ELTJ(1990) Pyramid Discussions- Jordan

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Pyramid discussionsR. R. Jo rdan

ESP materials are usually text-based: the resulting exercises may not bevery stimulating, nor satisfy the students need for spoken language prac-tice. This article looks at some of the comments made on ESP classes. Itthen proposes the oral activity pyramid discussion, which involves thestudents in a problem-solving task based on small-group work. Finally, itlooks at the language and interaction generated by the activity.

Introduction In teaching ESP to students relatively advanced in the subject-matter, butnot particularly advanced in their command of English, one is faced withmaking choices. What to teach, or practise, in a limited time, and how todo it? The students needs are the starting point. One such need is forpractice in speaking in seminars and discussions.This article will first look at the problem that students have in seminars. Itwill then consider the nature of the speaking practice to be embarkedupon. Next, it will describe in detail the problem-solving activity, pyramiddiscussion, that can help to solve some of the students spoken languagedifficulties. Finally, it will investigate the amount and type of languagethat can be produced by the activity.

Students Kennedy and Bolitho (1984: 114) note that there is evidence to suggestproblems in that overseas students in particular do have problems in seminars or dis-

seminars cussion. They refer to the investigation by Johns and Johns (1977: 99), bymeans of a questionnaire, of overseas students difficulties in seminars:(i) comprehension of spoken English (they speak too fast; theymumble; vocabulary is idiomatic);

(ii) the pressing need to formulate a contribution quickly (I cantthink what to say);(iii) shyness about the value of a contribution (I might say some-thing wrong);(iv) inability to formulate an idea in English (I dont know how tosay it in English);(v) awareness that a given function maybe realized in various ways(I dont know the best way to say it); and

(vi) frustration about being unable to enter the discussion (somestudents speak too much).

These difficulties point to a need for specific materials that will make astudent more confident in a discussion, conclude Kennedy andBolitho (p. 115).

ELT Journal Volume 44/1 January 1990 Oxford University Press 1990

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My own experience with university students supports the finding of Johnsand Johns and the conclusion of Kennedy and Bolitho. There is certainlya need to develop the students self-confidence in speaking English. Howcan this be done? Which materials can be used?

ESP material As a starting point we must note that most ESP material is in text form,Texts meant for reading and writing practice. Robinson (1980: 39) commentsmany of them (ESP textbooks) present the specialist material in a boringand/or traditional way, with either a minimum of exercises or a plethoraof textbook-bound practice material. Hutchinson and Waters (1984:111) have looked at this from a different point of view: For ESP to beproperly communicative, the teacher must be able to participate fully inthe classroom communication. Texts taken directly from the target situ-ation frequently prevent the teacher from doing this, because theydemand too high a level of specialist knowledge. Part of their answer is todesign the materials in such a way that the learner is involved fully in boththe content and the language topics and give topic-related problems thatrequire the use of English to solve them, thus actively mobilizing contentto generate language work. (p.112). This is echoed by McDonough(1984: 97): We are concerned again with problem-solving - with thenegotiated settlement rather than the imposed solution.

Group work and McDonoughs comment was made within the context of small-groupproblem-solving work. This organizational aspect of language practice has an enthusiastic

supporter in Ur (1981: 7): The first advantage of group work is of coursethe increased participation . . . Students who are shy of saying somethingin front of the whole class, or to the teacher, often find it much easier toexpress themselves in front of a small group of their peers . . . The motiva-tion of participants also improves when they work in small groups. Inaddition, when a group is given a task to perform through verbal interac-tion, all speech becomes purposeful, and therefore more interesting(p. 12). Jordan (1978: 26-29) also found, in an experiment in group prob-lem-solving in ESP, that motivation was high, with considerable languageinput from all the students. Littlewood (1981: 38) also supports problem-solving activities, in which learners must not only analyse information,but also argue, justify and persuade, in order to reach a common decision. . . In addition, the absence of a single correct answer offers learnersscope to express their own individuality through the foreign language.This fact often produces a high degree of personal involvement amongthe participants.

Communicative Littlewoods argue, justify and persuade exemplify three of David Wil-functions kinss categories of communicative function - argument, rational enquiry

and exposition, and suasion, respectively (1976: 46-53). These threecategories are the ones containing the communicative functions mostlikely to be needed by students in seminars.Suasion is the category of utterance designed to affect the behaviour ofothers (Wilkins, 1976: 46). Its most relevant component is inducementwhich includes, among other items: persuade, suggest, advise, recom-mend, advocate, propose.Pyramid discussions 47

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Argument relates to the exchange of information and views and includes:information, agreement, disagreement, concession (Wilkins, 1976:49-52).Rat ional enqui r y and exposit ion (Wilkins, 1976: 52-53) includes, amongmany others: assumptions, conclusions, conditions, consequences,exemplification, explaining reasons and purposes, illustration, justifica-tion, result. As Wilkins points out (p. 52) utterances in this categoryinteract with and possibly overlap those in the categories of argument andsuasion.

The need Seemingly, then, what is needed is an activity that is purposeful, allowsstudents to interact in groups, provides a task which motivates, and helpsto develop self-confidence while providing fluency practice in the spokenlanguage. The spoken language should practise at least some of the com-municative functions listed above. One such activity that meets all theserequirements and that I have used over the years with groups of ESP(economics) students is a pyramid discussion. Generally speaking, this isnot available in ESP books and has to be devised by teachers themselves.

Pyramid A pyramid discussion is a problem-solving activity that involves studentsdiscussion making choices from a list of items within a given theme or subject. At

first, the choices are made by the students individually, then in pairs, thenfours; finally, the whole class can take part in a discussion of the choices.The English that is used will normally practise the language of Wilkinsthree categories of communicative function. The activity is called pyra-mid because it starts with one person and gradually expands until all stu-dents are involved.

Procedure One way in which the pyramid discussion can be started is to provide eachstudent with a list of numbered items on a subject - either duplicated/photocopied, or written on the blackboard or overhead projector trans-parency - or even dictated to the students. This can be illustrated bytaking a theme from ESP, for example, from economics.The following (from Jordan and Nixson, 1986: 20; see also Jordan, 1984)is shown to the students:Select th e th r ee most impor tan t requi r ements fr om th e li st below th at youth in k wil l help a developin g coun tr y to mpr ove i ts economi c development.

1 a good standard of education in schools for all (or most) children2 adult literacy3 a low birth rate4 good health for the working population5 a small percentage of the population employed in agriculture6 modernization of agricultural techniques7 higher productivity per worker (in agriculture and industry)8 a large amount of foreign aid9 a high rate of import substitution10 a high propensity to save

11 an effective tax systemR. R. Jord an8

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Steps The steps of the activity are as follows:

Context

12 greater equality of distribution of income13 the growth of financial institutions14 a high rate of investment in industry15 government direction or control of investment and production16 an increase in exports and export earnings17 diversification of exports, especially exports of manufactured goods18 an abundance of natural resources19 more efficient allocation of scarce resources20 political stability

1 Ask the students i nd iv idua l l y to select three items from the list: they canput a mark against the numbers or write down the numbers. The orderof the three choices is not important.

2 After the three choices have been made, the teacher asks each student,in turn, to call out the numbers of his/her choices. These are then notedon the blackboard for everyone to see. Students should then be paired,as far as possible, so that they have at least one choice in common. Toavoid too much movement or disruption in the classroom, pairs shouldbe made of students sitting fairly close to each other. In pairs, the stu-dents should try to persuade each other to make changes in theirchoices so that at the end of a certain time limit (perhaps five minutes)they both agree on three choices. If necessary they can compromise onnew choices or trade off choices.

3 The same procedure is now followed as before. Each pairs threechoices are put on the blackboard. Pairs are then placed together whohave at least one choice the same. Again they must discuss and eventu-ally agree on the same three choices (with a suitable, short time limit).4 Although groups of four could be put together, it is probably best tostop at this point and discuss/comment with the whole class (otherwiseit may get tedious).

5 If one pair finishes discussion and agrees upon choices before others, itcan prepare arguments, to defend its choices - as a preparation forjoining other pairs.

A short list of appropriate language forms relating to suasion, argum ent ,and r ati onal enqui ry and exposit ion can be given to the students beforethe activity begins and their use can be exemplified. This is optional,depending on the students language level, but, in any case, such a list isuseful for reference.Most pyramid discussions can be contained within a 45-50-minute ses-sion. There is sufficient time to explain the procedure at the beginning, toexemplify the communicative functions, and to conclude the discussion atthe end by noting on the blackboard the three overall most popularchoices. If there is time, an added dimension can be provided by theteacher listing his/her own three choices, and justifying them and compar-ing them with the students choices. This can encourage the students tocross-examine the teacher and to disagree with his/her choices.Pyramid iscussions 49

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A useful follow-up session involves writing. In my particular situation, Itake my students for a two-hour session. The pyramid discussion occupiesthe first fifty minutes, as described above. After a ten-minute break, thediscussion is utilized to form the basis for essay-writing. My students needpractice in essay-writing, so suitable follow-up topics for the economicdevelopment pyramid discussion, to last for about forty-five minutes, are:

What are the main problems associated with economic development?or:Discuss what a developing country needs in order to achieve economicdevelopment. How can it obtain these requirements?

It may be of interest to note that in the piece of research described below,the numbered choices of the twelve students in the class (from twenty

pa i r s(1) 6, 8, 15(2) 15, 17, 20(3) 1, 19,20(4) 1, 6, 20(5) 6, 15, 16(6) 7, 9, 16

choices listed in the example) were as follows:

gr oups of four6, 15, 171, 19, 207, 15, 16

whole class

6, 15, 20

Action research In order to examine in some detail the language produced in a pyramiddiscussion, a group of twelve postgraduate students of economics weretape-recorded while they were discussing the twenty items listed above inthe example. The students, whose spoken English was generally post-intermediate, were: five Italians, two Portuguese, and one from each ofthe following countries: Cyprus, Greece, Malaysia, Sudan, and Swit-zerland. Five pairs were recorded (for approximately 5 minutes) - therewas a malfunction with the sixth cassette recorder - and then the threegroups of four (also 5 minutes); the class discussion at the end was notrecorded. A statistical analysis of the total ten minutes of discussion is asfollows:1 First five minutesPairsno. of words spokenno. of utterances

Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5 Total554 794 686 660 495 3,189

63 80 53 93 75 364no. of instances of suasion 4 2 2 6 1 15no. of instances of argument 13 14 14 10 7 58no. of instances of rationalenquiry and exposition 12 20 14 9 10 65no, of questions used 18 21 8 8 3 58

R. R. Jordan

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2 Second five minutesGroups of fourno. of words spoken

Group I Group II Group Ill Total860 806 452 2,118

no. of utterances 96 64 70 230no. of instances of suasion 12 3 3 18no. of instances of argument 13 8 5 26no. of instances of rationalenquiry and exposition 21 20 14 55no. of questions used 18 22 9 49

3 Grand total: ten minutes (1 and 2 above combined)no. of words spoken 5,307no. of utterances 594no. of instances of suasion 33no. of instances of argument 84no. of instances of rational enquiry and exposition 120no. of questions used 107

Commentary Many things may be inferred from the tables above. However, it shouldbe borne in mind that not all the students were at exactly the same lan-guage level. Nor were their personalities the same: some were extrovertand talkative, others were shy and reticent. The main finding to emergefrom the recordings, however, was quite clear: a large amount of ani-mated language was produced, in only a few minutes, by all the students.Questions were selected for separate analysis above as there was interestin seeing their frequency of use within pairs and small groups. In fact,they accounted for 18 per cent of the total utterances. Many of the ques-tions consisted of using a statement pattern with a rising intonation at theend (e.g. You agree with 17?). The largest category was rationalenquiry and exposition which accounted for 20 per cent of the totalutterances.The typical pattern of a dialogue was as follows: a large number of state-ments giving choices with reasons; statements in agreement or disagree-ment; some questioning for clarification and seeking other views; pauseswhile thinking of ideas or language to use; another student takes over thedialogue; some interruption; some incomplete utterances; very littlespeaking simultaneously within a pair or group - they did actually listento each other.

Language used The sequence below follows the typical pattern indicated above. TheTypical examples examples illustrate Littlewood and Wilkins communicative functions of

suasion, argument, and rational enquiry and exposition referred toearlier.

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I Suasion1 statements proposing the selection of three items from the list:

a. personal I r efer / choose/ pr opose x because . . .I thi nk x i s better . . .

b. impersonal I t seems to m e . . .I t s m port ant/ better o have . . .

II Argument2 statements of agreement:I / We (can) agree wit h you/ num ber 17.I th ink you are r i ght . . .

3 statements of partial/qualified agreement:Yes, but I t hi nk i f you . . .Yes, I agree wi th you, but I bel ieve tha t . .

4 statements of disagreement:I / We di sagree wi th you . . .(No), I cant/ dont agree at all wi th num ber 8.

III Rational enquiry and exposition5 statements of necessary conditions governing choices:

I f you/we want o solve thi s pr oblem , (then) . . .I f we keep up pr oducti vi ty . . .

6 explanation:I th in k thi s s a consequence of thi s (num ber 6).Another r eason . . . s ha t n a developi ng count r y about 70 per cent or

80 per cent of t he popul ar ion i s empl oyed in agr i cul tu r e.7 questions seeking agreement:You agree wi th poli t i cal stabil i t y?

Do you agree wi th me?8 questions seeking opinions:

What (do you thi nk) about number 16/ edu cati on?What is your choice?

9 questions seeking information:Do you k now w hy?Where do you fi nd th e r esour ces for th e change?What ar e th e condi ti ons?H ow can we devel op th e tr ade?Is it t r ue that we always have . . . ?

10 questions seeking clarification:You mean in the long r un?What do you mean wi th gover nm ent di r ecti on?Do you mean t ha t hi s one is. . . ?

IV ModalityThere were many instances of modality, often in conjunction with one ofthe categories above.11 statements of doubt/uncertainty:per hap s I pr efer . . .R. R. J or dan2

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I m n ot r eal l y convi nced . . .I am ul l of doubt about num ber 20.I dont kn ow, I thin k that. . .M aybe i ts th e only possi bl e compr omi se but . . .I ts not exactly t ha t dont agr ee but . . .

Language errors The purpose of the activity is to help students to develop self-confidenceExamples of main in the use of language and to give the opportunity for as much spoken

types practice as possible. Consequently, there is no attempt at correctionduring the discussion, and help is only given if it is asked for. However,once the data has been collected (in my case on tape and then tran-scribed), its analysis can be used, if desired, for follow-up language work.The main types of error can be noted and practice can be given later to theuse of correct forms (shown below in parentheses).a. omission of subject:

( I t ) i s very im port ant.b. omission of auxilliary:

Where (do) you come from?c. omission of article:

I t s (an) im port ant tar get . . .d. omission of final s:

he mean(s) th e publ i c sector . . . two th i ng(s) for export . . .e. incorrect preposition:

we di spense of (wi th ) number 16. . .because at (i n) devel opin g coun tr i es . . .

f. irregular past participle not known:I ve gived (given) up num ber 16 . . .. . . choosed (chosen) by me . .

g. singular/plural confusion:I nd i a have (ha s) success . . .T here ar e (is) a cond i ti on of. .T here i s (ar e) a ot of point s her e . . .

h. vocabulary confusion:So when I tell (say) h i gh rat e of. . .... then your product iv i ty rai se (r ises/ wi l l ise/ wi l l be rai sed)M y choose (choi ce) i s number 1.

There was a sprinkling of such errors throughout the discussion, but inonly one or two discernible cases was there any difficulty in understand-ing: general mutual intelligibility was not affected.

Conclusion The general advantages of the pyramid discussion appear to be:1 It is stimulating, involves the students, and gives the language practice

a real purpose.2 Even the weakest students can contribute something in a pair. As oneof the purposes is to develop self-confidence in the use of language, and

to help fluency, total accuracy can be ignored.Pyramid discussions 53

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3 All students are practising listening and speaking all the time; in otherwords, maximum practice is being obtained, with a wide variety of lan-guage being generated.

It should be noted that the activity works best with students whose level ofEnglish is post-intermediate to advanced, and whose mother tongues aredifferent. It also works best with at least twelve items from which to makechoices. In choosing items for ESP lists, one can often obtain advice fromsubject-specialists or from suitable specialist texts, if not from the stu-dents themselves.As a stimulating activity, a pyramid discussion has much to be said in itsfavour, particularly as it satisfies many of the students needs for pur-poseful spoken language practice. It is suitable not only for ESP classesbut also for general English classes, as long as appropriate topics areselected. It can also be used in teacher-training for awareness raising as aprelude to a study of a particular part of the syllabus.Recei ved M ay 1988

NoteAcknowledgement is gratefully made to MoniqueSpaan for assistance with the tape transcription.ReferencesHutchinson, T. and A. Waters, 1984. How communi-cative is ESP? ELT Journal 38/2: 108-113.Johns, C. M. and T. F. Johns, 1977. Seminar Dis-cussion Strategies in A. P. Cowie & J. B. Heaton(eds.), English for Academic Purposes Reading:BAAL/SELMOUSJordan, R. R., 1978. Motivation in ESP Modern

English Teacher 6/4: 26-29.Jordan, R. R., 1984. Motivation in ESP: A CaseStudy of Methods and Materials for Economics in

The ESP Classroom Exeter Linguistic Studies, 7.Jordan, R. R., and F. I. Nixson, 1986. Language for

Economics London: Collins.Kennedy, C. and R. Bolitho, 1984. English for Speci-

fic Purposes London: Macmillan.Littlewood, W. 1981. Communicative Language

Teaching Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

McDonough, J. 1984. ESP in Perspective London:Collins.Robinson, P. 1980. ESP (English for Specific Pur-

poses) Oxford: Pergamon Press.Ur, P. 1981. Discussions that Work Cambridge: Cam-bridge University Press.Wilkins, D. A. 1976. Notional Syllabuses London:

Oxford University Press.The authorR. R. Jordan is Tutor in English to Overseas Studentsin the Department of Education, University of Man-chester, a post he has held since 1972. Prior to that hewas British Council English Language Officer inNepal and Sierra Leone. He has also taught inFinland and Denmark, and taken part in teacher-training courses in several European countries andChina. He has an M.A. in Economics (Cambridge),PGCE: EFL (London), and Dip.App.Ling. (Edin-burgh). He has published a number of books, mostlywith Collins ELT in their Study Skills Series, the mostrecent of which is Language for Economics (Collins,1986).

R. R. Jordan

ELTJ(1990) Pyramid Discussions- Jordan

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