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Integrating methods andmaterials:developing trainees' readingskillsJennifer JarvisThis article explores issues arising from a research project funded by theOverseas Development Agency which studied ways of meeting the readingneeds of trainee primary-school teachers of English in specific ESUEFLcontexts. After giving a brief background to the project, we discuss theissue of teacher confidence in using English to manage classroom events.We then turn to a discussion of whatcounts as teaching 'quality', and end bygiving examples of an attempt to model the teaching process in a manualfor teachers.

Background to thprojmct

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Th e project described in this article aimed to establish the reading n eeds, inEnglish, of trainees who enter college after four years of secondary school-ing. We also wanted to test our conclusions by creating a man ual for collegetutors, for use in situations of very scarce resources.Ou r interest in the research area arose from in-service teacher trainin g atthe University of Leeds, where, annually, we work with educationalistsfrom over thirty countries. M any identify improved Eng lish-reading skillsin their teaching force as a priority.We took Malawi (ESL) and Tanzania (EFL) as our research-basecountries, and were fortunate in hav ing full co-operation from the M inis-tries of Education of both countries. The Overseas Development Agencyprovided us with a three-year research g rant which enabled us to employ aresearch assistant, Joanna Mingham, and to make the necessary visits tothe countries in the study.In 1983, the first year of the project, we composed and administeredreading tests to trainees in sample colleges. We created o ur own tests in anattempt to devise instruments which would tap the process of readingcomprehension, rather than its product alone. We also observed classes,and held discussions with tutors. We then analysed the results and, in thesecond year, wrote trial m aterials for a teachers' manual. Th efinalyear wasspent in rewriting, printing and distributing the m anual.We were aware that any atte mp t to meet the trainees' needs would have tobe made compatible with college tutors' and trained teachers' perceptionsof reading and classrooms. We had , in other words, to confront the typicaltripartite situation of teacher education, and investigate learner, teacherand trainer.ELTJournal Volume 41/3 July 1987 Oxford University Press 1987 179

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As the work progressed, issues connected with classroom teachingassumed greater prominence than those connected with reading per se . Itbecame very clear to us that teachers matter. It is a truism to say that theteacher is the most important influence in formal language classes, but inmany Third World contexts this has added force. Where resources arelimited, the teacher may be the only source of English, providing model,input, and source of evaluation.When we studied w hat teachers and tutors actually did, and the views ofthe teaching process w hich they held, we became more aware of the veryreal challenge they face. In many cou ntries, the English teacher is expectedto teach through English. However, teachers and tutors are given very littlehelp with their own classroom English, despite the fact that they areoperating in a personal second (or more probably third or fourth) langu age.Managing a class and implementing a textbook require extremely skilledand specific uses of languagefor example to set tasks clearly, expandlearner utterances, influence behaviour, and summarize points made.Teachers' and tutors' success in meeting the challenge is greatly affectedby the fact that many have .very little confidence in their own abilities inclassroom E nglish. This is so even am ong those who might appear to us tohave near native-like control of English. Faced with classroom eventswhich might undermine their confidence, many teachers naturally seek adefence. One reaction might be a resort to authoritarian relations withlearners, where mockery of mistakes discourages learners from usingEnglish, and so removes any potential threat to the teachers' safety.Another result might be a very narrow adherence to a textbook or teachingpattern, allowing only predictable language use in the classroom. Someteachers resort to lectures, minimizing opportunities for learners to useEnglish themselves. These seem to us to be very understan dable reactionsto a threatening situation. The problem is that the level of teacher con-fidenc e in managing classroom events has a direct effect on the quality ofthe learning o pportunities offered to the learners.Teaching 'quality" Before discussing what we decided to do to help improve teachers' con-

fidenc e in the classroom, I should like to raise the very problem atic issue ofwhat counts as 'quality' in teaching. We found that our attempts toinvestigate what w as happening in teaching led to a need for a measure ofwhat effective classroom management might be like. Mitchell's surveyarticle (1985) on process research in second-language classrooms bears outthe difficulties of elaborating what 'quality' means. If, therefore, we try tomatch our research with other work currently reported, a firstattempt at anelaboration changes 'qu ality ' into 'quality of interaction' in the classroom.As Ellis points out in an article in the International Revie w of App lied Linguistics(1984) :Approaches , metho ds and techniques reduce to ways of communica t ing ,of in teract ing and t ransa ct ing social and proposi t ional informat ion.

In o ther words, i t is in setting up and controlling hum an co mm unica tion inth e classroom that a teacher embodies his or her methods and aims.Teache rs may , of course, be influenced by the views of l anguage incor-pora ted in the textbook followed, but we have found that teachers ' imple-me n ta t i o n skills may ove rride or vitiate any textbook write r's a ims . In thecount r ie s studie d, the courses used are a legacy of ELT fashions of the 1960san d 1970s, and have a s t ron g orientat ion to pat tern-pract ice as a mea ns of

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learning. H owever, in some classes observed, it was hard to see anything wecould recognize (in today's terms) as providing opportunities for learningthe inter-relationships of the formal system. Instead learners were involvedin largely meaningless repetition of fragments of language. There were,certainly, few opportunities being offered for acquiring language throughdoing meaningful things through it (to use, again, today's term s). We feltthat w hile the textbook orientation influenced this resort, the m ore funda-mental influence was th at m any teachers did not have sufficient confidencein their classroom English to create more meaningful interaction in theclassroom. Work at Leeds has shown us tha t while many teachers accept, intheory, the value of time-honoured procedures like group work, in practicethey cannot utilize these until shown how, through work on teacher lan-guage for managing activities such as setting group tasks and discussingresults.

This is not a criticism of the individuals with whom we worked. It ismuch more an indictment of systems of training which have tended toseparate theory and its application, and of school systems which isolateteachers without providing them with the support of effective models,either through colleagues or through helpful teachers' guides.We have tried, therefore, to elaborate which classroom language skillshelp a teac her to improve the quality of classroom interaction in his or herclassroom. We tentatively conclude that the skilled teacher can:1 set tasks clearly and make them meaningful and purposeful to thelearners;2 show the learners any necessary steps in achieving the tasks, and whattheir outcomes are expected to be;3 encourage learner particip ation, and organize the class so that learnerwork takes up a large proportion of the available time ;4 give clear and encouraging feedback to the learners on their attem pts;5 correct mistakes gently;6 clarify/summa rize/expand learner talk as necessary;7 convey a sense of 'teacher approachability';8 convey high expectations of what his or her learners can do;9 teach English through English. If the mother-tongue is used, it is used asan occasional aid to the learners' understanding.

It is appa rent that the nine skills we have isolated relate to the creation ofsocial relations in the classroom, and to the management of classroominteraction. They are the base of any method, and not specific to any oneELT fashion. W e need a m eans of explaining why some teachers can m akeeven unfashionable courses work highly successfully. Paulston's article(1984) suggests th at the same basic principles underlie the work of thosedeemed 'effective teacher s' in ESL contexts in North Am erica. She says:Good teachers do make a difference. Methods and materials are not asimpo rtant as principles of meaningful and interesting activities, on-taskfocus, clear activity objectives and comprehensible feedback.

Ou r orientation differs only in that we focus on the language for implement-ing the principles. We do not assum e, of course, that there is only one way ofachieving the necessary interactions. Signals of'teacher approachability',for example, must be given in locally acceptable ways. What we do assume,however, is that many teachers and tutors need help to do these things, inlocally acceptable ways, and need to be aware of their impo rtance.Integrating methods and materials 181

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Impllcmtlon* forInfgrmting matmrialtmnd mthod*

Conclusion

We needed to embody our awareness of effective classroom managementskilb in a manual for tutors. We had , in effect, to try to capture the teachingprocess within a producta textbook. We needed to give practical meaningto the skills by exemplifying them in the task of teaching readingcomprehension.This led us to choose a 'modelling' approach in our m anual. Th at is, themanual models what a tutor needs to say and do through the whole timelineof a lesson. We have found that materials rarely contain self-evident ways ofimplementation (see also Coleman 1985). Appendix 1, for example, is thepassage that our trainees receive as part of a unit on the skill of scanning.Readers might like to consider wh at they w ould do and say if using it withtheir learners.Ou r answer was to base the manu al on the classroom language throug hwhich the tutor would implement the material. The manual can be used asa jumping-off poin t by the tutor, who can use it as a script or adapt it at will.Ideas about reading are absorbed through their teaching application, andmodels of answers to trainee tasks are given as essential aids to tutorconfidence.Appendix 2 gives part of the model for utilizing the scanning material inAppendix 1. Appendix 2 comes after some introductory work on scanningon another passage. Among other features, we hope that the excerptprovides models of:groupingtask settingg iving examples of how to perform the taskrephrasing answerspraisingsummarizing learning pointsquestioningorganizing 'reporting back'encouraging trainee-trainee interactionkeeping silent.Also built-in to the model is an attempt to lessen the stress on correctanswers and increase the stress on the process of scanning. The modelretains a degree of formality between the teacher and the class, as this isculturally desirable.Lest it should be tho ught that the script of the man ual does not allow fortrainee error or for discussion, perhaps it should be pointed out that thetraineetrainee discussion process in this particular unit allows trainees toassess their 'errors' against the 'correct' answers given on the blackboard.Ways of getting at the answer are abo discussed formally, so that reasonsare m ade evident. T he main reasons, of course, for giving the rig ht answershere are that tutors need them , and we wanted to emphasize ways of gettingthe answers, rather than 'correctness' per se . In other units we build inwrong answers, to illustrate how the tutor can deal with them. We do nottake exactly the same approach in every unit.In our trials of this materia l, we have found that no n-native speaking tutorsfrom a wide variety of countries have said that the approach helps them.They value having a model of what to say, as it increases their freedom.They find they are given a tool or reference point in a context where fewother models are available. Perhaps the practical needs of teachers have not

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received enough attention in recent years, when the stress has been on theproduction of learner materials. What the teacher does with learnermaterials is, however, what gives them classroom reality.

The manual is now in use, and we know that flaws and problems not yetapparent to us will become evident. We hope to evaluate the use of themanual, and further refine our understandings of classroom processes. DReceived November 1986

AppmtdUlCh an gi n g ou r ap p roach to fit ou r p u rp ose inreadingScanning to f ind particular p ieces of informationScan the Contents page below to find the answers tothese quest ions:1 In which section will you find back grou nd infor-

mation about texts?2 W here might you f ind information abo ut teachingthe use of contrast meaning-markers?5 You are interested in reading in different ways fordifferent p urpos es. Wh ere would you look?4 Which sect ion is clearly linked to learners' diffi-cult ies with vocabulary?5 You are interested inextensive reading. Which sub-section will you read?6 W here could you find ideas on teaching the skill ofpredict ion?CONTENTSChapter 3: Ideas for teachers of reading

3.1 . Some ideas about texts3.1.1 How texts are organised3.1.2 Cohesive devices3.1.3 Word relationships

3.2 Helping learners be thinking readers3.2.1 Using headings and sub-headings to predictcontent3.2.2 Using layout as aguide to meaning3.2.3 Asking questions as they read3.2.4 Using text-organisation to follow ideas3.2.5 Using meaning-markers to follow Ideas

3.3 Helping learners solve difficulties3.3.1 Learning to 'read on'3.3.2 Using repetitions3.3.3 Using experience33.4 Using word-formation3.4 Helping learners use different approaches toreading3.4.1 Skimming3.4.2 Scanning3.4.3 In-depth reading3.4.4 Note-making3.4.5 Reading for entertainment

Appendix 2Tutor to trainees:Now, let 's try a different scanning task.Please get into pairs, tohelp each other.You work with him/her.You turn and face him/her.Th i s row move to that one.You will have to work as a three, etc.We're going to try scanning the Contents page of abook, to see if the book will give us the part icularinformation we w ant . It's a very quick way of seeingwhether you need to read a book or not.Tur n to page 72 of your book. Make sure you arelooking at page 72. It has part of a Contents pageprinted on it. Ther e are questions above the contentspage .Now, remember what todo. First, look at the ques-t ion to see the part icular information you want. Thin kabout the quest ion, and work out what words you willlook for.Think abou t where to look. Notice the headings, an dthe number ing of the sections and sub-sections.Let 's do the first one together. Look at Question 1.What words are important here?Trainee response:'background informat ion ''about t ext s ''sect ion ' .Tutor to traineesThat 's i twe're interested in 'background infor-mation' , 'about texts ' and we know we must look in a'section'. So which section would you read?Trainee response:3. 1Tutor to trainees:Good. It could be any part of 3.1 where we've got theh e a d i n g Some ideas about texts.(Write up: 1. 3.1 (all sub-sections))Tutor to trainees:Notice, it doesn't say 'background information' in 3.1 ,but it does say 'Some ideas about texts ' . We may notfind exactly the same words as the ones we want . We

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have to use our sense and see if the words mean more orless the sam e.Also, we can use our experience of books. Back-ground information will probably come at the begin-ning of a chapter, wo n't it? So, that makes 3.1 a goodchoice too .Now work with your partn er, and do the others. Justwrite numbers for your answer, as I did. Work outwhat you are looking for before you read. You've got fiveminutes only.(Allow Jive minutes for the trainees to work. Do n ot give extratime.)Tutor to trainees:OK . Please stop there. How many pairs have finished?Trainee response:(Trainees raise their hands)Tutor to trainees:Well, it looks as if several of you are scanning well.Let's check. Each pair join another pair, and showeach other your answers.You go with them.You face them.You move to them.You can make a five, etc.Now, compare your answers. Tell each other whatwords you had in mindwhat words you looked for.See if you can all agree on the answers.(Allow up to eight minutes for the trainees to discuss. Afterabout six m inutes, write the correct answers on the board. Th ecorrect answers are given below.)Answers12S

3.1 (all sub-sections)3.2.53.4 (all sub-sections )4 3.3 (all sub-sections)5 3.4.56 3.2.1

Tutor to trainees:OK . Please stop your discussions now. Do you agreewith each other? Do you agree w ith my answers on theboard? Let's just check a couple of them. Let's look atNumber 3. What w ords in the question show you whatto look for?

Trainee response:'reading''different styles''different purposes'Tutor to trainees:Good. We know we must scan for something about'reading in different ways', and for 'different purpos es'.Now, 3.4 docs not use exactly those words, but wecan see that the heading Helping learners use differentapproaches to reading must mean nearly the same.Often when we scan we can't find exactly the wordwe wantor all the words we want. We have to takethe nearest in meaningand get part of what we w ant.(The unit continues.)

Coleman, H. 1985. 'Evaluating teachers' guides: doteachers' guides guide teachers?' in J. C. Alderson(ed . ) : Evaluation: Lancaster Papers in English LanguageEducation Vol. 6. Oxford: Pergamon.Ellis, R. 1984. 'The role of instruction in second lan-guage acquisition' in D. M. Singleton and D. G.Little (eds.): 'Language Learning in Formal andInformal Contexts.' 1RAL special issue.Jarvis, J. and J. Minghun. 1986a. Skilled Reading: TheTutor's Manual. University of Leeds.Jarvis,J. and J. Mingbam. 1986b. Skilled Reading: TheTrainees' Book. University of Leeds.Mitchell, R. 1985. 'Process research in second lan-guage classrooms.' Language Teaching 18/4.Paulston, C. B. 1984. 'Communicative competenceand language teaching*, second thoughts' in B. K.Das (ed . ) : CommunicativeLanguage Teaching: AnthologySeries 14 . Singapore: Singapore University Press.

Th authorJennifer Jarv is is currently Director of Studies in ELTin the Overseas Education U nit, School of Education,University of Leeds. She has taught English in Tan-zania, England, and Malawi, and now travels widely,giving seminars and acting as a consultant on ELTteacher training. She is particularly interested in appli-cations of socio-linguistics and in ESP teacher train-ing. She obtained her Ma ster's degree and Diploma inTEFL from the University of London.

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