleres de capacitación temática, AMARC hace capacitación en terreno, si ALER promueve la producción radiofónica en determinados formatos, AMARC promueva la discusión política en defensa de la democratización de las comunicaciones.

2. Nacional: CNREn primer lugar debemos señalar la presencia de redes especializadas en determinadas temáticas que son promovidas por Centros de Producción Radial (ONG) y que se relacionan con emisoras comunitarias de todo el país. Así, a partir de la iniciativa de ONG, podemos mencionar que se han formado redes de radios que trabajan el tema de los Derechos Humanos, el Desarrollo Agrario, la lucha contra el VIH-Sida, etc. Estas iniciativas de las ONG son muy bien aceptadas por las radios comunitarias que participan de los talleres a los que son convocados y son reconocidas como aliadas en determinados temas, pero no en la gestión integral de la emisora, ni en la propiedad de la misma.

De otro lado, y con ciertos trabajos conjuntos con algunas de las redes antes mencionadas, está la Coordinadora Nacional de Radio que es la red de radios educativas y comunitarias en Perú formada por las mismas emisoras. La Planificación Estratégica (2001) de CNR definió como su Misión institucional:

Articular, promover y validar de manera descentralizada experiencias de comunicación radial orientadas a construir una cultura de vida, diálogo, a favor de la justicia y paz desde una opción por las mayorías nacionales.

La CNR es una asociación civil sin fines de lucro, fundada en la ciudad de Sicuani, Cusco, el 31 de Agosto de 1978. Está conformada por 49 radios y 27 Centros de Comunicación que representan a experiencias de comunicación educativa y comunitaria del Perú, comprometidas con los procesos de desarrollo y el fortalecimiento de la democratización en diversas regiones, con perspectiva latinoamericana.

Su organización está definida por su Reingeniería Institucional (2002) de la siguiente manera.

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La CNR en 2003, al cumplir 25 años de vida, inició un gran cambio de un lado en su modelo de funcionamiento institucional y en la ampliación de sus objetivos institucionales. Fruto de una larga discusión optó por definir un modelo organizativo en red descentralizado geográficamente en cuatro magroregiones regiones pero a la vez y en alianza con los Centros de Producción, también socios de la CNR, conformar Redes Temáticas Especializadas que atraviesen las macroregiones, así a la fecha CNR tiene formadas dos redes: Evangelización y Cultura de Paz, y Desarrollo Rural y Medio Ambiente.

En el nuevo milenio los objetivos institucionales de CNR se enfocaron hacia el fortalecimiento de la democracia y lograr una mayor incidencia política, los años 90 en Perú fueron momentos muy difíciles para la convivencia democrática, la práctica de la comunicación masiva independiente, los medios educativos y comunitarios fueron presionados y amenazados en varios momentos pero la CNR dio ejemplo de defensa de la institucionalidad democrática y de los derechos de las grandes mayorías, este motivo al que se suma el proceso de crecimiento de la CNR, llevan a esta red nacional a ver el espacio de incidencia nacional como una meta próxima promoviendo una estación de radio en Lima, la capital del país, para que se integre a la red.

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La CNR está liderada por un Consejo Directivo como órgano político y cuenta con una Oficina Nacional, ubicada en Lima, como órgano ejecutivo.

Más allá de la organización de la CNR, lo que cuenta es su trabajo comunicacional, que a lo largo de su historia ha sido reconocido por no doblegarse ante las adversidades por hacer una comunicación por al democracia, la justicia y la equidad, como señala Acevedo (2006).

La CNR, a través de su agencia de noticias, página Web y servicios informativos en red y de producción descentralizada era una alternativa independiente frente a medios vendidos a la corrupción. Se acompañó el proceso de resistencia a la dictadura y la articulación de voluntades a favor de la democracia. La CNR, y sus asociadas, se convirtió en agente de información plural, generadora de espacios de participación de ciudadanos y actores colectivos, constructora de puentes de diálogo entre sujetos sociales y políticos, también creadora de propuestas, la CNR tuvo un rol significativo en el derrocamiento del régimen corrupto y autoritario y el inicio del proceso de transición.

Por último debemos mencionar que la CNR al ser una red de radios diseña, gestiona y ejecuta sus proyectos de forma descentralizada basándose en su organización por macroregiones, lo cual ha llevado a que el 70% de su presupuesto institucional sea ejecutado por sus socios de todo el país, y sólo un 30% desde su oficina ejecutiva.

Los cambios recientes (de ésta década) de la CNR le han obligado a afrontar diferentes retos que han hecho posible que se observen sus fortalezas y debilidades:

Fortalezas:i. Ha respondido ante los pedidos de sus socios. Quizá el principal

ejemplo sea la organización de una Agencia Intermediaria de Publicidad (AIP) que busca conseguir avisos en las Agencias Publicitarias ubicadas en Lima para sus las emisoras socias de la CNR en todo el país. Organiza procesos de fortalecimiento de capacidades de acuerdo a la demanda de sus asociados.

ii. Ha implementado un amplio espíritu democrático y participativo de sus socios en la gestión de la red.

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iii. Ha logrado ser considerado como actor político en el escenario democrático del país. Poco a poco gana mejor posicionamiento a partir de su trabajo a favor del desarrollo nacional.

iv. Ha mejorado el staff de profesionales de su oficina ejecutiva, lo cual ha redundado en una mejor gestión.

Debilidadesi. La fragilidad institucional de algunos de sus socios. No todos los socios

de la CNR son instituciones bien organizados y de eficiente gestión. Un alto porcentaje son instituciones vinculadas a la iglesia católica que responden a otras instancias de poder y que pueden dar mas o menos importancia a la comunicación comunitaria o deciden que contenidos dar y como relacionarse con la comunidad.

ii. Los problemas para lograr la sostenibilidad económica son cada vez mayores, en un país donde la industria de la radio es hegemónico, lograr avisos publicitarios es muy difícil.

iii. El recambio de los trabajadores en las emisoras comunitarias, que logran –económicamente- mejores empleos hace que los procesos de capacitación sean permanentes.

Interconectando emisorasLa tecnología utilizada para la interconexión de las emisoras socias de la CNR es mixta, de un lado 22 emisoras reciben una señal vía satélite desde Lima, la que distribuye programas informativos, de opinión y debate político y programas especializados sobre determinados temas de desarrollo social, destacando los temas de vigilancia de la gestión pública, descentralización y diversidad cultural. A la tecnología satelital se le suma la emisión por audio on line en internet de los contenidos radiofónicos señalados antes. Esta combinación de tecnologías llega a cubrir un 80% de las asociadas a la CNR.

3. RegionalA nivel del interior del país algunas emisoras de cobertura regional (como Radio Oriente en Yurimaguas, provincia de Alto Amazonas, Loreto; Radio La Voz de la Selva de Iquitos, Loreto y Radio Marañón de Jaén, Cajamarca) han iniciado, en años recientes, el trabajo de ampliación de su ámbito de influencia, promoviendo la instalación de estaciones de radio comunitaria en las provincias adyacentes a las zonas de su influencia o, incluso, en la misma provincia o distrito cubierto por su señal donde han descubierto dinámicas sociales particulares que deben ser atendidas de forma singular.

Así radio Oriente ha promovido y colaborado en la implementación de Radio San Lorenzo y Radio La Voz del Cainarachi; Radio La Voz de la Selva colabora con Radio Ukamara en Nauta, Loreto y Radio Marañón viene diseñando un ambicioso proyecto macroregional. En todos los casos el objetivo es responder a demandas sociales con medios de comunicación comunitarios y participativos.

RADIO UKAMARA Y LA DESCENTRALIZACIÓN“Radio La Voz de la Selva no podía seguir emitiendo a toda la región desde Iquitos, capital de Loreto. Entendimos que debíamos tener un proceso de descentralización intraregional, para la promoción de las propuestas de desarrollo en un movimiento de abajo hacia arriba, una manera democrática e inclusiva de practicar el desarrollo.”Oraldo Reátegui, Director de Radio La Voz de la Selva y promotor de Radio Ukamara de Nauta, Loreto.

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El dinámico panorama de las redes de emisoras comunitarias, y de las redes especializadas (promovidas por ONG) tiende a ser cada vez más complejo ya que las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación e información están dando más y múltiples respuestas a los requerimientos de conexión y distribución de contenidos.

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6. FINANCIAMIENTO SOSTENIBLE

Tal como afirman Lewis y Booth (1992) las emisoras comunitarias no tienen objetivos lucrativos y generalmente intentan diversificar su financiación para evitar la dependencia de cualquiera de sus fuentes de ingreso.

En Perú las radios comunitarias son emprendimientos de la sociedad civil, es decir no cuentan con recursos económicos del Estado y en los últimos 30 años han experimentado diversas modalidades para lograr su sostenibilidad, en ese sentido podemos observar que el financiamiento de las radios comunitarias está basado en la obtención de recursos de diversas fuentes que van desde la venta publicitaria (permitida por la Ley de Radio y TV) hasta la cooperación internacional, pasando por la provisión de servicios profesionales a instituciones públicas y privadas, la realización de actividades culturales y comerciales con la comunidad. Los casos son muy diversos, intentaremos a continuación mostrar algunas modalidades de estrategias de búsqueda de sostenibilidad de la radio comunitaria.

1. De la cooperación a la publicidad: Radio Marañón sustenta su presupuesto para mantener la emisora más escuchada de la macroregión nor oriental del Marañón, en la zona norte del Perú en base a los recursos que obtiene de tres fuentes: la cooperación internacional aporta un 40%, los Comunicados el 30% y la publicidad comercial otro 30%. Vale decir que la emisora logra, a partir de la generación de recursos propios, el 60% de su sostenibilidad. Hay que señalar que los Comunicados son una forma sui géneris de obtención de recursos ya que se usa la emisora de radio no solamente como teléfono al avisar mediante ésta los mensajes entre familiares, sino que también para informar y convocar a parte de la comunidad a reuniones y actividades de diversa índole, digamos que es como un “periódico local hablado”. De otro lado está el caso de Chaski Radio (emisora comunitaria rural) que sufraga todos sus costos (incluso el pago de electricidad) a partir del avisaje local, debemos dejar en claro que se sustenta en un equipo de voluntarios y que los trabajadores de la emisora reciben sueldos muy bajos.

2. Actividades Comerciales: En las zonas donde los medios de comunicación (masivos y privados) están más extendidos la estrategia de Comunicados, de Radio Marañón ya no es útil, entonces las radios comunitarias crean otras modalidades para obtener financiamiento. En Cusco Radio Sicuani organiza espectáculos de entretenimiento, exitosas fiestas bailables con músicos populares que logran producir recursos que sirven para el sostenimiento de la emisora. En Piura, Radio Cutivalú, organiza rifas varias veces al año y vende los boletos en las ocho provincias de la región. La última organizada en el primer trimestre de 2007 sorteó una Mototaxi, vehículo popular que combina una moto lineal con dos asientos en la parte posterior donde viajan los pasajeros. Hasta el local de la emisora llegan decenas de oyentes para comprar los boletos de la rifa ellos dicen que participan de la rifa porque quieren “apoyar a la radio”.

3. Servicio a terceros: El éxito del trabajo de comunicación radiofónica que han logrado varias emisoras comunitarias de mediana y gran cobertura (cobertura provincial y regional) ha producido que diversas instituciones públicas (Ministerio de Educación, Ministerio de Agricultura, Ministerio de Salud entre otros) y privadas (desde ONG y entidades comerciales) arreglen contratos de asesoría, producción radial o difusión radiofónica con las emisoras. Si bien aún son escasas estas experiencias ayudan al financiamiento y logran ser sostenibles en el tiempo, ya que dan paso al establecimiento de convenios interinstitucionales que brindan recursos permanentes a la emisora y provisión de contenidos de buena calidad por parte de la institución con la cual se hace el convenio y que se convierte en aliada.

4. La colaboración desde el Gobierno: Los gobiernos locales (municipios) de los distritos más pequeños y pobres son los que ayudan habitualmente a las pequeñas radios comunitarias, en su mayoría rurales. Muchas radios de este tipo han logrado su equipamiento gracias a pequeñas donaciones y el equipo humano que les da vida está basado en voluntariado entonces los costos fijos que debe asumir la emisora se

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resumen al costo de producción de los programas (insumos) y los costos fijos de la estación, como el gasto para el pago del fluido eléctrico y el local. En varios casos estos dos servicios: electricidad y espacio físico (local) son asumidos por los Municipios Distritales, sin que exijan a cambio algún beneficio, por ejemplo en la línea editorial de la emisora. En algunos casos, como el de la Radio de la Comunidad La Voz de Sepahua (en la región Ucayali) la emisora recibe energía eléctrica sin costo por parte del municipio distrital y a cambio le cede una hora diaria de programación, para que dicho gobierno local difunda su noticiero.También se ha dado el caso en que las autoridades locales han presionado a las emisoras comunitarias para que sean proclives a la gestión del gobierno local, lo cual ha producido un alejamiento de dichas instituciones y en varios casos la aparición de emisoras municipales.

5. Competitividad y sostenibilidad: En Iquitos, radio La Voz de la Selva ha tenido momentos de mucho éxito y otros de aletargamiento, casi inacción debido a su tenaz dependencia de la cooperación internacional, pero desde hace tres años la estrategia de gestión dio un gran cambio y ha marchado hacia la autosostenibilidad, observemos sus principales estrategias:

a. Venta publicitaria, si en un momento la iglesia católica, propietaria de la emisora, se negó al avisaje publicitario de ciertos productos comerciales, eso ahora no sucede, lo cual ha brindado la posibilidad de sufragar todos los costos fijos, como el pago por servicio de electricidad planilla de sueldos, insumos para la producción, servicio de telefonía e internet, etc.

b. Franja de programación concesionable: LVS dispone de una hora y media diaria con posibilidad de ser concesionada, es decir alquilada a terceros para la difusión de sus producciones radiales. En la actualidad el Ministerio de Educación y un par de ONG tienen programas que difunde LVS y que concuerdan con los objetivos de desarrollo humano de la emisora.

c. La cooperación internacional: Sigue presente en el presupuesto de LVS pero no para financiar los gastos fijos de funcionamiento de la emisora sino para la renovación del equipamiento técnico.

La autosostenibilidad fue planteada como una necesidad en LVS por dos razones:Garantizar a la cooperación internacional que la emisora puede mantenerse sin ella, es decir es sostenible y tiene futuro, logra ingresos económicos porque tiene incidencia en la audiencia, compite con otras emisoras de radio y logra oyentes que le dan posibilidades de financiamiento comercial.La propuesta de LVS es ser una radio alternativa con valores éticos no sólo para los convencidos sino también para la audiencia en general y que demuestre al mismo mercado de medios de comunicación que una radio con principios democráticos y por el desarrollo equitativo es viable y sostenible.

Hasta el momento el éxito no les ha sido esquivo.

Sostenibilidad: ¿de qué costos hablamos?Hasta el momento hemos descrito modalidades de cómo las radios comunitarias -sean estas urbanas o rurales, grandes o pequeñas, de emprendimientos institucionales (ONG e Iglesia) o comunales campesinos- buscan la sostenibilidad económica. Sin embargo debemos tomar en cuenta que hay mucha diferencia en los costos que tiene una emisora urbana con una planilla de 20 empleados y 10 mil vatios de potencia que le permite una cobertura regional, que una emisora rural con tres empleados y 300 vatios de potencia de ámbito local.

En el primer caso el presupuesto anual aproximado llega a los 150 mil US$, mientras que en el segundo a los 2 mil US$, la diferencia es muy grande por que los objetivos de ambas experiencias también son diferentes, los sueldos que pagan son incomparables.

De manera similar a lo observado en el tema del voluntariado la búsqueda de sostenibilidad económica, caso en el que debe añadirse las reglas del mercado

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publicitario, podemos afirmar que cuanto más pequeña es la emisora comunitaria (rural o urbano marginal) mayor es la dificultad para lograr financiamiento propio y también mayor la dependencia al voluntariado y al aporte de la cooperación internacional. En la mirada inversa cuan mayor es el tamaño de la estación, aumenta su posibilidad de lograr financiamiento a partir de la publicidad comercial y puede disminuir su dependencia a la cooperación internacional.

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7. LAS RADIOS COMUNITARIAS Y LOS CONFLICTOS

La historia de las radios comunitarias principalmente rurales o aquellas ubicadas en las provincias del interior del país fue muy difícil durante la década del 80, ya que el Perú sufrió la violencia política desatada por Sendero Luminoso, movimiento extremista de accionar terrorista, y que atacó a varias emisoras del sur andino (regiones de Puno, Cusco, Madre de Dios y Apurímac) debido a que emisoras como Radio Onda Azul (Puno), Radio Quillabamba y Sicuani (Cusco) y Radio Madre de Dios (en la región del mismo nombre) defendieron la dignidad humana de los campesinos y los más pobres de dicha región del país tal como lo explica el Informe Final de la Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación Nacional, CVR (2003). Las emisoras mencionadas sufrieron amenazas, pintas intimidatorias en sus locales y atentados explosivos, sus periodistas, productores radiales y directores fueron cobardemente amenazados muchas veces por defender la vida y varios sufrieron atentados contra sus vidas.

Esa etapa dura está registrada en la historia y ha dado paso al trabajo sostenido y comprometido con los Derechos Humanos y la Cultura de Paz que las emisoras comunitarias de Perú trabajan como uno de sus ejes principales. Las emisoras comunitarias ligadas a emprendimientos de la Iglesia Católica abordan dicha temática desde una perspectiva de la evangelización, mientras que las nacidas desde las comunidades campesinas, nativas y ONGs laicas defienden los DDHH desde una perspectiva política por la democracia. En algunos casos los ejes señalados se combinan y fortalecen uno a otro.

Democracia y EvangelizaciónEn varias emisoras comunitarias vinculadas a la iglesia Católica se define como un eje de trabajo, la democracia y la evangelización desde donde proponen una programación que responda al pasado y que desde la radio se pueda aportar a la gobernabilidad de la región y del país, para eso se considera como básico el tema de la vigilancia ciudadana y la gestión transparente, para que las autoridades y funcionarios del aparato público no “hagan lo que quieran” y más bien es la emisora que levante las banderas del combate a la corrupción.

Mucha gente dice que “de la democracia no se come”, pero hay que añadir que la democracia ayuda a vivir de forma digna, con esa visión radio Marañón tiene un trabajo que promueve el desarrollo económico, así desde la emisora se plantean diversas alternativas productivas. Se considera que fruto de la pobreza las ideas extremistas y los movimientos alzados en armas tienen espacio, pero si se fortalece la democracia a partir de una cultura de paz y esta ayuda a mejorar la calidad de vida se logra desterrar la violencia.

La violencia política desatada en el Perú entre las décadas del 80 y 90 dejó como saldo cerca de 70 mil personas fallecidas, en su gran mayoría población rural, campesinos (de la sierra) y nativos (de la selva), la región Ayacucho fue una de las más golpeadas.

Jóvenes por una cultura de pazEn la provincia de Vilcashuamán, distrito de Vischongo en 2002 se inició el trabajo de planificación para la implementación de una emisora comunitaria, luego de dos años de arduo trabajo para reunir algunos recursos económicos en medio de la pobreza de las comunidades campesinas del distrito, gracias a una pequeña donación de la Cooperación Internacional y el apoyo del Municipio Distrital se logró la instalación de Chaski Radio, emisora comunitarias cuya gestión está en manos de un comité formado por la Comunidad Campesina, el Municipio y un Club de Jóvenes, son éstos últimos los más entusiastas para hacer escuchar sus voces, sus cantos, sus historias, y sobretodo para hacerse sentir vivos en una zona donde la orfandad castiga a más de la mitad de la población y donde las marcas del

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hambre, el miedo y la muerte están en la historia de cada comunero. Los más jóvenes a Chaski Radio le llaman radio con Sonido Inka Digital, haciendo referencia a modernización tecnológica que representa para dicha comunidad contar con una emisora de radio, reivindicando su raíz cultural y porque la materia expresiva de la radio el sonido, los acompaña, los alegra, los acaricia en cada una de sus emisiones.

Movimiento “Para que no se repita”En la capital, la CNR integra el movimiento Para que no se repita, grupo de organizaciones de la sociedad civil que apoya la implementación de las recomendaciones del informe de la Comisión de la Verdad.

La CNR y sus emisoras socias apoyan una sostenida y larga campaña para que el Estado cumpla con las reparaciones económicas sugeridas por la CVR. La campaña se ejecuta en diferentes niveles y las emisoras comunitarias agrupadas en CNR actúan desde el lado periodístico, como intermediadotes entre los funcionarios estatales y las familias afectadas por el terrorismo, y también como actor social al organizar e impulsar seminarios de divulgación y discusión del tema y en su relacionamiento político con decidores.

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8. INSTITUCIONES DE APOYO A LA COMUNICACIÓN COMUNITARIAAl complejo panorama de la comunicación comunitaria en Perú, se suman a las instituciones de la sociedad civil participantes y aliadas de las emisoras comunitarias en el ámbito de su influencia y las redes que las agrupan a nivel nacional, continental y mundial, las ONG (locales y nacionales) que trabajan en apoyo a las radios comunitarias, este apoyo se puede clasificar en las siguientes modalidades:

Promoción de la implementación de radios comunitarias: cuando un grupo social de base, comunidad campesina o comunidad nativa quiere implementar una emisora comunitaria, porque fruto del desarrollo social de dicha comunidad sus integrantes han decidido que hacer comunicación fortalece diversos procesos individuales y sociales, como el reconocimiento y tolerancia a la diferencia cultural, social y política, así como favorece a la difusión de la pluralidad de opiniones en el proceso de construcción de la democracia, entonces dichas organizaciones suelen buscar y solicitar el apoyo de alguna institución especializada. Es el caso de ILLA. Centro de Educación y Comunicación, que ha promovido emisoras comunitarias en las regiones Puno, Ica y Piura.

Capacitación a radios comunitarias y producción radial con contenidos especializados: una vez que la emisora comunitaria ya existe, es decir está implementada técnicamente, urge la capacitación del equipo humano, la organización de los equipos de trabajo, la planificación de actividades, la producción de programas, la búsqueda de sostenibilidad, etc. Para el apoyo de éste tipo de necesidades de las emisoras comunitarias existen dos ONG como CNR y AMARC-Perú.

Además algunas ONG que tienen especialización en determinados temas como la defensa legal, los derechos humanos, el desarrollo agrario, la descentralización, la salud materno infantil, entre otros; tienen también equipos de profesionales de la comunicación y especializados en producción radial y proveen programas radiales con dichos contenidos y en algunos casos realizan capacitación en los mismos. Destacan APRODEH, IDL, Calandria, entre otras, que acompañan durante varios años el fortalecimiento de las radios comunitarias, en algunos casos de hacen socias o aliadas, pero no copropietarias.

Por último debemos mencionar que existen ONG que acompañan todo el proceso de las emisoras comunitarias, en algunos casos reciben la solicitud de las organizaciones de base urbanas o rurales para que les asesoren en temas no relacionados con la comunicación, pero fruto del diálogo se encuentra que parte de la salida de sus dificultades es la comunicación masiva, y es cuando la organización de base se decide a iniciar la implementación de una emisora y la ONG la ayuda en ese proceso y en algunos casos la acompaña por varios años. Ese es el caso del CEPES que ha colaborado con decenas de radios comunitarias rurales y regionales en Perú.

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9. CONCLUSIONES

a. Radios comunitarias en Perú: Intentar una clasificación de las radios comunitarias en Perú es una tarea complicada, sin embargo podemos decir que son aquellas radios que defienden los derechos humanos, alientan los procesos democráticos desde la participación política hasta la vigilancia de la gestión pública, proponen un trabajo a favor del desarrollo social inclusivo y equitativo y no tienen fines de lucro. La diferenciación que podemos hacer es que algunas (fundamentalmente las de cobertura urbano-marginal y las de cobertura rural) son de propiedad de las mismas comunidades y las que se hacen llamar además educativas (de cobertura local y regional) son de propiedad de ONGs, ONGs de la iglesia y la misma iglesia católica.

b. Voluntariado multimodal: Las radios comunitarias al ser en muchos casos emprendimientos sociales y/o de las organizaciones de la sociedad civil, tienen la posibilidad de contar con un buen grupo de voluntarios que participan o hacen suyo el proyecto de radioemisora. Esta empatía e identificación hacen posible que la acción voluntaria a favor de la emisora se mantenga. Por su impacto social alcanzan buen nivel de participación espontánea de los miembros de la comunidad.

c. Radios comunitarias, democratizando la comunicación: En países donde el proceso de fortalecimiento de la democracia es aún un camino difícil, complejo y esquivo, las radios comunitarias ayudan a democratizar la palabra, ampliar las agendas informativas y defender las diferencias socio-culturales de las poblaciones con menor calidad de vida (población rural y urbano marginal). La comunidade al frente de una radioemisora se convierte en un actor social legitimado que disputa el poder del espacio público mediático y propone y contrasta sus alternativas de desarrollo de manera masiva.

d. Los derechos para todos: La débil institucionalización social y el alto grado de ineficiencia y corrupción del aparato estatal reclaman de las radios comunitarias su intermediación para la defensa del estado de derecho, la vigilancia de las instituciones y funcionarios públicos y la protección de los derechos de las poblaciones vulnerables. Situaciones donde los pobres son carentes de derechos abundan, pero las radios comunitarias aparecen como una posibilidad de defensa. En Perú se logran algunos casos exitosos donde las emisoras comunitarias aparecen protagonizando un triple rol: de un lado son difusoras de informaciones e investigaciones, intermedian entre las partes en conflicto y las autoridades y como actores que promueven la movilización social a favor de los derechos ciudadanos.

e. Buen gobierno: Las radios comunitarias vigilan, exigen rendición de cuentas y también colaboran con los gobiernos locales y regionales (sus más próximos) en su comunicación con la comunidad e intermedian entre la comunidad y los espacios de poder político, esto es posible gracias a que han asumido un rol de actoría social válida por el respaldo que han logrado.

f. Redes y radios comunitarias: En Perú ocurre una feliz coincidencia ya que existe una sola red de radios educativas y comunitarias –la Coordinadora Nacional de Radio- y ésta representa a la red continental (ALER) y a la mundial (AMARC), en el caso de ésta última su membresía promueva acciones complementarias a las realizadas por la red nacional. La CNR coordina y gestiona alianzas con otras redes de la sociedad civil. Existen demás diversas ONG que alientan redes especializadas en diversos temas de desarrollo social.

g. Financiamiento: El malestar mensual del pago de servicios, sueldos y costos de producción es asumido de forma creativa, logrando desde la publicidad comercial hasta la provisión de servicios profesionales a terceros la obtención de los recursos para el sostenimiento de la emisora. Se observa que las experiencias urbanas y de amplia cobertura logran publicidad comercial, aunque ésta no financie a la emisora en su totalidad. Mientras que las emisoras comunitarias rurales y urbano marginales se

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basan en la colaboración de los voluntarios, la cooperación internacional y en algunos casos la esporádica ayuda de los municipios locales.

h. Proceso de reconciliación: Luego de la terrible década de la violencia política que sufrió el Perú y ante la pasividad del gobierno de turno las radios comunitarias son las abanderadas de los reclamos, y del proceso de reconstrucción social. La calidad afectiva e íntima de la radio ayuda a este proceso, pero las radios comunitarias no podrán hacer solas todo el trabajo.

i. Hecha la ley, hecha la trampa: Si bien la ley de Radio y Televisión, promulgada en 2004 reconoce a la comunitaria como una modalidad de hacer radiodifusión, hasta la fecha el Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones no concede licencias a medios comunitarios, dejando en claro la poca o nula voluntad política que tiene el actual gobierno, elegido de forma democrática pero con poca práctica, con respecto a la democratización de las comunicaciones.

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10. BIBLIOGRAFÍA

ACEVEDO, Jorge et al (2006). Voces y movidas radiociudadanas. Lima. CNR.

ALFARO, Rosa María (1993). Una Comunicación para otro desarrollo. Lima. CALANDRIA.

ALFARO, Rosa et al (1990). Cultura de masas y cultura popular en la radio peruana. Lima. CALANDRIA.

ALFARO, Rosa María et al (1999). La radio ciudadana del futuro. Lima. CALANDRIA.

AVENDAÑO, D. “Informe: Lucha contra la pobreza”. Punto Edu, 52, pp. 1-4.Disponible en: http://www.pucp.edu.pe/noticias_pucp/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=36&Itemid=37

CAMACHO, Carlos (2001). Las radios populares en la construcción de ciudadanía. La Paz. Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar.

CNR (1990). Primer Seminario Nacional de Comunicación. Quito. ALER.

CNR (2001). Planificación Estratégica. CNR.

CNR (2003). Documento Final de Reingeniería Institucional. CNR.

CURUCHET, Eduardo et al (2006). ¿Radio o ruido comunitario?. Montevideo. Tres monos comunicación.

FIGUEROA, Nelson (1996). ONDA AZUL, una radio al ritmo de los tiempos. Puno. CNR.

FIGUEROA, Nelson (1983). La Radio Popular en el Perú. Lima. El día del Pueblo.

GARGUREVICH, Juan (1984). Comunicación y Democracia en el Perú. Lima, Ed. Horizonte.

GEERTS, A. y V. VAN OEYEN (2001). La radio popular frente al nuevo siglo. Quito. ALER.

GEERTS, Andrés et al. (2004). La práctica inspira. Quito. ALER-AMARC.

GIRARD, Bruce (2002). Radioapasiona@s. Experiencias de radio comunitaria en el mundo. COMUNICA. Disponible en: http://www.comunica.org/apasionados/

GUMUCIO, Alfonso (2001). Haciendo Olas. Nueva York. Rockefeller Fundation.

LEWIS, Peter y BOOTH, Jerry (1992). El Medio Invisible. Madrid. Ed. Paidós.

MINISTERIO DE TRANSPORTES Y COMUNICACIONES (xxxx). Ley General de Telecomunicaciones, Ley 19020.

MINISTERIO DE TRANSPORTES Y COMUNICACIONES (2004). Ley de Radio y Televisión, Ley #28 xxxx.

MINISTERIO DE TRANSPORTES Y COMUNICACIONES (2007), Estaciones de Radiodifusión Sonora a Nivel Nacional del Ministerio de Transportes y

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http://www.pucp.edu.pe/noticias_pucp/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=36&Itemid=37

http://www.pucp.edu.pe/noticias_pucp/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=36&Itemid=37

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Comunicaciones. Lima: Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones. Disponible en: http://www.mtc.gob.pe/portal/comunicacion/concesion/radiodifusion/sonora.pdf

PEPPINO, Ana María (1999). Radio educativa, popular y comunitaria en América Latina. México DF. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Azcapotzalco.

RIVADENEYRA, Carlos (2004). Modelos de la radio peruana. Lima. Instituto de Investigación Científica de la Universidad de Lima.

RIVADENEYRA, Carlos (2005). El Oligopolio natural, concentración, centralismo y poder en la radio peruana. Arequipa. Encuentro de FELAFACS Andino.

RIVADENEYRA, Carlos (2006). El silencio de radio La Voz del Cainarachi. La Revista Agraria #75, Junio, p. 12.

ROMO, Cristina (1990). La otra radio. México. Instituto Mexicano de la Radio.

VALDERRAMA, Mariano (Ed.) (1987). Radio y comunicación popular en el Perú. Lima. CEPES.

VIGIL, López Ignacio (1994). Manual urgente para Radialistas Apasionados. Quito. AMARC.

VILLAMAYOR, Claudia y Ernesto LAMAS (1998). Gestión de la Radio Comunitaria y Ciudadana. Quito. FES-AMARC.

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Annex 6

South Africa :

Good Practices in Development & Operation of Community Radios

By: Nkopane Maphiri

____________________________________________________________________________________________________

World Bank - Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios- South AfricaBy : Nkopane Maphiri

June 2007

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Country Details:

Region: Southern Africa

Language 11 official languages (isiZulu, SeSotho, Setswana, SePedi, Xhosa, Xhivenda, Tsonga, isiSwati, Ndebele, Afrikaans and English)

Capital: Administrative (Thswane), Legislative (Cape Town) and Financial (Johannesburg)

Population 48 million

Boarder: Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique and Zimbabwe

Research Methodology

Different sources of information were used to gather, analyze and interpret the information on the South African Community Radio landscape for the ‘Good Practices in Development and Operation of Community Radios’. This information is used with the express view of gaining insight into the sector in South Africa. I note cautiously that some aspects of the information may not cover all areas of the sector, however all attempts were made to reflect as widely as possibly the activities at the stations nationally.

The information is based mainly on desk top secondary data gathered from different sources whom are listed in the reference section of this submission, as well as through some interaction, albeit limited, with a representative sample of stations throughout the country.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

South Africa is at a critical stage of its constitutional democracy where the country is looking back to count the gains of democracy. Part of these gains includes the transformation of the socio-economic status of ordinary South Africans and provision of the essential services to communities. It is imperative that the community radio sector, through its participatory information programs position the sector squarely within this development paradigm and steer the sector well on course to deliver on the principles and vision that of “An open and participatory democracy”. Nearly 13 years ago Former President Nelson Mandela made a call to all South Africans “to define for ourselves what we want to make of our shared destiny”. Today the affirmation of the confidence of our nation that our country has entered its “Age of Hope” and that as a country we have canvassed sufficient resources to accelerate the national effort for faster and shared growth.

It is the community radio’s central role to aggressively communicate, educate and ensure an open and participatory democracy for all communities, for them to recognize and associate themselves with the values and principles that open democracies espouses.

In his 2006 State of the nation address President Mbeki emphasized the need to “move faster to address the challenges of poverty underdevelopment and marginalization confronting those caught within the Second Economy to ensure that the poor in our country share in our growing prosperity”. Community media and Community radio in particular should at all times hold government accountable for their commitments to communities, and it should help to reflect the efforts or lack thereof, of the socio-economic intervention programs of government.

Community radio in South Africa is regulated by The Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA), which was established in July 2000 in terms of the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa Act No.13 of 2000. It took over the functions of two previous regulators, the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (SATRA) and the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA). The two bodies were merged into ICASA to facilitate effective and seamless regulation of telecommunications and broadcasting and to accommodate the convergence of technologies.

ICASA derives its mandate from four statutes. These are the ICASA Act of 2000, The Independent Broadcasting Act of 1993, the Broadcasting Act of 1999 and the Telecommunications Authority Act No. 103 of 1996.

ICASA’s key functions include:

• make regulations and policies that govern broadcasting and telecommunications

• issue licenses to providers of telecommunication services and broadcasters

• monitor the environment and enforce compliance with rules, regulations and policies

• hear and decide on disputes and complaints brought by industry or members of the public against licensees

• plan, control and manage the frequency spectrum and,

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• protect consumers from unfair business practices, poor quality services and harmful or inferior products.

Community radio has to conform to the same professional standards demanded of commercial radio stations – while fulfilling an obligation to the community it serves through its programming content. Community radio is seen as one of the building blocks of our new democracy. To date, over 150 community licences have been issued.

The MDDA:

The Media Development and Diversity Agency (MDDA) was set up by an Act of Parliament (Act 14 of 2002) to enable "historically disadvantaged communities and persons not adequately served by the media" to gain access to the media. It's beneficiaries will be community media and small commercial media.

To achieve its objective, the MDDA will:

Encourage ownership and control of, and access to, media by historically disadvantaged communities, historically diminished indigenous language and cultural groups;

Encourage the channelling of resources to community and small commercial media;

Encourage human resource development and capacity building in the media industry, especially amongst historically disadvantaged groups;

Encourage research regarding media development and diversity.

MDDA supports the following media projects:

Community Media (Broadcast, print and television).60% of its funding is allocated to projects in this sector. Community media projects are defined as a geographic community or a community of interest. In addition, there is a strong emphasis on public participation and is not for profit.

Small commercial media (print). 25% of the funding is allocated to this sector. The MDDA uses the following definition of micro and small business as defined in the Small Business Act of 1996: small business "means a separate and distinct business entity, including co-operative enterprises and non-governmental organisations, managed by one owner or more which… can be classified as a micro-, a very small, a small or a medium enterprise by satisfying the criteria mentioned in columns 3, 4 and 5 of the Schedule…”. The Act uses three indicators: Number of people employed, turnover and assets of the business

It is proposed that such enterprises receive both grants and loans. Grants will be funded by MDDA directly, whilst the loans will be provided by a strategic partner that will be selected by MDDA to meet conditions of the Act i.e. low interest bearing rates. However, the MDDA is still conducting a study into the low interest rate loan scheme.

Research projects5% of the funding is allocated to projects who wish to undertake research into the media sector in South Africa or who want to undertake feasibility studies.

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The following criteria are taken into account when the MDDA Board adjudicates an application:

The extent to which the project promotes media development and diversityThe likely impact of the project on historically disadvantaged communities and persons not adequately served by the mediaThe likely impact of the project on historically diminished indigenous language and cultural groupsThe extent to which the project encourages ownership, control, participation and access to media by historically disadvantaged communities and personsThe extent to which the project develops human resources, training and capacity building within the media industry, especially among HDI’s (Historically Disadvantaged Individuals)The quality and innovation of the projectWhether the project is likely to promote literacy and a culture of readingCompliance with media lawsGood governance practices of the project including financial management and project managementThe financial sustainability of the projectThe independence of the project from any media entity (Caxton, Kagiso Media, SABC, Primedia, Johcom, ETV, Mnet, Independent Newspapers, Media 24 etc.) that funds the MDDA; any political party or the Government

The Government Communications Information System (GCIS):

Legislative mandate

GCIS was established in terms of Section 7 (Subsection 2 and 3) of the Public Service Act, 1994 as amended and GCIS was officially launched on 18 May 1998.

Vision, mission and objectives

GCIS's vision is helping to meet the communication and information needs of government and the people, to ensure a better life for all.

GCIS's mission is to provide leadership in government communication and to ensure that the public is informed of government's implementation of its mandate.

GCIS' strategic objectives are to

ensure that the voice of government is heard

foster a more positive communication environment

have a clear understanding of the public information needs and government's communication needs

promote interactive communications between government and the public

set high standards for government communication.

GCIS is located in The Presidency and is responsible for setting up the new Government Communication System and transforming the communication functions in government. The CEO of GCIS is the official spokesperson for government and attends and services Cabinet.

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GCIS is primarily responsible for communication between government and the people. A high premium is placed on development communication that emphasises direct dialogue, especially with people in disadvantaged areas. GCIS is involved in drafting communication strategies and programmes for the whole of government at national level, and integrating the communication operations of all government departments.

To reach its objectives, GCIS aims to

provide excellent media and communication services to government departments

make Government Information Centres (GICs) and Thusong Service Centres (formerly Multi-purpose Community Centres [MPCCs]), critical elements of government communication

assist in developing government media, communication and information policy

ensure efficient services to the media

produce information products for dissemination to citizens

integrate the international marketing of South Africa

continually transform GCIS and to develop its management and employees to meet the demands of its mandate.

The Department of Communications (DOC):

Vision A global leader in harnessing Information Communications Technologies for socio-economic development.

Mission To enhance the well being of the people of South Africa, African Continent and the world through the creation of sustainable and enabling Information and Communication Technology environment. We shall through leveraging our world-class knowledge, skills and experience, deliver on our social contract to the people in a professional manner reflective of our national value system informed by the Batho- Pele ethos.

South African Media landscape – A snap shot into the past- as defined in

the extract from the Government’s COMTASK Report of 1996. This has set

the scene for the DOC’s intervention policy in the sector.

(Lack of Resources for Community and Independent Media

The community and independent media sector suffered mixed fortunes during the transition period in South Africa. In the 1980s, there was a fairly

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vibrant alternative press with a number of titles, but it would appear that only the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, both weeklies, survived that period. Both of these titles have survived because of intervention from stronger publishing players. NAIL assumed ownership of the New Nation, and the Weekly Mail was renamed the Mail & Guardian, after Guardian Media, of London and Manchester, England, took a controlling stake.

On the other hand, the community media sector flourished in the 1990s. A number of factors have been found to be responsible for this development after hearing much testimony from players in this sector:

The formation of the National Community Media Forum (NCMF) which has facilitated a strong front of development-orientated community newspapers throughout South Africa, concentrating in the peri-urban and rural areas and incorporating a strong student press;

The recognition in the IBA Act of the need for community radio licences and the growth of more than 80 community radio stations. At least 40 of these stations can be characterised as stations specialising in developmental community news and information;

The development of the Independent Media Diversity Trust (IMDT) which, although under-financed, has provided massive support to community radio stations and community prints media since its inception in 1994. The IMDT receives the bulk of its funds from foreign donor governments and foreign non-governmental organisations, but has also received more than a million rands from the South African print media sector (Argus, TML and Nationale Pers).

The IMDT is seen by the NCMF and all the relevant stakeholders as the appropriate interim funding institution until a Media Development Agency (MDA) is recognised by government. We believe that such a body should be instituted by government, comprising independently elected trustees, that will operate a recognised subsidy system for community and independent newspapers in certain instances. As in the public broadcasting sector, we have found that although there are appropriate mechanisms for the funding of community media, there appears to be a need for a structured relationship between government, the donor community and the agency which administers the funds for community media. A plan needs to be developed by the three players in the interim, namely government, funding agencies and foreign governments, and the IMDT, that will ensure that the process of funding community media through an independent agency is strengthened and facilitated”). This COMTASK report was commissioned by The Presidency to assess and map out comprehensive intervention mechanism into the sector.

General Information:

Total number of Radio Stations: 191 nationally (Including SABC’s

Channel Africa).

Community: 152 licensed stations

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Commercial: 21 stations in total, 4 of which are 100% state owned and controlled, but operated along commercial lines.

Public: The SABC (South African Broadcasting Corporation) national radio network comprises 18 radio stations. 13 of these are dedicated specifically to public service broadcasting. There are 11 full-spectrum stations (one for each of the official languages), a station for the Indian community broadcasting in English, and a community station broadcasting in the !Xu and Khwe languages of the KhoiSan people of the Northern Cape, and these commercial stations: Radio 2000, 5FM, Metro and Good Hope FM.

SABC radio is the dominant force in South African broadcasting, attracting massive audiences. AMPS (All Media and Products Survey) indicates that of the estimated 29 million adults in South Africa, more than 22 million listen to the radio everyday, and over 19 million of these tune in to an SABC radio station.

Definitions of Community Radio:

(1) by legislation as defined in Section 1 of the Broadcasting Act, No. 4 of 1999, defines a community broadcasting service as a service which:

(a) is fully controlled by a non-profit entity and carried on for non-profitable purposes;

(b) serves a particular community;(c) encourages members of the community served by it or persons associated with or promoting the interests of such community to participate in the selection and provision of programmes to be broadcast in the course of such broadcasting service; and(d) may be funded by donations, grants, sponsorships or advertising or membership fees, or by any combination of the aforementioned.

The Broadcasting Act provides for two types of community broadcasting services. These are broadcasting services catering for a geographic community and broadcasting services catering for a community of interest. The community served by a geographic broadcasting service is geographically founded. The service caters to persons or a community whose communality is determined principally by their residing in a particular geographic area.

The community served by a community of interest broadcasting service is one which has a specific ascertainable common interest. The distinctive feature of the broadcasting service is the common interests that make such a group of persons or sector of the public an identifiable community. Types of broadcasting services catering for a community of interest include services catering for institutional communities, religious communities, cultural communities, etc.

(b) by community broadcasters: Community radio practitioners define the sector much along the similar lines as provided for in the Act, however a few stations deviate from the spirit of the Act. Some stations are operated along commercial lines with little if no accountability to their community. The regulator has over the years recalled over 10 community radio licenses for failure to comply with the provisions of the law.

What technologies are used to facilitate and encourage audience participation (phone, e-mail, SMS).

The convergence of communications industries is redefining the communications industry landscape in South Africa today. Cellular phones are now no longer telecommunication tools for making voice calls but they also allow the sending and receiving of text messages, picture messaging, video and audio material. The multi-media functionality of cellular phones provides a unique market opportunity for telecommunications, information technology and broadcasting/content service

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providers to discover new audience delivery platforms, and audience participatory channels. This opens spaces for new and innovative product enhancement role players to enter the industry and provide unique services.

Even though South Africa’s tele-density is relatively higher than in many African countries, the spread of telephone access is very uneven and skewed in favour of the three main economic centres of the country namely (Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban), whilst in other parts of the country basic telephony still remains a challenge. Many of the Community Radio stations are in remote areas where access to basic telephony is a challenge. Mobile phones however have proven to surpass expectations, with over 30.6 million cell phone users out of a population of 48 million people. This however remains the most expensive means of communication today albeit readily available.

Stations use telephones to encourage their listeners to phone-in during the talk back programs that usually discuss developmental issues. The advent of SMS technology has prompted many stations to encourage more and more listeners to participate by simply sending in a text message to a provided short code number which the station access via internet. This has encouraged and promoted wide spread participation by audiences who would have otherwise not been able to get through to the station during a talk back program because most times stations’ lines are limited and often get jammed quickly with callers.

Email, though very cheap, it still remains inaccessible largely because of the unavailability of the internet in communities. Many stations don’t even have functional and reliable emails themselves, because many people that they do business with locally don’t use email to communicate and trade, therefore making the medium unattractive to many stations. All stations generally agree that Internet Service Providers need to be engaged at a national level to begin to explore ways of providing reliable supply of internet bandwidth for the sector, because a reliable, affordable and stable internet access will be a catalyst of the sector’s growth to a new level. Very few stations have access to the Internet, and those that do only use it for basic email, in fact only Bush Radio, Fine Music Radio and Rhodes Music Radio have taken their access to the internet to the next level by providing online streaming of their program via the internet. This has increased the appeal for the stations in the minds of major advertising agencies who have the power to decide where their clients budgets will be spent.

The NCRF through its HUB stations development program aims to provide provincial internet portals for stations, which will also act as a gateway for the stations’ online streaming. This will open new frontiers for stations and it will deliver even greater numbers of people listening to Community Radio globally.

Funding sources for Community Radio:

Community radio in South African has been on the cold face of the struggle to survive the other wise unforgiving and stereotyped advertising industry of this country. Many stations have been forced to innovate new ways to generate the much needed revenue to sustain their broadcasts. The Broadcasting Act of 1999 makes provisions for the Community Radio sector to have a multiplicity of funding sources ranging from above-the-line national retail advertising, sponsorships, donations, grants and membership fees. The Act goes further to limit the national retail advertising to a maximum of 20min of commercial advertising permissible every broadcast hour, and it places no limits on the amount of advertising a station can generate from their local area.

Through the efforts of the NCRF, NCMF, SASPU and other social pressure groups, the South African Government has established the MDDA which has the responsibility to fund community radio. The MDDA fund albeit critical doesn’t go a long way to cover all the necessary operational costs of the stations. Stations have to explore other means to augment the MDDA funding.

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The MDDA, GCIS and the Parliamentary Committee on Communications have been engaging the South African advertising industry to seek innovative ways through which Community Radio can be supported because the sector accounts for almost 25% of the total radio audiences in the country.

In 2002 the Parliamentary Committee on Communications held public hearings with the advertising industry to determine what are the root courses of the failure of the South African Advertising Industry in supporting Community Radio even though it has shown remarkable year-on-year growth, and it has proved itself beyond doubts that it has come of age and its indeed a reputable audience delivery platform.

The Advertising industry refused to admit that, the spending patterns in SA media unfairly discriminate against one race group versus another. They insisted that the country must understand the economic imperative that drives marketing spending.

The submission by Advertising Media Forum (AMF) looked at the following points;

From a marketing perspective all citizens cannot be considered to be equal, those communities that are deemed to deliver a greater return on investment will receive a disproportional level of spend.

Only government may need to address all citizens equally.

Advertisers do not set out to balance media spend in one media vehicle vs. another, advertisers buy target audiences and use a selection of media vehicles to achieve reach and frequency objectives.

The pricing of media space and time is the business decision of each media owner, prices vary greatly and therefore the corresponding advertising investment is unlikely to ever be the same in two media vehicles.

As expressed in 2001 by the AMF, the South African advertising landscape hasn’t changed much since then and Community Radio still remains a casualty of this untransformed industry practices. Until 2005 the advertising industry in South Africa was still classifying ‘the market’ according to race rather than demographics. Market segmentation was still defined along WCI (White, Coloured and Indian) and Black lines.

In the eyes of the giant advertising agencies Community Radio Stations’ media spend budgets were decided according to which category they represented. More resources were invested in the WCI stations that the black stations, thereby perpetuating an apartheid racial stereo typing. In 2007 the WCI segmentation has been done away with in the industry’s un-written laws, however the practice still remains very evident.

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What alternative funding sources are used?

Stations have been innovative in their quest for survival. Moutse Community Radio, in Limpopo Province has found a need in the community to provide basic computer lessons to youth and adult school leavers who can not afford to pay the high tertiary education fees. The station charges a minimum amount of R300 = approximately $35 US for basic computer lessons. These computer classes have proven to be extremely popular with the community, especially because they are offered when its most convenient to most people, they are affordable and they don’t need to pay for high travelling costs to come to the station since the station is based within proximity.

Across the country in Soweto Johannesburg, Jozi FM provides its audiences with an innovative accommodation classified service. For a minimum fee, landlords call the station with their accommodation information, which gets broadcasted on the station once a week on a specified program. This has been immensely popular with the locals seeking accommodation to rent.

These alternative sources of funding are increasingly proving to be more viable than the above-the-line national retail advertising which stations have been depended on over the years. What’s most attractive about these alternative revenue streams is that they are not mediated by any broker as is the case with the national retail advertising.

Do CRs sell services other than advertising (studio rental, sound equipment rental, broadcasting of personal messages, etc.)

The GCIS has a mandate of Promoting awareness of the opportunities that democracy has brought and how to access them, with special attention been given to a sustained government-wide campaign on opportunities that have emerged with democracy (across all clusters, not just economic), building on the campaign on economic opportunities. These awareness campaigns are undertake with the express intentions of strengthening unmediated communication through community radio. These campaigns are commonly referred to as ‘Imbizo’, and they are commissioned by the GCIS through the provincial or local government departments. During these campaigns stations are required to provide Outside Broadcasting studio facilities with all the necessary public address systems to cover the events on radio.

These events take place on a regular basis and are beginning to prove to be a critical revenue stream that has been on the increase in recent times, driven by the GCIS’s mandate of promoting awareness amongst the people especially the indigent who are in need of government services. All stations especially rural stations have benefited immensely from this program, and it has proven to be successful for the GCIS as well.

Participatory Processes and Volunteerism. What are the best cases of participatory processes in community radio that lead to active and sustained volunteerism from the communities, what levels and types of volunteerism result, and how is this sustained?

In a country over supplied with media platforms and with a high concentration of media in three major areas (Johannesburg, Cape town and Durban), and with the media ownership landscape still skewed along historical racial lines, it is encouraging to note that Community Radio has been growing from strength to strength. Today, Community Radio reaches over 6.5 million people (cum 7days) of the 28 million people who listen to radio daily – (Source SAARF RAMS 2007A see diagram below), effectively nearly 25% of the total South African adult population that have access to radio are being reached through community radio.

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COMMUNITY STATION SUMMARY

STATION AUDIENCE - PAST 7 DAYSADULTS

100% = 30 903 000

RAMS 2006JULY '06

RAMS 2006AUG '06

RAMS 2006OCT '06

RAMS 2006NOV '06

'000 % '000 % '000 % '000 %

154 0.6 180 0.5 158 0.5 166 0.5

27 0.1 23 0.1 25 0.1 30 0.1

112 0.3 107 0.3 93 0.3 107 0.3

77 0.3 81 0.4 111 0.4 119 0.4

50 0.2 51 0.1 46 0.2 53 0.2

15 0.1 16 0.1 26 0.1 27 0.1

87 0.3 86 0.3 87 0.3 88 0.3

20 0.0 14 0.0 15 0.1 24 0.1

51 0.2 50 0.1 30 0.1 30 0.1

289 1.0 292 1.0 294 1.0 309 1.0

26 0.1 23 0.0 14 0.0 11 0.1

53 0.1 42 0.2 47 0.2 52 0.2

2 0.0 4 0.2 47 0.2 48 0.1

168 0.6 188 0.5 160 0.5 165 0.6

969 3.3 1000 3.3 1008 3.4 1049 3.4

0 0.0 1 0.0 8 0.0 7 0.0

54 0.2 56 0.2 54 0.2 53 0.2

82 0.3 83 0.3 106 0.4 110 0.4

3 0.0 2 0.0 12 0.0 13 0.0

165 0.5 166 0.7 218 0.7 221 0.7

________________________________________________________________________________________________

12

Annex 6

68 0.3 85 0.3 80 0.2 69 0.3

# # # # # # # #

23 0.1 32 0.1 27 0.1 17 0.1

102 0.3 98 0.4 126 0.4 114 0.4

60 0.2 60 0.4 114 0.4 121 0.4

138 0.4 126 0.5 139 0.5 154 0.5

251 0.7 219 0.6 173 0.6 196 0.6

13 0.0 7 0.0 3 0.0 10 0.0

46 0.2 47 0.1 35 0.1 34 0.1

7 0.0 7 0.1 18 0.1 18 0.1

234 0.8 241 1.3 413 1.3 415 1.3

53 0.2 54 0.3 90 0.3 92 0.3

964 3.1 947 3.7 1137 3.8 1176 3.8

19 0.1 19 0.0 14 0.1 18 0.1

28 0.1 22 0.1 17 0.0 15 0.1

94 0.4 129 0.4 115 0.3 107 0.4

23 0.1 16 0.1 24 0.1 24 0.1

45 0.1 41 0.1 32 0.1 28 0.1

36 0.1 39 0.1 22 0.1 21 0.1

157 0.5 154 0.4 131 0.4 131 0.4

26 0.1 27 0.1 30 0.1 28 0.1

13 0.0 2 0.0 15 0.1 21 0.1

406 1.4 423 1.2 379 1.2 378 1.3

________________________________________________________________________________________________

13

Annex 6

81 0.3 99 0.4 113 0.3 87 0.3

9 0.0 11 0.1 24 # # #

90 0.2 72 0.3 85 0.3 108 0.3

56 0.2 51 0.2 47 0.2 55 0.2

67 0.2 67 0.3 83 0.3 83 0.3

195 # # 0.2 77 0.3 85 0.3

329 1.1 329 0.7 205 0.6 200 0.7

48 0.2 47 0.2 66 0.2 66 0.2

85 0.3 87 0.3 97 0.3 103 0.3

114 0.4 112 0.2 59 0.2 59 0.2

1028 3.3 1016 2.5 774 2.6 791 2.6

5 0.0 6 0.1 42 0.1 41 0.1

119 0.4 107 0.5 153 0.5 156 0.5

221 0.7 223 0.5 150 0.5 153 0.5

9 0.0 9 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0

28 0.1 26 0.1 16 0.0 10 0.1

65 0.2 72 0.2 66 0.2 56 0.2

25 0.1 26 0.2 47 0.1 43 0.1

14 0.0 12 0.1 16 0.1 16 0.1

________________________________________________________________________________________________

14

Annex 6

159 0.5 159 0.4 121 0.4 121 0.4

0 0.0 2 0.0 1 0.0 0 0.0

409 1.3 401 1.6 502 1.6 498 1.7

27 0.1 27 0.1 18 0.1 18 0.1

48 0.2 49 0.3 78 0.2 75 0.2

15 0.0 15 0.0 15 0.0 15 0.0

10 0.0 10 0.1 41 0.1 41 0.1

264 0.8 260 1.0 295 1.0 298 1.0

27 0.1 28 0.1 38 0.1 39 0.1

120 0.4 119 0.6 191 0.6 191 0.6

712 2.3 711 2.3 718 2.3 717 2.3

17 0.1 18 0.1 16 0.0 11 0.1

0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0 0 0.0

24 0.1 28 0.1 41 0.1 36 0.1

0 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.0 1 0.0

63 0.2 54 0.1 41 0.1 42 0.1

11 0.0 11 0.0 11 0.1 16 0.0

60 0.2 54 0.2 51 0.1 43 0.2

39 0.1 33 0.1 28 0.1 21 0.1

________________________________________________________________________________________________

15

Annex 6

27 0.1 27 0.1 25 0.1 29 0.1

494 1.3 410 1.3 398 1.5 462 1.6

11 0.0 10 0.0 0 0.0 1 0.0

123 0.4 109 0.3 98 0.3 101 0.4

23 0.1 35 0.1 38 0.1 38 0.2

30 0.1 34 0.1 37 0.1 38 0.1

156 0.5 153 0.4 111 0.3 101 0.5

189 0.5 140 0.5 148 0.5 166 0.5

23 0.1 19 0.0 7 0.1 32 0.1

37 0.1 27 0.1 35 0.1 42 0.2

0 0.0 1 0.0 4 0.0 12 0.0

2 0.0 2 0.0 5 0.0 6 0.0

7 # # # # # # #

24 0.1 27 0.0 11 0.0 14 0.0

50 0.2 56 0.2 67 0.2 55 0.1

1165 3.3 1023 3.7 1151 3.8 1187 4.2

48 0.2 51 0.2 61 0.2 62 0.2

31 0.1 31 0 1 0.0 1 0.0

171 0.6 185 0.7 222 0.6 188 0.6

99 0.3 102 0.4 137 0.4 123 0.4

2 0.0 3 0.0 5 0.0 6 0.0

74 0.2 76 0.5 145 0.5 141 0.5

506 1.7 536 1.5 475 1.4 435 1.4

0.9 293 1.0

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Annex 6

6325 20.3 6222 20.6 6362 20.9 6451 21.4

27032 87.9 26948 89.5 27658 90.4 27929 90.3

27706 90.1 27612 91.6 28316 92.5 28576 92.6

Previous...

(Source: South African Advertising Research Foundation – SAARF)

The phenomenal growth of Community Radio in South Africa is as a result of the sector demonstrating high levels of flexibility in the manner it has dealt with its challenges. It is this ability to be flexible that has earned it its rightful place in the media landscape of South Africa. Increasingly audiences are seeking more relevant and global information contextualised locally. This places Community Radio in an enviable position to push ahead with its program modelling that of providing broadcast content that is locally relevant delivered in a more flexible day to day language. This has proved to build a solid foundation for loyal audiences over the years and has helped the sector consolidate its growing 25% market share.

Community Radio has the lowest barriers of entry from a cost and regulatory provisions perspective. There is a general agreement amongst all Community Radio practitioners that the sector’s participatory model is ideal, however not all stations adhere to the principles of open and participatory practices. Many have failed to adhere to their own constitutional provisions that require them to hold annual general meetings to review the overall performance of the station. The regulator has also been lenient on the enforcement of this constitutional provision.

Part of the challenge in Community Radio, is that when it was first introduced in South Africa, extensive lessons were drawn from the Australian, American and Canadian models to shape the South African Community Radio model. One of the aspects that were imported without any modification is the volunteering model of the sector. Vaaltar FM in the rural North West Province and many other stations are of the view that the current model is difficult to implement and manage in the South African context. The assumptions that has and continues to be made is that all volunteers have their basic needs for food, shelter and clothing met from where ever they come from, whilst the reality is quite to the contrary.

In Vaaltar’s case volunteers are less accountable and have a tendency to abuse the scares resources available at the station, not because they are malicious, but because they are in a constant search for a better deal elsewhere. Many talented community radio volunteers have been pouched by the SABC to feed its creative starvation, with little or no regard of the impact that this skills drain has on the sector.

The station is of the view that volunteering has been imported without checking its application and the socio-economic drivers in the SA context. Stations are not able to retain talent for lengthy periods of time because good talent and efficient managers always get attracted away from the sector into the public broadcaster as well as the private broadcaster.

Mosupatsela FM in the Free State has engaged with these questions, and many possible scenarios have emerged. Stations need to sign a contract with their

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http://www.saarf.co.za/RAMS/rams-commercial2.htm

Annex 6

volunteers which will expressly state that should any other service provider seek to recruit them, they should pay a recruitment fee. This fee is a mere recognition of the investment (training and exposure) that the sector has put in that individual.

How are volunteers recruited, trained and supported?

Ilitha Community Radio in the Eastern Cape produces public announcements over the radio inviting interested community members to come to the station to sign up as volunteers. The station has in the recent past focused on recruiting female volunteers mainly because of the station’s policy position which is biased towards rural women. They normally will get large numbers of people coming through to register to be on the list. The station will then call the people individually to conduct interviews and screen them. After selecting a team they want they will then conduct in-house basic radio training before they send them out for external training as offered by a number of service providers such as (The IAJ, NEMISA, The NCRF etc).

The IAJ in consultation with the NCRF and in partnership with MAPPP SETA (Media, Advertising, Publishing, Printing and Packaging Sector Education and Training Authority) have developed a Community Radio Station Management Skills Program. This program is designed to train and capacitate Community Radio practitioners to be better equipped to manage, develop content, and generate advertising for their stations. The program provides volunteers with a basic allowance to cover their transportation needs during the training program. Some stations have provided in their operational budget projections for training and staff development. The NCRF , IAJ and MAPPP SETA are the key training stakeholders in the South African Community Radio scene. There are other institutions such as NEMISA, ABC Ulwazi etc who have also contributed immensely in the training and support of the stations volunteers.

What motivates them?

There isn’t any major incentive schemes designed to motivate volunteers for training. It is only recently with the introduction of the Community Radio Station Management Skills Program which is graded at NQF (National Qualifications Framework) level 5. Many volunteers are attracted to this program because of its NQF status. This will allow any student that complete this course to pursue other academic qualifications using the program as the point of entry.

The monthly minimum subsistence allowances keep volunteers reasonably motivated.Different stations pay different amounts of subsistence allowances monthly. Thee amounts range from (R300 in Vaaltar FM to anything in the range of R4 000). Jozi FM in Soweto doesn’t believe in paying subsistence allowances. The station has all of its human resource as full time staff members with salaries ranging from R2500 – R15 000 or even more per month.

What is the range of roles played by volunteers (support, management, reporters, correspondents, content expertise, etc.) and what motivates them?

Volunteers in stations are trained to play an all rounded role, from management support through to program production. The Public and Commercial broadcasters have realised the value of journalists, managers and presenters that have Community Radio background. These are people who are professionals in their trade, and have grown accustomed to limited resource base to work from. These qualities have made them highly attractive to big spending commercial and public broadcasters. It’s even said that its most preferred at the SABC that all if not most of their new recruits should have extensive Community Radio background. This will mean the new employer will

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spend far less resources trying to gear up the new employee. This pouching practice has left the sector bankrupt of good and seasoned talent. Volunteers will continue to exit the sector in large numbers because there is no appropriate incentive schemes to retain good talent.

What tends to be the ratio of staff to volunteers per station (e.g., on average, is it 5:30 indicating heavy reliance on volunteers, or 12:3, indicating heavy reliance on full-time, paid staff?).

In most stations the ration of staff to volunteers is indeed 5 :30,however there are exceptional cases such as Jozi FM in Soweto which has no volunteers on their system. The station has been discouraging the volunteering model, they prefer to employ the person on a contract or permanent basis. Their rationale is that they want accountability from their staff and if one is a volunteer then they cant demand certain things like scheduling of late night shifts, week-end shifts and even appearing at the stations special events, whereas if you are employed by the station then you have a contractual obligation to honour the assignments that the station allocates to you.The only time the station will have volunteer is when they have a students internship program running for a specific period, beyond that the rather work with their own staff compliment of nearly 35 people.

Are there practices that specifically encourage the effective and meaningful participation of women, youth and minorities?

Many station have it in their policy documents to actively recruit women into management and programming positions in their stations. Not all stations have achieved their desired levels of women and minority participation. Many stations have an over supply of youth. This is largely due to the fact that many young people in South Africa are unemployed and therefore find Community Radio as one of the most constructive social engagements. This over supply of youth has influenced the programming formats of most stations.

Moutse Community Radio in Limpopo was established by a group of rural women with the objective of teaching woman in rural areas about subsistence farming, health care and many other socio-economic development issues. In 2007, Moutse Community Radio has more young men than rural woman. The young men and women in the area found the station to be an attractive platform for skills development and a platform for free expression. More and more young people of Moutse use the radio to disseminate information about youth development activities, because the South African economy is finding it harder and harder to absorb its entire young people after they’ve finished with their grade 12 learning.

Relationship with the Community.

How have community radio stations ensured that they are the voice of the community?

In general stations have done well to reflect the aspirations, joys and frustrations of their communities through the nature of programming that stations have produced over the years. The solid partnerships that stations have with other community structures have proven to be a successful formula. Mosupatsela Community Radio in the Free State has a regular slot on weekdays which the station produces with the local Community Police Forum (CPF). These CPF programs discuss in depth legal measures that communities can undertake to protect themselves and their loved ones without taking the law into their own hands, and end up on the wrong side of the law. The programs are produced in partnership with the CPF and issues for discussion are usually tabled even at their regular CPF meetings. The participatory nature of these programs have resulted in the growth of the station’s audiences year-on-year as reflected in the SAARF RAMS report survey.

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How do communities and community organizations participate in the community radio stations?

Communities and organisations participate in the selection, production and broadcasting of programs in the stations through the programs advisory committees, and listener’s clubs as is the case in Vaaltar FM in the North West Province. In August 2006, the station undertook to hold a programming ‘imbizo’, whereby members of the community and other interested parties were asked to provide inputs on what types of programs and issues they would like the station to focus on. The communities raised a variety of issues, but what was most critical was the provision of relevant and usable information in health matter and economic development or job creation projects. The station took these mandates very seriously, and went on a campaign to realign its programming and train its presenters to be responsive to the issues raised by the community on the station’s programming. The station has since realised a 100% leap in its audience ratings. This was as a direct response to the issues of the programming ‘imbizo’.

Are they involved in programming, if so, how specifically?

In Africa in general and South Africa in particular, radio still remain by far the most effective and popular medium through which one can reach massive amounts of audiences at once. In the recent SAARF RAMS study, it is shown that people still spend most of their time listening to radio either whilst commuting to and from their places of work or school, radio still remains their main medium of choice. The listening profiles and patterns also vary according to provinces, with the more rural provinces such as North West and Free State showing that people there spend more time listening to radio that other mediums. This is largely because radio is relatively affordable to acquire and maintain, whilst other mediums have higher barriers to entry. Language also is the greatest contributor to radio being the leading companion medium in the country. The graph below reflects a comparison analysis of the average hours spent listening to radio per province.

Time Spent Listening By Province

Limpopo4h354h36

Mpumalanga4h384h50

KwaZulu Natal4h424h40

Free State5h355h21

North West4h394h42

Northern Cape4h003h55

Eastern Cape4h334h31

Western Cape4h153h58

Gauteng4h304h18

Hours per day:

(National Average: 4h32)

February 2007

May 2007

Source: SAARF RAMS 2007

The involvement of communities in the program selection and development is facilitated through the stations programming committee’s which are convened by the programs manger, are usually open to community organisations representing different interests in the community. These committees make recommendations to the station on the nature and form of the programs which they would like to hear on the station. Some stations take this even further by

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Annex 6

inviting specialist organisations within the community to help format and provide the necessary content for the program.

The Nelson Mandela Children’s Foundation has over the years conducted an exciting CROP or ‘Kids Radio’ program with several stations. The essence of the program is for the stations to train and allow ‘kids’ between the ages of 10 – 14, to produce and present their own programs discussing issues of importance to them as kids and tell their stories as they see them for the eyes of the children. The program has been hugely successful and it has been very popular with the stations, the kids and of course their parents. The intention of the Nelson Mandela Children’s Fund is to nature the sprit of self expression amongst the children and to expose them to platform that allow free expression at a young age. The NCRF and The IAJ have been partners of the Nelson Mandela Children’s foundation working on this project for a few years and running it successfully with all partners concerned.

What is the process used to develop and deliver programming that gives a voice to the community and enables it to set the agenda for discussion and action?

As is the case with ‘Kids Radio’, stations had the mandate to recruit children in their communities of between the ages of 10 – 14 years. These kids were screened and interviewed by the stations themselves. Stations had to focus on children with disabilities, children from disadvantaged backgrounds, focus on the girl child, and focus on children outside the formal education system. During these selection processes stations would discover children as young as 8 years old that are eager and capable enough to participate in the program as is the case at Ishowe Community Radio in KZN. Upon finalising the selection, the IAJ will then take them through a basic radio training and mentoring program that covers – introduction to radio, techniques of radio program production, and the role of CR in communities.

The station together with other program partners from the local community will then set the agenda for the program looking at the issues such as care, welfare, education, safety and protection of children as well as issues of self expression of kids.

How is the community involved in operations and management, financing, evaluation and ownership?

The South African regulation sets a framework through which the sector follows. Within the regulatory framework provisions are made for community participation primarily at two levels namely;

a) Governance, and b) Programming

From the governance perspective stations are required to hold their Annual General Meetings, whereby communities are invited to engage and take stock of the activities of the station. A community representative board is then elected to provide an oversight role on the executive and hold them accountable for the day-to-day operations of the station. Viewed collectively the board should represent the different interests groups within the community, and the board should be able to exercise the necessary oversight role over management. Many a times the relationship between the board and management is compromised by a number of issues like;

- Unaligned Vision- Conflicting interests- Control for resources

The board has the mandate to appoint the station manager who intern will appoint the staff and allocate volunteers according to the stations capacity needs and available resources. Management through the station manager will report to the board on mutually agreeable intervals. Over the years stations have been trained to develop policy guidelines on numerous areas of their operations, however not all stations have

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Annex 6

been able to develop such policy guidelines, and with those that have developed such policies we have seen a trend that suggests that either policies are disregarded and not followed or there is a general lack of understanding of such policies. Management is ultimately responsible for fundraising for the station and the board where necessary will assist in providing guidance in this area. Management will also be required to facilitate regular participation in the activities of the station by community organisations and individuals. Such participation will be determined by management from time to time. Conflict arises usually at the stations when the board finds itself involved in the day to day running of the station.

Does the community own the radio station and what is their relationship with local authorities, organizations and business interests?

By law, Community Radio is an asset of the community which is serves. This concept of ownership is then interpreted differently by different interest groups in the community.

Local authorities – view the station as a platform to disseminate their messages on service delivery, and a platform to mobilize communities on issuesCommunity Organisations – seek to use the station to advance their developmental course, and to mobilize communities accordingly Business – sees the station as an important component in the advancement and promotion of their goods and services in the market place.

At times these interests collide, and the station finds itself caught in the middle to this diverging interest. The stakeholders at times use the AGM to fight for the soul of the station. Many a times the democratic processes at the AGM have been hijacked to suit the interests of one dominant interest group.

What community monitoring and feedback mechanisms are used?

Annual General Meetings, stations suggestion boxes, program committees, talk back programs etc are some of the mechanisms that are used to monitor and facilitate feedback from the community about the impact the station is having in the society.

Do stations undertake audience surveys or hold public meetings to gauge community support for the programming or to facilitate community participation in developing programming?

Audience survey are conducted mainly by the South African Advertising Research Foundation (SAARF), however some stations have conducted their own research survey on a smaller scale to determine the trends and listenership habits of their communities. Many stations use the programming committee or listeners clubs to gauge the community’s response and opinion on the programming. Institutions of higher learning haven’t been used effectively enough to help stations develop basic research tools and conduct a basic and baseline research on the trends and preferences of the communities in programming.

Exertion of Rights. How has community radio helped people and communities press successfully for their civil and human rights, advocate successfully with officials, protect themselves from abuse, and become legally and socially empowered ?

Where are there good examples of CR contributing to public education, awareness-building and problem-solving on legal rights, including women’s rights and the ability of poor, marginalized people to protect themselves, organize and press for respect of their rights?

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Annex 6

Vaaltar Community Radio together with the Media Training Centre MTC, in partnership with local CBO’s are developing a HIV/AIDS awareness program. This program has a special focus on young and vulnerable woman in the community who are not able to negotiate safe sex with their partners at all times. The program is aimed at empowering young women to take a stand and protect their rights to say no. The station is playing a central role in training volunteers from Community Based Organisations dealing with HIV/AIDS to use the platform provided by the station to talks about these issues and help young women come out and seek help.

In Soweto Jozi FM has been involved with the Gay and Lesbian Organisation (GLO) over the years to put forward gay and lesbian rights issues in the public domain. This has helped GLO to dispel some of the stereotypes, dispel the myths on the gay and lesbian issues as well as provide the platforms for gays and lesbians to take their place in society and be accepted for who they are.

What groups have become aware and pressed for their rights?

Gay rights in Soweto for instance have been recognised as basic rights, and that the community has grown to be tolerant and accept gays and lesbians as part of the colourful tapestry of the community of Soweto. There is still a lot that need to be done to intensify the education camping on the minority rights in our society, but Jozi FM has succeeded in placing this issue on the public domain and provided the gay and lesbian community with a platform to press forward with their rights.

How is the programming delivered?

Many stations have a similar yet unique way of facilitating community dialogue through interactive program delivery such as talk back programs etc. These have proven to be highly successful. It is without ignoring the fact that participating in such programs requires one to have access to a telecommunications facility, and above all be able to afford to make that call.

What is the interaction with listeners?

Community Radio has repeatedly demonstrated that market preferences are changing and moving way from the national ‘one-size fits all’ type of approach. More and more people are appreciating programs that have a heavy dose of local flavour, national focus and global relevance. The unique proposition for Community Radio has been its ability to engage communities with a great degree of flexibility especially when it comes to the use of local languages. The uniqueness of South African communities is the ability to speak no less than 3 languages, and the tendency to use any number of languages interchangeably as part of the people’s daily conversation. Community Radio has managed to capture that uniqueness and harnessed it to its great advantage to improve interaction with its listeners.

What complementary support (coaching, community organizing and advising) has been important, for example to help marginalized groups to develop tactical skills?

Partnership such as those between Vaaltar FM, MTC and community based organisations in Taung, are testimony of what Community Radio can do to improve participation beyond just talk back programs. The station has extended its in-house training to their CBO’s who have similar development interests. By extending training and capacity building to their social partners in the community, the station is broadening the skills base within the community and this can only have a positive impact on the community.

The training of the young presenters through the ‘Kids Radio’ project will also assist these young people to improve other aspects of their lives, and it has helped to build self esteem and confidence in the young children. The positive impact may not be

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23

Annex 6

measurable in the short to medium term, but these efforts will be evident in the future.

What alliances have been built between CR and organizations that focus on legal, civil, and human rights – and what practical collaborative programs have they carried out?

The Nelson Mandela Children’s fund initiative on the rights of children is one such practical collaborative program carried out at 18 stations nationally, and to date it has benefited over 140 children of between the ages of 8 and 14. The project will be rolled out to other stations in the future based on the success of the current program.

Have community radio stations and networks collaborated with members of parliament or others to raise issues at the national level?

The GCIS has in its annual ‘State-of-the-nation’ address project plan, Community Radio as a critical platform to collaborate with in bringing the President’s annual address to the masses of the people. Community radio accounts for 25% of the total radio audiences in South Africa. This is a huge number that no communicator can ever afford to ignore. The parliamentary cross over’s are done in partnership with the NCRF in most instances. Further to this many stations such as Vaaltar FM have gone to an extent of co-locating the parliamentary constituency office within the station premises. This partnership has helped the station to access national leaders to help unpack complicated issues of statutes etc.

What are the key enablers and impediments?

Enablers :

a) accessibility of some of the parliamentary officers,

b) flexibility of CR programming to allow for debates and discussion that at times may be uncomfortable to politicians, and

c) use of local language to demystify the issues of our law and its implications to our democracy

Impediments:

a) Lack of resources at the station, and

b) Insufficient training for Community Radio volunteer presenters on policy and advocacy matters.

Accountability and Good Governance. What are good examples of community radio programs being used to press successfully for better delivery of public services or investments, and for more government transparency and accountability. Why and how have they been successful?

What types of governance issues arise in CR broadcasts?

South Africa is at a grip of service delivery crunch. The Democracy euphoria and honeymoon period is over for government. Government is being held to account by communities. The community of Moutse the home of Moutse Community Radio is in the middle of a possible constitutional court battle with the state on the issue of the provincial boundary demarcations. The community is vehemently opposed to the government proposal to move the service delivery point from one province to the

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24

Annex 6

other. The station has been a strategic platform for the community to mobilise and oppose this move. The matter is not only unique to Moutse, but Bushbuckridge, Khutsong and Matatiele have had similar misgivings. At the core of the protest is the ability of these administration centres to render efficient and effective service delivery.

Communities are not convinced despite Government’s reassurance, that service delivery levels will improve as a result of this boundary realignment. Communities have used the Community Radio platform effectively to oppose these intentions to an extent that the community of Matatiele challenged government at the constitutional court on its decision on the basis that the move was unconstitutional and communities are therefore prejudiced by such a decision. The constitutional court has ruled in favour of the community of Matatiele and this has opened the gates for others to follow.

How they arise?

Community Radio was used to mobilise and rally support, whilst government failed to use Community Radio as an opportunistic platform to clarify its position, and give reasons for the decisions despite massive public protest.

The rolling out of ARV in public hospitals was an issue that raised emotions amongst people. Again Community Radio was a platform, through which public protest was reflected. Government was forced to review its position on the matter after it became clear that the matter is gaining ground swell support. Only after pressure was exerted through visible and effective platform did government consider and actually change its policy position on the matter.

Are there examples of “talk back” programs? If so, how did they they developed and how do they work?

Jozi FM in Soweto has a program called ‘Cheaters’. This is not a perfect example from a content perspective of a robust interactive program but it has been a huge phenomenon in the community. The program goes on air every Thursdays between 22h00 and 00h00. This program is unbelievably popular to an extent that people would camp outside the station from the beginning to the end of the program at midnight to have a peak at who are the day’s scandalous people in the community. The program deals with nothing substantive other than who cheats with who in the community and who practices witchcraft and casts demonic spells on whom. The program has received mixed reactions and rave press reviews nationally.

This program dealt with nothing substantive and constructive from a development perspective, but it was able to open up space for dialogue and for people to discuss issues of the community’s moral fibre. It was as if someone is holding up a mirror to the community and exposes the underlying decay of our society. The Station was loved by many and equally hated by as much for bringing such issues to the fore.

What are the impacts?

The impact of the program was both negative and positive. Positive because it has opened up a space to debate robustly about where this society is going and how has urbanisation and modernisation affected our customs and traditions. This was a call to the community to be more vigilant about protecting their traditional practices which would not allow such degrading acts to be acceptable.

The negative impact it had was that it broke down families and traumatised individuals who would hear through the radio of their mother, fathers, wives or husbands infidelities. The station would go to an extent of bringing in witchdoctors to cast demonic spells on people.

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Annex 6

Are there examples of broadcasting government meetings (e.g. broadcasting from the district assembly floor)?

a) The annual State of the Nation Address by the State President, b) The ‘State of the Province’ by different provincial governorsc) As well as the budget vote presentations of different provincial

departments. These have proven to be highly successful for the government communication, and highly informative for communities.

Of community discussion and feedback on government proposals?

The GCIS runs an interactive ‘government meets the people’ program called ‘Imbizo’ which is a Zulu word to congregate and discuss issues of importance to the community. Traditionally an ‘imbizo’ can only be called by the chief on behalf of the king. In this case the ‘imbizo’ is a forum where the State President visits a local community and holds a public meeting with the people for them to raise issues they are happy or unhappy about the service delivery program of government. At these imbizo Community Radio is critical in mobilising communities as well as covering the discussions as they unfold for those that are listening from home.

Of exposing corruption?

The news and current affairs of stations are said to be in touch and independent. This position is always put to the test especially when there’s a story involving a high ranking official. Vaaltar FM ran a story of the local mayor who’s been accused of raping a minor and mismanaging the towns funds. The station was put under pressure not to run the story because not only the mayor’s reputation was at risk, but the whole town’s image could be tarnished.

What has been the reaction of government and local authorities?

The reaction was generally mixed. The good reaction complemented the station on being impartial and focused on the public’s interest on the right to know. Whereas some reacted badly towards the station accusing it of being unpatriotic and disregarding the need to protect the towns image at all costs.

Are there any examples of governments welcoming the chance to “set the record straight” or local officials actively and opening answering concerns and redressing problems on the air?

On the rolling out of the ARV’s to public hospitals, government conceded that its position was unfortunate and embarked on a massive drive to interact with all stakeholders and used the media and community radio was not exception to explain its position and limitations at the time not to be able to roll-out the ARV support to people. Reasons that were advanced to set the record straight were largely not acceptable by many but welcomed the maturity of the state to concede that its approach may have not be entirely correct.

What has not worked, in developing and delivering these programs, and why?

Creating the space and platform for public participation in the debated has gone a long way toward deepening our democracy. Government is now acutely aware that the South African public is sharply aware of their rights and they will not back down on issues that they feel the state is failing or taking on a wrong direction. The fact that people have avenues through which to voice their opinion freely without fear of any reprisal is one of the strongest pillars of our democratic system.

Role of CR Networks.

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What CR associations and networks (especially nationally or subnationally) have been particularly successful in supporting development of CR stations and the sector as a whole, and why.

(NCRF, AMARC, MISA, FXI, NAB, ACB) - With varying degrees of success, these have been on the fore front of the campaign to lobby law makers to create an enabling environment for the development and growth of CR in South Africa

How are community radio networks structured?

Different network formations are structured differently. Networks range from membership based networks, which will have CR station as their members, issue based or common interest networks. These would not have CR stations as members per se, but will be actively involved in the issues of the sector, and they would lobby and mobilise around specific issues which in their view are of interest to them. What are their main strengths and weaknesses?

Strength: a) membership mandates the organisation to act on its behalfb) ability to lobby as a collectivec) credibility in the eyes of law makers

Weaknesses: a) not enough capacity to take on all the issues of the sectorb) not enough resources to carry out the mandatec) network competing for resources

What networks exist?

In South African there are a number of networks more notably there is the NCRF that has a long and rich history with the sector. There are other national networks that exist such as the NAB which is also a membership based organisation that intends to represent all broadcasters in the country. Included in their list are community and commercial radio as well as television. There are also common interest networks such as the Association of Christian Broadcasters whose mandate is to represent the Christian stations in the country.

What are their main objectives and what services do they provide (management, capacity-building, advocacy, programming, network-facilitating, technical support, identifying needs, mobilizing resources …)

Most networks main focus areas would be to play the advocacy and lobbying role in order to level the playing field for their members. The services will also include membership support with a specific focus on resource mobilisation as well as capacity building. Networks’ programs will also be informed by what the members needs are, therefore on going needs analysis is central in any network operations.

Have their objectives and services evolved over time?

Most networks have evolved over time given the ever changing needs of Community Radio. Some networks may not be able to adopt to these new changes and may well need to integrate with another network for efficiency of resource utilisation. External support agencies play a critical role in assisting the networks in their quest to respond to the membership needs. Unless there is sufficient support for network essential and strategic gains may be reversed over time.

Describe how they were established; how they are organized and managed; and how they operate.

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NCRF:o Officially launched in Soweto in 1993. o Established by Mass Democratic Movement structures, such as ANC, UDF,

COSATU, PAC, SANCO etc. o Largest Community Radio membership based organisationo Governed by a board that is elected by members at the General Conferenceo Conducts extensive advocacy and lobbying activities o Innitiates new programs (Satellite syndication programs, ICT programs) o Conducts trainingo Operates 09 regional HUB structures designed to consolidate activities and

resources provincially.o Operate on the basis of the members mandate as articulated at the Annual

General Conference

NAB:o Represents both community and commercial radio stations including televisiono Have various structures/committees – Community Radio Committee, Technical

Committee, Commercial Radio Committee and Television Committee. o Commissions extensive research into the broadcasting industry and maps the

trends of the industry. o Views its self as a fully representative industry body.

AMARCo First became active in South Africa in 1998 o South African membership was the second largest AMARC membership in

Africao Represented by a board from different regions of the continent o South Africa was the host countryo Relocated its African Head office out of South Africa in 2006.

ACBo Membership based Christian Broadcasters o Board elected by members at the ACB general conference o Conduct program syndication, technical capacity building, program production

training o Represents Christian Community Radio, TV, and Commercial Gospel channelso Lobby’s for sectarian interests to be protected by law.

MISA

o Officially launched in September 1992, MISA focuses primarily on the need to promote free, independent and pluralistic media, as envisaged in the 1991 Windhoek Declaration.

o The role of the MISA is primarily one of a coordinator, facilitator and communicator, and for this reason MISA aims to work together with all like-minded organisations and individuals to achieve a genuinely free and pluralistic media in southern Africa…..

o The mission of MISA is to play a leading role in creating an environment of media freedom and free expression that promotes independence, pluralism and diversity of views and opinions, media sustainability, competency and professionalism in the southern African region. In dealing with these elements, MISA will ensure that gender-specific needs form an integral part of all its activities.

o The objective of MISA is to lobby for promotion and protection of media freedom and free expression. It is also to strengthen and support the development of a vibrant, professional and participatory media sector as an essential part of the deepening of democracy in southern Africa.

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Where there are multiple networks within a country, what have been the problems or advantages?

There have been challenges with regards to the multiple network question in South Africa in the past. The challenges range from

a) Legitimacy of mandatesb) Dual membership issuec) Scarcity of resources force network to competed) Membership instability e) Networks at times operate in silos f) Representation vs. participation

What role have ICTs played in the networks?

ICT’s have been at the centre of the development of some of the networks programsThe NCRF is currently piloting a new mobile phone application that would interface the Community Radio Broadcasts on the mobile phone. The application will also be able to determine who listens and at what time of the day do they listen. This will provide the much needed qualitative analysis on the quantitative data that SAARF publishes. The NCRF is also working on the on-line CR portal to provide station at the national level with on-line audio streaming.

Have regional and global associations or networks been helpful in practical terms. How? AMARC and MISA have been helpful in bringing in the international context to the development debate of Community Radio in South Africa. The fact that CR in S can benchmark its development against other countries and draw lessons from there has been immensely strategic for the sector. AMARC in particular has been on the fore front of promoting the SA Community Radio sector globally and that has built the necessary confidence in the sector from a global perspective. The Simbani news feed was a perfect platform for communities across the continent to hear stories from one another and to realise how similar all our issues are throughout the continent.

If there is more than one, Provide a simple matrix of each network or association, the topics they have addressed and services and other assistance they have provided, with notation of examples and relevant years.

MATRIX OF NETWORKS

Organisations

Focus areas

Programs delivered

Years of experience

NCRF Lobbying, capacity building, networking, resource sharing, marketing and sales

SACRIN, Provincial HUB programs, Sales & Marketing program

Established in 1993

AMARC- Lobbyin CATIA, Active in

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Africa g, capacity building, networking, program exchange

Simbani African news syndication

SA since 1998

NAB Lobbying, networking,

Digital Migration roundtable

Established in the 1990’s

Christians Lobbying, program exchange, resource sharing, capacity building

Satellite Program syndication.

MISA Lobbying, networking, capacity building,

Media Focus – Annual review of Media Freedom issues in SADC

Established in 1991

Sustainable Financing.

What have been the most useful and practical methods and mechanisms for CR to become financially sustainable?

Advertising and sponsorship has been the most practical method and attainable goal for CR financial sustainability.

How has CR successfully mobilized local funding on a sustained basis, and what public financing schemes are or have been available?

The public finance scheme for Community Radio in South Africa is through the MDDA, as well as the CR Fund of the DoC. The latter has been focusing on providing broadcast infrastructure to stations, whilst the former provides for research and development as well as some operational cost for the first few months of the stations’ operations.

What strategies and successful methods of CR stations mobilizing local revenues are being used?

Public Sector funding will remain critical to the sustainability of the sector. The SA economy is matured enough to sustain the growth of the sector, provided a robust

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approach to advertising is put in place. The GCIS, Doc and the MDDA under the leadership of the GCIS should re-evaluate the advertising value chain of CR with a special emphasis on the broker services that remain unaccountable neither to the sector nor to GCIS who is the major spender on community radio from an advertising perspective.

What does experience tell us is realistic regarding the proportion of a CR’s operating expenses that can be financed from local resource mobilization?

Local is segmented into 4 categories

2. Provincial Government – 40% of the operating revenue can be generated through this source

3. District Municipalities – 20% of the total operation can possibly be sourced through this revenue stream.

4. Local Municipalities – 5% - 10% depending on the size of the municipality, and their communication budget allocation

5. Local Business - 5% - 40% depending on the size of the local economy. Most stations in the rural areas will fall into the 5% - 15% bracket, whereas stations in the urban centres can expect in the region of 15% - 40% of their revenue can be generated locally.

What are the differences in this experience between rural and urban areas?

There are vast differences in experience, skills and the ability to market and sell their stations well to their advertisers. Urban stations often don’t fall prey to brokers who charge exorbitant fees for airtime sales services. The minimum commission amount that the brokers charge is 35% of the total gross revenue they generate for the station. If the station is un-aware and vulnerable the figure might even go up to 65% commission. Urban stations have become a bit more aware and more sophisticated in their dealing with their clients, because they are closer to the client, and can build personal relationships with clients without having to loose 35% - 65% of their revenue on commission.

What features of the country context and culture have a strong influence on CRs’ ability to raise revenue from their local communities and other local stakeholders?

The fact that the COMTASK report recommends strongly to government to utilise community radio in its communications strategy has resulted in the sector being given the much needed boost to ignite its growth process. Local stakeholders have first hand experience of the stations ability to mobilise communities on their call-to-action campaigns, and will continue to use the stations because they realise the results.

Are there examples of CRs being compensated by government agencies or NGOs making use of air time for their substantive programming?

GCIS spends close to R60 million on advertising per annum and about 30% of this goes to radio and Community Radio in principle should receive a reasonable allocation of that 30%. Intermediary agencies/brokers have been charging stations a minimum of 35% commission and at times 65% commission of the revenue and most stations are not aware of this. Often stations are desperate for revenue, and will accept the booking whilst not being aware of what they’ve agreed to. Meanwhile the GCIS is satisfied that the messages are reaching communities whilst stations receive far less than what they deserve.

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Are there examples of local government agencies or others providing in-kind support such as office and studio space, use of vehicles or other supplies or equipment?

The building that Radio Teemaneng in Kimberly Northern Cape uses belongs to the Department of Education, Vaaltar FM’s building in Taung North West Province belongs to the Department of Agriculture, whilst the building that New Castle Community Radio uses belongs to the Local Municipality and recently the local Casino had pledged to give them rent free space on condition that they promote the Casino on radio. One does find that many CR have been housed rent free or at minimum monthly rent at public buildings. This arrangement has worked well for many stations.

Has this been done without compromising CR’s independence?

Often there are subtleties that are there. The station might not be able to cover or expose malpractices at local government level or even at the casino in the case of New Castle because they are hamstrung by the golden handcuffs. Should the station run a story that exposes any act of malpractice, then they are likely to loose the benefits one way or the other.

What are good examples of public finance mechanisms for CR and what has made these systems viable in the country context?

Program sponsorships, live event program syndication are some of the viable funding mechanism. This has created a client service provider relationship that has no bearing beyond that point.

What tax or levy mechanisms have been used successfully to fund community broadcasting and why have these systems worked?

There aren’t any real taxes or levy mechanisms put in place, the MDDA’s model is one that is based on a voluntary contribution by the private sector. In the initial lobbying phase of the establishment of the MDDA the move was to impose a soft tax on the commercial operators to pay to the MDDA to support the sector, however commercial interest won the day on the issue. They felt that the model was going to compel them to fund their competitors, because they view community radio as competition.

How have other public policies, such as allowing or restricting advertising revenue, impacted on CR finances?

The soft restrictions for Community Radio adverting has had very little impact on the revenue levels of CR. The only restriction is the limitation on the national retail advertising revenue which has been caped to 20min of every hour which translate to 40 adverts per hour. There hasn’t been any station that has sold the entire inventory, and besides even if they were to sell the inventory the regulator would not have the capacity to monitor this.

Role of CRs in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations. What roles have CR stations played in preventing and resolving conflict, and supporting post-conflict reconciliation and reconstruction?

How have conflict prevention and reconciliation radio programs been developed and sustained, etc. and what has made them successful?

The main form of conflict in the South African context is largely political at the local level and cultural in rural areas. This conflict however has not become so severe that there will be large scale violence or anything of the sort. Conflict arises when there is lack of tolerance of political diversity. South Africans have generally accepted that communities are not homogenous and therefore can never agree on a uniform

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position. It is up to communities to exercise democratic maturity and allow others their space to differ and have an independent view from them.

Are there any risks involved, and if so, how have they been mitigatedCommunities are sensitive to issues of equity. The station’s Talk back programs where local political parties and their representatives are invited to discuss their policy positions, communities expect the station to fairly allocate the time equitably across all parties regardless of the popularity of the party in the community. This is the cornerstone of our democracy and it has to be protected and cherished by all.

References:

SAARF AMPS: www.saarf.co.za MDDA website: www.mdda.org.zaGCIS website: www.gcis.gov.zaMISA website: www.misa.orgIBA Act of 1993 Broadcasting Act 1999Electronic Communications Act 2005NAB resource materialsInterviews with:Vaaltar Community RadioMoutse Community RadioMoletjie Community RadioVukani Community Radio

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http://www.misa.org/

http://www.gcis.gov.za/

http://www.mdda.org.za/

http://www.saarf.co.za/

Annex 7

Selective Information on Ghana:

The Participatory Process of Establishing Community Radio

[The Ghana Community Radio Network plays a strong and vibrant role in ensuring that community radios are highly participatory. It established guidelines and plays a hands-on role in helping aspirants to organize and establish community radio stations, taking them through a well planned and inclusive participatory process. This has proved key to making the CRs the communities’ voice.

GCRN also trains CR staff and volunteers in programming and management, mobilizes funds for the sector, advocates for policy and regulatory improvements, and convenes the CRs’ core staffs for trouble-shooting and ongoing mutual assistance.]

GGhana CCommunity RRadio NNetwork Secretariat: Tel : (233).(21).516.441 44-A Lagos Avenue, East Legon Fax : (233).(21).516.442

P O BOX KA 9482, ACCRA, GHANA

CHECKLIST FOR STARTINGA COMMUNITY RADIO STATION

Community radio is a different kind of radio.It is radio for, about, by and of the community.

It is non-profit, it is driven by a participatory development philosophy &agenda, and it is operated and managed by its listening community.It promotes and sustains dialogue and has a special concern

to give voice to the experiences, concerns and aspirations of the voiceless and marginalized.

STEPS

The first seven steps are the most critical in the process in establishing a community radio station. In the enthusiasm to start a community radio station, groups sometimes tend to skip or skim over these steps. Experience has shown that when this happens, fundamental problems emerge that impede, sometimes beyond recall, the operation and sustainability of a community radio station.

Form a core group. Form a core group of like-minded people. These are likely to be individuals from a certain geographic area, but they may also include others who are not but who share a similar motivation. For community radio, this motivation must not only be a desire to serve the interests of the community but also a strong belief in the capacity of the community, especially the marginalized, to pursue and lead their own development.

Learn as much as you can about community radio. Apart from using the same frequency spectrum, and thereby being subject to its regulation, and sharing certain aspects of the technology and craft of broadcasting, community radio is very different from other more familiar forms of broadcasting, especially commercial radio. It is necessary, therefore, to begin by understanding how it

Annex 7

works in philosophy and in practice.

Identify the intended primary listening community. The primary listening community comprises the group of people whom the station is about, for, by and of. What makes them a community? What boundaries will make it practicable for as many as possible, especially the marginalized, to participate in the operations, management and governance of the station?

Clarify the initial vision of your core group. Having identified your primary listening community, clarify why you think it needs a community radio station and what you see as its role in the development of your community. What is your consensus?

Check your initial vision with your identified primary listening community. Using community-friendly research tools, check with a sample of your identified primary listening community, what their priority concerns and aspirations are, how they think a community radio station can serve their interests, how it can operate to the benefit of the community and what knowledge and other resources they are prepared to contribute. Make sure that the marginalized in your primary listening community are well represented in your sample.

Develop the mission statement for your community radio station. Based on the outcome of the above steps, develop a short statement that briefly states who you are, what you want to do and why you want to do it.

Determine the initial legal structure for your community radio station. What kind of an organization will it be? How does it relate to the core group? How will it be representative of your community? Who will play what role? How will decisions be taken?

Register your organization. Register your organization with the Registrar-General’s Department as a Company Limited by Guarantee (not-for-profit organization). This will be the interim governance structure of the station, pending the development of a community-based assembly.

As far as possible, the next steps should go alongside continuing community consultation.

Develop and agree on the basic programming design. Based on the earlier steps, come to a consensus on the basic programming orientation and content of your community radio station. How will it reflect the character, dynamism, aspirations and challenges of your primary listening community?

Determine the most suitable equipment complement. Apart from budgetary considerations, what combination of equipment will allow the greatest opportunity for the voiceless and marginalized - who are often in the most remote areas of the primary listening community - to participate in the operations of the community radio station?

Develop a financial plan. In addition to mobilizing initial sources of capital funding, agree on arrangements for the day-to-day financial sustainability of the station.

Prepare the frequency application proposal. All the above provide elements for

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the requirements of the National Communications Authority for frequency applications.

Develop and agree on the physical infrastructure. Which studio venue and facilities will provide the greatest possibility for people to have access to the station and participate in its operations? What technical infrastructure will best support access and participation?

Identify and recruit the initial group of Community Radio Workers. Volunteerism is essential to community radio because it not only sustains the non-profit vision and operations of a community radio station but it is also a key measure of community participation. All Community Radio Workers should have the voluntary spirit. They also need other basic qualities, such as competence in the local language and culture. How will such people be identified and recruited? Some may need stipends or a modest living allowance to enable them to contribute to the work of the station? How will this be determined? What will be the relationship of Community Radio Workers to the core group?

Start training, training, training. In addition to mobilizing the necessary logistics, it is necessary to start training those who will operate the community radio station. Because community radio is a different kind of radio, training for other type of radio operations will be inappropriate. It requires not only technical but, more importantly, cultural competence.

Alongside the above, build the foundations for the station’s governance assembly. Facilitate informed dialogue on how to grow a democratic, representative structure that will ultimately be responsible for ensuring that the station fulfills its mission of service to the community, especially the marginalized.

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Selective Information on Sri Lanka:Community Broadcasting Programming Guidelines

[Communities in the Polonnaruwa District forged these guidelines in 2006, in their participatory process of establishing their pilot community radio station. The station is expected to be licensed and operating in 2007/8.]

1. Programs should be produced in an open, transparent manner without any hidden agenda.

2. Programs should be impartial.

3. There could be not only two but also several sides to a story or event. Thus impartiality means not mathematical balancing by presenting two points of views but presenting diverse dimensions.

4. Community radio management shall not express their own views other than those concerning the electronic media including community radios.

5. Factual Programs: a factual program dealing with controversial public policy or matters of political or industrial controversy will meet its commitments to due impartiality if it is to be fair, accurate and maintains a proper respect for truth. When presenting one side of a particular argument the radio should ensure that opposing views are not misrepresented.

6. News should be presented with due accuracy and impartiality.

Reporting should be dispassionate, wide-ranging and well informed.

In reporting matters of controversy, specially industrial or political controversy, all possible differing views should be presented.

News programs should offer listeners an intelligent and informed account of issues that enables them to form their own views.

In reporting, personal opinions should not be expressed. The word “I” should be used most stingily. There can be no editorializing in broadcast news.

There has to be a clear understanding of the difference between news and views.

The reporting of the news has to be factual, accurate and objective.

News should not be presented by selecting only events or facts that suits the communicator

7. Personal view programs: community radio must allow open access to the airwaves for a wide range of individuals or groups to offer a personal view or advance a contentions argument. As such, the following should be carefully considered in presenting personal view programs.

The listeners must be informed in advance that the program contain personal views

Communicators shall ensure that these programs do not seriously misrepresent opposing viewpoints.

Communicators shall provide opportunities to those who wish to respond to the program.

If allegations are levelled against any person or institute, fair opportunity should be allowed to respond

As National Security is top priority in a national emergency or a war situation, media activity may be curtailed. However, it is imperative that accurate facts and information are provided to the listeners who are the owners of this radio. In a disaster or calamity it is very important that moods and emotions are taken into consideration.

Source: The Gemidiriya Community Development and Livelihood Improvement Project (Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka 2007).

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8. Coverage of development activities: in a developing country like Sri Lanka, a special function in broadcasting should be the coverage of development, its significance, achievements and problems.

Development news covers a wide range of activities – economic, technological, social and cultural

It should not be confined to mere statements and plans but explain there significance.

The news gathering apparatus of the Gemidiriya/ VSHLI radio should make a deliberate effort to explore new areas of development and community building news

People’s participation in such activities should be duly highlighted as also significant work being done voluntarily by individuals and CBOs.

Corruption, wastage, negligence, indolence that beset development work should be revealed and exposed in order to safe guard the taxpayers. In doing so the communicators should act in a very responsible manner without any bias towards or against any person, group or organisation.

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