Emotional Development Article-NDS

7/28/2019 Emotional Development Article-NDS

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W HATDO EMOTIONSHAVE TODO W ITHBRAIN

DEVELOPMENT?

Neural Development’s Impact on Emotional and Social Regulation

By Emily Beard Johnson, BA, CD, Asst. Assoc. of ECE, Neurological Reorganization Practitioner

Babies are not innately born with the ability to regulate emotions and social behavior.Healthy brain development facilitates infants’ ability to acquire emotional and socialskills. Ground-breaking studies in the 1990’s confirmed that activity in the premotorcortex called the mirror neuron system allows individuals to observe and mimicemotional and social behavior. Infants must complete the developmental sequence, an

exact sequence of movement, reflex, and sensory experience, to stimulate the neuralgrowth through which they gain access to all parts of their brain, including the mirrorneuron system. If the developmental sequence is not completed and babies do not gainaccess to these parts of their brain, lifelong functional deficits will result 1 unless rectifiedthrough a program of neurological reorganization.

Chronological age does not automatically translate into increased function. Just becausea child reaches a year of age, she does not inevitably gain the ability to walk. To walkwell with a smooth gait, the child must first complete the developmental skills ofcrawling on her abdomen and creeping on hands and knees. These trigger the posturaland structural reflexes which allow the child to walk well. This process applies to social,

emotional, and cognitive skills as well: each of these rely on the developmental sequenceto insure appropriate function and, lacking completion of the developmental sequence,deficits manifest. A March, 2005 study summarized the critical importance of thefoundational layers of the central nervous system to facilitate more advanced function:“New learning isn’t simply the smarter bits of our brain such as the cortex ‘figuringthings out.’ Instead, we should think of learning as interaction between our primitivebrain structures and our more advanced cortex. In other words, primitive brainstructures might be the engine driving even our most advanced high-level, intelligentlearning abilities.”2

When a baby is born, the myelin (a white, fatty substance that facilitates neuralmovement in the brain) is present to the medulla. At this stage of development, allactivity is reflexive. As stated by an infant cognition scientist, “Babies have to learneverything….They start with a few primitive reflexes to get things going.” 3 Initiating thedevelopmental sequence through unrestricted movement, reflex, and sensory experiencefacilitates myelin growth and, hence, increased function. As described in a February,2007 study, newborn brains grow movement and vision regions first (compromisedmainly of gray matter), which facilitates the growth of the white matter (myelin) andcorresponding increased function.4 As stated by the research author, “This study gives

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us the first glimpse that there are regional differences in how quickly the brain isgrowing, and these regional differences are probably related to functionaldevelopment.” A December, 1997 study demonstrated that sensory experienceinfluences the development of brain areas that control movement:5 “The researchsuggests that sensory feedback to the brain’s motor cortex system is one of the major

driving forces that shapes motor function during development,” critical for thedevelopment of the mirror neuron system. When this visual and sensory-motordevelopment begins, mirror neuron function in the form of social mimicking is observedin infants as young as two to three weeks old.6 This is the foundation of later, complexemotional and social behavior. Once the developmental sequence is initiated, myelin reaches the pons at approximatelyone to five months of age. The pons is responsible for all vital, life-preserving function aswell as extreme emotional content, including attachment, bonding, sense of safety andsecurity, fear, and anxiety. One visual milestone of a pons-level baby is her ability torecognize basic face structure, which she uses as a primary perceptual mechanism. Thisability is so critical that babies develop the ability to recognize face structure long beforethey recognize body structure.7 This face recognition also plays a critical role in thedevelopment of new object recognition,8 a key cognitive skill. A pons-level baby uses hernew visual skills to maintain eye-contact and promote bonding and attachment withcaregivers, especially her biological mother while breast-feeding. Breast-feeding offersan array of important sensory experiences to support healthy neurological functionnutritionally, emotionally, behaviorally, and cognitively. According to an August, 2006study, “The quality of physical contact [during breastfeeding] between mother and babymay influence the development of the offspring’s neural and hormonal pathways.” 9

Abnormal face processing and an unwillingness to maintain or avoidance of eye contactis a predictor for neuropsychiatric disorders, especially autism spectrum disorders10,11

and bipolar disorder. “The more [children] misinterpreted the faces as hostile, the moretheir amygdala flared. Such a face-processing deficit could help account for the poorsocial skills, aggression, and irritability that characterizes the disorder in children.”12

The cycle of response is a pons-level function and crucial component in the developmentof safety, security, attachment, and bonding. Pons-level infants have a vital cry thatcommunicates, “Help me! Help me! Come save me; I’m dying!” Pons-level infantsperceive the world in terms of black and white as the part of the brain responsible forabstract reasoning is not yet myelinated. This communication reflects the pons-levelinfant’s perception that her life is at stake if she is hungry, cold, hot, in pain, or separatedfrom her mother. To establish safety, security, attachment, and bonding, it is necessarythat the infant’s needs are adequately met when she vitally cries. Releasing the vital cry

and then having her needs adequately met establishes a cycle of response, builds ahealthy mirror neuron system, and allows the baby to feel safe, secure, attached, andbonded. Conversely, if the baby uses her vital cry and her needs are not met, the ponsinitiates the fight or flight response. At that time, the brain releases stress hormones(such as cortisol, epinephrine, and adrenaline) to facilitate escape from what the infantperceives as a life-threatening situation. For an infant with limited capacity to move andminimal control over her environment, these hormones are released to the point thatthey become detrimental and cause an injury to the pons. Consequently, even when the

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infant is in a nurturing and responsive environment, the stress-response is hard-wiredinto her brain and she continues to act as if her life is threatened.

The correlation between an adequate reaction to the cycle of response and lifelongemotional and behavioral competence is well-documented. An April, 2001 study

demonstrated that children with depressed mothers have difficulty regulating theiremotions and getting along with others because their mothers are unable to showadequate warmth and sensitivity. In other words, the cycle of response was notsufficiently completed and the children have poorly functioning mirror neuron systems.As stated by the study author, “Our study showed that one possible reason thesechildren may have trouble getting along might be the inability of depressed mothers tocultivate emotion regulation skills in their children. Emotion regulation skills have beenfound to be an important component of social competence.”13 An additional studydemonstrated the lifelong impacts of poor infant attachment. “Expressions of emotionsin adult romantic relationships can be related back to a person’s attachment experiencesduring early social development. Those participants who were secure and attached asinfants were rated with higher social competence as children” and this socialcompetence was tracked through to expressive and emotional attachment in romanticrelationships in adulthood. As stated by the lead author, “The current findings highlightone developmental pathway through which significant relationship experiences duringthe early years of life are tied to the daily experiences in romantic relationships in earlyadulthood.”14 A May, 2003 study found that in utero and infant environments shape thedevelopment of stress behaviors and learning abilities. The study author stated that “thefindings of [the] study demonstrate the significant role of the [pre- and post-natal]environment in regulating certain behaviors,” such as stress-associated behaviors andcognitive performance in adulthood.15 Successful completion of the pons-leveldevelopmental sequence facilitates lifelong attachment, emotional regulation, andappropriate responses to stress.

Another emotional skill developed in the pons is compassion and empathy. Pons-levelinfants perceive extreme sensations, including pain. As regulated by the mirror neuronsystem, feeling pain appropriately facilitates compassion and empathy: if it doesn’t hurtme if I am pushed down, then there is nothing to prevent me from pushing you.Conversely, if it does hurt me to be pushed, I am much less likely to deliberately pushyou. Several studies confirm the correlation between pain perception and thedevelopment of compassion and empathy. A February, 2004 study demonstrated thatthe same brain region engaged when one feels pain physically as when one empathizesfor a loved one in pain. As stated by the study author, “For the first time, brain imagerswere able to study empathetic processes…and show that emotional and not cognitive

processes are triggered by the mere perception that your loved-one is in pain…Theresults suggest that we use emotional representations reflecting our own subjectivefeeling states to understand the feelings of others. Probably, our ability to empathize hasevolved from a system for representing our own internal bodily states.”16 Individualswho have issues with pons function (such as those with post-traumatic stress disorder)experience less pain sensitivity, with decreased ability to empathize and expresscompassion.17 For those with neuropsychiatric disorders, the mirror neuron system isn’t

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firing appropriately and, consequently, the individual struggles to empathize. As statedby the lead author of a May, 2007 study, “These results support the notion that adysfunctional mirror neuron system may underlie the impairments in imitation and inempathizing with other people’s emotions…This may lead to a cascade of negativeconsequences for the development of key aspects of social cognition and behavior.”18

While it may seem counter-intuitive, pons-level emotional development has lifelongcognitive consequences as well. According to a February, 2003 study, the visiondevelopment typical of a pons-level infant allows her to fill in perceptual gaps by fourmonths of age. As stated by the study author, “These results suggest that visualcompletion of a simple object trajectory is not functional at birth, but emerges across thefirst several months after the onset of visual experience.” 19 Because this perceptualability is not innate and completion of the developmental sequence is required to lay thefoundation for this capacity, early life stress interferes with the normal process, thuscausing memory loss and cognitive decline later in life. “Psychological stress duringinfancy has been found to cause early impaired memory and a decline in relatedcognitive abilities. The study suggests that emotional stress may contribute to the type ofmemory loss during middle-age years that is normally seen in the elderly.”20

After the pons is developed, myelin reaches the midbrain-level. This occurs atapproximately seven to fourteen months of age. (For our purposes, the midbrain is aregion of the brain that encompasses many parts, one of which is called the midbrain).The midbrain is responsible for regulating, filtering, and balancing almost all internaland external stimuli. Important emotional growth occurs at this level as well. Visualdevelopment continues, with infants developing vertical eye tracking, the beginnings ofconvergence, and appreciation of detail within detail. Infants use these skills to furtherrefine the mirror neuron system. A November, 2002 study demonstrated the importanceof these increasing skills to infants’ expanding emotional and cognitive capacities. “Thiswork is important because following another person’s line of sight is crucial for learningabout language and understanding the emotions of other people.”21 Another studyreinforced the point that infants use visual cues to shape appropriate emotionalresponses through the mirror neuron system. Using infants’ visual skills as ameasurement, researchers found that twelve-month old infants “begin to interpret thebehavior of other individuals based on inferences about other persons’ emotions,desires, and beliefs.”22 Completion of the developmental sequence allows infants toreinforce and build on emotional and cognitive skills.

The midbrain-level is responsible for filtering distracting stimuli, as demonstrated by aMarch, 2007 study. The ability to filter out distractions is not automatic, but requiresmyelination of this part of the brain. “Our brains fend off distractions. If we are busy

with something, we suppress disrupting external influences…suppression is notautomatic.”23 Filtering distractions is critical for emotional and academic success. Whenthis is not in place, learning disabilities such as attention deficit disorder and attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder can result. Because of the pons-level cycle of response’sinterplay with the mirror neuron system, the quality of parenting also predicts whetheror not an ADHD child also exhibits conduct problems, such as lying, fighting, bullying,

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and stealing. As the lead author of an April, 2007 study stated, “Research has suggestedthat children with both ADHD and conduct problems are at the greatest risk ofbecoming chronic criminal offenders.”24 Additionally, these self-regulation skills,beyond intelligence, are a greater indicator of children’s early academic success, layingthe roadmap for either lifelong academic success or struggle.25

When midbrain-level myelinazation does not occur appropriately, neuropsychiatric

disorders, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and autism spectrumdisorders, can result. A February, 2007 study reinforced this point: “This study suggeststhat in autistic children, something may go awry during gray matter growth in the firstyear of life.”26 An April, 2007 study found that a growth factor involved in braindevelopment causes pathological changes in brain’s white matter (myelin). “Thesechanges lead to alterations in biochemical signaling and behaviors suggestive of mentalillness,” especially with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.27 These issues negativelyimpair an individual’s ability to process both emotion and cognition, according to anOctober, 2005 study. As stated by the study’s author, “We found that the amygdala, thepart of the brain that is supposed to react to emotional stimuli, is over-reactive tonegative stimuli in children with bipolar disorder and the part of the brain that controlscognitive behavior is under-reactive.”28 Successful myelinization triggers the mirrorneuron system, critical for minimizing issues related to neuropsychiatric disorders andfor maximizing emotional and cognitive function.

At approximately a year of age, the myelin reaches the cortex, or the rational, verbal,intelligent part of the brain. However, if the developmental sequence was not completedin the pons and midbrain, issues will be evident in the cortex, because toddlers use theirrudimentary mirror neuron system to further refine appropriate emotional and socialbehavior. At this point, the foundation of the mirror neuron system must be in place sothat healthy emotional and social development can continue. Research demonstratesthat toddlers’ imitation predicts a well-developed conscience29, toddlers engage inemotional eavesdropping to guide their behavior30, and fears learned by observingothers are neurologically identical to those directly experienced.31 Basically, according toa March, 2007 study, the apex of cortical function, moral judgment, fails without healthyemotional processing.32 This processing is reliant on the successful completion of thedevelopmental sequence within the first year of life.

Establishing the neural foundations that support healthy emotional and behavioralprocessing begins at birth when infants initiate the developmental sequence throughunimpeded movement, reflex, and sensory experience. If an infant’s movement isconstricted, she will be unable to complete the developmental sequence and,consequently, trigger appropriate neural growth in the mirror neuron system. As aresult, functional deficits will result in the form of abnormal emotional and social

behavior. Most severely, these present as neuropsychiatric disorders. Numerous studiesconfirm that the presence of abnormal function within the first years of life predict life-long emotional, social, or behavioral issues just as healthy function in the first yearssustain healthy function throughout one’s life.33,34,35 Neurological reorganization iscurrently the only discipline that replicates the developmental sequence to stimulateneural growth and eliminate the underlying cause of emotional, social, and behavioraldysfunction. Completion of the developmental sequence is critical for lifelongemotional, social, and, ultimately, cognitive competence.

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1 Association for Psychological Science, May 4, 2007.2 Earl K. Miller et al., Nature, February 24, 2005.3 Michael Brunton, “What Do Babies Know?,” Time, January 29, 2007.4 Dr. John Gilmore et al., Journal of Neuroscience, February 7, 2007.5 George Huntley, Journal of Neuroscience, December 1, 1997.6 Association for Psychological Science, May 4, 2007.7 Virginia Slaughter et al., Current Directions in Psychological Science, December, 2004.8 Isabel Gauthier, PhD, Michael J. Tarr, et al., Nature Neuroscience, June, 1999.9 British Cohort Study, Archives of Disease in Childhood , August, 2006.10 Katarzyna Chawarska et al., Presented at the International Meeting for Autism Research, May 4, 2007.11 Kim Dalton et al., Nature Neuroscience, March 6, 2005.12 Dr. Ellen Leibenluft et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, May 29, 2006.13 Dr. Chi-Ming Kam, Presented at Society for Research in Child Development, April 21, 2001.14 W. Andrew Collins, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, February, 2007.15 Darlene Francis, PhD, et al., Nature Neuroscience, May, 2003.16 Dr. Tania Singer, Science, February 20, 2004.17 Elbert Geuze, PhD, et al., Archives of General Psychiatry, January, 2007.18 Mirella Dapretto and Stephany Cox, Presented at the International Meeting for Autism Research, May 4, 2007.19 Scott P. Johnson et al., Child Development , February, 2003.20 Dr. Tallie Z. Baram et al., Journal of Neuroscience, October 12, 2005.21 Rechele Brooks and Andrew Meltzoff, Developmental Psychology, November 5, 2002.

22 Valerie Kuhlmeier et al., Psychological Science, September, 2003.23 Harm Veling, Released by Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, March 26, 2007.24 Andrea Chronis et al., Developmental Psychology, January, 2007.25 Clancy Blair et al., Child Development , March 26, 2007.26 Dr. John Gilmore et al., Journal of Neuroscience, February 7, 2007.27 Gabriel Corfas, PhD, et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, April 23, 2007.28 Dr. Mani Pavuluri et al., Presented at the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and the Canadian

Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, October 20, 2005.29 David Forman, Psychological Science, October, 2004.30 Betty Repacholi and Andrew Meltzoff, Child Development , March/April, 2007.31 Elizabeth Phelps et al., Released by Oxford University Press, March 16, 2007.32 Antonio Damasio, Ralph Adolphs, et al., Nature, March 22, 2007.33 The Unit of Child and Adolescent Psycopathology, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, December 20, 200634

Michael Lewis, PhD, Child Development , March/April, 2006.35 Eero Kajantie, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, March 1, 2007.

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