Empowering Mind Through is a.ongaria

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Unit 1 Systems/Organization

Chapter I Introduction

This Chapter is about Definition of Science, its importance and how it affects our lives, our ways and

thinking. It discusses about Famous Foreign and Local Scientists and their contributions in our lives.Section of this chapter discusses the importance of scientific Values and Attitudes in decision –making and problem solving in daily life

What is Science?

The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge. Science is "knowledge attained throustudy or practice," it is a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation todescribe and explain natural phenomena.The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. Less formally, the word science often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it.

Science and technology work together

Scientist never ceased experiments to learn more about the world are practicing pure science. Engineers look for ways to use this knowledge for practical applications. This application of science is called technology. Foexample, scientist who practice pure science want to know how certain kinds of materials, called super conductors , conduct electricity with almost no lost of energy. Engineers focus on how that technology can beused to build high-speed computers.

Technology and science depend on one another. For instance, scientist did not know that tiny organismsuch as bacteria even existed until the technology to make precision magnifying lenses developed in the late

1699s.1.1 Branches of Science

Science can be divided into three main branches, or groups. These branches are the physical sciences, thelife sciences, and the earth sciences. There are several sub branches under each main branch.



The Physical Sciences

Deal with matter and energy and allow us to describe the material universe in terms of weight, mass, volume,and other standard, objective measures.

Physics: The study of matter and energy and the interactions between them.Chemistry: The science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the structure of matter.Astronomy: The study of the universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere.

The Earth Sciences

Explain the phenomena of Earth, its atmosphere, and the solar system to which it belongs.

Geology: The science of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the physical, chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is experiencing.Oceanography: The exploration and study of the ocean.Paleontology: The science of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.Meteorology: The science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as weather and climate.

The Life Sciences (Biology)

Describe living organisms, their internal processes, and their relationship to each other and the environment.

Botany: The study of plants.Zoology: The science that covers animals and animal life.Genetics: The study of heredity.Medicine: The science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness, disease, and injury.

Science

Physical Science Earth Science Life Science

Physics

Chemistry

Astronomy Geology Paleontology

Oceanology Meteorology

Botany Genetics

Zoology Medicine



Scientific Values and Attitudes

It is important for us to be aware that science is based upon everyday values even as it questions our

understanding of the world and ourselves. Indeed, science is in many respects the systematic application of some highly regarded human values—open minded, objective, flexible, curios, and persistent. Scientists did noinvent any of these values, and they are not the only people who hold them. But the broad field of science doesincorporate and emphasize such values and dramatically demonstrates just how important they are for advancing human knowledge and welfare. Therefore, if science is taught effectively, the result will be toreinforce such generally desirable human attitudes and values.

Curious - asks and answers questions to understand at deeper levels.Cooperative - works with others for common goals and shares ideas.Flexibility - willing to change with new evidence and/ or explanation.Knowledgeable - Knows many science generalizations, concepts, and facts; understands scientific inquiry; an

understands the history, nature, social, personal, and technological perspectives of scienceObjective - makes decisions based on facts.Open-minded - tolerates ideas and opinions of others and the importance of carefully considering ideas thatmay seem disquieting or at odds with what is generally believed and willing to change ideas in light of newevidence.Persistent - continues despite obstacles, warnings or setbacks.Reflective - willingly considers new ideas and evidence against previous ideas and evidence.Sensitive - considers all actions and inactions results on all living and nonliving things.

Local and Foreign Scientists and Their Contributions

The following scientists made significant contributions and helped push forward the frontiers in science.

Filipino Scientists and Their Contributions

Angel Alcala considered a world class authority in ecology and biogeography of amphibians and reptiles. Hethe man behind the invention of artificial coral reefs to be used for fisheries in Southeast Asia.

Doctor Arturo Alcaraz is a volcanologist specializing in geothermal energy development. In 1967, ArturoAlcaraz and team powered an electric light bulb using steam-powered electricity. Powers coming from aVolcano near the town of Tiwi. This was the first geothermal power generated in the Philippines.

Gregorio Y. Zara known for his invention of two-way television telephone or videophone patented as a "phot phone signal separator network". He also invented a propeller-cutting machine, airplane engine that ran on plain alcohol as fuel and improved the methods of producing solar energy including creating new designs for asolar water heater (SolarSorber), a sun stove, and a solar battery.



Rolando de la Cruz - invented DeBCC an anti-cancer skin cream made from cashew nuts and other local herbfrom the Philippines. Rolando de la Cruz's cream combats basal cell carcinoma or skin cancer without causingany side effects.

Eduardo San Juan worked on the team that invented the Lunar Rover or Moon Buggy. He was also a designfor the Articulated Wheel System. Prior, to the Apollo Program and worked on the (ICBM) IntercontinentalBallistic Missile.

Francisco Santos studied the nutritive values and chemical composition of local foods from the Philippines.His data was used to help detect and solve problems with Filipino diets.

Doctor Fe Del Mundo is the first Filipina national scientist who is credited with studies leading to theinvention of an improved incubator and a jaundice relieving device. She has been known for her dedication tochild care.

Roberto Del Rosario is one of the most prolific Filipino inventors besides of his famous Karaoke Sing AlongSystem Del Rosario has patented more than twenty inventions to name a few of his inventions we have TrebelVoice Color Code (VCC). Piano tuner’s guide, piano key board stressing device and voice color tape.

Julian Banson was known for his ingenuity and creativeness for his researched methods on producingalternative fuels using local materials. He experimented with the production of ethyl esters fuel from sugar caand coconut, and inventing a means of extracting residual coconut oil by chemical process rather than a physicone.

Edito G. Garcia Professor of Parasitology, has done research in the areas of immunology and parasiticinfections.

Famous Foreign Scientists and Their Contributions

There are literally thousands of famous scientists who have all made very important contributions to the field oscience. To name a few we have the following:

Albert Einstein is one of the most famous scientists of the 20th century. Einstein was born on March 14, 1879in Ulm, Germany. He received the 1921 Nobel Peace Prize in Physics for his work on the photoelectric effect.He is best known for his theory of relativity and specifically mass–energy equivalence, expressed by theequation E = mc2.

Marie Curie is one of the most famous scientists in the world, dedicated her life to physics and chemistry.Marie Curie was born on November 7, 1867, in Warsaw, Poland. Marie discovered radioactivity, she was thefirst woman to win the Nobel Prize for physics. Her achievements include the creation of a theory of radioactivity , techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two new elements, poloniumand radium. It was also under her personal direction that the world's first studies were conducted into thetreatment of neoplasms ("cancers"), using radioactive isotopes.

http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php?title=Edito_G._Garcia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplasm

http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php?title=Edito_G._Garcia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplasm



Galileo Galilei was referred to, in his day, as the father of modern astronomy, physics and science by variousacademics. One misconception that has lasted many years is that Galileo Galilei invented the telescope, whichhe did not. Galileo made improvements to the telescope and was one of the first to improve it enough to use it observe the sky and revolutionized astronomy and paved the way for the acceptance of the Copernicanheliocentric system. His formulation of (circular) inertia, the law of falling bodies, and parabolic trajectories

marked the beginning of a fundamental change in the study of motion.Sir Isaac Newton is generally regarded as one of the greatest and most famous scientists in history. Newtonwas an astronomer, physicist, mathematician and philosopher who is known for theorizing and reporting ongravitational force and the three laws of motion. He laid the foundation for differential and integral calculus.His work on optics and gravitation make him one of the greatest scientists the world has known.

Johannes Kepler (December 27, 1571 – November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer andastrologer , and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is best known for his eponymous laws o planetary motion, codified by later astronomers based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, andEpitome of Copernican Astrononomy. They also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of

Louis Pasteur the scientific genius who informed the world about the intricate relationship between health andiseases. He solved the mysteries of rabies, anthrax, chicken cholera, and silkworm diseases, and contributed tthe development of the first vaccines. Certainly the importance of Pasteur's research can be etched on theannals of medical development, particularly the first vaccines devised for humans. He described the scientific basis for fermentation, wine-making, and the brewing of beer. He also challenged the myth on spontaneousgeneration, thereby setting the stage for modern biology and biochemistry.

Nicolaus Copernicus was a mathematician and astronomer who first to publish a full-fledged theory that thesun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth actually revolved around the sun. Copernicus alsotheorized that the earth rotated on its axis, which accounted for the daily movement of the stars.

Niels Bohr a Danish scientist who won the Nobel Prize for physics in 1922 for his work in regards tounderstanding the structure of atoms. Bohr introduced the theory that electrons travel in an orbital path aroundthe atom's nucleus. He also theorized that light could have properties of both a wave and a particle at the sametime.

Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers on the United States and an inventor credited withcreating the lightning rod, glass harmonica, urinary catheter, bifocal glasses and Franklin stove. Even thoughBenjamin Franklin never patented any of his own inventions, he was an advocate for inventor's rights and wasresponsible for seeing to it that a passage was inserted into the U. S. Constitution guaranteeing limited terms fo patents and copyrights.

Alexander Graham Bell was born in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. Throughout his life, Bell had beeninterested in the education of deaf people. This interest leads him to invent the microphone and, in 1876, his"electrical speech machine," which we now call a telephone. News of his invention quickly spread throughoutthe country, even throughout Europe. By 1878, Bell had set up the first telephone exchange in New Haven,Connecticut. By 1884, long distance connections were made between Boston, Massachusetts and New York City. Graham Bell is considered a pioneer in the field of telecommunications.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrologer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eponym

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_laws_of_planetary_motion


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonices_Mundi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrologer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eponym



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonices_Mundi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton



Basic Science Process Skills

The processes of doing science are the science process skills that scientists use in the process of doingscience. Since science is about asking questions and finding answers to questions, these are actually the sameskills that we all use in our daily lives as we try to figure out everyday questions. If you developed skills in

basic science processes you will find it useful throughout your life. While it is possible to easily forget sciencecontent learned, process skills tend to remain with many individuals for a relatively longer period.

The science process skills form the foundation for scientific methods. These basic skills are integratedtogether when scientists design and carry out experiments or in everyday life when we all carry out fair testexperiments. All the seven basic skills are important individually as well as when they are integrated together.

Figure

Observing – using your senses to gather information about an object or event. It is a description of what was

actually perceived. This information is considered qualitative data. Qualitative Observation (using the senses)Example: Describing a ball as red. and Quantitative Observation (using exact measurement ) Example: Thethickness of a book is 5 mm.Inferring - making an "educated guess" about an object or event based on previously gathered data or information. Example: Saying that the person who used a pencil made a lot of mistakes because the eraser wawell worn.Measuring - using both standard and nonstandard measures and estimates to describe the dimensions of anobject or event. Example: Using a ruler to measure the length of a notebook in centimeters.Communicating - using words or graphic symbols to describe an action, object or event. Example: Describingthe change in height of a plant over time in writing or through a graph.Classifying - grouping or ordering objects or events into categories based on properties or criteria. Example:

Placing all rocks having certain grain size or hardness into one group.Predicting - stating the outcome of a future event based on a pattern of evidence Example: Predicting theheight of a plant in two weeks time based on a graph of its growth during the previous four weeks.Applying – you should begin to understand that people have used scientific knowledge in practical ways tochange and improved the way we live. It is at this application level that science becomes meaningful for you.

Activity no: Inferences and Observations

An observation is anything that can be taken in through the senses. This would be thingsthat you see, hear, taste, smell, touch, or taste. An inference is a statement that explainsthe observations. Suppose your friends went to camping in Laguna and saw many nocturnal animals. Which of

the following statements are observations and which are inferences? Indicate your answer with either the lett“O” for an observation, or theletter “I” for an inference.

1. ________ It is vacation time.2. ________ It is night time.3. ________ They saw bats.4. ________ They saw birds



5. ________ They went swimming.6. ________ One friend’s name was Koreen.7. ________ It was a cold night.8. ________ The birds were black and white.9. ________ They made a bonfire.

10. _______ They peoples are friends.

Chapter 2 Scientific Method

Steps in Scientific Method

Scientists gather information and evidence in their search for answers to questions. Scientists use a problem-

solving procedure called the scientific methodThe scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable waEven though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new information or thinkingmight cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. A process like the scientificmethod that involves such backing up and repeating is called an iterative process.

Figure no.3 Ask Question

Do Background Research

Construct Hypothesis

Test with an Experiment

Analyze results Draw Conclusion

Hypothesis is TrueHypothesis is False or

Partially True

Try Again



*Note arrows represent cause and effect relationships between the steps

The Steps of Scientific Method are:

Ask Question/Identify a Problem – Starts when you ask question about something that you observe: How,What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?Gather Information/Do Background Research - Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a planfor answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help youfind the best way to do things and insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.Construct Hypothesis - A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work, state your hypothesis in away that you can easily measure, it should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question.Test with an Experiment – Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important foyour experiment to be fair test. You should repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first

results were not just an accident.Analyze Results/Draw Conclusion – Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurement andanalyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false. Sometimes you find that your hypothesis was false, andin such cases you will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over againReport/Communicate Results - To complete your experiment you will communicate your results using wordor graphic symbols to describe an action, object or event. Example: Describing the change in height of a plantover time in writing or through a graph.

Scientific Theories and Laws

In layman’s term when we say theory is just a guess or a hunch, something that maybe needs proof. Inscience it means different thing; a theory is not a guess or a hunch. It’s a well-substantiated, well-supported,well documented explanation for an observation. It ties together all the facts about something, providing anexplanation that fits all the observations and can be used to make predictions. In science, theory is the ultimatgoal, the explanation.

Some people think that in science, you have a theory, and once it's proven, it becomes a law. That's nothow it works. In science, we collect facts, or observations, we use laws to describe them, and a theory to explathem. You don't promote a theory to a law by proving it. A theory never becomes a law. An example will helpyou to understand this. There's a law of gravity, which is the description of gravity. It basically says that if youlet go of something it'll fall. It doesn't say why. Then there's the theory of gravity, which is an attempt to expla

why. Actually, Newton's Theory of Gravity did a pretty good job, but Einstein's Theory of Relativity does a better job of explaining it. These explanations are called theories, and will always be theories. They can't bechanged into laws, because laws are different things. Laws describe, and theories explain. A theory is anexplanation of a set of related observations or events based upon proven hypotheses and verified multiple time by detached groups of researchers. ALaw is a statement of fact meant to describe, in concise terms, an actionor set of actions. It is generally accepted to be true and universal, and can sometimes be expressed in terms of single mathematical equation. Scientific laws are similar to mathematical postulates. They don’t really need an

Report Results



complex external proofs; they are accepted at face value based upon the fact that they have always beenobserved to be true. Scientific laws must be simple, true, universal, and absolute.

The biggest difference between a law and a theory is that a theory is much more complex and dynamicA law describes a single action, whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena.

Integrated Science Process Skills:

Formulating Hypotheses - stating the proposed solutions or expected outcomes for experiments. These proposed solutions to a problem must be testable. Example: The greater the amount of fertilizer added to thesoil, the greater the egg plant growth.Identifying of Variables - stating the changeable factors that can affect an experiment. It is important to chanonly the variable being tested and keep the rest constant. The one being manipulated is the independent

variable; the one being measured to determine its response is the dependent variable; and all variables that dnot change and may be potential independent variables are constants.Defining Variables Operationally - explaining how to measure a variable in an experiment.

Describing Relationships Between Variables - explain relationships between variables in an experiment suchas between the independent and dependant variables plus the standard of comparison.Controlling variables - being able to identify variables that can affect an experimental outcome, keeping mosconstant while manipulating only the independent variable. Example: Realizing through past experiences thatamount of light and water need to be controlled when testing to see how the addition of fertilizer affects thegrowth of egg plant.Designing Investigations - designing an experiment by identifying materials and describing appropriate stepsin a procedure to test a hypothesis.Experimenting - carrying out an experiment by carefully following directions of the procedure so the resultscan be verified by repeating the procedure several times. Being able to conduct an experiment, including askinan appropriate question, stating a hypothesis, identifying and controlling variables, operationally defining thos

variables, designing a "fair" experiment, conducting the experiment, and interpreting the results of theexperiment. Example: The entire process of conducting the experiment on the affect of fertilizer on the growthof egg plants.Acquiring Data - collecting qualitative and quantitative data as observations and measurements. Example:Stating that egg plant growth will be measured in centimeters per week.Organizing Data in Tables and Graphs - making data tables and graphs for data collected.Analyzing Investigations and Data - interpreting data statistically, identifying human mistakes andexperimental errors, evaluating the hypothesis, formulating conclusions, and recommending further testingwhere necessary.Example: Recording data from the experiment on bean growth in a data table and forming a conclusion whichrelates trends in the data to variables.

Understanding Cause and Effect Relationships - what caused what to happen and why. Formulating Mode- recognizing patterns in data and making comparisons to familiar objects or ideas. Examples: The model ofhow the processes of evaporation and condensation interrelate in the water cycle.

Variables

You use an experiment to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, you design anexperiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way.



These changing quantities are called variables. A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist indiffering amounts or types. An experiment usually has three kinds of variables: independent, dependent, andcontrolled.The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist. To insure a fair test, a good experimenthas only one independent variable. As you change the independent variable, you will observe what will happe

Focus your observations on the dependent variable to see how it responds to the change made to theindependent variable. The new value of the dependent variable is caused by and depends on the value of theindependent variable.For example, if you open a faucet (the independent variable), the quantity of water flowing (dependent variablchanges in response--you observe that the water flow increases. The number of dependent variables in anexperiment varies, but there is often more than one.Experiments also have controlled variables. Controlled variables are quantities that a you wants to remainconstant, and you must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables. For example, if we want tomeasure how much water flow increases when we open a faucet, it is important to make sure that the water pressure (the controlled variable) is held constant. That's because both the water pressure and the opening of afaucet have an impact on how much water flows. If we change both of them at the same time, we can't be sure

how much of the change in water flow is because of the faucet opening and how much because of the water pressure. In other words, it would not be a fair test. Most experiments have more than one controlled variable.Some people refer to controlled variables as "constant variables."

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_experiment_fair_test.shtml

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_experiment_fair_test.shtml



Precision andAccuracy in Data

Gathering

To many people,accuracy and precisiomean the same thingHowever to someoneinvolved inmeasurement, the tw

terms should havevery differentmeanings.

Accuracy:

The accuracy of ameasurementdescribes how close iis to the 'real' value.This real value need

not be very precise; i just needs to be the'accepted correctvalue'. It is the degre

of conformity with a standard (the "truth"). Accuracy relates to the quality of a result, and is distinguished from precision, which relates to the quality of the operation by which the result is obtained.Precision is the degree of refinement in the performance of an operation, or the degree of perfection in theinstruments and methods used to obtain a result. An indication of the uniformity or reproducibility of a result.

Problem Independent

Variable

Independent

Variable

Controlled

Variables

Does heating a cupof water allow it todissolve more salt?

Does organicfertilizer make a plant grow bigger?

Temperature of thewater measured indegrees Centigrade

Amount of organicfertilizer measuredin grams

Amount of salt thatdissolvescompletelymeasured in grams

• Growth of the plantmeasured by its height

• Growth of the plantmeasured by thenumber of leaves

See MeasuringPlant Growth for

more ways tomeasure plantgrowth

• Stirring

• Size of salt

"More stirringmight also increasethe amount of saltthat dissolves anddifferent size of saltmight dissolve in

different amounts,so to insure a fair test I want to keepthese variables thesame for each cupof water."

• Growth of the plantmeasured by its height

• Growth of the plantmeasured by thenumber of leaves

See MeasuringPlant Growth for

more ways tomeasure plantgrowth



popping sound.5. It smells bitter.6. The temperaturein Baguio dropped to70C.

7.The mass of a bookis 250 g.8. The trees are tall.9. The flower clustersin 4 blooms.10. The surface of the table is veryrough.

Measurement in Scientific Investigations

Mathematics is a language of science. By measuring, scientist can quantify their observations accuratelToday, scientists need to be able to communicate with other scientists all around the world. They need acommon language in which to report data. Scientist use the metric system along with its newer counterpart, tSI (system internationale) system of measurement, It was designed to make measurements and calculations aeasy as possible. Once we have learned it, it is much easier to use than the English system.

Table 1-1 SI Base Units

QuantityUnits Symbol

Length Meter MMass Kilogram KgTime Second STemperature Kelvin K Electric current Ampere AAmount of substance Mole MolLuminous intensity Candela Cd

Table1-2 Prefixes Used for large Measurements

Prefix Symbol Meaning Multiple of

base unit

Kilo K Thousand 1000mega M Million 1000,000giga G billion 1000,000,000



Table 1-3 Prefixes Used for Small Measurements

Prefix Symbol Meaning Multiple of

base unit

deci- d tenth 0.1

centi- c hundredth 0.01milli- m thousandth 0.001micro- µ millionth 0.000001nano- n billionth 0.000000001

You noticed that the base units do not include area, volume, pressure, weight, force, speed, and other familiar quantities. Combinations of the base units, called derived units.

Suppose you want to order curtain for a window measures 1.5 m long and 1 m wide. The area of a rectanglecan be solve by multiplying the length and the width (A = l x w). The area of the window can be calculated aA = 1.5 m x 1 m = 1.5 m2 . The SI unit of area, m2, is a derived unit.

Notice that centimeter and kilometer each contain the word meter . When dealing with SI units, youfrequently use the base unit, in this case meter, and add a prefix to indicate that quantity you are measuring is multiple of that unit. Most SI prefixes indicate multiples of 10. Example centimeter is 1/100 of a meter. Any unit with the prefix centi- will be 1/100 of the base unit. A centigram is 1/100 of a gram. What about thekilometer? The prefix kilo indicates that unit is 1000 times the base unit. A kilometer is equal to 1000 meters

The factor-label method for converting units

The factor-label method, also known as the unit-factor method or dimensional analysis, is the sequentiaapplication of conversion factors expressed as fractions and arranged so that any dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the desired set of dimensional units is obtained. For example, a roll of ribbon contains 10 m. What is the length of the ribbon incentimeter?

Steps:1. List the given and unknown values.Given: length ( l ) = 10 mUnknown: length in cm = ?

2. Determine the relationships between the units.Look at conversion table and find the equivalent value of meter to centimeter.1 cm = .01 m, also means 1m = 100 cm

3. Write the equation for the conversion.

Length in cm = m xm

cm

1

100

You will multiply because you are converting from a larger unit (m) to a smaller unit (cm).4. Insert the known values into the equation and solve.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis



Watch glasses - are for holding small samples or for covering beakers or evaporating dishes

Safety Precautionary measures in the Laboratory

Any untoward behavior in the laboratory can result in serious injury, health hazards and damage to property. Observed safety precautionary measures while working inside the laboratory Every person isexpected to do their part to ensure a safe laboratory environment for themselves and others in the laboratory.

Basic Laboratory Rules

1. Eating and drinking inside the laboratory is strictly prohibited.

2. Playing will not be tolerated in the laboratory.3. Lab users must become familiar with the location and operation of the fire extinguisher and other safetydevices.

4. If you have a query about how to operate a certain lab device/instrument you better consult first your science teacher before doing the experiment. Equipment that you are not familiar with should not be usedas damage may occur to the equipment and/or other individuals.

5. You should be aware of the hazards and proper handling of the different biological and/or chemical agenthat you are using.

6. Keep your workspace clean and tidy. Clean up spills, broken equipment, floods and general clutter promptly. This especially applies to the area around any electrical equipment.

7. Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory and remove any gloves you are wearing.

Personal Safety

The highest priority in the laboratory is personal safety. Therefore you must be sure to:

1. Always wear eye protection (eye goggles), protective gloves and lab coat when handling corrosivechemicals or biological agents. *Gloves and lab coat are not to be worn outside the lab.2. Always tie your hair back if you have long hair to avoid destruction and accident while doing an

experiment.3. Report all accidents immediately to your teacher.

Protecting Against Chemical Hazards



picture (side) laboratory icon

Measuring instruments

Reading a Balance for Mass

Before using the balance, always check to see if the pointer is resting at zero. If the pointer is not at zero,check the riders. If all the riders are at zero, turn the zero adjust knob until the pointers rest at zero.

Figure

Measuring solid

Place a piece of weighing paper on the movable pan. Determine the mass of the paper by adjusting theriders on the various scales. Record the mass of the weighing paper to the nearest 0.01 g. Then add the massyou wish to obtain by sliding the appropriate riders on the scales. For ex., if your weighing paper has a mass o0.20 g, the balance reads 0.20 g. To measure 15 g of solids, you then need to add 15 g to this mass. Do this bsliding the 10 –gram rider to 10 and the 1-gram rider to 5. Slowly add the solid onto weighing paper until the balance is once again balanced.*Never place chemicals or hot objects directly on the pan.



*You must subtract the mass of the weighing paper from its final mass to determine the solid’s mass.

Measuring Temperature

When working with any thermometer, it is especially important to pay close attention to the precision

the instrument. Most alcohol thermometers are marked in intervals of 1 0C. The intervals are usually so closetogether that it is impossible to estimate temperature values measured with such thermometer to any precisionthan a half dgree, 0.5 0C. Thus, if you are using this type of thermometer, it would be impossible to actuallymeasure like 27.15 0C.

It is also very important to keep your eye at about the same levels as the colored fluid in thethermometer. If you’re looking at the thermometer from below, the reading you see will appear a degree or tw

lower than it really is. Similarly, if you look at the thermometer from above, the reading will seem to be adegree or two higher than it really is.

Figure - thermometer reading

Reading Volume of Liquids

To have accurate volume measurements, you should use a graduated cylinder or a burette, (they aremarked in smaller increments than of beakers). Most liquids have a concave surface that forms in a burette orgraduated cylinder. This concave surface is called meniscus. When measuring the volume of a liquid, youmust consider the meniscus. Always measure the volumes from the bottom of the meniscus. The markings ona graduated cylinder or burette are designed cylinder to take into account the water that extends along the wallslightly above the markings lines.*opaque liquids read the upper meniscus*transparent liquids read the lower meniscus

Figure (side) - graduated cylinder showing the meniscus



Activity: Calculating Using Significant Figures

A. Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following measurements:

_____1. 57.05 mL _____6. 3400 g _____2. 0.005607 Kg _____7. 1207 L _____3. 3004 cm _____8. 0.1400 dm _____4. 789.00 m _____9. 5000 cm _____5. 2130 Km _____10. 0.1 m

B. Perform each of the following calculations, and give your answer with the correct number of significant figures.

_____1. 0.005 dm + 0.75601 dm _____6. .09 cm x 22.2 cm _____2. 440 m ÷ 0.1234 m _____7. 1.5 L – .5 L

_____3. 45.2 Kg × 0.2534 Kg _____8. 500 mm ÷ .25 mm _____4. 2.05 g – 0.05 g _____9. .890 g + 8.9 g _____5. 2.04 mL + 0.022 mL _____10. .45 dm x 1.5 dm

Scientific Notations

Scientific Notation is very useful in reporting a very large or very small number. Scientists report numbers froliterally astronomical to almost infinitesimal. In order to do so conveniently, we use scientific notation, alsoknown as standard exponential notation. Scientific notation is a form of a number with a decimal coefficienttimes a power of 10. The following number is in scientific notation, with its parts identified:

base exponent\ /

5.123 × 10

4

/ \ exponential partCoefficient

A number in scientific notation has a coefficient that is 1 or more but less than 10, and it has an integralexponent, which may be positive, zero, or negative.With large numbers such as 4,560, 000 move the decimal point to the left until one digit remains to the left(4.560000) and then indicate the number of moves of the decimal point as the exponent of 10 giving you 4.56



106. With a very small number such as 0.000000789, move the decimal point to the right until one digit is left0000007.89 and then express the number of moves as the negative exponent of 10 giving you 7.89 x 10-7.

Activity: Scientific Notation

Scientist very often deals with very small and very large numbers which can lead to a lot of confusion whencounting zeros! We have learned to express these numbers as powers of 10.Ex.1 Convert 1,700,000 to scientific notation. Move the decimal point so that there is only one digit to its lefttotal of 6 places.

1,700,000 = 1.7 x 106

Ex. 2 Convert 0.00097 to scientific notation. For this, move the decimal point 4 places to the right.

0.00097 = 9.5 x 104

*Note that when a number starts out less than one, the exponent is always negativeA. Covert the following to scientific notation1. 0.0006 _____________ 6. 0.057 ____________ 2. 7,050 _____________ 7. 0.00057 ____________ 3. 0.0009 _____________ 8. 0.003 ____________ 4. 2,000 _____________ 9. 400 ____________ 5. 4,000,000 _____________ 10. 8,000 ____________

B. Convert the following to standard notation1. 1.6 x 103 _____________ 6. 2.55 x 10 -1 _____________

2. 1.6 x 10

-3

_____________ 7. 1.7 x 10

-4

_____________ 3. 2.87 x 10-4 _____________ 8. 1 x 104 _____________ 4. 5.9 x 102 _____________ 9. 1 x 10-1 _____________ 5. 9.7 x 105 _____________ 10. 4 x 10 0 _____________

Analysis of Data

Making Inferences



Graphs are a useful tool in science. The visual characteristics of a graph make trends in data easy to seeOne of the most valuable uses for graphs is to "predict" data that is not measured on the graph.

Extrapolate: extending the graph, along the same slope, above or below measured data.

Interpolate: predicting data between two measured points on the graph.Graphs are often an excellent way to display your results. In fact, most good science experiment / fair

projects have at least one graph. Different types of graphs are designed to communicate different types of messages. These are just a few of the possible types of graphs:

Line graphs

In an experiment, you will usually be controlling one variable and seeing how it affects another variable. Linegraphs can show these relations clearly.

To create a line graph, do the following steps:1. Identify the variables - Independent Variable on the X axis (horizontal), Dependent Variable - Goes onthe Y axis (vertical)

2. Determine the variable range - Subtract the lowest data value from the highest data value.

Do each variable separately.

3. Determine the scale of the graph - Determine a scale that best fits the range of each

variable. Spread the graph to use MOST of the available space.4. Number and label each axis - This tells what data the lines on your graph represent.

5. Plot the data points - Plot each data value on the graph with a dot. You can put the data

number by the dot, if it does not clutter your graph.

6. Draw the graph - Draw a curve or a line that best fits the data points. Most graphs of

experimental data are not drawn as "connect-the-dots".

7. Title the graph - Your title should clearly tell what the graph is about. If your graph has

more than one set of data, provide a "key" to identify the different lines.

Bar graphs



A bar graph is a visual display used to compare the amounts or frequency of occurrence of differentcharacteristics of data. This type of display allows us to compare groups of data, and to make generalizationsabout the data quickly.

To make a bar graph, do the following steps:

1. Draw two perpendicular axes on a grid paper. Label each axes to identify variables.

2. Choose a scale that will permit the full range of values to be graphed. Mark one axis with equal

interval.

3. Mark the axis with equal intervals. These intervals do not have to match those used on the

other axis.

4. Using the data values, carefully find the height of each bar for each item. Draw and shade

each bar. Be sure to leave space between your bars.

Pie Graphs

Pie graphs are an easy way to visualize how many parts make a whole. Usually, pie charts are made from percentage data. They are useful for analyzing polls, statistics, and managing time or money. For example, youwant to create a pie graph showing the different gases of earth’s atmosphere.

1. Organize your data - First gather your data.

2. Add it all together - Add all of the numbers to get a denominator.

3. Then find the numerator - Find the numerators by taking each part of the data, these are your

numerators.

4. Convert your fractions to a decimal - Divide your numerator by your denominator.

5. Convert the decimal to a percent - Move the decimal two places to the right.

6. Find the angle - Multiply the decimal by 360 (degrees in a circle), or multiply the percent by 3.60 tget an angle.

7. Use a mathematical compass to draw a circle - If you don't have a compass, try tracing somethinground such as a lid or a CD.



8. Draw the radius - Start in the exact center of the circle and draw a radius to the outside of it. ( Hint:make a dot with the compass to find the center. )

9. Place your protractor on the circle - Place your protractor on the circle so that the 90 degrees aredirectly above the center of the circle.

10. Draw each section - Draw the sections by using the angles you got in step six. Each time you add asection the radius changes to the line you just drew.

* Remember that all good graphs have a title and labels.

*Add the name of the sections and the percent they represent to the chart.

*Color each section of the pie chart a different color to easily visualize the results.

*If you do not have a very good compass, it is easier to draw the circle by holding the compass still

and turning the paper.

Sample types of graph insert on the side

Activity no. Scientific Method

Put the following steps of the scientific method in the proper order.

___________ Make a hypothesis. ___________ Identify the problem ___________ Test the hypothesis ___________ Arrive at a conclusion ___________ Report your result ___________ Background research

Activity no. CAN YOU SPOT THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Each sentence below describes a step of the scientific method. Match each sentence with a step of thescientific method listed below.A. Recognize a problemB. Form a hypothesisC. Test the hypothesis with an experiment



D. Draw conclusions _____1. Robert predicted that seeds would start to grow faster if an electric

current traveled through the soil in which they were planted. _____2. Faith Ann said, “If I fertilize my rose plants, they will blossom.” _____3. Angeline wondered if dyes could be taken out of plant leaves, flowers,

and stems. _____4. Rob experiment proved that earthworms move away from light. _____5. Emman said, “If acid rain affects plants in a particular lake, it might

affect small animals, such as crayfish, that live in the same water.” ____ 6. Jony’s data showed that household cockroaches moved away from raw

cucumber slice ____ 7. Mira said, “If I grow five seedlings in red light, I think the plants will

grow faster than the five plants grown in white light.” _____8. Kathy read about growing plants in water. He wanted to know how

plants could grow without soil. _____9. Ej soaked six different kinds of seeds in water for 24 hours. Then she planted the seeds in

soil at a depth of I cm. She used the same amount of water, light, and heat for each kindof seed. ____ 10. Ayra bell’s experiment showed that chicken eggshells were stronger when she gave the

hen feed, to which extra calcium had been added.

Activity no. Designing an Experiment using Scientific Method

Many commercials and advertisements make promises about a product. For example, a specific brand oanti dandruff shampoo will promise to remove your dandruff in one use or a detergent will take out tough stainWatch TV commercials and chose one problem that you want to test. Use the scientific method to come up

with an experiment and draw conclusion. What is the best way to test if the product keeps its promise? Youcan ask help to any members of your family to write down an experimental plan, record data, and draw aconclusion. Share your findings with your family and to your classmates during the oral presentation. Use yocreativity in presenting your experiment (ex. power point presentation, video presentation).

Activity no. QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE WORK SHEET

Determine which of the following statements are quantitative and which are qualitative.

1. _____________ The cup had a mass of 454 grams.2. _____________ The temperature inside the room is 27 0C.3. _____________ It is cold outside.4. _____________ The plant is 2 feet tall.5. _____________ The house has 2 stories.6. _____________ The building is taller than the tree.



Table 1-3 Circumference of a ball

Trials Circumference(cm)

Difference from average(cm)

1

23Average

IV. Measuring Mass

1. Place a small beaker on the balance, and measure the mass. Record the value in the table below. Measure tthe nearest 0.01 g if you are using a triple beam balance and to the nearest 0.1 g if your using a platform balance.

2. Move the rider to a setting that will give a value 5 g more than the mass of the beaker. Add table sugar to

the beaker a little at a time until balance just begins to swing. You have about 5 g of sugar in the beaker.Complete the measurements (to the nearest 0.01 or 0.1 g), and record the total mass of the beaker from the totamass to find the mass of sugar.

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 two times, and record your data in your table. Find the averages of your measuremenas indicated in the table.

Table 1-4 Mass of Table Sugar

Trials Mass of beaker andtable sugar (g)

Mass of Beaker (g)

Mass of table sugar

(g)123

Average

V. Measuring Volume

1. Fill one of the test tubes with water. Pour the water into a 25 mL graduated cylinder.

2. The top of the column of water in the graduated cylinder will have a downward curve. The curve is calledmeniscus (shown in the figure at right). Take your reading at the lower meniscus. Record the capacity of thetest tube in the table below. Measure the capacity of the other test tubes and record. Find the average capacityof the three test tubes.



Table 1-5 Liquid Volume

Test Tube Volume

(mL)123Average

VI. Measuring Volume by Water Displacement Method

1.Pour about 10 mL water into the 25 mL graduated cylinder. Record the volume as precise as you can in the

table below.

2. Gently drop a small stone into graduated cylinder; be careful not to splash any water out of the cylinder.You may find it easier to tilt the cylinder slightly and let the object slide down the side. You can determine thevolume of the stone by subtracting the initial volume of the water from the final volume.

* Final volume can obtained after dropping the stone

Volumestone = Vf - Vi

Trials Initial Volume Final Volume Volume of thestone

123Average

Analyzing Your Results

1. On a bond paper make a line graph of the temperatures that were measured with the wall thermometer overtime. Did the temperature change during the class period? If it did, find the average temperature, anddetermine the highest and lowest temperature that you observed.

2. Make a bar graph using the data from three calculations of the mass of table sugar. Indicate the averagevalue of the three determinations by drawing a line represents



Activity no. Safety in the Laboratory

What is wrong in the following pictures

1 2.

_________________________ ___________________

_________________________ ______________

_________________________ _______________

3. 4.

________________________ ____________________

________________________ ____________________

________________________ ____________________

5. 6.

________________________ ____________________

________________________ ____________________

________________________ ____________________



Activity no. Graphing of Data

Graphing is a very important tool in Science since it enables us to see trends that are not always obviou

Graph the following data and answer the questions below.

Mass of liquid (g) Volume of liquid (cm3)20 4100 2075 1540 810 2

Chapter 3 Sun- Moon- Earth System

Physical features of planet earth

The blue- and green planet

Scientist believes the Earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago. It is one of the eight planets that travel in a path called orbit around the sun. Like some of the other planets, it is vast mass of rock, wrapped around with athin layer of gases, called the atmosphere. It has one satellite, the Moon; the only large satellite of a terrestria planet. Earth is a unique planet for at a distance, it looks like a blue – and green jewel hanging in space. It iscalled blue planet because of the huge amounts of water in the oceans. Water makes possible it possible for Earth to have millions of different kinds of living things. It is called green planet because, it has water thatsupports life, it also has atmosphere rich with oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, and moderate temperaturethat are stable around the globe.

The earth is not perfectly round; it is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. Earth’s diamete

at the equator is 12,756 km, but only 12,712 at the North and south poles. All the light, heat, and energy onearth come from the sun.

Effects of earth’s motion

What happens when the Earth moves?



The earth spins around itself like a top. Earth’s axis is an imaginary line that runsthrough the center of earth from North Pole to the South Pole. The spinning motion of the earton its axis is called rotation. Earth rotates in a counter clockwise direction. The earth makes one completerotation in 23 hours and 56 minutes. As the earth turns different parts of the earth face the Sun. This movemecauses days and nights on Earth. The part that faces the Sun has Day, and the part that is away from the Sun ha

Night.

As the Earth rotates on its axis it also travels in its orbit around the sun. The movement of Earth around tsun is called revolution. The Earth revolves around the Sun at a distance of about 93 million miles (150 Km).On a complete orbit it travels about 590 million miles (950 Km). Each orbit lasts about 365.25 days-one year

As the earth revolves about the sun, earth rotates on its axis, which is tilted 23.50 from the perpendicular latitude on earth’s orbital plane. This tilt, along with Earth’s movement around the sun, causes the seasons. Wehave mainly four different seasons:

F I G U R E – Earth’s rotation and revolution

Moon-Earth system

Phases of the moon

F I G U R E - Phases of the moon

New Moon - The new moon is the phase of the moon when the moon is not visible from Earth, because the side of the moon that is facing us is not being lit by the sun. The Moon is not visible except duringsolar eclipse.



Waxing Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by directsunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.

First Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of tMoon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.

Full Moon - The Moon's illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears to be completelyilluminated by direct sunlight.

Waning Gibbous - The Moon appears to be more than one-half but not fully illuminated by directsunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

Last Quarter - One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of thMoon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing

Waning Crescent - The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated by directsunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

Tides and Eclipse

Figure- Lunar and Solar Eclipse

Eclipse

Figure – Neap tide and Spring tide



Solar system

The solar system comprises the sun and the entourage of celestial objects gravitationally bound into it:the eight planets, their 162 known moons, three currently identified dwarf planets and their four known moonsand thousand of small bodies. This last category includes asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and interplanetarydust.

In decision passed by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) General Assembly on August 24,2006, the objects in the solar system other than the Sun and natural satellites were divided into three separatesgroups: planets, dwarf planets and small solar system bodies.

A planet is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravityto overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) hascleared the neighborhood around its orbit. . Eight objects in the solar system currently meet this definition; thare Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The key difference between planets an

dwarf planets is that while both are required to orbit the sun and be of large enough mass that their own gravity pulls them into a nearly round shape, dwarf planets are not required to clear neighborhood of other celestial bodies. Pluto now falls into the dwarf planet category on account of its size and the fact that it resides within zone of other similarly-sized objects known as the transneptunian region.Three objects in the solar system are currently included in this category; they are Pluto, the asteroid Ceres, andthe scattered disc object Eris. The IAU will begin evaluating other known objects to see if they fit within thedefinition of dwarf planets and the candidates are some of the larger asteroids and several Trans-neptunianobjects such as Sedna, Orcus, and Quaor.

The remainder of the objects in the solar system were classified as small solar system bodies (SSSBs).As the AIU noted in its resolution.*Astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the sun. One AU = 150 million Km (about 93 million miles.

PlanetFeatures Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

4,879 km.(3,032 mi.)

12,104 km.(7,521 mi.)

12,756 km.(7,926 mi.)

6,794 km.(4,221 mi.)

142,984 km.(88,850 mi.)

120,536 km.(74,901 mi.)

51,118 km.(31,764 mi.)

49,528 km.(30,776 mi.)

Surface Rocky withcraters,cliffs & plains

Smooth plains, huge

hills,volcanoes

Rocky withoceans, plains,

mountains,

Mostlydesert withhighlands,lowlands,

Gases Gases Gases Gases



& craters volcanoes& craters

craters &volcanoes

Surface

Temperature167 ºC (332

ºF)464 ºC (867

ºF)15 ºC (59

ºF)-65 ºC (-85

ºF)-110 ºC (-

166 ºF)-140 ºC (-220

ºF)-195 ºC (-319

ºF)-200 ºC (-328 ºF

Atmosphere none Carbondioxide &nitrogen

with cloudsof sulfuric

acid

Nitrogen,oxygen &

water vapor

Carbondioxide,nitrogen,oxygen &

dust

Hydrogen,helium,sulfur,

nitrogen,oxygen,

ammonia &methane

Hydrogen,helium,sulfur,

nitrogen &oxygen

Methane Methane

Moons 0 0 1 2 63 46 27 13

Rings no no no no yes yes yes yes

Distance from

the Sun57,900,000

km.(35,985,27

4 mi.)

108,200,000 km.

(67,235,480mi.)

149,600,000 km.

(92,961,440mi.)

227,900,000km.

(141,633,260 mi.)

778,600,000km.

(483,800,000 mi.)

1,433,500,000 km.

(890,735,600mi.)

2,872,500,000 km. (1, 784,888, 75 mi.)

4,495,100,000km(2,793,125,646

mi.)

Length of Day 58.6 earthdays

243 earthdays

23 hrs; 56minutes

24 earth hrs;37 earthminutes

9 earth hrs;55 minutes



16 earth hrs.

Length of

Year88 earth

days224.7 earth

days365.25 earth

days687 earth

days11.9 earth

yrs.29.5 earth yrs. 84 earth yrs. 164.8 earth yrs

Further Facts

Hasextremely

daily temp.range of – 300 ºF to

800 ºFHave signsof ancientvolcanic

act.

Has an axisthat tilted

on its sideRotatesclockwise

like Pluto &Uranus

Is called the blue planet;

water coveredmore than2/3 of itssurface

The only planet

known tohave life aswe known it

Is called thered planet;

iron oxidesis present onits surfaceIs home toOlympusMons, the

largestmountain in

the solar system

Has a greatred spot

thought to bea 400 yr.-oldhurricaneFour of

Jupiter’smoons (Io,

Europa,Ganymede,& Callisto)

werediscovered

by Galileo in1610

Has prominent

rings that aremade of rock & ice

particles.Has a yellow

color thatcomes from

sulfur

Has an axisthat is almost

tilted on itsside.Rotates

clockwise likeVenus &

Pluto

Gives off moreheat than it gets

from the sun.Has a great darkspot thought to b

a hole in itsatmosphere

The Inner Planets

The four inner planets or terrestrial planets are small, dense, rocky, with few moons, and lack of ringsystem.

Mercury



Mercury is smallest and closest planet to the Sun. Its size is about one-third the size of the Earth and its averadistance from the sun is 0.39 AU. The surface of mercury has many craters and a fractured crust because of itvery thin atmosphere. Mercury has no natural satellite. It moves at about 48 km/s that make it fastest – travelin planet in the solar system. It takes 88 Earth days Mercury complete one orbit around the sun. However it has very long day, taking 58 Earth days to turn once on its axis. The lack of a thick atmosphere causes extremes

temperatures on Mercury. The side facing the Sun reaches about 4300

C (8060

F). On the other side not facingthe sun, the temperature drops to about -1800C (-2920F). No other place in the solar system has temperaturesthat vary as much as mercury.

Venus

Venus is the second planet from the sun and it’s about the same size as Earth. It has an average distancfrom the sun about 0.72 AU. It is the closest planet to Earth. Venus has no natural satellite. It revolves arounthe sun once every 225 Earth days, but takes 243 Earth days to rotate on its axis. This means that its day is

longer than its year! Venus’s axis is tilted on its side. The planet rotates in the opposite direction from other planets. Venus has a dense atmosphere of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The temperature on Venus has almostthe same temperature on both day and night sides of the planet-about 4600C (8600F), which is hot enough tomelt lead. It is the hottest planet in the solar system. The high temperature is cause by a phenomenon known the green house effect. Venus has been called earth’s twin because of its size and being very close toearth .Venus is also known as the Evening and Morning Star as it is the first object seen at night and the lastobject seen in the morning. Venus is the third brightest object in the night sky.

Earth

Earth is the third and largest of the inner planets, and the only planet in the solar system we know on

which life exists.

Mars

Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and the last inner planet. Mars is about half size the size of Earthand has two small rocky moons (Deimos and Phobos). Its average distance from the sun is 1.52 AU. Mars’sorbit is very elliptical, so the distance between Mars and the sun varies greatly. Mars takes about 687 Earthdays to revolve around the sun and 24.6 Earth hours to rotate on its axis. It has a thin atmosphere made mostlof carbon dioxide. Mars has a tilted axis so, like Earth. Temperatures in the Martian winter reach about -1250

(-1930F). During the Martian summer, temperatures can reach about 220C (about 720F). There is evidence thMars once had liquid water. Mars has a canyon system larger than the Grand Canyon that was carved by wate

millions of years ago. Today there is no liquid water on the surface of Mars the water is frozen in its polar Icecaps and in its crust.

Asteroid Belt

Asteroids are mostly small solar system bodies that are composed in significant part of rocky andmetallic non-volatile minerals objects orbiting the sun. A region known as the Asteroid Belt separates the Innand Outer planets it is located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. It takes three to six Earth years for an



giants, and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has 27 satellites, the largest being Titania, Oberon,Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda. Its atmosphere is composed mostly of gas. Hydrogen and helium are the mostdominant gas in Uranus’ atmosphere. An abundance of Methane gas gives it a blues color. The great dark spois a huge storm in Neptune’s blue atmosphere. Unlike the rest of the planets Uranus’ does not spin around its polar axis in a vertical manner, but rather rotates horizontally that gives Uranus the appearance of rolling in

space around the Sun.

Neptune

Neptune is the eight planet from the Sun. It is slightly smaller than Uranus, is denser at 17 Earthmasses, and radiates more internal heat than Uranus, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune’s average

distance from the Sun is 30 AU. This planet takes 165 Earth years to orbit the Sun, but takes only a little morethan 16 Earth hours to rotate on its axis. Like Uranus, Neptune has methane in its atmosphere, which gives it blue color. Uranus has 13 satellites, the largest, Triton, is geologic active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen, andis the only large satellite to revolve around its host planet in retrograde motion.

Kuiper’s Belt Objects

The area beyond Neptune, often referred to as outer solar system or simply the “Trans-Nuptian region”. Thisregion’s first formation is the Kuiper belt, a great ring of debris similar to asteroid belt, a region of icy space

objects and far greater in extent, extending between 30 AU and 50 Au from the sun. This region is thought to be the place of origin for short- period comets, such as Halley’s comet.

Pluto (39 AU), is now classified as dwarf planets. Dwarf planets are nearly round and orbit the Sun, just as tr planets do. But unlike true planets, dwarf planets do not have enough mass to clear, or sweep up all other bodies in their orbit. Pluto is located in the kuiper belt. Pluto is the largest known object in the Kuiper Belt.Pluto‘s orbit is relatively eccentric it is inclined 170 to the ecliptic plane. Charon was considered a moon of Pluto and its mass is about one-tenth the mass of Pluto. Charon does not exactly orbit Pluto in traditional sensePluto has more two smaller moons, Nix and Hydra. Those Kuiper belt objects which share this orbit with Plutare called Plutinos.

Eris is the largest known scattered disc object and was the cause of the most recent debate about whatconstitutes a planet since it is at least 5% larger than Pluto with an estimated diameter of 2400 Km (1500 mi). is now the largest of the known dwarf planets. Eris was found to have a satellite, which was later namedDysnomia. Eris also orbits within the transneptunian region - a region that has not been cleared out.

Another dwarf planet, called Ceres, located in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Astronomerexpects that more objects may classify as dwarf planets in the future.



Comets are frozen chunk of ice, gas and dust that regularly orbits the sun. If a comet’s orbit carries itclose to the Sun, its icy surface begins to sublimate, or boil away creating a coma; a long tail of gas and dustwhich is often visible with the naked eye. The tail always points away from the Sun. Most comets are though

to come from huge spherical region of icy objects called that surrounds our solar system.Comets are named for their discoverers. Halley’s Comet was first recorded in 240 B.C. Halley predicted the comet’s return in 1758 based on its previous appearances. It has returned every 75 to 76 years.

The theorized Oort cloud, is a great mass to a trillion icy objects that is believed to be the source for along-period comets and to surround the solar system. It is believed to be composed of comets which wereejected from the inward Solar System by them is so weak, Oort cloud objects move only very slowly, thoughthey can be perturbed by such rare events as collisions, or the gravitational effects of a passing star or thegalactic tides.

As with Ceres, the next three largest objects in the main asteroid belt – Vesta, Pallas, and Hygiea[44] – could eventually be classified as dwarf planets. It is suspected that at least another 40 known objects in the

Solar System are dwarf planets, and estimates are that up to 200 dwarf planets may be found when the entireregion known as the Kuiper belt is explored, and that the number might be as high as 2000 when objectsscattered outside the Kuiper belt are considered.

Picture of meteores

Meteoroids are pieces of rock or metal, much smaller than an asteroid, traveling in space. Mostmeteoroids are about the size of a pebble. They travel around the sun in a variety of orbits and at variousspeeds. Meteors are meteoroids that reach Earth’s atmosphere. There are about 25 million meteors visible tothe unaided eye occur every 24 hours over the entire planet. When Earth passes through a swarm of thesefragments they burn up, and glows, forming a meteor shower. Sometimes a meteor does not burn completely the atmosphere. The remaining part that hits the Earth’s surface is called meteorites.

Beyond the solar system

What Are Stars?

A Star is a huge ball of hot gases that emits light. Stars generate energy through nuclear fusion in their cores.Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which atoms of lighter elements fuse, or combine, to form atoms of another,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_Vesta

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Pallas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Hygiea

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet#cite_note-43


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_Vesta

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Pallas

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Hygiea


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuiper_belt



heavier elements. Nuclear fusion reactions combine the nuclei of hydrogen atoms into helium with release of energy.

Star Characteristics

Distance

Magnitude

The Birth and Death of Stars

figure

All stars go through the same steps to become red giants, but what happens next depends on a star masA star is born in a cloud of gas and dust called nebula. As the particles in the cloud begin to attract each otheand form larger masses, the temperature of the nebula rises. A protostar forms. The protostar continues toincrease in mass, contract, and heat up and when the temperature reaches about 10 million 0C, nuclear fusion begins, the protostar stops contracting. When this happens, the young star is a main sequence star. Theamount of gas and dust available when a star forms, determines the mass of the star. In all Main sequence starnuclear fusion converts hydrogen into helium at a steady rate.

When the hydrogen in the star’s core is exhausted, the core collapses, causing the core to becomeunstable. The core starts to contract, and the temperature inside the star increases. This causes the star’s outelayers to expand. As the star expands, it cools and starts to glow red. The star has become red giant (low- or

medium mass stars such as the sun) and red supergiant (high- mass stars with those of more than about fivetimes of the sun), nearing the end of their existence. The outer layers of the red giant will remain relatively coothe core will reach temperatures high enough to spark fusion of helium into carbon. The last of the hydrogengas in the star’s outer shell is blown away, forming a cloud around the core known as planetary nebula. Wheall of a star’s hydrogen and helium fuel has been used up, fusion stops, and the star begins to die. Gravitycauses the star’s matter to collapse inward. The star collapses to about the size of earth but extremely dense. shines with-hot light and is called white dwarf . The star will slowly cool, producing no more energy; it willstop emitting light and become black dwarf . Since the oldest stars are only about 13 billion years old and ittakes a white dwarf tens or even hundreds of billions of years to completely cools down , no black dwarf exisyet.

The red supergiants, because of their greater mass, do not stop with carbon fusion. These stars produc

successively heavier elements until the cores become iron. The star cannot use iron as fuel because iron fusiouses more energy than it produces. Fusion stops, and the star’s core collapse violently. The outer part of thestar explodes, producing a supernova. After supernova, either a neutron star or a black hole forms. If the corthat remains after supernova has a mass of 1.4 to about 3 times that of the sun, it can become neutron star. Neutron star is only about 10 Km (about 6 miles) in diameter. If the core remaining after supernova has amasgreater than three times of the sun, it will collapse to form an even strange object- a black hole. A black holeconsists of matter so massive and compressed that nothing, not even light can escape from its gravity. Because



no light comes out of a black hole, it cannot be seen directly. However; black hole have a powerfulgravitational influence on objects around them, so they may be detected indirectly.

The more massive the star, the faster the star uses up its hydrogen the shorter their life span.

Constellations

Picture of famous constellation

Ancient people often imagined the pattern of stars formed shapes of people, animals, or familiar objects. They grouped the stars together in patterns called constellation. The pattern often outlined charactersfrom Greek mythology. Astronomers now divide the sky into 88 regions, or constellations and they are named

from Greek or Roman mythology.Astronomers use constellations as landmarks to locate other stars and other objects in the sky.

Galaxies

A Galaxy is a large group of stars, gas and dust that is held together by gravity. Many galaxies contain billions and even trillions of stars, but because they are so far away, galaxies usually look like small smudges ithe sky, even through a telescope. There are billions of galaxies scattered through out the universe.

Galaxies are classified according to their shape into three main types. Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped

and have arms that rotate around a dense center. The arms resemble pinwheels of light and seem to be placeswhere most stars form. Our very own Milky Way galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy, its center is stretch-out thalooks like a bar (figure ). Our solar system is located at the edge of one of the spiral arms. Almost every staryou can see in the night sky is also part of the Milky Way galaxy. Because we are inside the galaxy , we cannosee all at once.

Elliptical galaxies have a spherical or egg-shaped. Elliptical galaxies are generally older than spiralgalaxy. They contain mostly older stars, have no spiral arms , and contain relatively little gas and dust. Both thlargest and the smallest galaxies astronomers have observed are elliptical galaxies.

Irregular galaxies do not have a well defined shape. Many of these galaxies are full of young stars,

gas, and dust. The Small Magellanic Cloud (figure ) is an irregular galaxy close to the milky Way.Galaxies are not spread out evenly through the universe. They are grouped together in clusters and hel

together by gravity.

Pictures of the different types of galaxy



Unit 2 Variety and Classification of Matter

Chapter 1 Matter

What is Matter?

Everything around you that occupies space is Matter. Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Thamount of matter that an object contains is its mass. The Mass of an object does not change. The volume of anobject is how much space the object takes up. One way to see the space that something takes up would be to place the object in a graduated cylinder filled with water. The process is called displacement method.

States of Matter:

Solid have a definite mass, volume and shape. The molecules are organized but the atoms cannot move aroun

each other freely because it is closely packed.Liquids have definite mass and volume but no definite shape. The molecules have some organization and theatoms can move around each other freely. Liquids flows and assume the shape of its container.

Gases have no definite mass, volume and shape. The molecules are very unorganized and move around freelyGases fill their container and assume their shape. Liquids and gases are free-flowing materials.

Plasma is the form of matter that exist when the atoms are in exited state. It is actually ionized gas, meaning,gas where the particles are electrically charge. It differs from ordinary gas in two aspects: It is a goodconductor of electricity and it is affected by a magnetic field.

Stars exist in the plasma state because of nuclear fusion. Some examples of plasma found on Earth are:Lightning, auroras, and neon.

Bose-Einstein Condensate is a group of gaseous atoms liquefied at an extremely cold temperature of a littleabove absolute zero.

Properties of Matter

Physical Properties

Matter can be described by its physical and chemical properties. Physical Properties are characteristics bywhich we describe matter which can be determined without changing its identity. Some physical properties ofmatter are color, solubility, mass, odor, hardness, density, boiling point, melting point, conductivity, ductility, brittleness and miscibility. Physical properties of matter may further be classified as Intensive and Extensive properties. Intensive properties (or intrinsic) does not defend on the amount of matter present such as color,luster. Malleability, ductility, conductivity, hardness, melting/freezing point and density. Extensive properti



(or extrinsic) depend on the amount matter present. Examples of extensive properties of matter are mass,weight, volume, length.

Chemical Properties

These are the properties that describe how substance may change to form another substance. For example:Burning of wood. The wood lost its identity after burning completely. The property shown by the wood upon burning is a chemical property. Another example is ability of iron to rust.

Concept map

1.3 Changes in Matter

In Physical Change the identity of the matter itself is not altered. For example change in size, shape, state andilutions ( diluting a solution is a physical change, even if the color becomes more faint).

Chemists use specific terms for certain changes in matter:

Initial State Final State Change

Solid Liquid MeltingLiquid Gas Evaporation

Solid Gas SublimationGas Liquid CondensationLiquid Solid FreezingGas Solid Deposition

In Chemical Change it is a change in matter that do alter the identity of a substance. For example: Ironrusting, wood burning, souring of milk the sugar ( lactose ) in the milk is converted into lactic acid by chemicachange, and the composition and the properties of the acid differ from those of sugar.

The following are the indicators that chemical change took place:

1. Change in color, odor and taste.2. Formation of an insoluble solid ( precipitate ).3. Formation of gas ( bubbles or smoke ).

Activity no.



Physical vs. Chemical Change

Classify the following as examples of a physical change or a chemical change.

1. Butter melts. _________________

2. Milk Sours. _________________ 3. Water heated and changed to steam. _________________ 4. Iron Rust. _________________ 5. Acid on limestone produces carbon dioxide gas. _________________ 6. Ice melts. _________________ 7. Ripening of fruits. _________________ 8. Decomposition of organic matter _________________ 9. Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to

produce a salt, water and heat _________________ 10. Chopping of wood. _________________

Classification of Matter According to Its Composition

Metalloids

Based on its composition, matter is classified as either a substance or a mixture. A substance is the simplest an purest form of matter. It is a solid, liquid or gas with a constant composition. This means that the substance isthe same no matter where it is found. Na, H2O, CO2, and O2 are all substances, because their composition will be the same no matter where you find them. All elements and all compounds are defined as substances.

An element is a substance that are made up of only one type of atom, the basic building blocks of matter that

cannot be easily created or destroyed. At this time, there are 113 known elements, most of which aremetals. The symbols shown on the periodic table represent the known elements most elements are symbolized by a capital letter or by two letters with first letter capitalized and the second letter not capitalized. There areelements symbolized by three letters there are short-lived and they are the artificially prepared. However, therare some elements derived from the English and Latin names of the elements. Table 1.1 List the symbols of some elements.

Element Chemical Symbol Latin Name



Hydrogen HCarbon CMagnesium MgAluminum AlSodium Na Natrium

Potassium K KaliumSilver Ag ArgentumGold Au ArumUnnilhexium UnhUnnilseptium Uns

Elements are classified into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Table 1.2 gives the properties of metals and nometals.

Table

Properties of Metals and Non metals

Metals Nonmetals

shiny and can be polished

good conductors of heat and electricity

malleable (can be hammered into thinsheets)and ductile (can be drawn into fine

wires)

elastic (have the property to return to returnto their original position

usually have high melting points

have high tensile strengths

have high densities

Poor light reflector/dull (except diamond)

Poor conductors of heat and electricity (exceptgraphite)

Brittle

Not elastic

Have low melting points

Have low tensile strengths

Have low densities

Metalloids are those elements which have the properties of both metals and nonmetals. Elements that areadjacent to the ladderlike line of the periodic table are metalloids There are very few elements which possesthese characteristics. Silicon and germanium are of the few examples.



Activity no.Properties of metals an

Nonmetals

For the following physical and chemical properties, put a check i

the appropriate column if it applies to a metal or nonmetal.

A Compound is a substance that is made up of more than one type of atom joined together in a definite

grouping. Each compound may be represented by a chemical formula, a symbol that shows the relative proportions of the number of atoms of the element that compose the substance. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), for example, is made up of one atom of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen . Table 1.3 shows the chemical formulas of some compounds.

Table

Chemical Formulas of Compounds

Property Metal Nonmetal1. brittle2. lustrous3. poor conductor 4. ductile5. gaseous at room temp.6. conduct electricity7. malleable8. can have both positive &negative oxidation

number

9. only forms positive ions10. forms negative ions



Homogenous and Heterogeneous Mixtures

A homogeneous material is material that contains only one phase, a phase is any region of a material that ha

its own set of properties. Elements like oxygen, compounds like water, and solutions like salt water, are allconsidered homogeneous because they are uniform. Each region of a sample is identical to all other regions othe same sample.

A Solution is a special type of homogeneous material, because unlike compounds, the parts of a solution are physically, not chemically, combined. When you mix a glass of salt water, the salt does not chemically reactwith the water. The two parts just mix so well that the resultant solution is said to be uniform. Ice tea, coffee,metal alloys, and the air we breathe are some examples of solutions.

Solutions are made up of two parts: The solute, which gets dissolved, and the solvent, which does thedissolving. In the case of salt water, salt is the solute and water is the solvent.

Heterogeneous mixtures - Heterogeneous mixtures are made up of more than one phase and they can beseparated physically. The aforementioned chocolate chip cookie, a tossed salad, sand, and a bowl of raisin brcereal are all examples of obvious heterogeneous mixtures.

A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which some particles remain suspended as can seen by the nakedeye. Mud in water and starch in water are the some examples of suspension.

A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture composed of tiny particles suspended in another material. Particles thissmall do not settle out and pass right through filter paper. Milk is an example of a colloid. The particles can besolid, tiny droplets of liquid, or tiny bubbles of gas; Colloids often appear to be homogeneous in bulk, but wheare examined under a microscope are observed to be heterogeneous. Chemists must treat colloids as

heterogeneous and process colloids to homogeneous before analysis the suspending medium can be a solid,liquid, or gas

Table 1.6

Comparison on the Three Types of Mixtures

Mixture Visibility of dispersed

particles

Appearance Effect of beam of light

Solution Dispersed particlescannot be seen

Clear or transparent Light can passthrough

Suspension Dispersed particlescan be seen by the

cloudy Light cannot passthrough



naked eyeColloid Dispersed particles

can be seen onlywith a powerful

microscope

Slightly opaque Scatters light (Thescattering of light by particles in amixture is called

the Tyndall effect).

Activity no.Physical vs. Chemical Properties

Properties of matter Physical Property Chemical Property

1. density2. supports combustion3. hardness4. reacts with water to form a gas5. reacts with base to form water 6. blue color 7. volume8. melting point9. can neutralize a base10. ductility

Activity no. Substances vs. Mixtures

Classify the following as to whether it is a substance or a mixture by writing S or M in the space provided.

1. fluorine _____ 6. chlorine _____ 2. water _____ 7. syrup _____ 3. soil _____ 8. ice cream _____ 4. milk _____ 9. cola _____ 5. iron _____ 10. carbon monoxide _____

Activity no.Homogenous vs. Heterogeneous Matter

Classify the following substances and mixtures as either homogenous or heterogeneous. Place a check (√ ) inthe correct column.



Activity no.Solutions, Colloids and Suspensions

Identify the following mixture as a solution, colloid or suspension. Give an example each.

Activity no. Classification of Matter

In the spaces provided, classify each of the following substances as; an element, a compound, a solution, or aheterogeneous mixture.

1. mongo bread

________________

6. softdrinks

_______________

2. water

________________

7. alcohol

_______________

3. gold

______________

8. silver

_______________

4. Iced Tea(with powder well mixed)

________________

9. mercury

_______________

Substances & Mixtures Homogeneous Heterogeneous1. salad dressing2. iron3. city air

4. sugar water 5. pure air 6. paint7. sugar 8. spaghetti sauce9. soil10. aluminum foil



5. buko pie

_______________

10. paint

_______________

Science Connect: The element osmium and iridium are the two densest substance on Erath. The density of osmium is 22.57 g/cm3. Iridium has a density of 22.42 g/cm3. A piece of the size of a basketball has a mass approximately 4700 g.

Science @ net:

Unit 3 Force, Energy and Motion

Force

Nature and conceptual meaning of force

If you look around, you’ll see all kinds of moving things- from MRT and buses to flying kites on the sky.But what makes some things move while other things stand still? A force is needed to make an object move. Aforce is also needed to make a moving object slow down, change direction, or stop moving. If you drop a stonit falls to the ground. Gravity, the force that pulls objects toward the center of the Earth, is acting on the stoneA force can be a push or a pull. To make a cart move, you can pull it or you can push it behind. The unit used t

measure force is called Newton (Kgm/s2

)

Contact and no-contact forces

Some forces act between objects that are touching one another and their forces can act on objects over longdistances.

Effects of forces in matter

Forces can cause objects to move, change in speed, or change in direction. An object can be acted upon by more than one force at a time. The forces can act together or against each other.

3.1.5 Work and its operational definition



3.1.6 Work done in different situations

Simple machines and their uses

Simple machines are the basic components of which all other machines are made. Most simple

machines work by helping people move objects using less force – thus they are useful because they let us domore work than we could with just muscle power.

All simple machines can be grouped into two main families: those related to the inclined plane and thoserelated to lever.

Simple Machines

Inclined Plane Lever

Wedge screw wheel and axlepulley

Concept map

Types of simple machines:

Simple

Machine

Description Examples Mechanical

Advantages

Formulas

Inclined plane

Flat surfacewith one endhigher thanthe other.Inclined planes do notmove

ramp, plank, stair,windingroad

Used for transportingloads to ahigher or lower level.

M.A. =

load / effort

Wedge An inclined

plan wedgecan haveeither one or two slopingsides.

knife,

scissors,chisel,needlesnails.

Increase and

change thedirection of the force.Used to cut,split, or pierce things.

M.A. = length/thickness of base

Screw Is an inclined jar with Used to hold M.A. =



planewrappedaround acylinder.When you

turn a screw,the directionof your forceis changedandincreased.The closer the threadsare, the lessforce youneed to

apply.

mouth cap,vase, metalscrews,foodgrinder

wood or metal piecestogether.Fasten thingstogether,

includes lidsthat screwonto jars.

circumferenceof a circle / pitch of screw

Wheel andAxle

Consists of alarge wheelfixed to asmaller wheel or shaft calledthe axle.Both rotatetogether around the

same point.A wheel andaxle isactually akind of lever that rotates ina circlearound acenter fulcrum(axle).

Steeringwheel,doorknob, pencilsharpener

A wheel andaxle tradesdistance for force. As thewheel andaxle turnstogether, a point on thewheel movesfarther than a

point on theaxle. Inreturn, theoutput forceexerted by theaxle is > theinput force.

M.A. = radiusof the wheel /radius of axle

Pulley Is a simplemachinemade of ropethat fits intoa groovedwheel.

Fixed andmovable pulley,compound pulley

Reduced anoutput forcein size,direction, or both

Single pulleyM.A. =load / effort

compound pulley

M.A. =



The effort is between thefulcrum and the resistance.

tweezers not change the direction of the force.

Picture of types of lever- inside the table

3.1.8 Work done using simple machine

Energy

Definition of Energy

Energy makes change; it does things for us. It moves jeepneys along the road and boats over the water. It bakea pie in the oven and keeps ice frozen in the freezer. It plays our favorite songs on the radio and lights our homes. Energy makes our bodies grow and allows our minds to think. Our bodies use a great deal of energyeveryday just to stay alive. Without it, living organisms could not survive. Scientists define energy as theability to do work and it is measured in Joules (J).

Types and Forms of energy

Types of energy

Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position. If you stretch a rubber band, you wilgive it potential energy. As the rubber band is released, potential energy is changed to motion. The energystored in any type of stretched or compressed elastic materials is called elastic potential energy .

A Mango will fall if the stems break the branch. The energy that could potentially does work on themango results from its position above the ground. This type of stored energy is called gravitational potentia

energy (GPE) stored in any type.Gravitational potential energy depends on both mass and height. If two mangos of different mass are o

the same height the heavier mango has more GPEthan the lighter one. But the Mango at the top of the tree has more GPE with respect to the earth than a similarmango on a lower branch.

Gravitational Potential Energy EquationPE = mghWhere: m = mass



g = free-fall acceleration (9.8 m/s2)h = height

Sample problems:1. What is the potential energy of 5 Kg rock at the top of a cliff 95 meters high?

Given: mass = 5 Kg

g = 9.8 m/ s2

h = 95 mUnknown: PEFormula: PE = mghSubstitute the given to the formulaPE = mgh

= 5 kilograms x 9.8 m/s2 x 95 meters= 47.5 Joules

2. A frog with amass of 0.23 kg hops up in the air. At the highest point in the hop, the frog has agravitational potential energy of 0.744 J. How high can it hop?

mgh = PE

mgh = PEmg mg

h = PEmg

*The PE equation can be rearranged to isolate height on the left; divide both sides by mg, and cancel.

Practice:

1. A puppy sits on the top of a table that is 2.0 m high. The puppy has a gravitational potential energy of88.9 J. What is the mass of the puppy?

2. A

Kinetic energy is energy of motion. A kite flying through the air has kinetic energy. When you are joggingyour body is exhibiting kinetic energy. Potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Before the yoyo begins its fall it has stored energy due to its position. At the top it has its maximum potential energy. As it star

to fall the potential energy begins to be changed into kinetic energy. At the bottom its potential energy has beeconverted into kinetic energy so that it now has its maximum kinetic energy. A waterfall has both potential ankinetic energy. The water at the top of Maria Christina Falls has stored potential energy. When the water beginto fall, its potential energy is changed into kinetic energy.

Kinetic Energy depends on mass and speed. The KE of a moving object depends on the square of object’s speed.

Kinetic Energy EquationKE = 1/2mv2.



Where:m = massv = velocity

Sample problems:1. Calculate the kinetic

1. A ball with a mass of 654 Kg has a kinetic energy of 73.4 KJ. What is the car’s speed?

Activity

Classify the following as examples of potential energy or kinetic energy, Write PE for potential energand KE for kinetic energy.

_____1. a bird sitting in a tree (PE)

_____2. a bird flying through the air (KE)

_____3. a book falling off a disk (KE)

_____4. roller coaster (KE) _____5. a chicken on a barn roof (PE)

Forms of energy

Energy is in everything. We use energy to do everything we do, from playing basketball to cooking our favorite food to sending astronauts into space -- energy is there, making sure we have the power to do it all andits comes in different forms. There are many forms of energy, but they can all be put into two categories:kinetic and potential.

Kinetic Potential

Electrical Energy is the movement of electrical charges. Everything is made of

tiny particles called atoms. Atoms aremade of even smaller particles called

electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Chemical Energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. It is theenergy that holds these particles together.

Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and propane are examples of stored chemical



Applying a force can make some of theelectrons move. Electrical charges

moving through a wire is calledelectricity. Lightning is another example

of electrical energy.

energy.

Radiant Energy is electromagneticenergy that travels in transverse waves.Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Lightis one type of radiant energy. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy

Stored Mechanical Energy is energystored in objects by the application of aforce. Compressed springs and stretched

rubber bands are examples of storedmechanical energy.

Thermal Energy, is the internal energyin substances––the vibration andmovement of the atoms and moleculeswithin substances. Although technicallyincorrect, the word heat is often used tomean thermal energy. In strict scientificterms, there is a distinct difference between heat and thermal energy.

Thermal energy pertains to the kineticenergy of the molecules within an object.Heat is the transfer of energy betweentwo objects.

Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.

Nuclear Energy is energy stored in thenucleus of an atom––the energy that

holds the nucleus together. The energycan be released when the nuclei are

combined or split apart.

Fission is the process by which nucleussplits into two or more smaller fragments,

releasing neutrons and energy. Ex.Splitting of the nuclei uranium atoms innuclear plants. Fusion is the process inwhich light nuclei combine at extremelyhigh temperatures forming heavier nuclei

and releasing energy. Ex. The sun’senergy comes from nuclear fusion.

Sound is the movement of energythrough substances in longitudinal(compression/rarefaction) waves. Soundis produced when a force causes an objector substance to vibrate––the energy istransferred through the substance in awave.

Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at thetop of a hill contains gravitational potential energy. Hydropower, such aswater in a reservoir behind a dam, is anexample of gravitational potential energy.



Transformation of energy

People have learned how to change energy from one form to another so that we can do work more easily and

live more comfortably. A battery has chemical potential energy along with electrical potential energy. Whenyou turn on a device that is battery-operated, such as a flashlight or a toy, the electrical potential energy storedin the battery is converted into other forms of energy such as sound, mechanical motion, thermal energy, andlight.

Energy transfer

Renewable and renewable Sources of Energy

All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources that we use every day. These sources adivided into two groups: renewable (an energy source that can be replenished in a short period of time) andnonrenewable (an energy source that we are using up and cannot recreate in a short period of time). Renewabland nonrenewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary energy sources including electricity andhydrogen.

Renewable energy

Solar energy - which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat.

Wind energy

Geothermal energy- energy from inside the earth,

Biomass - from plants,

Hydropower -

Ocean energy - from water are also renewable energy sources.Solar energy

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/renewable.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-renewable/nonrenewable.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/electricity.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/IntermediateHydrogen.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/solar.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/wind.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/biomass.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/water.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/ocean.html



http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/electricity.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/IntermediateHydrogen.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/solar.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/wind.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/biomass.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/water.html

http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/ocean.html



They are called renewable energy sources because they are replenished in a short time. Day after day,the sun shines, the wind blows, and the rivers flow. We use renewable energy sources mainly to makeelectricity.

Nonrenewable Energy

Fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) - They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions andmillions of years by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or"fossils") of dead plants and animals.

Nuclear energy- energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nucleafission) to create heat and ultimately electricity.

These energy sources are called nonrenewable because their supplies are limited. Petroleum, for

example, was formed millions of years ago from the remains of ancient sea plants and animals. Wecan’t make more petroleum in a short time.

Electricity and hydrogen are different from the other energy sources because they are secondary sources of energy. Secondary sources of energy—energy carriers— are used to store, move, and delivenergy in easily usable form.

Law of Conservation of Energy

The law of conservation of energy requires that at any given time, the total energy should be the same,and it is neither created nor destroyed. When we use energy, it doesn’t disappear. We change it from one formof energy into another.

A car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy in gasoline into mechanical energy. Solarcells change radiant energy into electrical energy. Energy changes form, but the total amount of energy in theuniverse stays the same.

Understanding Energy Problems

Solutions to energy problems



http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-renewable/nuclear.html



http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-renewable/nuclear.html




3.3 Motion

3.3.1 Definition of Motion

Motion is always observed and measured relative to a frame of reference. As there is no absolute reference

frame, absolute motion cannot be determined. A body which is motionless relative to a given reference frameThus, everything in the universe is moving.

Relative motion is a change in location relative to reference point, as measured by a particular observer in a particular frame of reference. An object is in relative motion when its distance from another is changing.However, whether the object appears to be moving or not depends on the point of view. For example, a womariding in a bus is not moving in relation to the seat she is sitting on, but she is moving in relation to the buildings the bus passes. Kinetic motion is moving motion. Potential motion is when motion is standing still.

3.3.2 Scalar and Vector Quantity

A scalar quantity is defined as a quantity that has magnitude only. Common examples of scalar quantities aretime, speed, temperature, volume, density, mass, and energy.

A vector quantity is defined as a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. An example of a vector quantity is force. If we are to fully describe a force on an object we need to specify not only how much force applied but also in which direction. Another examples are velocity (eg. 5 m/s north), and displacement (eg. 7cm at 150).

3.3.3 Distance and displacement

Distance is a scalar measure of the interval between two locations measured along the actual path connectingthem.

Displacement is a vector measure of the interval between two locations measured along the shortest path

connecting them.



Drawing

3.3.4 Speed, velocity and acceleration3.3.5 Laws of Motion

Newton’s laws of motion help us predict how forces will affect objects on Earth and in fact, anywhere in theuniverse.

First Law – Law of Inertia

An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will continue to move at the same speed in astraight line unless a external force act on it.

A table will stay in place until it is pushed. A ball at rest on the ground will stay at rest until it is kicked. It iseasy to see how objects that are at rest because of balance forces will stay at rest until another force is added.However it is difficult to find examples of objects in motion that continue to move at the same speed in astraight line forever. This is because the forces of gravity and friction act on these moving objects, changingtheir direction. Newton’s first law of motion is sometimes called the law of inertia. Inertia is the tendency of a moving objecto stay in motion or a resting object to stay still.

Second Law- Law of AccelerationAn object acted on by a net will accelerate in the direction of the force. The object’s acceleration

Newton’s second law of motion shows how force, mass, and acceleration are related.a = f m

where: a - accelerationf - forcem - mass

If an object’s mass stays the same, you can increase the object’s acceleration by applying more force. Whenyou a throw a stone. You apply force to the stone when you throw it. The harder you throw, the more the stowill accelerates. According to Newton’s second law, if you double the force on the stone, the accelerationdoubles as well.If the same force is applied to two different objects, the one with a smaller mass will accelerate more than the

one with a larger mass. Acceleration is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass (a ∞ fand 1 mass).



Motion is the process of changing from one position, or place, to another. How did we know whensomething is moving?

3.3.6 MomentumSuppose a stone rolls toward you at a velocity of 1m/s. You can stop it easily with your hand. Now suppo

a big rock coming from a cliff is moving toward you at the same velocity. You know that you would not beable to stop it with your hand. It takes more force to stop the big rock because it has more momentum. Themomentum of an object depends on both on its velocity and its mass. Momentum is a property that a movingobject has because of its mass and velocity.

For an object moving in a straight line, momentum is calculated by using this formula: p = m x vWhere:

p = momentumm = massv = velocityThe unit for momentum is kg m / s and is always described with a direction because velocity has a direction.Sample problems:1. Calculate the momentum of a 5.5 kg bowling ball moving at 9.5 m/s down the alley.Given:m = 5.5 kgv = 9.5 m/s down the alleyunknown: p =?

Formula: p = m x vSubstitute the given to the formula:

p = mv = 5.5 kg x 9.5 m/s p = 52.25 Kg∙m/s down the alley

Activity: MomentumCalculate the momentum of the following objects:1. a 65 kg cyclist moving forward at 20 m/s2. a 0.7 kitten running to the right at 6.5 m/s3. A runner, who has a mass of 52 kg-m/s along the trail. What is the runner’s velocity.

5.

Law of conservation of momentum: States that the total amount of momentum in a group of interacting objecdoes not change unless outside forces act on the objects. The bowling ball’s momentum is transferred to the pins. Together, the bowling ball and the pins are a kind of system. The total amount of momentum in thesystem stays the same.



Unit 4 EnvironmentChapter 1 Changes on EarthLithosphere: It’s Parts and Resources

Plate tectonics, theories on continental drift, and sea floor spreading

Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων, tektōn "builder" or "mason") describesthe large scale motions of Earth's lithosphere. Plate Tectonics is a theory developed in the late 1960s, to explahow the outer layers of the Earth move and deform. The theory has caused a revolution in the way we think about the Earth. Since the development of the theory, geologists have had to reexamine almost every aspect oGeology. Plate tectonics has proven to be so useful that it can predict geologic events and explain almost allaspects of what we see on the Earth. The theory encompasses the older concepts of continental drift,developed during the first half of the 20th century, and seafloor spreading, understood during the 1960s.

Continental Drift Theory

In the early twentieth century, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener noticed that most of thecontinents seem to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. By studying the world maps, Wegener found that severaof the other continents ‘ coastline also seemed to fit together. Wegener pieced together parts of a map and joined all the continents together, forming a supercontinent. He proposed that the continents were oncecompressed into a single continent which he called Pangae (meaning “all lands”) and over time they have

drifted apart into their current distribution. Continental drift refers to the movement of the continents relativeto one another.

Forces that shape the earth’s crustEarth’s phenomena

Earth’s phenomena are any seasons, weather, natural hazards and other naturally occurring phenomenaExamples of such events are: sunrise, sunsets, eclipses, aurora borealis, storms, tsunami, earthquake,

winter, spring, summer, fall etc.Raw materials from land, air and water Processes on how materials become finished products

HydrosphereWater in different formsOcean basin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language

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River formation and its effects on the environmentPhilippine territorial watersSalt water and fresh water Water currentsWater resources

Water pollutionConservation of water resources

AtmosphereLayers of the atmosphereComposition of the atmosphereWeather and climateElements of weather and climateWeather predictionWeather disturbancesAir pollution

Chapter 2 Living Things and their Environment

Highly organized structure of living organisms

Characteristics of living organisms

What is life? What does it mean do be alive? How something is made “living”? These are all pertinentquestions when discussing the origin of life. Scientists have identified seven basic characteristics of life.

There are some very general rules to follow when trying to decide if something is living, dead, or non-living.Listed here are the six characteristics used by scientists. If something follows one or just a few of the ruleslisted above, it does not necessarily mean that it is living. To be considered alive, an object must exhibit all of the characteristics of living things.

1. Living things are made of cells. All living things are composed of one or more cells. Different types of cells have different "jobs" within the organism.

2. Living things obtain and use energy. All organisms use energy. The sum of the chemical energy they useis called metabolism. This energy is used to carry out everything they do. Autotrophs (plants) use energy fromthe sun for photosynthesis, to make their own ‘food’ (glucose). Heterotrophs (animals and humans) must ingefood for this purpose.



3. Living things grow and develop. Growth requires an organism to take in material from the environment

and organize the material into its own structures. To accomplish growth, an organism expends some of the

energy it acquires during metabolism. An organism has a pattern for accomplishing the building of growth

structures.

Almost all living things start their lives as smaller infant like creatures. Over a period of time, they gro

and develop into adults. Some life forms, such as frogs, start their life in a completely different form, and then

change dramatically as they grow. A frog begins its life as a tad pole, then turns into an adult frog. A butterfly

starts its life as a caterpillar, before maturing into a full grown beautiful butterfly.

4. Living things reproduce. All living things produce young. Humans make babies, cats produce kittens and pigeons lay eggs. Plants also reproduce. Many make seeds which can germinate and grow into new plants.

5. Living things respond to their environment. One of the most important characteristics of living things, isthat they respond to the environment around them. This one single characteristic makes them very differentfrom non-living things, which do not respond to the environment, but instead just let what ever happens to themhappen.

6. Living things adapt to their environment. Living organisms have characteristics that give them asurvival/reproductive advantage in an environment; that is, they have adaptations to the environment. Livingorganisms show variability in these adaptations, allowing the species to continue in a fluctuating or changingenvironment.

2.1.2 Cell as fundamental unit of structure of living organisms

Cell theory is the basis for the way that biologists study living things. Cell Theory is the most basic conditionfor determining if something is living. Modern Cell theory It states:

1. All living things are made up of cells.

2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.

3. Living cells come only from other living cells.

Modern Cell Theory

4. The cell contains hereditary information which is passed on from cell to cell during cell division.

5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities.

Cells are the basic units of living material. It is the smallest unit that can perform life functions. The bodies of aliving things are formed from cells, and without cells there would be no life. All cells fall into one of the two

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Adaptation

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Species

http://www.pinkmonkey.com/studyguides/subjects/biology-edited/chap3/b0303101.asp

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Adaptation

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Species

http://www.pinkmonkey.com/studyguides/subjects/biology-edited/chap3/b0303101.asp



major classifications, prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Prokaryotes are very simple cells, probably first to inhabitthe earth. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a membrane bound nucleus. Bacteria are example of prokaryotes.Eukaryotes cells are more advanced cells. These cells are found in plants, animals, and protists (smallunicellular "animalcules").

Basic parts of a typical plant cell and animal cell and their functions

http://waynesword.palomar.edu/lmexer1a.htm

The eukaryotic cell is composed of 3 main parts:

Cell membrane - a structural layer that gives the cell shape, while allowing molecules of various

types to pass into and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm – main metabolic site of the cell wherein organelles are located

Nucleus - the "control center" of the cell, contains the cell's DNA (chromosomes)

Organelles that found in Plant and Animal Cell





Structure Organelles Function

Mitochondria These organelles are the Energy center or "powerhouse" of the cell and contain the molecular machinery for the conversion of energy. It turnsfood into useable energy (ATP) provides the energya cell needs.

Golgi Bodies known as the "packagers" of the cell. Important for packaging macromolecules for transport around thecell.

Lysosome A membrane-bound organelle containing hydrolytic(digestive) enzymes. Lysosomes originate asmembrane-bound vesicles (called Golgi vesicles)that bud from the Golgi apparatus. They are primarily involved with intracellular digestion.Lysosomes fuse with vesicles (small vacuoles)formed by endocytosis. The contents of thesevesicles are digested by lysosomal enzymes.Autodigestion by lysosomes also occurs duringembryonic development. The fingers of a humanembryo are webbed initially, but are separated fromeach other by lysosomal enzymes. Cells in the tail of a tadpole are digested by lysosomal enzymes duringthe gradual transition into a frog.

Peroxisome A membrane-bound organelle that contains specificenzymes imported from the cytoplasm (cytosol). For example, certain peroxisomes contain the enzymecatalase which rapidly breaks down toxic hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. This reaction can be easily demonstrated by pouring some hydrogen peroxide on raw meat or an open wound.

Ribosomesmall organelles composed of RNA-richcytoplasmic granules that are sites of proteinsynthesis.

EndoplasmicReticulum

Rough ER

Smooth ER

ER is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, ascompared to molecules that will float freely in thecytoplasm

ER is prominent in cells that are making proteins for export such as digestive enzymes, hormones,structural proteins or antibodies. The main functionof rough ER is the separation of proteins destinedfor export from the cell or for intracellular use.

Allows the cell a certain ability to perform a varietyof specialized functions. It is necessary for steroidsynthesis, metabolism and detoxification of substances in the liver to take place in the smoothER.

http://www.harweb.com/cell/plant.htm#mito%23mito

http://www.harweb.com/cell/plant.htm#golgi%23golgi

http://www.harweb.com/cell/plant.htm#lysosomes%23lysosomes

http://www.harweb.com/cell/plant.htm#ER%23ER



http://www.harweb.com/cell/plant.htm#mito%23mito

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http://www.harweb.com/cell/plant.htm#lysosomes%23lysosomes





This table

summarizes the

distinctions between

plant and animal

cells

Structure Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Wall Yes No

Centrioles No Yes

Cilia or Flagella Some present Yes, complex

Lysosomes No Common

Chloroplasts yes No

vacuole Large central vacuole one or more small vacuoles

http://biology.about.com/library/blcentriole.htm

http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa052500a.htm


http://biology.about.com/library/blcentriole.htm





3. Cilia and Flagella

Swimming is the major form of movement exhibited by sperm and by many protozoans. Some cells ar propelled at velocities approaching 1 mm/s by the beating of cilia and flagella, flexible membrane extensions the cell. Cilia and flagella range in length from a few microns to more than 2 mm in the case of some insect

sperm flagella.For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of individual organisms

In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past an immobile cell as well as moving acell or group of cells.

Interactions between Living and Non-living things

The Ecological system

Biosphere and its Biomes

Ecology is the study of relationships among living things and their environment. All living things or organisms are found in an area of the Earth call biosphere. Different areas of the biosphere have differentenvironmental conditions. These broad areas are called Biomes. Many biomes are terrestrial (exist on land).There are also Aquatic biomes (exist in waters), aquatic biomes may be classified into salt water biomes andfresh water biomes. Anyone of these divided into smaller units called ecosystem.

Table 1-1 Major Biomes of the world- picture

The Community in an Ecosystem

An ecosystem consists of groups of interrelated organism and their physical environment. Ecosystemcan be large or small. The entire planet is one big ecosystem containing all the living and non living things onearth- the land and water, the organisms, and the atmosphere.

The environment of an organism includes physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic (non living) factors such as sunlight, temperature soil, water and biotic (living) factors, whichincludes other organisms that share its habitat.

Figure – flow chart

Ecosystem

Community

Population

Organism

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/Anatomy/AnimalCellStructure/CiliaFlagella/CiliaFlagella.htm

http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Zoology/AnimalPhysiology/Anatomy/AnimalCellStructure/CiliaFlagella/CiliaFlagella.htm



Figure 1-1 Ecosystems are made up of communities that contain different populations of organisms

Biotic relationships and relationships of living and non-living things

Food chain and food web

A food chain is made up of series of organisms each one using the next one in the chain as part of itfood supply. Food chains interact when members of different chains feed on one another together they form afood web. Food chains show the “transfer of energy” from the sun to producers (such as plants) and on toconsumers (such as people) and finally to decomposers. A food web describes interrelated food chains within ecosystem. Species within a food web may interact with each other through predation, commensalisms,mutualism, and parasitism.

Energy is transferred through the community in form of food. At each stage of the food chain energy

lost. The primary consumer only receives 10 % of the producer. The secondary producer gets 10 % of the primary consumer’s energy (only 1 % of the original energy). The longer the food chain the lesser the energywill get by the last consumer and vice versa. That is why producers are such an important part of thecommunity. Without them there would be no energy.

Figure: Food Chain

Figure: Food web

Activity: More Food ChainsIn grassland and woodland, there are a large number of food chains. Study the picture below.

Drawing

Find at least three food chains in the scene above. List the food chains below.



To aid or benefit in their survival, many organisms have established relationships with organisms notwithin their species. A relationship that benefits an organism is called symbiosis. These relationships cangenerally be classified as one of three types. Symbiotic relationships exist where one or more organisms live close contact or live with one another . Predator – prey relationships or predation exist when one organisms

consumes a second organism. Competitive relationships exist where organisms compete for an importantresource such as food, shelter or possibly mates.

Symbiotic relationships

Mutualism - is a symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit from the relationship. Example: The bee and the flower. Bees fly from flower to flower gathering nectar, which they make into food, benefiting the bees. When they land in a flower, the bees get some pollen on their hairy bodies, and when they land in the neflower, some of the pollen from the first one rubs off, pollinating the plant. This benefits the plants. In thissymbiotic relationship, the bees get to eat, and the flowering plants get to reproduce.Commensalism - is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits while the other organism is

unaffected by the relationship.Example: The shark and the remora (small group of pilotfish)The remora is a small scavenger fish that attaches to the underside of many sharks. The remora feeds on theleftover particles of food that the shark does not eat. The shark is not affected by the remora, and the remoragains food by tagging along with the sharks.Parasitism - is a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits andthe other organism is harmed. Example:

Predator - prey or predation

A predator is an organism that eats another organism. It describes a biological interaction where apredator (an organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey, the organism that is attacked. There are only those

animals that kill to eat (predators) and those that are killed and eaten (prey). Example: Spider sits in its web and patiently

waits for an insect to get caught in its sticky trap. When this happens, the spider rushes out, kills or paralyzes the insect, wrapsin silk, and then sucks out its body liquids.

Predation also assures the "survival of the fittest," nature's basic law. Young animals are also in danger since they arnot as strong, fast, or wise as adult animals. Those with strong instincts for survival will learn how to avoid their predators.

Competitive relationships

Intraspecific Competition is a particular form of competition in which members of the same speciesvie for the same resource in an ecosystem (e.g. food, nutrients, space). Example: Two plants of the samespecies growing close together will compete for light, water and nutrients in the soil. Getting less resources,they will perform more poorly than if they grew by themselves

Interspecific Competition is a form of competition in which individuals of different species vie for the sameresource in an ecosystem (e.g. food or living space). If a tree in a dense forest grows taller than surrounding

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_interaction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(biology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species

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trees, it is able to absorb more of the incoming sunlight. However, less sunlight is then available for trees thatare shaded by the taller tree,

Insert picture for symbiotic relationship

Effect of population size/density on food, space and relationship among organisms

As the term implies, "population density" refers to the number of people in a defined jurisdiction, in relation tothe size of the area that they occupy. Obviously, the population density is higher in urban areas than in ruralcommunities. Population density is a useful measure; the proportion of people living in urban areas in relationto the area available to produce food for them might be a more meaningful statistic.

2.1 Maintenance/Restoration of the integrity/balance of an ecosystem2.1.1 Importance of natural resources2.1.2 Conservation of soil, forest, air and wildlife

Activity: Plant and Animal cells

Process 1. Choose a partner or one will be chosen for you.

2. Follow the directions for each section carefully.3. Remember to follow the helpful hints.

Parts of a Cell

1. Create a four column chart on your practice worksheet.2. Label the columns: Parts of a Cell / Cell Functions / Animal / Plant3. In the first column list the parts of a cell. Use the example below to help you.4. In the second column, describe the function of each cell part by comparing it to

something else. Create a simile for each. (____ is like a ____ because....) Example: A cell membrane is like a fence because it surrounds the cell

and only allows certain materials to enter and leave the cell.5. In the third and fourth columns, place a checkmark in the box if the cell part is

present in animals or plants. If the cell part is present in both, check both boxes.

Parts of a Cell Cell Functions Animal Plant

Cell Membrane

Cell Wall

Chloroplasts

Cytoplasm



EndoplasmicReticulum

Golgi Bodies

Lysosomes

Mitochondria Nucleus

Ribosomes

Vacuole

Vesicles

6. Use the following Web site to research the parts of a cell: http://vilenski.org/science/safari

Helpful Hint: Click to begin the safari, go to plants, explore the parts of acell by clicking on each, return to the main menu, go to animals, compare

the parts of a cell listed with the list for plants. 7. For additional research, use the following Web sites: http://www.cellsalive.com/ and http://www.biology4kids.com/files/cell_main.html .

8. When you complete your practice worksheet, transfer the information by wordprocessing or to a spreadsheet. Add an appropriate graphic for the finishingtouch. Be sure to credit your sources.

http://vilenski.org/science/safari/

http://www.cellsalive.com/

http://www.biology4kids.com/files/cell_main.html

http://vilenski.org/science/safari/

http://www.cellsalive.com/

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