ABOUTTHECOMPASSIONATEWARRIOR:ABDEL-KADEROFALGERIA

“ThisclearandaccessiblebiographywillprovideyoungreaderswithavaluableportraitoftheEmirAbdel-Kader,whowassoadmiredin19th-centuryAmerica.ItisanadmirablecontributiontotheunderstandingoftheencountersbetweenMuslimsandChristiansintheageofcolonialism.”

—CarlW.Ernst,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill,authorofHowtoReadtheQur’an:ANewGuide,withSelectTranslationsandeditorofIslamophobiainAmerica

“AtatimewhennegativestereotypesdominatethepublicperceptionofIslamandMuslims,ouryoungpeoplearesorelyinneedofpositiverolemodelswhoembodythehighestidealsofwhatitmeanstolivealifeofdignityandpurpose.MarstonhasfilledthatvoidwiththisgrippingnarrativeofthelifeofEmirAbdel-Kader,atoweringfigurewhoinspiresusalltoagreatersenseofhumanityandjusticenomatterwhatreligionwemaypractice.”

—RobertF.Shedinger,LutherCollege,authorofWasJesusaMuslim?

“Abdel-Kader—amanofprinciple,Muslimspiritualleader,diplomat,Arabluminary—ledarichandengagedlife,despitedecadesofexile.ThisAlgerianhero’sstoryprovidesafascinatingwindowintothehistoryofthenineteenthcentury,reflectingsocialandreligiousvaluesandthetumultuouspoliticaltimes,andhelpingusmakeconnectionsbetweenFrance’sbrutalcolonialpolicies,theAlgerians’valiantresistance,andoneleader’sdignifiedandpowerfulstruggleforjustice.Marston’sisanimportantcontributiontoyouthliterature,andwilldoubtlessbeatrulylastingone.”

—ZeinaAzzam,GeorgetownUniversity,DirectorofEducationalOutreach,CenterforContemporaryArabStudies

“ThespecialmeritofMarston’sverybeautifulbookisthatthevirtuesandhumanqualitiesofAbdel-Kaderplayacentralroleinherstory.InbringingthisstorytoAmericanyouth,theauthorisofferingthemthechancetodiscovernotonlythevaluesofmercyandpeacewithinIslam,butalsothelifeofapersonwhocompletelyembodiedthosevalues.Thisbookisnotonlyabeautifulnarrativethatisbasedonsoliddocumentation,butitisaboveallausefulbookforourchildrenwhoaregoingtoinheritaworldwhichisinurgentneedofmercyandpeace.”

—AhmedBouyerdene,authorofEmirAbdel-Kader:HeroandSaintofIslam

“Award-winningauthorElsaMarston’sbooksabouttheMiddleEastareoftencategorizedas‘juvenilefictionandnon-fiction.’However,TheCompassionateWarrior,likemostofherwork,isapieceofsolidscholarship,engaginglynarrated,thatwillalsohavegreatappealforadults.TheEmirAbdel-KaderisaninspirationalfigurefromAlgerianhistorywhodeservestobebetterknown,andthisexceptionalbookisawelcomecontributiontothatcause.”

—LaurenceMichalak,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

“ElsaMarston’sbiographyilluminatestheextraordinarystoryofEmirAbdel-Kader.This19thcenturyherowastirelessinhiseffortstoprotectinnocentlivesandthehonorofIslam.Hisexampleisaninspirationforusall.”

—JacquelineJules,librarianandteacher,authorofSarahLaughsandBenjaminandtheSilverGoblet

“TheCompassionateWarriorprovidesuswitharichopportunitytolearnaboutthelifeandteachingsofaprominentMuslimspiritualteacherwhoresistedFrenchcolonialism.Notbeingcontentwithreturningviolenceforviolence,EmirAbdel-KaderalsoprotectedSyrianChristiansatalaterpointinhislife....Thisvolumeishighlyrecommendedforallwhoseektolearnaboutspiritualwaysofrespondingtothetraumasofthecontemporaryworld.”

—OmidSafi,UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill,authorofMemoriesofMuhammad:WhytheProphetMatters

“Inherengagingbiography,theauthorshowswellhowEmirAbdel-Kader,headofareligiousorderandafighteragainstcolonialintrusions,preachedtoleranceandcoexistenceamongcommunities,aswasevidentofhisdefenseofthedowntroddenduringtheexceptionalDamascusriotsof1860.Itisgoodoftheauthortobringtolightthetoleranceofabraveandcompassionateherowhowasneededthenandisneedednowasamodelofleadership.”

—LeilaFawaz,TuftsUniversity,authorofAnOccasionforWar:MountLebanonandDamascusin1860

“InElsaMarston’sstoryofEmirAbdel-Kaderwelearnaboutthecharacterofamanwhowasregularlyfacedwithdifficultdecisions.Inhisjourney,weseethatbeingawarriordoesnotalwaysmeangoingtowar,butcanalsoinvolvesimplyfightingforwhatisright.Wewitnesstheheroismthatliesinhumannature,evenduringthehorrorofbattle,andthecompassionthatmakesheroismpossible.Thereisnoavoidingthestrongsenseofjusticethatpermeatesallofhisactions,andthatthatcommitmenttojusticeisdeeplyinformedbyhisfaithandspirituality.Theremarkablenatureofhisstoryonlyhighlightstheimportanceofbeingtruetoone’sconvictions.Hisstoryisbothawe-inspiringandinspirational.”

—HusseinRashid,HofstraUniversity,associateeditorofReligionDispatchesmagazine

“Itisnotveryoftenthatwereadersandteacherscomeacrossabookthatrevealssomuchhistoryandbiographyinsuchanengagingandcompellingway.AlthoughthelifeofthegreatAlgerianfreedomfighterofthenineteenthcenturyisthecentralfocusofthebook,thestoryalsofeaturesFrenchandNorthAfricancolonialhistory,Christian-Muslimrelations,andEuropeanpolitics.Thisbookisanexcellentvehicleforyoungpeopletoexploreafast-movingstoryofheroicresistancetopower,ofnobilityintimesofwar,offamouspeopleandtryingtimes,whileallalonglearning—andprobablyenjoying—history,ethics,cross-culturalrelations,andtheinnerworkingsofMuslimsocieties.”

—RogerGaetani,editorofIntroductiontoSufism:TheInnerPathofIslamandASpiritofTolerance:TheInspiringLifeofTiernoBokar,formerteacheranddeveloperofeducationalmaterials

ABOUTTHEEMIRABDEL-KADER“ThemostredoubtableadversarythatFranceencounteredonAfricansoil,themanwhoforsixteenyearsofheroicbattlesfoughtforhisfaithandfortheindependenceofhiscountry,Abdel-Kaderis,unquestionably,themostimportantpersonagethathasariseninthelastcenturyamongtheMuslimpopulations.”

—LeFigaro,Frenchnationalnewspaper

“Therearefewnamesinthelistofmodernnotabilitieswhicharebetterknownthanthatofthe‘ArabNapoleon,’thewarriorwho,indefenseofhisnativesoil,successfullydefied,duringseveralcampaigns,thewholepowerofFrance,andkeptherarmiesinastateofalmostunremittingwarfareformorethanfifteenyears....[TheEmirAbdel-Kader]wasoneofthefewgreatmenofthecentury.”

—TheNewYorkTimes

“Abdel-KaderdisquietedParisandchallengedallthemightofFranceinthereignofLouisPhillipe.ThehistoryoftheFrenchconquestofAlgeriaisinsubstancetherecordoftheconflictwhichAbdel-Kaderwagedalmostsingle-handedagainsttheforemostmilitarynationofEurope.”

—TheLondonTimes

“EmirAbdel-KaderwasoneofthemostremarkablefiguresinrecentIslamichistory,combiningperfectioninboththeactiveandthecontemplativelife,anachievementthatremainsofgreatsignificancetodayforMuslimsandnon-Muslimsalike.”

—SeyyedHosseinNasr,TheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,authorofTheHeartofIslam:EnduringValuesforHumanity

“...theunsungheroofAlgeriannationalism,EmirAbdel-KaderwasacompassionatewarriorandnegotiatorwiththeFrench,aswellasadefenderofreligiousminoritiesintheOttomanEmpire.”

—ImamFeisalAbdulRauf,authorofWhat’sRightwithIslamandMovingtheMountain

“Abdel-KaderactedtowardsmewithagreatnessthatIwouldnothaveencounteredinthemostcivilizedcountriesofEurope.”

—deMarandol,Frenchprisoner-of-warinAlgeria

“[TheEmirAbdel-Kader]continuestoberegardedinourtimesastheMuslimheroparexcellence—aheroinwhomthemostnoblechivalrywascombinedwiththemetaphysicalinsightsofatruesage,andthespiritualgracesofarealizedsaint.”

—RezaShah-Kazemi,InstituteofIsmailiStudies,authorofMyMercyEncompassesAllandTheOtherintheLightoftheOne

“TodaytheChristianworldunitestohonorinthedethronedPrinceofIslam[Abdel-Kader],themostunselfishofknightlywarriors,riskinglimbandlifetorescuehisancientfoes,hisconquerorsandtheconquerorsofhisraceandhisreligion,fromoutrageandfromdeath.”

—TheNewYorkTimes,October20,1860,reportingontheEmir’srescueofover10,000ChristiansinDamascus,Syria

“Abdel-Kader’smostrenowneddeedwastherescue,atgreatrisktohisownlife,ofover10,000Christianswhowereunderall-outonslaughtfromanarmyofDruzeinDamascusin1860,anactwhichattractedthewarmacclaimofsuchfiguresasAbrahamLincoln,PopePiusIX,andNapoleonIII.”

—WilliamStoddart,authorofWhatDoesIslamMeaninToday’sWorld?

“Suchisthehistoryofthemanforwhomourtownisnamed.Ascholar,aphilosopher,aloverofliberty;achampionofhisreligion,abornleaderofmen,agreatsoldier,acapableadministrator,apersuasiveorator,achivalrousopponent;theselectionwaswellmade,andwiththosepioneersofseventyyearsago,wedohonortheShaykh.”

—ElkaderHighSchool,Elkader,Iowa,classof1915

THECOMPASSIONATEWARRIOR

ABDEL-KADEROFALGERIA

Cover:Front:Detailof“ChargingHorsemenOutsidetheNorthernCemetery,”

byGiulioRosati(1858-1917);PortraitofAbdel-Kader,bySimonAgopian,1906;Back:Abdel-Kaderonhorseback,byHenriFélixEmmanuelPhilippoteaux,1846

THECOMPASSIONATEWARRIOR

ABDEL-KADEROFALGERIA

BYELSAMARSTON

FOREWORDBYBARBARAPETZEN

TheCompassionateWarrior:Abdel-KaderofAlgeria©2013WisdomTales

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproduced

inanymannerwithoutwrittenpermission,exceptincriticalarticlesandreviews.

WisdomTalesisanimprintofWorldWisdom,Inc.

Lexile®measure—1160Lwww.Lexile.com

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Marston,Elsa.Thecompassionatewarrior:Abdel-KaderofAlgeria/byElsa

Marston;forewordbyBarbaraPetzen.pagescm

Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN978-1-937786-10-6(pbk.:alk.paper)1.‘Abdal-Qadiribn

Muhyial-Din,AmirofMascara,1807?-1883.2.Statesmen--Algeria--Biography--Juvenileliterature.3.Soldiers--Algeria--Biography--Juvenileliterature.4.Algeria--Kingsandrulers--Biography--Juvenileliterature.I.Petzen,Barbara.II.Title.DT294.7.A3M372013965’.03092--dc23[B]

2013010124Printedonacid-freepaperintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

ForinformationaddressWisdomTales,P.O.Box2682,Bloomington,Indiana47402-2682

www.wisdomtalespress.com

Abdel-Kader,photobyÉtienneCarjat,1865

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONSI EngravingofAbdel-Kaderincombatduringthe1840sDeserthorsemen,mid-19thcenturyII CamelcaravanattheEl-KantaraOasis,AlgeriaKabylieMountainRoad,AlgeriaIII PortraitofMarshalThomas-RobertBugeauddepictedasGovernor-GeneralofAlgeria,by

Charles-PhilippeLarivièreEngravingofGeneralAugustLamoricièreTheChateauofAmboise,whereAbdel-Kaderwasheldcaptive

IV PaintingofLouis-NapoleonannouncingtheliberationofAbdel-KaderonOctober16,1852,byAngeTissier,1861PortraitofEmperorNapoleonIII,byAlexandreCabanel,c.1865

V Abdel-Kaderwithhismostfaithfulcompanions,photobyLouis-JeanDelton,1865VI PhotoofAbdel-KaderathishomeinDamascus,attributedtoGustaveLeGray,c.1860A

Damascusstreet,photobyFélixBonfils,c.1860VII PaintingofAbdel-KaderprotectingtheChristiancommunityofDamascusduringtheriotsof

1860,byJean-BaptisteHuysmans,1861ThedestructionoftheChristianquarterofDamascus,photobyFrancisBedford,1862

VIII Abdel-Kader,photobyÉtienneCarjat,1865

FOREWORD

ABDEL-KADER:WHATMAKESAHERO?WhenyouaskmostAmericanstonameaMuslimhero,you’relikelytogetblankstares...andperhapseventuallythenameofafamousboxerorbasketballplayer.Ourmediadietdoesn’tofferupmanyMuslimsasrolemodels—notbecausetheydon’texist,butbecausealackofknowledgeandunderstandinghelpstocreatecurrentstereotypesofMuslimsasfanaticalorviolent.

ThisbookintroducesustoatrueMuslimhero,amanwhocombinedthebestqualitiesofafreedomfighterandapeacemaker.OftencalledtheGeorgeWashingtonofAlgeria,theEmirAbdel-KaderledhispeopleinalongfighttoresisttheFrenchconquestandcolonizationoftheircountry.AlthoughhedidnotachievelibertyforAlgeria,Abdel-Kaderstandsinthecompanyofothergreatmodern-dayheroeswhochampionedtherightsoftheirpeople—MahatmaGandhi,NelsonMandela,MartinLutherKing,andmanyothers.Heledhispeopleinwar,butfoughtalsotomaintainhishumanityandmercythroughthislongtimeofstrife.HisprinciplesofhonorableandmercifulconductinwarprecedetheGenevaConventionsbyacentury.

ButitisnotjustasanoblewarriorthatAbdel-Kaderwonglobalfameandrespect.Throughalifeofimprisonmentandexile,thisSufischolar,wholedhisfollowersonIslam’sspiritualpath,metandimpressedmanyoftheleadingfiguresofhisday.Heneverwaveredfromhisinsistencethatthoseofdifferentfaithscouldnotonlycoexistinpeace,butshouldlearnfromoneanother.HebelievedthatthetruestexpressionofIslamisalifelivedinbrotherhoodandgenerosityofspirit.

Abdel-Kaderwasamanofcontrastingqualities.Hewasascholarandasoldier,bothprincipledandpragmatic.Hewasdevoutlyfaithfulandremarkablyopen-minded,raisedwithatraditionaleducationandyetinterestedinmanyofthemostmodernideasandtechnologiesofhisday.Heexemplifiestheinspirationalqualitiesofgreatleaderseverywhere—courage,empathy,charisma,determination—bringingthemtogetherinaframeworkofIslamicpietyandcontemporaryknowledge.ElsaMarston’sexcellentbiographypresentshislegacyasamodelforyoungMuslimstodaysearchingforawaytobebothtruetotheirreligiousheritageandopentothebestofthemodernworld,andfornon-MuslimswhoarenotexposedtoenoughMuslimvoicesofreasonandcompassion.

BarbaraPetzenDirector,MiddleEastConnections

PREFACEAbdel-Kaderfirstcameintomylifeinthelate1950s,whenIwasdoingresearchonFrencheducationincolonialAlgeria.TheAlgerianwarforindependencewasinfullswing,andI’dbeenaskedtowriteareporttobackupaninternationalstudentgroup’ssupportfortheuniversitystudentsofAlgeria—meaningprimarilytheMuslimAlgerians.MyprojectgavemethesensethatIwascontributingsomething,howeversmall,tohistory.

AsIhunkereddowninHarvardUniversity’slibrary,readingeverythingIcouldfindabouttheFrenchinAlgeria,naturallyIcameacrossreferencestoAbdel-Kader.Justthehighlights,though:young,dashing,andhandsome,heledresistancetotheFrenchconquestinthe1830sand’40s—andlater,somehow,savedthelivesofmanyChristiansinDamascus.

AfewmonthsafterfinishingmyreportoneducationinAlgeria,IfoundmyselfinLebanonattheAmericanUniversityofBeirut.ThereImettheyoungmanwhowouldbecomemyhusband,IliyaHarik.HiscareerasaprofessorofpoliticalscienceatIndianaUniversityledtomanysojournsintheArabworld,whichinspiredmyowncareerasanauthorforyoungpeople,specializingintheMiddleEast.

ButIneverforgottheEmirAbdel-Kader—andwhen,inthefallof2010,IwasinvitedtowriteabiographyoftheEmirforyoungadults,Icouldn’tsayno.TheimmediateinspirationwastherecentlycreatedAbdel-KaderEducationProject.ItsheadquartersareinElkader,Iowa,asmalltownactuallynamedinhonorofAbdel-Kaderin1846—improbable,butabsolutelytrue!(OneofthefoundershadbeenreadingtheAmericanandBritishpressabouttheEmir’sguerillawaragainsttheFrencharmy,andhewantedtoexpresshisadmirationforthiscolorfulhero.)

ThepeopleofElkaderhavealwaystakenprideinthisunusualaspectoftheirhistory,andin2009agroupdecidedtostartanessaycontestforhighschoolstudents.WhiletheultimatepurposeistoencouragepositiveawarenessofIslamandMuslim-Americans,thestoryofAbdel-Kaderprovidesanappropriatefocusbecauseofhisremarkable,many-sidedcharacterandconcerns—especiallyinterfaithbridge-building.Ajust-publishedbiographyoftheEmirbyJohnW.Kiser,titledCommanderoftheFaithful:TheLifeandTimesofEmirAbdel-Kader,wellresearchedandhighlyreadable,launchedtheAbdel-KaderEducationProjectbrilliantly.Atthesametime,theProject’sdirectorscouldseetheadditionalneedforashorter,lessdetailedbiographyforteenagereaders.

Moreover,ourmulti-ethnic,multi-faithAmericansocietycertainlyneedsmorebooksforyoungpeoplethatconveyapositiveviewofIslam.Whatbetterwaythantruestoriesofindividualswhosefaithwas—oris—anessentialbackgroundtotheiraccomplishments?WhatmoredramaticandinspiringexamplethanAbdel-Kader?

LearningabouttheEmirandwritinghisstoryhasbeenafascinatingprojectforme,andallthemorebecauseofacuriouspersonalconnectionthatIdiscoveredinthecourseofmyresearch.BackinSeptemberof1958IwastravelingtoBeirutonafreighter,andoneoftheportswherewestoppedwasasmalltowninwesternAlgeria.ItsFrenchnamewasNemours,butinthepastitwascalledDjemaaGhazaouet,“pirates’base”—yes,theveryplacewhereAbdel-Kaderlaiddownhisswordin1847.Atthetimeofmyvisit,afull111yearslater,theAlgerianswereonceagainembroiledinastrugglefor

freedom,withFranceandthecolons,orsettlers,stilldeterminedtokeepAlgeriaFrench.Yetfouryearslater,in1962,thewheeloffortunewouldturnagainandAlgeriawouldbefree.

Today,thestruggleforfreedom,justice,andacceptanceofdiversefaithsgoesoninNorthAfrica,theMiddleEast,andelsewhere,includingourowncountry.IhopethatintellingthestoryofAbdel-Kader,Icanbringmoreattentiontohismessageofpeaceful,constructive,andinclusivecoexistence.

PROLOGUE:ALGERIA,DECEMBER1847Underagraywintersky,theshiprolledinthestorm-whippedwaves.AjourneybyseawasanordealthatAbdel-Kaderhadnotencounteredsincehisboyhood.Itwasunsettling,thismotionoverwhichhecouldhavenocontrol—sodifferentfromthefeelingofonenesswithhishorse!HegrievedashewatchedthecoastlineofAlgeriarecedeintothefoggydistance,knowingthathewouldneverseehisbelovedhomelandagain.

ButwhywashebeingsenttoFrance?Surely,inafewdaysatmost,theFrenchgeneralscouldhavefoundashipthatwouldtakehimtoEgypt,astheyhadpromised.Despitethelongyearsofbitterwarfare,Abdel-Kadertrustedthemtobemenofhonor.

Abdel-Kaderhadgivenhiswordofhonor,afterall.HehadgonetotheFrenchofficersinpeace,tostatethathewouldfightnolonger.Fifteenyearswaslongenough...fifteenyearsduringwhichhehadknowntheheightsofpowerandthedepthsofadversity.Bynowhispeopleandhislandhadsufferedfartoomuchforthestruggletocontinue.

Hehadmadehistermsclear.HewouldleaveAlgeriaforever,askinginreturnonlythathisexilebeinEgyptoranotherArabcountry.TheFrenchofficershadagreedreadilyandhadtreatedhimwitheverycourtesy.Enemiescouldnothavemadepeaceinamorerespectfulmanner.

ButnowquestionsweregrowinginAbdel-Kader’smind.

Aftertwogloomydaysatsea,thesmallshipreachedtheportofToulononthesoutherncoastofFrance.NecessaryarrangementswouldhavetobemadeinthecountriestowhichAbdel-Kadermightbeexiled;thatwasunderstandable.Tohissurprise,however,heandhispeopleweretakentoaquarantinestation—andthentoaprison-likemilitaryfort.Abdel-Kaderwasawarethatsoldierswereguardinghimatalltimes.

Daysbecameweeksinthecold,grimfort.Abdel-Kadercouldgetonlyvaguerepliestohisrepeatedquestions.Thetranslatorassignedtohim,Daumas,wassympathetic,butdecisionsaboutAbdel-Kader’sfuturewerenotinhishands.AtonepointDaumassuggestedwritingdirectlytotheKingofFrance,andAbdel-Kaderpromptlydidso,withfirmnessandtact.

Afewdayslaterasecretmessagecameback.Yes,thepromisewouldbekept!

ButthelastdayofFebruary,1848,twofullmonthsafterAbdel-Kaderhadvoluntarilylaiddownhissword,broughtdismayingnews.ThekinghadsuddenlygivenuphisthroneandfledfromFrance.Acompletelynewkindofgovernmenthadtakenover.Wouldithonorpromisesmadebytheformerruler?

OrhadAbdel-Kaderindeedbeenbetrayed?

CHAPTER1

BARBARYPIRATESANDFRENCHADVENTURES

TherootsofthepredicamentinwhichAbdel-Kaderfoundhimselfwentdeepintheentangledhistoryofthetwoadversaries,FranceandAlgeria.AlookatthisbackgroundwillhelpsetAbdel-Kaderinhistimeandplace—adramaticsettingforamanwhobecameoneofthemostcelebratedleadersofthenineteenthcentury.

ALGERIA,ONTHEBARBARYCOAST

In1516theportcityofAlgiers,situatedintheregionofNorthAfricanowcalledAlgeria,cameundertheruleoftheOttomans,afar-flungMuslimempirewithitscapitalinConstantinople(nowIstanbul,Turkey).TheOttomansultansentanelitecorpsofTurkishsoldierstotakecharge,andbeforelongthewholeterritorywasknownastheRegencyofAlgiers.TheDeyofAlgiers,chosenbythetopmilitarymenfromamongtheirnumber,wasthesupremerulerofthecountry.Surroundedbyintrigueandjealousy,however,deysusuallydidnotlastlonginoffice.

AstheOttomanEmpiregrewweakerintheeighteenthcentury,theRegencybecamealmostindependent.ButtherulingclasswasstillTurkish,andtheyimposedheavytaxesontheindigenouspeopleofAlgeriawhilekeepingorderwithaheavyhand.OccasionallysomeoftheAlgeriantribesroseupagainsttheoppressiveTurkishrule,butdidnotgetfar.

Meanwhile,EuropeanshadtheirownproblemswiththecoastofNorthAfrica.TheBarbarystates,astheregionsaroundthemainportsofAlgiers,Tripoli(Libya),andTunis(Tunisia)wereknown,werebasicallybrigands.Lawlessnessonthehighseaswastheirmainbusiness—andathrivingbusinessitwas.TheNorthAfricanraiders,calledcorsairs,werenotoutlawslikepirates;quitethecontrary,theyworkedfortheirgovernments.Intheirsmall,swiftvesselstheyroamedtheMediterranean,preyingontheshipsofotherstates.

Ofcoursetheyseizedgoodsandtreasure,butthatwasnottheprimaryprize.Whatthecorsairswantedmostwerehumanbeings.Someofthecaptives,broughtbacktothehomebase,weresoldtoprivateindividuals,butmostwerethrownintolargeprisonsandforcedtoworkatheavylabor.Theymightlanguishasslavesforyears,unlesstheywereimportantorfortunateenoughtobeboughtbackbytheirgovernmentsorfamilies.TheBarbarystatesgrewrichonransomforunfortunatecaptives,mostofthemChristiansfromEuropeancountries.

Naturally,theEuropeansfearedandhatedtheBarbarycorsairs.Atthesametime,Europeanstateshadreasonsfornotputtinganendtothebusiness.SometimestheyweretoooccupiedwiththeirownwarstopaymuchattentiontothecorsairsintheMediterranean,ortheyneededtheBarbarystatesforalliancesandfoodsupplies.ConsequentlytheymadetreatieswiththerulersofAlgiers,Tunis,andTripoli,paying

themtribute—largeamountsofmoney,ridiculouslyextravagantgifts,andlotsoffirearms—toleavetheirshipsalone.

Thenanewplayerenteredthefield.TheshipsofthenewlyindependentUnitedStatesofAmericabegangettingcapturedintheMediterranean,andtheAmericanswereoutraged.In1803,shipsfromtheUnitedStatesNavyattackedTripoliandputthecorsairsofTripolioutofbusiness.(Thisexpedition,whichincludedacontingentofU.S.Marines,inspiredalineintheMarines’Hymn:“FromthehallsofMontezumatotheshoresofTripoli.”)TheUnitedStatesstillhadtopaytributetoAlgiersandTunis,however,soin1815theAmericannavytookontheBarbarystatesagain.ThistimetheTurkishrulersdecidednottoputupanyfightatall.GreatBritain,nottobeoutdonebytheupstartAmericans,promptlysentaformidablefleettoattackAlgiersin1816.Amassiveten-hourbombardmentallbutfinishedoffthecorsairs.

TheBarbarystates’longhistoryleftNorthAfricawithadecidedlyunsavoryreputation.Itwasalsoquiteacolorfulone,inspiringmanyabest-sellingmemoir,novel,painting,opera,drama,poem,andballet.Amorerealisticdescription,perhaps—andalsoimportanttokeepinmind—camefromtheAmericanconsulinAlgiersinthe1820s.Slaverywasnotasterribleasgenerallythought,hewrote,andthepopulationwasbothpiousandtolerant.Personsandpropertyweresafedayandnight,thecityprosperous,andthegarbagecollectedregularly.Learningflourished,withmanyIslamicschoolsandotherreligiousinstitutions.

Nonetheless,forthreehundredyearsasmall,alienrulingclass,supportedbybrigandage,kidnapping,andextortion,hadrunmuchofNorthAfrica.Ithaddominatedavastlylargerindigenouspopulationwithnoreasonwhateverforloyaltytowardtheirrulers.ThiswasthesocietythatfacedtheFrenchwhentheyarrivedatAlgiersin1830.

FRANCEONTHEEVEOFCONQUEST

ForhundredsofyearsFrancehadbeenoneofthemostprominentnation-statesinEurope.TheFrenchregardedtheircultureasthefinestpossible,whetherinliterature,philosophy,architecture,science,orcuisine.AtthetimeofitsfatefulencounterwithAlgeria,however,Francewastornbypoliticaldivisions.

Inthelateeighteenthcentury,theFrenchpeoplehadoverthrowntheirmonarchy,theirnobility,andtheCatholicChurchinoneofthebloodiestandmostpassionatelyideologicalrevolutionsinhistory.TheFrenchRevolution(1789-94)wasfollowedbyarepublicanformofgovernment,whichsoonyieldedtotheambitionsofoneman:NapoleonBonaparte.BonapartesetoutwithhisarmiestospreadtheidealsoftheFrenchrepublic—liberty,fraternity,equality—alloverEurope,buttheotherEuropeanstateswantednopartofit.In1815,whenacoalitionledbyGreatBritainfinallyputdowntheFrenchthreat,themonarchsofEuropebreathedmuchmoreeasily.France,too,wentbacktobeingamonarchy.

TheFrenchwerenotveryhappywiththeirking,CharlesX.ManylookedbackonBonaparte’seraasatimeofgreatnationalglory.Theymournedthelossofprestigefromhisfinaldefeat,andtheylongedtoseetheFrencharmyredeemitselfonthefieldofbattle.Moreover,KingCharles’governmenttriedtoundomanyoftheprogressivechangesthattheRevolutionhadbroughtabout,andthecountry’seconomywasinbadshape.Themiddleclass—andpublicopinion—grewsteadilymorepowerful.

Bythemid-1820sFrancewasbristlingwithnationalisticfervorandeagertoflexitsmuscles.Itsoonfoundawaytodoso,thankstoanincidentthatsoundsalmostlikelowcomedy.

DuringtheNapoleonicwars,thegovernmentofFrancehadbeenforcedtobuywheatfromthe

RegencyofAlgiersandhadrunupahugedebt.ThatFrance,however,wastherepublicangovernment.NowFrancewasamonarchyagain,andinnomoodtopaydebtsincurredbyirresponsiblerevolutionaries.OnedayinApril1827,theFrenchconsulmadethisverycleartotherulerofAlgiers.Finallylosingpatience,thedeystrucktheFrenchmanwithhisflywhisk.

InParistheroyalistgovernmentwasoutragedbythisinsulttoFrenchhonor.Itrecalledtheconsulandsetupanavalblockade.InAlgiers,thedeyorderedallFrenchcitizenstoleave.

Ifaswatwithpeacockfeathershadbeentheonlyissue,nodoubtthemattercouldhavebeensettledwithoutbloodshed.ButFrancewasreadyfordramaticaction,andtheunpopulargovernmentofKingCharlesXwantedtodivertattentionfromitstroublesathome.Althoughsomepeoplearguedfiercelyagainstmilitaryaction,callingitashameless,self-deludedadventure,thenationwentaheadanywayandpreparedforwar.OnJune14,1830,FrancelaunchedanassaultagainstthecityofAlgiers.

THEFRENCHCONQUESTOF1830

Thiswasnosmallpunitiveraid.TheFrenchfleet—onehundredwarshipsandfivehundredandseventy-twosupplyvessels—carriedthefreshlycreatedArmyofAfricaconsistingofthirty-onethousandsoldiers,fivehundredcavalrymen,andmorethanathousandengineers.Theexpeditionalsoincludedcannons,fourthousandhorses,andseveralartists—thephoto-journalistsofthetime.

Inthefaceofoverwhelmingfirepower,Algiersfellquickly.ThedeyandhisfamilyspeedilydepartedforEgypt,leavingbehindafabuloustreasuryofgoldandjewels.TheTurkishmilitaryandthewholerulingclasslikewisefledorweresoonexpelled,leavingbehindacapitalcitywithoutanyonewhocouldmanageanything.

Soonafterdeclaringvictory,thetriumphantFrenchgeneralmadeapublicannouncementpromisingtoprotecthousesofworshipandtorespecttheinhabitants’rights.Thosewordswerequicklyforgotten,andtheFrenchsoldiersfelltolootinganddestroyingAlgiers.Theydesecratedmosques,rippedhousesapartforfirewood,usedmanuscriptsfromlibrariesfortheirbivouacfires,andmassacredmanyofthepeople.EverywheretheFrenchinvaderswentinthecentralpartofAlgeria,theydestroyed.Theurbanpopulationsallbutvanished,takingflighttothecountrysideordyingofstarvationordisease.Frenchobservers,includingsomesentbyParliamentin1833toreportonconditions,werehorrified.

AlthoughtheFrenchhadeasilyconqueredAlgierswiththeirimpressivemilitaryforce,theyhadnoclearideaofwhattodonext.Theyhadmadenoplansforanewsystemofgovernment,andtheyknewpracticallynothingaboutAlgeriaanditspeople.

Then,withchaosreigninginAlgiers,theFrenchkingsuddenlyquithisofficeandfledfromParis.AnotherroyalheadtookonthecrowninlateJuly,Louis-Philippe,promisingbettergovernment.ButFrancewastornbetweenroyalistsandrepublicans,andcouldnotagreeaboutAlgeria.TheFrenchgenerals,government,andpublicarguedovertheirchoices.ShouldtheylimittheirNorthAfricanpossessionstothemaincoastalcities,suchasAlgiers,Oran,Bone?Orshouldtheytrytoconquertheentirecountry?Orshouldtheyjustwashtheirhandsofthewholeundertakingandgohome?

Verysoonthethirdoptionwasnolongerpossible.BarelyhadmostofthepeopleofAlgiersbeenclearedoutthanEuropeansettlersstartedarriving,seeingitasachanceforabetterlife.SomepeopleinFrancethoughtAlgeriawouldbeagoodplacetodumpsociety’sriffraff—thepoor,criminal,andpoliticallytroublesome.Inanycase,settlersrapidlyestablishedfactsontheground,seizinglandeverywheretheycouldanddispossessingtheAlgerians.

Itishardtounderstandwhy,attheverybeginningoftheconflict—evenbeforetheFrenchthemselveshadsufferedlosses,horrors,andhumiliations—theyshouldhavebehavedsobrutally.PossiblyitwasrevengeforthosecenturiesofBarbarypiracyandtheenslavementofChristians...possiblyitwasracialandreligiousprejudice.Inanycase,theconquestofAlgierswasaforewarningofwhatlayaheadforthetwopeoples.NotonlywouldtheNorthAfricanMuslimsbeconqueredbymilitaryforce,buttheirproperty,culture,andliveswouldbedeliberatelydestroyed—allinthenameofEuropeansuperiority.

Yetfromthestarttherewereother,moreidealistic,motivespresentintheFrenchadventure.Howeverhypocriticalanddishonesttheymaynowappear,theseexpressionsofanoblepurposeshouldnotbeover-looked,fortheycarriedsomeweightthroughoutthehistoryofFranceinAlgeria.TheideaofFrance’s“civilizingmission,”asitwascalled,soonfounditswayintospeechesandmemoirs.Forinstance,in1832ahigh-rankingFrenchadministratorwrote:

Topacifyandenlightenthesecountriesbyturn,andextendagainthebenefitsofsciencethathavebeenlostforsomanycenturies:thatisthenoblemissionwhichshe[France]hasproposedforherselfandwhichshewillaccomplish.1

Thetwoopposingdrives—conquestversuscivilization—pulledandrippedattheFrenchpresenceinAlgeriafromtheveryfirstdaystillthelast,withaftershocksstillfelttoday.CertainlyAbdel-Kaderexperiencedthis“splitpersonality”ofFranceinNorthAfrica.It’satthecenterofhisdramaticstory.

CHAPTER2

ANUNLIKELYLEADEREMERGESWhentheFrenchinvadedAlgiers,theyassumedthattheirmaintaskwassimplytogetridoftheTurkishoverlords,andthensomehoweverythingwouldfallintoplace.Forafewmoreyears,theOttomansheldcitiesinotherpartsoftheRegency,butforthemostparttheTurksgaveupquickly.Theirdepartureleftadangerouspowervacuum.AtlasttheFrenchhadtofacethenativepopulationofAlgeria—andforthischallengetheyweretotallyunprepared.

THEALGERIANS

WhoweretheAlgerians?ThepeopleofAlgeria,whototaledaboutthreemillion(averyroughestimate),werealmostentirelyMuslimbutoftwomainethnicbackgrounds.TheArabs,themajority,weredescendedfromArabconquerorswhobroughtIslamtoNorthAfricaintheeighthcenturyC.E.TheBerbers,alsocalledKabyles,weretheoriginalinhabitantsoftheland,fromancienttimes.TheyhadadoptedIslamandtosomeextenttheArabiclanguage,butmostlivedintheruggedKabylemountains,apartfromtherestofthepopulation.AfewthousandJews,activeintradeandfinance,livedinthemaincities.Therewereveryfew,ifany,nativeChristians.

Outsidethecities—onlyfivetotenpercentofthetotalpopulation—Algeriawasatraditionaltribalsociety.Avastland,alittlelargerthantheentireUnitedStateseastoftheMississippiRiver,itwashometomanydifferenttribes,largeandsmall.Sometribes,settledinthefertileplains,madetheirlivinginagriculture.Others,inthearidandruggedmountainousareas,werenomadic,roamingoverthelandwiththeirflocksofsheepandgoats.

Thereweretwomainpoliticalgroupingsoftribes.Onewascalledthemakhzentribes,withwarriorskills,values,andtraditions.TheyhadservedtheTurkishoverlordsincollectingtaxesandkeepingthepeace,andnaturallytheywantedtoholdontotheirpowerandprivileges.Theother,calledtherayahtribes(“theflock”),weresettledandpeaceful;theyweredominatedbythemakhzentribes.

Fromtherayahtribescamethemarabouts,men—andveryrarely,women—ofexceptionaldevoutnessandwisdom.Oftenwelleducatedandbelievedtohaveadivineblessingcalledbaraka,themaraboutswerethereligiousandintellectualaristocracy.Althoughthestatusofmaraboutwashereditary,anindividualmaraboutstillhadtoearnrespectbydemonstratinggoodcharacterandhighstandardsofconductandpiety.Thewarlikemakhzentribeslookeddownontherayahtribesandespeciallydislikedthemarabouts.TheTurkishoverlordskeptthetribesweakbyplayingthemoffagainsteachother.

REACTIONTOTHEFRENCHINVASION

AtfirstthetribeshadnoideawhattoexpectoftheFrenchinvasion.WouldtheFrenchbelikethe

Spaniards,whohadheldpartsofthecoastinpastcenturieswithoutcausingtoomuchtrouble?No,astheAlgerianssoonlearned,thisEuropeanintrusionwouldbeverydifferent.

WiththeOttomanrulersgoneandnonewsystemoflawandorderinplace,thecountryfellintoanarchy.Thetribes,valuingtheirindependenceandcompetitivestrengthmorethancooperation,seizedthechancetofight,raid,andsettleoldscores—whichnaturallyweakenedthemfurther.TheAlgerianswerenot,however,completelyoverwhelmedatthestart.WithEuropeansalreadymovingintoAlgiersandstartingtochangestreetnames,someofthetribesinthatareaputasidetheirrivalriesandworkedtogethertoharasstheFrench.Fortwoorthreeyearstheypreventedtheinvadersfromoccupyingseveralimportanttowns.

Inthewesternpartofthecountry,wherethestoryofAbdel-Kaderstarts,thetribeswerelessaffectedbytheFrenchinvasion.Many,infact,wereindifferenttothethreat,solongastheycouldcontinueintheirindependentways.WhentheFrenchseizedthemajorportofOran,however,andthesystemofcontrolbymakhzentribesbrokedown,lawlessnesstookover.

Inthemidstofthisdisorder,therewasoneman,anesteemedmarabout,whocouldcommandobedience.Muhyiad-Din,thefatherofAbdel-Kader,claimeddescentfromtheprophetMuhammad,asourceofgreatprestige,andbelongedtooneofthemostpowerfultribesinthearea.HewasalsotheleaderofareligiousbrotherhoodcalledtheQadiriyya,whichhadstartedinBaghdadcenturiesearlier.Thesebrotherhoods,widespreadintheMuslimworld,practicedaformofIslamcalledSufism,whichencouragedbeliefindirectcommunionwithGodthroughmysticismandprayer.InNorthAfricathecenteroftheQadiriyyabrotherhoodwasinavillagecalledGuetna,neartheimportanttownofMascaraintheregionofOran.AlthoughGuetnawasasmallplace,theQadiriyyabrotherhoodbecamefamousforitsschoolandotherreligiousactivities.

TheTurkshadlongregardedthemaraboutsassubversiveandtriedtosuppressthem.Now,withtheTurksgoneandthecountrygrippedbyanarchy,themaraboutsbecamenaturalleaders.Muhyiad-DinnotonlyhadstatureamongthetribesbutwasrespectedbytheSultanofMorocco,justtothewestofAlgeria.ThesultanappointedMuhyiad-Dinashiskhalifa,meaning“lieutenant”ordeputy.ThisgaveMuhyiad-Din,whohadalwaysresentedtheOttomanoverlords,ameansoftakingactionagainstthem.Leadingothertribalchiefsandtheirmen,hesetouttodrivethelastoftheTurksfromwesternAlgeria.

Bythistime,1832,theFrenchhadteamedupwiththeremainingTurkishforcesandpowerfulmakhzentribes—oddalliesindeed—andhadestablishedgarrisonsinOranandafewothertownsonthecoast.AsaresulttheFrench,alongwiththeTurks,becameMuhyiad-Din’starget.BetweenAprilandNovemberof1832heledmanyattacksontheFrenchgarrisoninOran,butwithnosuccess.

Itwasdefinitelynotwastedeffort,however.Muhyiad-Din’ssonAbdel-Kader,abouttwenty-fouryearsofage,cameintohisownduringtheseskirmishes.Braveinbattleandskillfulasaleader,heevenseemedtohaveacharmedlife.Inspiteoftheriskshetook—sometimesmockingtheFrenchcannonballsastheywhizzedpast—hewasneverwounded.Thisaddedtopopularbeliefsthathehadspecialpowersanddivineprotection.

BothMuhyiad-DinandAbdel-Kader,itmustberemembered,weremarabouts,menofreligionandlearning.Theyhadnotraininginwarfare,andnofondnessforfighting.Butwhenitappearedtobenecessary,theydidnothesitatetothrowthemselvesintobattle.Andtheywereastonishinglygoodatit.

ABDEL-KADER’SEARLYYEARS

Abdel-Kaderwasbornin1807(or1808,accordingtosomesources)inthevillageofGuetna.Hewasnotthefirst-bornofMuhyiad-Din’ssons—hehadatleasttwoolderbrothers.Butfromhisbirth,hisfatherhadsensedthathewasahighlygiftedchildandhadgivenhimspecialattention.Thesonandgrandsonofimportantmarabouts,Abdel-Kaderwasconsciousoflivinguptohisheritagefromanearlyage.Hismother,LallaZohra,alsohadgreatinfluenceonhim.Apersonofgoodsenseandability,shewasalsoliterateandwelleducatedaboutreligion,whichwasmostunusualforawomanatthattime.SheplayedastrongsupportingrolethroughoutAbdel-Kader’slife.

GrowingupinGuetnagaveAbdel-Kaderrareadvantagesfromthestart.HereceivedanexcellenteducationattheQadiriyyabrotherhood’szawiya,whichhisfatherdirected.Azawiya,somethinglikeaEuropeanmonastery,wasacenterforlearning,religiousinstruction,andprayer.Italsoservedasahostelforthemanystudentswhocamefromfardistancesforhigherstudiesthere—andarefugeforpeoplefleeingthepainfulgripofOttomanjustice.

TheyoungAbdel-Kaderseemstohaveexcelledatjustabouteverythingheundertook.AtthezawiyahestudiedArabicgrammar,Islamiclaw,andtheholybookofIslamcalledtheKoran.Inadditionhespenttimewithascholarinanothervillagelearningmathematics,Greekphilosophy,astronomyandgeography,history,veterinaryscience,andevenplantpharmacology.Whenhewasfourteen,hisfathersenthimtoaschoolinOranforfurtherstudy.HisyearintownmadeAbdel-Kaderawareofthelureofluxuryandworldlypleasures—buttheywerenotforhim.ShockedbythearrogantandloosebehavioroftheTurks,Abdel-Kaderfocusedallthemoreonwhatheregardedasthebasic,truevaluesofIslam.HewasverygladtocomehometothesimplelifeatGuetna.

Astrikinglyhandsomeman,withdarkblueeyesandahighfore-head,Abdel-Kaderstoodalittleontheshortsidebutwasextremelyfitandstrong.Evenasachildhewasknownforhishorsemanship.Asanadulthecouldmanageahorseunderallconditions,includingdesertsurvival,andcouldendureextraordinarilylonghoursinthesaddle,coveringgreatdistances.Thisphysicalstrengthandstaminawouldservehimwellintheyearstocome.

AttheageoffifteenAbdel-Kaderwasmarriedtohiscousin,Kheira,aswascustomaryforayouthinhissocialposition.Itprovedagoodmarriage,althoughsheprobablysawverylittleofhimformanyyears.Overtime,Abdel-Kaderhadadditionalwives,sinceIslampermitsamantomarryuptofourwomen;butKheira,motherofthreeofhischildren,wasalwayshisfavoriteandatrustedadvisor.

Inthefallof1824,Muhyiad-Dindecided—overhiswife’sobjections—totakeAbdel-KaderonpilgrimagetotheholycitiesinArabia,animportantreligiousdutyexpectedofeveryMuslimifatallpossible.Manymembersoftheirtribeaccompaniedthem.Thereligiouspurposewasundoubtedlyofparamountimportance,buttheremayalsohavebeenapoliticalmotivebehindMuhyiad-Din’sdecisiontodepartatthistime.HeknewhewassuspectedofstirringupthetribesagainsttheOttomanrulers,andtheonlywayhecouldescapearrest—withoutappearanceofguilt—wastogoonpilgrimage.Inanycase,hisplanssoonwentawry.

TheOttomanrulerofOran,BeyHasan,hadimprisonedMuhyiad-Dininthepast.Now,learningaboutthelargecaravanofpilgrimsheadedeastward,hegrewsuspicious.HehadMuhyiad-DinandAbdel-Kaderarrested,andtheyhadgoodreasontofearfortheirlives.Fortunatelythebeydidnotdaregothatfar;hekeptthemunderhousearrestinOranforaboutayearbeforefinallyallowingthemtocontinueontheirtravels.

Muhyiad-DinandAbdel-KaderreachedtheholycityofMeccaforthepilgrimageandthentraveledfarandwideovertheMiddleEast.TheyspenttimeinAlexandria,Cairo,Damascus,Baghdad,andeventheChristianmonasteryofSaintCatherineintheheartoftheSinaiPeninsula.Abdel-Kadertook

advantageofthefamousmosquesandIslamicuniversitiesonhisitinerary,pursuinghisdeepinterestinreligionandphilosophy.BaghdadwasaparticularlyimportantstopbecauseitwastheburialplaceofthemedievalSufimysticwhohadfoundedtheQadiriyyabrotherhoodtowhichMuhyiad-DinandAbdel-Kaderbelonged.Abdal-Qadiral-JilanihadlivedinthetwelfthcenturyC.E.whenBaghdadwasagreatcenteroflearning,andpreachedacceptanceofthevalueofallreligions.Muhyiad-DinandAbdel-Kaderregardedhimasagreatlyesteemedancestor.

Towardtheendof1827thefatherandsonreturnedhome,“theirresourcesusedup,theirbodiesaching,buttheirsoulsfull.”1OntheirarrivalinGuetnatheywereshoweredwithhonorandaffection,andthecelebrationslastedforweeks.AfraidthatalltheexcitementmightmakethesuspiciousBeyHasancomeafterthemagain,Muhyiad-Dindecidedtokeepoutofthepubliceyeforayearorso.HeandAbdel-Kaderthereforedevotedthemselvestostudyandprayer,inthiswayavoidingthebey’sprisonswhilegaininginprestigeamongthetribesfortheirreputationofpiety.

ABDEL-KADERSTEPSFORWARD

ThisbringsthestoryuptothefirstyearsoftheFrenchconquestandMuhyiad-Din’seffortstorestoresomekindoforderinwesternAlgeria.Hehadmoreinmind.

InNovember1832,theAlgeriansfinallytookarestafterfailingtodislodgetheFrenchfromOran.Thetribalchiefsconvenedandarguedforanorganized,sustainedcampaign.Muhyiad-Din,explainingthathewasnolongerphysicallyabletocontinuethefight,proposedthathissontakeoverforhim.Earlier,whenhehadsuggestedthis,theotherchiefshadrefused;butnow,afterAbdel-Kader’sgoodshowinginbattle,theywillinglyacceptedhimastheirleader.

HowdidAbdel-Kaderrespond?Hisnaturalinclinationswereforquiet,peacefulpursuits—buthewasalsoamostobedientandloyalson.He,too,readilyacceptedthissuddenanddrasticchangeinhislife.

InthemostimportantmosqueinthenearbytownofMascara,beforealargeassemblyincludingtribalchiefs,marabouts,andleadersoftheJewishcommunity,aformalceremonygaveAbdel-Kaderthetitle“emir”(commander,prince)anddesignatedhim“CommanderoftheFaithful.”Hewastwenty-fiveyearsold.Inanymilitarycampaignitwouldhavebeenremarkableforamansoyoungtotakecommand...allthemoresoinasocietywhereageandexperiencewereasesteemedasinthetraditionalMuslimworld.

Abdel-Kaderclearlyhadthenaturalqualitiesforthejob,andhisfamily’sstatusandbackgroundaddedtohisprestige.Somethingelse,besidesthewidespreadcommonlongingforagoodleader,alsoworkedinhisfavor:theholdofmysticalreligiousbeliefsamonghispeople.Foryears,infact,miraculousstoriesabouthisbirthhadbeenpopularwiththetribespeople.NowthestoryspreadthatwhileinBaghdadonthepilgrimagetrip,Abdel-Kaderandhisfatherhadmetanoldmanwhoreferredtoa“sultan”—supremeruler—intheirgroup.Yes,peoplesaid,theoldmanmustactuallyhavebeenthefamousmedievalsaintAbdal-Qadiral-Jilanihimself,andhewasreferringtotheyoungAbdel-Kaderasafutureruler.

Muhyiad-Dinmadeapointofpublicizingthesestories,speakingoftenofmysteriousdream-likeencountersinwhichgreatnesswaspredictedforAbdel-Kader.Verypossiblyhehadbeenhoping—longbeforetheFrenchappearedonthescene—thatsomedayAbdel-KaderwouldleadpopularresistancetotheTurkishoppression.The“miracle”storiescirculatedamongthetribeslikeafinishingtouchtoMuhyiadDin’splansforhisson.

Thedramawasreadyforitshero,andAbdel-Kaderwasperfectlycastintherole.

CHAPTER3

THEEMIR’SSTRATEGYWiththebackingofthreeofthemostimportantwesterntribes,Abdel-KaderwasnowtheleaderofresistancetotheFrenchinvadersinthatarea.Whatsortofacommanderwouldhebe?Wouldthisquietmaraboutreallyhavetheskillsandcourageneededtocarryonprolongedandfiercewarfare?

Acoupleofyearsearlier,Abdel-Kaderhadgivenastrongdemonstrationofhispoliticalwisdomandhispowersofpersuasion.AstheOttomansystemwasfallingapartinthemonthsfollowingtheFrenchinvasion,BeyHasan—thesamemanwhohadimprisonedMuhyiad-DinandAbdel-Kaderontheirpilgrimagetrip—appealedtoMuhyiad-Dinforprotection.Strangetwistoffate!Muhyiad-Dincalledafamilycouncil,whodecidedthathonordemandedgenerosity.ButAbdel-Kader,onlytwenty-threeatthattime,pointedoutthatifsomethingshouldhappentotheir“guest”whileundertheirprotection—asindeeditmight,givenhiswell-knownlackofpopularity—Muhyiad-Dinwouldbeheldresponsibleandtheprestigeofhisfamilywouldsuffer.Abdel-Kader’sviews,expressedwiththegiftofeloquencethatservedhimallhislife,convincedtheothers.BeyHasanwasadvisedtolookelsewhere.

THEEMIRTAKESCHARGE

Abdel-Kaderhadlittletime,however,inwhichtodemonstratehisabilitytodealwithhardrealities.Hewaswellawarethathewouldhavetomanagetheenvy,ambition,andhostilityrunningthroughouttribalsociety.Themakhzentribes,afraidoflosingtheirentrenchedprivileges,especiallyresentedthenewEmir.

Hismostpressingjob,therefore,wastorestorelawandorder,whichmeantwinningoverthetribesandchiefswhohadnotyetdeclaredtheirsupport.Manywerescornfulofhisyouth.Most,determinedtokeeptheirownpower,wouldprovedisloyalunlessthoroughlyconvincedofhisstrongleadership.Abdel-Kadercouldusepersuasionwiththosewhowouldlisten,buthewouldhavetoundermine,outwit,orover-powerthosewhorefused.Hewentaboutthejobofconsolidatinghisstrengthinamannerthatwaswellplanned,deliberate,andwhennecessary,ruthless.

Sendingmessagestoallthetribesinthewesterndistrict,Abdel-Kadermadethreepointsclear.First,he,theEmirAbdel-Kader,hadbeenelectedastheauthenticleaderofthewesterntribes.Second,hisleadershipwouldaccordstrictlywithIslamiclawandprinciples,andhewouldexpectthesameofhisfollowers’behavior.Third—andperhapsmostimportantintheeyesofthetribesmen—hewouldleadjihadagainsttheEuropeaninvaders.Ashisfatherhadfoundearlier,itwouldbenexttoimpossibletomotivatethetribesunlesstheywereconvincedthattheywerefightingajihad.

WhatdidjihadmeantoAbdel-Kader?Thebasicmeaningofthisoftenpuzzlingconceptis“struggle.”FormostMuslimsthisusuallymeansindividualmoralstruggle—againsttemptation,badthoughts,andwickedacts:anythingthatwouldweakenaperson’sbeingagoodMuslim.Butjihadalsohasan

“outward”expression,leadingtoactualcombat.Insuchcases,thestruggleshouldbeforareligiouspurpose,typicallydescribedas“defendingIslamandMuslims.”

FortheAlgeriansunderAbdel-Kader,jihadwasindeeda“holywar.”ThisdidnotmeanconvertingtheChristianinvaderstoIslam,norharmingChristianEurope.Rather,jihadmeantthedefenseofMuslimpeopleagainsttheattackofnon-Muslimoutsiders.Ifnecessary,defensecouldevenmeanoffense:wagingoffensivecampaignsagainstthethreateningforces.

ButwhatwouldbetheultimateobjectiveofAbdel-Kader’sjihad?Thatwasnotsoclear.TodriveeverylastEuropeanfromtheshoresofAlgeriawouldbeneitherreasonablenornecessary.Inanycase,Abdel-Kaderknewthatifhewantedthetribestofollowhim,hewouldhavetocallloudlyandunmistakablyforjihad—eventhoughjihadmightsometimesbemoreofastrategythananabsolutedemand.

Inadditiontomotivation,theEmirneededacapitalcitythatwoulddemonstratehissupremacy.Thevillageofhisbirth,Guetna,wastoosmall,sohechosethenearbytownofMascara,whichhadastrategiclocationandmanycenturiesofhistoryandculture.HistriumphalentrytoMascara,inNovember1832,helpedwintheallegianceofmoretribes.Aseveryonecouldsee,herewasamanwho,inspiteofhisyouth,couldindeedcommand!

AnotheroftheEmir’susefulassetswashisSufibrotherhood,theQadiriyya.Thevariousbrotherhoodstendedtocompetewitheachother,soAbdel-Kaderactivelypromotedhisown.HesentoutagentstopromotetheQadiriyyabeliefsandhelpestablishnewcentersinbothtownsandtribalareas.Thisstrategyhelpedwidenandconsolidatehiscontrol,whileencouragingmoresupportforhiscause.

Meanwhile,therewasachallengetoAbdel-Kader’spowerfromtheSultanofMorocco,Abdar-Rahman,towhommanyofthewesternAlgeriantribeswereloyal.Abdel-Kaderfoundwaystoturnthesultan’sstrengthtohisownadvantage.Hewidelypromotedtheideathathe,too,wassubjecttoAbdar-Rahman’sauthorityandthathewas,infact,governinginthesultan’sname.Heevenpublicizedadocument,saidtobealetterfromAbdar-Rahman,thatexpressedsupportfortheEmir.Inshort,heusedeverystratagemandployhecouldtoconsolidatehisforces.

Allthistime,Muhyiad-Dinwasworkingvigorouslyashisson’sagent,travelingfromtribetotribe,explainingtheimportanceofwhatAbdel-Kaderwasdoingandwinningtheirsupport.ButonJuly20,1833,Muhyiad-Dindiedsuddenly.EventhisgrievouslossworkedtoAbdel-Kader’sadvantage,however,becauseitseemedtofulfillaprophecyfromoneofMuhyiad-Din’sdreamsaboutAbdel-Kaderbecomingthenewleader.ThishelpedconvincepeoplethatMuhyiad-Din’sbaraka,theblessingbelievedtohavebeendivinelybestowedonhim,wouldnowrestonAbdel-Kader.

CONFRONTINGTHEFRENCH

Havingmanagedtowintheallegianceofmostofthetribesinthewesternprovince,thismarabout-warriornowfeltreadytotakeontheFrencharmyinOran.Withtheirfarsuperiortrainingandweaponry,theFrenchforcescouldhavedefeatedtheAlgeriansfairlyeasily.Inspiteofthis,theydidnothavethemanpowerbothtofightinthecountrysideandtoholdontotheterritorytheyhadwon.Moreover,theEuropeanstyleofwarfare,withitspitchedbattles,wouldnotworkindealingwiththeArabs’irregularmethodoffighting.ThereforetheFrenchchosetostayinsidethewallsofOran,occasionallygoingouttomakepunitiveraidsonvillages.

Withhisadversariesmoreorlesslockedup,Abdel-Kadercouldpursuehisownstrategy.Experience

hadshownhimthatdirectmilitaryassaultsonOranwouldonlysacrificemorefightingmen.Theessentialmove,hedecided,wasasiegeoftheFrenchenclavesonthecoast,theenemy-heldtownsofOran,Mostaghanem,andArzew.Hewouldhavetodisruptthetradeinlivestock,grain,andproducethatcertaintribeswereengaginginwiththeFrenchenemy.Thistrade,atinflatedprices,hadproducedmuchwealthforsomeAlgerians,andnaturallytheydidnotwanttoloseit.Earlier,whenMuhyiad-Dinwasstilltheleaderofthecooperatingtribes,hehadfacedthesameproblemandhaddealtwithitharshly.AnyonecaughtsupplyingtheFrenchwithprovisionssufferedthelossofhisears,nose,andonehand.

Abdel-Kadertookanevenmoredrasticstep,declaringthatanyonewhodefiedhisordersagainsttradingwiththeFrenchwouldbeexecuted.Thesemeasures,showingthathemeantbusiness,helpedhimsuccessfullyimposeasiegeonthethreeFrench-heldtowns.TheinvaderswereforcedtodependonfoodandprovisionssuppliedbyseafromFrance,whichwasbothhazardousandcostly.

MeanwhiletheFrenchhadbeeninflictingconsiderabledamage.ThegeneralinchargeofOranorderedsuchruthlessmassacresofvillagersthathebecamenotoriousforhiscruelty.InApril1833,however,ashiftincommandputtheconflictonquiteadifferentfooting.Anewgeneral,Louis-AlexisDesmichels,tookchargeofOranandsoonbecamepainfullyawareofthehardshipscausedbyAbdel-Kader’ssiege.Hecouldalsoseethathisoccasionalforaysagainstthetribeswereonlystrengtheningsupportforhisadversary.HesentAbdel-Kaderaproposalforanexchangeofprisoners—andapeacetreaty.

ADOUBLE-EDGEDTREATYWITHTHEENEMY

Inhisresponsetothisopening,Abdel-Kaderdemonstratedhisgraspofpoliticalstrategy.HerejectedDesmichels’letteralmostrudely.Then,alittlelaterheinstructedhisagentinOran,anAlgerianJewskilledatdealingwithbothEuropeansandArabs,tosuggestthatthegeneraltryagain.Desmichelsdidso.ThistimeAbdel-KaderpointedoutthataccordingtoIslamiclaw,peacecouldbeconsidered—providedtheoffercamefirstfromthenon-Muslimside.ToDesmichels’thirdletter,Abdel-Kaderrespondedcourteously.InFebruary1834,throughtranslatorsandotherintermediaries,atreatywasworkedouttothesatisfactionofbothsides.

Butnottoeveryone’ssatisfaction.Thiscuriousagreement,usuallyknownastheDesmichelsTreaty,wasactuallytwotreaties,oneinFrenchandtheotherinArabic.Incertainimportantrespectstheywereactuallycontradictory—yetbothwereconsideredlegallyvalid.TheArabicversioncontainedasecretclauserecognizingAbdel-KaderasthecontrollingpowerinthewesternhalfofAlgeria.ThegovernmentinParisnaturallyexpectedjusttheopposite:theywantedFrancerecognizedasthesuperiorpower.Bythetimetheylearnedthetruth,thetreatywasalreadysignedandtheycoulddonothingaboutit.

UndertheDesmichelsTreaty—theArabicversion—theFrenchretainedcontrolovertheportsofOran,Mostaghanem,andArzew.SubjecttotheEmir’spermission,theycouldtradeintheterritoryhecontrolled.TheFrenchprisoners(foursoldierswhohadbeencaughtinanambush)werereleased.Inreturn,FrancewouldrecognizetheEmir’ssovereigntyovertherestofthewesternprovince,plushismonopolyontrade.ThetreatywasadiplomatictriumphforAbdel-Kaderandbroughtastoptohostilitiesandbloodshed—forawhile.

WhydidAbdel-KaderandGeneralDesmichelsbothagreetoatreatythatwould,insomeways,seemtobetheoppositeofwhattheywanted?InAbdel-Kader’scase,hehadtogiveupthecallforjihad,whichhadbeensoimportantinrallyingthetribestoaccepthisleadership.HealsohadtoallowtheFrencharmytoholdthecoastaltowns,andevenprotectthemifnecessary.Butapparentlyheconsidered

thisafairpricetopayforwhathereallywanted:breathingspace.Heneededtimetoconsolidatehispower,whichnowextendedovermorethanhalfofAlgeria,andtoreviveandorganizehispeople.Hisobjectivesweregrowingmoreambitiousandcomplex.

AsforDesmichels,heevidentlythoughtitinthebestinterestofFrancetohaveafirmalliancewiththestrongestpoweramongtheAlgerians.Indeed,heappearstohavebentoverbackwardtostrengthenAbdel-Kader.HenotonlyhelpedtheEmirextendhisauthorityeastward,healsogenerouslysuppliedarmsandmilitaryadvice—asthoughAbdel-KaderwasthepartnerofFranceratherthantheadversary.

Notsurprisingly,thepeaceachievedbytheDesmichelsTreatywasfragile.ThefuzzyquestionofwhowassovereignoverwhomangeredtheFrench,whowerealsoupsetaboutAbdel-Kader’smonopolyoftrade.Earlyin1835Desmichelswasrecalled—butapparentlynotindisgrace,ashewentontohaveasatisfactorymilitarycareer.

ThenewcommanderatOran,GeneralTrézel,promptlytriedtosetmattersstraight—forFrance.InJuneof1835,hesentamilitaryexpeditionagainstAbdel-Kader.Itwasadisaster.Abdel-Kader’smenambushedandutterlydestroyedtheFrenchforcesinswampystretchesaroundtheMactaRiver.AlthoughtheAlgeriansalsolostmanymen,itwasanimportantvictoryforthemandadevastatingblowtoFrenchmorale.

FortheFrench,thedefeatattheMactaRiverdemandedtheseverestpossibleretaliation.Abdel-Kadercouldseeitcoming,buthisrequesttorestorepeacewasrefusedbyCountBertrandClauzel,oneoftheprominentgeneralsduringthisperiod.HethensetupanetworkofintelligenceagentsinthetownsandalsosoughtsupportfromtheBritishandAmericanconsuls,althoughwithoutsuccess.

AstheDesmichelsTreatyunraveledduringthewinterof1835-36,Clauzeltookhisrevenge.Severalimportanttowns,includingtheEmir’scapital,Mascara,weredestroyed.WhenaFrenchofficerenteredMascaraafterthebombardment,hereported:

WhatIsawthenwasthemosthideousspectacleIhaveeverwitnessed.Ihadneverimaginedwhatasackedcity,wherenumerousinhabitantshavebeenmassacred,wouldbelike....Notasingleobjectremaineduntouched,thehouseswereinflame...1

Withinsufficientmanpower,theFrenchagaindecidednottoholdtheseruinedcities.HencethecountrysideoutsidetheFrench-heldtownsonthecoastremainedunderAbdel-Kader’scontrol.

RESISTANCEANDRIVALRYINTHEEASTERNPARTOFALGERIA

AlthoughAbdel-KaderwasnowmasterofthelargerpartofAlgeriaandaimingtounifytheentirecountry,anothermanwastryingtodothesamethingintheeasternpart.HajjAhmed,fromapowerfulAlgerianfamilyinConstantine,hadassertedhimselfasthenewrulerofConstantineassoonastheTurksleft.WhileheconsideredtheareastillpartoftheOttomanEmpire,hedidmakechangestowardafairersystemofrule.

InevitablyacontestwasshapingupbetweenHajjAhmedandAbdel-Kader.In1833HajjAhmedaskedtheOttomansultantodesignatehimtheruleroftheentirecountry.In1835,afterAbdel-KaderhadcalledoffthejihadbecauseoftheDesmichelsTreaty,Ahmedtriedtokeepitgoing—intheEmir’sterritory.

TheFrenchtriedrepeatedlytowinHajjAhmed’ssupport,butherefusedtorecognizeFrenchcontrolofanyform.Finally,inthefallof1836,GeneralClauzeldecidedtodestroyArabresistanceintheeasternpartofthecountryandsentanarmyofaboutseventhousandfivehundredtoseizeConstantine.Theymetathoroughdefeat.

ThisconvincedtheFrenchMinistryofWarthattheirarmiescouldnotfightsimultaneouslyindifferentpartsofthecountry.SinceAbdel-Kaderhadshownwillingnesstonegotiate,perhapsitwastimetotakehimoutofthepictureagainwithanothertreaty?TheFrenchgeneralwhocarriedoutthesenegotiations,Thomas-RobertBugeaud,alsowantedaninterludeofpeace.InMay1837hesignedanewagreementwithAbdel-Kader,theTreatyofTafna(ariverinwesternAlgeria),whichcededalmostallofthewesternandcentralpartsofAlgeriatoAbdel-Kader.

WiththeEmirobservingpeaceforthetimebeing,theFrenchpromptlysetouttoseekrevengefortheirhumiliatingdefeatatConstantineafewmonthsearlier.Thistimetheysucceeded,destroyingacitythathadbeenacenteroflearningandcultureforhundredsofyears.Alargenumberofitsinhabitantsdied,manyofthemfallingintothegorgesaroundthecitywhiletryingtoflee.HajjAhmedescapedandremainedafugitiveandguerillafighterforseveralmoreyears.

Abdel-Kader’sdecisiontostepoutofthefight,whenitwasclearthattheFrenchwerepreparingforanotherassaultonConstantine,raisesquestions.ItcouldbeseenastheEmir’swayofgettingbackatHajjAhmedforhisearlierchallenges.Therewasmoretotheconflictthanpersonalrivalry,however.ThetwomendifferedsignificantlyintheirviewsofAlgeria’sfuture.HajjAhmedwantedtocontinueOttoman-stylerule,basedontraditionalpowerfulfamilies.Abdel-Kader,tryingtoreviveasocietyweakforhundredsofyears,wantedamuchmoreprogressivesystem.HisvisionforAlgeriawas,infact,atrulyrevolutionarychangefromthepast—andoneofthemoststrikingfeaturesofhisfightforfreedom.

CHAPTER4

ABDEL-KADER’SVISIONFORHISPEOPLE

Manyafreedomfighterhasledabravestruggleagainstoppression,butwithlittlethoughtaboutwhattodowhenthefightingwasover.Abdel-Kaderwasdifferent.Hedidknowwhathewantedforhispeople’sfuture:aunifiedAlgerianstatewithagovernmentbasedonlawandjustice.Buthowdoesaleadercreateanewstate,startingwithalmostnothing?Despitetheever-presentthreatofwarfareonthehorizon,Abdel-Kader’svisionwassowellplannedandcarriedoutthatitdeservesacloselook.

WHATABDEL-KADERHADTOWORKWITH

TheEmir’snewstatewouldbealmostcompletelydifferentfromtheOttomanregency.TheoldregimehaddependedonrulersfromoutsideAlgeria,withasocialhierarchythatkeptthenativepeopleatthebottom.Itspracticeofdivide-and-rulewasenforcedbyforeignsoldiers,whileastagnantsystemofgovernmentpermittednopoliticalorsocialprogress.

Incontrast,Abdel-KaderwantedtoputintoactionhisdevoutcommitmenttoIslambybuildingasocietybasedonIslamicprinciples.Noquestionof“separationofreligionandstate.”ToAbdel-Kader,andtomostMuslimsandmanyChristiansatthattime,goodgovernmentwasbasedontheproperunderstandingandpracticeofreligion.

ThankstothetwotreatieswiththeFrench,theDesmichelsTreatyin1834andtheTafnaTreatyof1837,Abdel-Kaderhadaboutfiveyearsofpeace—orrather,onlyintermittentwarfare.ThisgavehimthechancetotrytomakeAlgeriansocietymorecohesive,lawful,andultimatelypeaceful.Itwasnot,however,justadmirableprinciplesthatmotivatedtheEmir.Bybeingheadofanorganizedpoliticalentity,hewouldhavemuchmoreprestigeandleveragethanifheweresimplytheleaderofagroupofrebellioustribes.Asa“worthyopponent,”hecouldbetterresisttheFrenchadversariesduringtimesofconflict,andbargainmoresuccessfullyduringtheperiodsofpeace.

Inhiseffortstoconsolidatetribalsociety,Abdel-Kaderhadtoworkwithintheexistingsystem,knowingthathecouldnottrytochangeittooquickly.Butevenmovingcarefully,hemetresistance.Tribeswoulddecidetobreakawaywhenevertheirconfidenceinhimwavered,orwhen,foronereasonoranother,theyfeltittotheiradvantagetodoso.ThenAbdel-Kaderwouldhavetofindsomewaytopersuadethemtorenewtheirloyalty.TheBerberskeptaloofintheirmountainousstrongholds,andtheArabsresentedtheBerbers,especiallytheveryfewwhowerepartofAbdel-Kader’sadministration.Andtherewasalwaysdistrustbetweenurbanandruralpopulations.

Recognizingthatifthetribesoffseteachothers’power,theywouldfindithardertouniteagainsthim,Abdel-Kaderhadtomakeinter-tribalrivalryworkinhisfavor.Sometimeswhenatriberefusedtopaytheirtaxes,forinstance,orfollowtheEmir’sleadershipinbattle,hehadarivaltribecarryout

punishmentbythetraditionalmeansofraidingandpillaging.

THESHAPEOFABDEL-KADER’SSTATE

Abdel-Kaderdidnottrytoencouragefriendlyrelations,cooperation,andasenseofsolidarityamongthetribes.Thatwouldhavebeenahopelesstask.Democracyandequalitywerenotpartofthestateheenvisagedatthisstage.Rather,thetribesweregovernedbyahierarchyofofficials,likeapyramid,withAbdel-Kaderatthetop.Ineffect,Abdel-Kadercontinuedthe“divideandrule”systemoftheoldOttomangovernment—allthewhileaimingataunifiedsocietyandafairsystemofgovernment.Itwasaverydifficultbalancingact.

Increatingtheadministrationofhisstate,itwouldhavebeennaturalfortheEmirtochoosemenfromhisownclass,themarabouts,becauseoftheireducationandreputationforwisdomandvirtue.Butherealizedthatpracticalconsiderationsmustoftenoutweighprinciples.HechosemanyofficialswhohadactuallyservedundertheTurks,becausesomecontinuitywasimportantandtheirexperiencewouldbeneeded.Attimesacandidate’swealthandfamilyconnectionswouldbemoreimportantthanhisabilityandcharacter.IngeneraltheEmirdrewhisofficialsfromtheeliteclasses,althoughfromamuchwiderrangeofbackgrounds—tribal,urban,religious—thanhadbeentrueunderOttomanrule.

Abdel-Kaderdividedhisterritoryintoroughlyequalpartscalledkhalifaliks.Atfirsttherewerefour,andfourmorewereaddedaftertheTreatyofTafnahadgreatlyexpandedtheEmir’sterritory.Themaninchargeofeachkhalifalikwasakhalifa,likea“lieutenantgovernor.”ThesewereAbdel-Kader’sright-handmenandmosttrustedadvisers.Theywereresponsibleforcollectingtaxes,maintainingfightingtroops,andhandlingcomplaints.

Eachkhalifalikwassubdividedintoaghaliks,whichgenerallycorrespondedtothetribaldivisionsofland.Theywereallsupposedtoobeythesamelawsandfollowthesameadministrativeprocedures.Abdel-Kaderappointedtheofficialsinchargeofeachlevelofadministration:khalifas,aghas,qaids(chiefsatthetriballevel),andshaykhs(chiefsofsubdivisionswithintribes).Healsoappointedjudges,calledqadis,andaimedatauniform,fair,andresponsivejudicialsystem.Theqadiswereevengivensalaries—anewidea,intendedtodiscouragecorruption.

Forthetimeandplace,thisadministrativesystemwasaradicalconcept.Previously,Algeriansocietyhadbeenamatterofeachtribeforitself,withharshdisciplineimposedbytheregencygovernmentwhenthingsgotoutofhand.

RAISINGMONEYFORANEWSTATE

Traditionaltribalsocietysoonmetfurtherchallenges.Abdel-Kaderabolishedtheprivilegesofthepowerfulmakhzentribes,whohadcollectedtaxesfromtherayah,“subject”tribes.ThisnaturallyangeredthemakhzenandencouragedthemtocollaboratewiththeFrench,butitpleasedeveryoneelse.Atthesametime,theEmirretainedthebasicsystemforcollectingtaxes.Theprincipaltribeineachaghalikwasdesignatedasthenewtax-collector,andthesetribesbecamethenewmakhzentribes.Sincethereweremoreofthem,theirpowerwasspreadmorethinlyandwaslessofapotentialthreattotheEmir’sleadership.

Abdel-Kadertookapragmaticapproachtotaxationinanotherwayaswell.Heabolishedthemuch-resentedtaximposedbytheOttomangovernmentandreplaceditwiththetraditionaltaxesspecifiedunderIslamiclaw.(Thesewerethezakattaxinthespring,3-4%ofproduceandotherwealth,andtheushrin

thefall,10%ofthegrain.)Inaddition,whentribessubmittedtotheEmir’sleadershipandwhenadministrativeofficialswereappointed,theywereexpectedtopaycertainfeesandsend“gifts.”

Astrong,unifiedgovernmentneededmuchmoreincome,andfarmorereliably,thanjustthosetaxesandgifts.Consequently,AbdelKaderdecidedtosetnewtaxes,whichdidnothaveabasisinreligiouslaw.Mostimportantwasataxespeciallyforfightingjihad,whichhestartedlevyingin1834.Thejihadtaxwascollectedduringpeacetimesaswellasduringwarandbecameanessentialsourceofincomeforthestate.

Butthetribes,muchastheylikedfightingjihad,hatedhavingtopayforit.Ingeneral,theyseizedeveryopportunitytoavoidpayingthejihadtax,andAbdel-Kader,relyingonthekhalifas’forces,constantlyhadtokeepafterthem.AtonepointhewrotetoaFrenchgeneral,franklyrevealinghisfrustrations:

TheArabpeoplearesoconstitutedthatiftheyhadnotseen[thekhalifa’spowerfulforces],theywouldhaverefusedtopaythetax.Afterasuccessonyourpart[i.e.,theFrench],howoftendidIencounterdifficultiesingatheringthecontributions!1

Whenhostilitiesdidbreakout,sometribesreasonedthattheEmirwouldbetoobusytopayattentiontothem,sotheycouldsimply“forget”topaytheirtaxes—andtaketheirchancesongettingcaught.Evenunderthebestofconditions,theproblemofinequalityintaxationwasapersistentproblem.Sometribespaidlittle,especiallythoseatthemarginsoftheEmir’sstateandpower,whileotherspaidheavily.

Abdel-Kader’spersonalcharacterandvaluesservedhimwellinthematteroftaxation,asinsomanyotherways.Helivedverysimplyandhadnointerestinostentatiousluxuryorwealth.Thushecouldconvincinglyclaimthatallthewealthcollectedastaxesandgiftswentforthecommongoodandnotforhispersonalgain.That,too,wassomethingnewandrevolutionaryinthegovernanceofAlgeria.

FORMINGANARMY

Atthesametimethatthesepotentiallyfar-reachingchangesweretakingshape,theAlgerianscouldnotforgetthattheywereatwar—orsoonwouldbeagain.Indeed,buildingandmaintainingafightingforcewasthemostpressingjobofAbdel-Kader’sstate.Hehadtobeabletocountonarealarmy—notjustthetribalwarriors,whotypicallyservedforonlyafewdaysatatime.Infact,thetribaltroopswerenotpaidandhadtoprovidetheirownfood,weapons,andsupplies.LittlewonderthattheEmircouldnotrelyonthemmuch.

Intryingtoestablishanarmy,Abdel-Kadermaywellhavebeeninspiredbyoneoftheexperiencesofhisyouth.Whenheandhisfathermadetheirpilgrimageinthemid-1820s,stoppinginCairoforsometime,theywerewelcomedbytherulerofEgypt,MuhammadAli.Thisextraordinaryindividual,startingoutasanOttomansoldierstationedinEgypt,hadseizedpowerin1805inthemostlong-lastingrevolutioninmodernMiddleEasternhistory.(HisdirectdescendantsruledEgyptuntil1952,whenEgyptianarmyofficersdroveoutthelastking.)AimingtocreateastrongstatethatcouldstanduptoboththeOttomanEmpireandtheEuropeanstates,MuhammadAlihadquicklyintroducedmanyreforms,especiallyaffectingthemilitaryforces.HissuccessinmodernizinghisarmymadealastingimpressiononthevisitorsfromAlgeria.

Abdel-Kader,however,hadtomoveevenmorequickly,buildinghisstateandhisfightingforcesimultaneously.Astrongarmywouldhavetobesupportedbyastrongeconomy,soheencouraged

agriculture,especiallygrain,whichhadagoodmarketinEurope.Hissoldierswouldneedarmsandotherequipment,andhewantedtobeasself-sufficientaspossible.Therefore,hestartedanumberofindustrialoperationsonamodestscale,suchassawmills,tanneries,andforges,oftenwithhelpfromEuropeans.Therewasnotenoughtime,though,fortheseattemptsatmoderntechnologytogetofftoagoodstart.

Asforthearmyitself,Abdel-Kadermaintainedacorpsofpaid“lifetime”soldiers.Mostlyinfantry,theirnumbersrangedfromaroundsixthousandtoasmanyasninethousandfivehundredmen,accordingtovariousestimates.Inadditionhedependedonamuchlargernumberofcavalrymenandinfantrymenfromthetribes,whereoneofthekhalifas’maindutieswastokeeptroopsreadytojointheEmir’sarmywhenneeded.Historianshaveestimatedthatattheheightofhismilitarybuildup,in1840,Abdel-Kadercouldcommandaroundseventy-fivetoeightythousandmen.In1843hewroteabookletofrules,regulations,andstandardsforthearmy,withallpromotionstobemadebytheEmirhimself.TheFrenchweresoimpressedbythisbookletthattheytranslateditnofewerthansixtimes.

DuringtheperiodofpeaceundertheDesmichelsTreaty,theFrenchmilitaryactuallyprovidedinstructionforAbdel-Kader’sarmy,plusuniforms,arms,andartillery.TheEmirwashappytoacceptthishelp.Whatevermilitaryexpertisehecouldacquirefromhisadversaries—whostillregardedhimasavaluableallyatthattime—wasawelcomeboosttohisownplans.

ThemilitaryeffectivenessofAbdel-Kader’sarmy,however,wasanothermatter.Theconceptofaregular,trainedarmywasentirelynewfortheAlgerians,whohadhadnomilitaryexperienceundertheOttomans.TheEmir’suniformedandexcellenthorsemenlookedveryimpressive;butwhenthecommanderofcavalrytriedtopersuadethemtoundergotraininglikethatoftheFrenchcavalry,hegotnowhere.Theyhadcompleteconfidenceintheirabilitiesasindividualhorsemenandfighters,butfightingasaunitwasthelastthingontheirminds.

TheEmirwantedavolunteerarmy.Whilehisfirstcallsattractedmanyyoungmen,unfortunately,ifnotsurprisingly,theirenthusiasmforthesoldier’slifequicklyfaded.Beforelonghehadtoresorttoconscription.ThequalityofsoldiersandtheirpreparationmusthavedisappointedAbdel-Kaderinthefirstyears,butby1839thetroopswerereasonablywelltrainedandequipped.Withallitsproblems,theregulararmyprovedtheEmir’smosteffectivemeansofextendingandconsolidatinghiscontrol.

Bythelate1830s,Abdel-Kaderhadlaidthefoundationsofanewsocialorganizationandastatecoveringabouttwo-thirdsofthetotalterritoryofAlgeria.WhiledeterminedtomakeIslamthefoundationforhisgovernment,hewasapoliticalthinkerastuteenoughtoknowwhenandhowtobeflexible.Heoftenfacedproblemsandparadoxesthatforcedhimtomakedecisionsthathemightnototherwisehavechosen.Thejihadtaxwasagoodexample:becausethetaxwasresistedbythetribes,theEmirhadtoaccepthisFrenchadversaries’helpforhisarmy—whichwouldsoonbefightingthoseveryadversaries.

Evenatitsmostsuccessful,in1838-39,Abdel-Kader’sstatewasaloosecreation,heldtogetherbylittlemorethanhisownremarkableskillsandbyreligion,especiallythecallforjihad.Manycircumstances—theobstaclesimposedbytribalsociety,theAlgerians’lackofexperienceinself-government,thetechnologicallymoreadvancedinvaders—workedagainstit.Yet,designedandsetupinanextremelyshorttime,hisstatewasnotonlythefirstcompletelyindigenousgovernmentinhundredsofyears,butwasalsoorganizedmorefairlyandrunmorehumanelythananyothergovernmentinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEastatthattime.

EventhoughAbdel-Kader’sstatelastedonlyafewyears,hisvisionofnewsocialandpoliticalpossibilitieswasquiteamazing.Whatmighthehaveaccomplished,inbringinghispeopleintothefast-changingworldofthenineteenthcentury,ifhehadreallybeenabletopursuehisdreamofanidealIslamicstate?

CHAPTER5

FRENCHMENINTHEEMIR’SLIFEWhiledealingwiththeweaknesses,needs,andpotentialofhisownsociety,Abdel-Kaderwasalsogrowingmoreawareofthenatureofhisadversaries—notjusttheFrencharmy’swantoncrueltybuttheirapparentlackofreligiousfaith.Thiswasparticularlybafflingtohim.HowcouldapeopleconsiderthemselvesagreatcivilizationiftheyhadforgottenGod?

ButnotallFrenchmenimpressedhimasirreligious.ThreemenwhocameintoAbdel-Kader’slifeatthistime,thelate1830sandearly’40s,wereindividualsinwhoselivesreligionplayedavitalpart—inonewayoranother.Thesemen,LéonRochesontheonehand,andtheBishopofAlgiersandhisassistantpriestontheother,couldnothavebeenmoredifferent,norcouldtheirstorieshavebeenagreatercontrast.YetallformedlonganddeepfriendshipswiththeEmir.Thesefriendships,shapedinwartime,foreshadowedAbdel-Kader’sabilitytodevelopmeaningfulrelationshipswithpeopleofvariedbackgrounds,religiousleanings,andmoralqualities,whichbecamesuchastrikingaspectofhispersonalityinlateryears.

LÉONROCHES

Ayoungcavalrylieutenant,LéonRochestaughthimselfArabicsowellthathesoonbecameanofficialtranslatorfortheFrencharmy.InNovemberof1837,however,hedecidedtodeserthispost,findtheEmir,andofferhisservices.Thatinitselfwasnotextraordinary,asafewhundredotherEuropeanshadalreadythrownintheirlotwiththeAlgerians.ButRochesseemstohavehadaspecialobjective.HewassufferingfromhopelessloveforayoungAlgerianwoman,andhedreamedthatworkingwiththeEmirwouldsomehowhelphimtofindheragain.Also,heseemstohavebeendeterminedtoleadasadventurousalifeashumanlypossible.

OnceAbdel-KaderhadassuredhimselfthatRocheswasnotaspy,hemadetheFrenchmanhispersonaladvisorandsecretary.Thetwomensoonhadbothasuccessfulworkingrelationshipandawarmfriendship.ItwasallthewarmerbecauseRochessaidhehadconvertedtoIslam.HisdescriptionsofAbdel-Kaderinwide-ranging,sometimescontradictorymoods,includingwhatappearedtobespiritualexaltation,areamongthemostdetailedandintimateofthemanyreportswrittenabouttheEmir.“Whenheprays,heisanascetic;whenhecommands,heisasovereign;whenhespeaksofwar,hisfeatureslightup—heisasoldier.”1

Roches’storysoundslikeafirst-rateadventurefilm.NotlongafterhehadjoinedtheEmir’scamp,forinstance,hewasforcedtowitness—withoutbetrayingeventheslightestflickerofemotion—theswiftbe-headingofcapturedtribalfighterswhohadresistedtheEmir’scampaignagainsttheirmountainstronghold.InthatmomentRochessawtheintenseangerthatAbdel-Kaderwascapableof—andthemercythatcouldjustasquicklyreplaceit.

ThepunishmentofthesemenwasanexampleoftheEmir’songoingstruggletokeepthetribeswithhim.Heknewthattheirloyaltiescouldneverbetakenforgranted,andhehadtoconstantlyimpressthemwithhisstrengthandcontrol.ItwaslargelyforthesamereasonthatAbdel-KaderundertookanastonishingcampaignintotheSaharadesertinJuneof1838,anexpeditionthatprovidedLéonRocheswithalltheadventurehecouldpossiblyhavehopedfor.

Abdel-KaderhadreceivedinformationthatanimportanttriballeadernamedMuhammadat-Tijaniwasplanningrebellion.Theinformationwasapparentlyfalseandmaliciouslyintended,butAbdel-Kaderwasunawareofthedeceptionanddecidedtodealwiththematterseriously.Thesupposedtroublemakerwasalsoanesteemedmaraboutandheadofareligiousbrotherhood.Hispalace,containingafabuloustreasure,waslocatedinsideaheavilyfortifiedcompoundinanoasiscalledAinMadhi,deepintheSaharaabouttwohundredmilessouthofAlgiers.Abdel-Kader,inmarchinghisarmy—possiblyfourorfivethousandsoldierswiththeirfamilies,pluscavalryandartillery—fornearlythreeweeksthroughthedesert,sentanunmistakablemessage.Don’tdefyme—Iwillstopatnothingtosubdueyou.

WhydidtheEmirundertakesuchadifficultandcostlyexpedition?Ashesawit,hehadtobringTijani’ssmallbutstrategictownintothenewstatehewasbuilding,whichheconsideredareligiousaswellasapoliticalcreation.Itwouldnotberight—orpoliticallywise—toleaveanimportantmaraboutoutside.Furthermore,iftheEmirshouldlosehistownsandfortificationsinthesettledpartofthecountry,hemightneedtofallbackonareliablebaseintheSahara.Andsohemarchedon,throughsummerheat.

WhenAbdel-Kader’sarmywasnearAinMadhi,hesentamessagedemandingthatTijaniaccepthisleadership.Tijanireplied,denyinganydisloyaltybutalsoflatlyrefusingtomeetwiththeEmir.Abdel-KaderrefusedtoacceptsuchdefianceandbeganaEuropean-stylesiegethatlastedmorethanfourmonths.Duringthestandoff,hehadtimetosendforcannons,explosives,andotherequipmentforsiege—someprovidedbytheFrench.Buthowtodeterminethestrengthofthosewalls?

LéonRochespromptlyvolunteeredtogetinside—ordieintheattempt.Reluctantly,Abdel-Kaderallowedhimtotry.RochesmanagedtogetinsideandevenspoketoTijaniinperson.HereturnedunharmedtoAbdel-Kader,withvitalinformationaboutthefortifications—andTijani’scontinueddefiance.

Abdel-Kadergaveorderstodigtunnelsunderthewalls.Thiswentonformuchofthesummerandoccasionallyproducedbloodyencounterswiththedefenders.Finally,deceivedbyapossibleruse,Tijanigaveup.Withallhispeopleandhistreasure,heagreedtoleave,paytheEmir’sexpensesforthewholecampaign,andmakenofurthertrouble.Whenthefortwasempty,Abdel-Kaderhaditblownup.Butitseemstohavebeenawastedvictory,becauseassoonasAbdel-Kaderwasbusywithwaragain,Tijanireturned,rebuilthisfort,andwentovertotheFrench.

Inanyevent,Roches’closefriendshipwiththeEmircontinued.Inspiteofthejealousyofothersinthecamp,Abdel-KaderincreasinglyreliedontheFrenchmanasthelikelihoodofresumedwarfaregrewcloser.NotonlydidRochestranslateFrenchnewspapersanddocumentsandwritetheEmir’scommunicationswiththeFrench,buthemadesignificantimprovementsinmanagingthearmyandthetribes.

ThencameadarkeveningattheendofOctober1839,whenAbdel-Kaderlearnedthatoutbreakofwarwasalmostimminent.TotheEmir’ssurprise,Rochesreactedwithobvioussadness.Overcomebytornloyalties,hecouldnotfaceactualwarfareagainsthisowncountrymen—andatlasthetoldAbdel-Kaderthetruth.HehadnotconvertedtoIslam,hewasstillaChristian.Hewaswillingtopaytheultimatepriceforhisdeception,buthecouldnolongerconcealthereality.

Abdel-Kaderwasstunned.Hebeggedandpleaded,stormedanddenounced.FinallyhedroveRochesfromhistent.Afewdayslater,sickwithfever,RochesmanagedtoescapetoFrenchlines—veryprobablybecausetheEmirhadpurposelyallowedhimtoslipaway.AtfirstRocheswastreatedwithsuspicion,butbeforelongtheFrenchgeneralsweresatisfiedthathewasnotaspy.WithhisknowledgeofArabichesoonbecameoneofBugeaud’sright-handmenandaninvaluablesourceofinformationfortheFrenchgeneral’scampaigns.

Remarkably,thepainfulbreakwasnottheendofthisrelationship,andLéonRocheswouldreappearintheEmir’sstory.

BISHOPDUPUCHANDFATHERSUCHET

Onedayinthespringof1841,whenintensefightinghadresumed,Abdel-KaderreceivedaletterfromtheBishopofAlgiers,Antoine-AdolpheDupuch.Thebishophadbeenapproachedbyawomanaskinghisassistanceinobtainingreleaseofherhusband,aprisoneroftheEmir’sforces.Dupuch,whocouldneverresistacallforhelp,decidedtowritedirectlytotheEmir.

Abdel-Kader,amasterofpersuasion,wroteback.Hehadheardmuchaboutthebishop’shumanityandChristiancharity,hesaid;butwhyaskforthereleaseofonlyoneman?WhynotalltheFrenchprisoners?Andforthatmatter,whynotreleaseanequalnumberofAlgerianprisoners,manyoftheminnocentvillagers?Thebishopthoughtaprisonerexchangewasafineidea.AsheexplainedittotheFrenchgenerals,itwouldadvancethecausenotonlyofFrenchcivilizationbutofChristianity,throughnobleexample.TheFrenchgeneralswerenotatallimpressed,butgrudginglytheygavepermissiontoproceed.

BishopDupuch,afterseeingtoitthattheMuslimprisonersweregivendecentclothes,designatedanotherpriest,FatherJacquesSuchet,tocarryouttheprisonerexchange.AtroopofonehundredandthirtyAlgeriancivilianssetoutonMay17,1841,foracertainlocation.Thewomenandchildrenrodeinrentedcarriages,themenwalked,andtheprisonerexchangesucceeded.TheAlgerianprisonersreportedfavorablyonthebishop’skindnesstowardthem.Anexchangeofgiftssealedtheagreement:aclockandtwocandelabrasfortheAlgerians,aherdofgoatsforthebishop.

ThereweremoreFrenchprisoners,however.Dupuchwantedtofreethem,too,andagainFatherSuchetagreedtotakeonthejob.ThistimehehadtogodeepintohostileterritoryandtrytomeettheEmirhimself.Hetookwithhimaquantityofmedicalsupplies,knowingtheywerealwaysneededamongthetribes.

UponmeetingAbdel-Kader’srepresentative,SuchetwastreatedcourteouslybuttoldthatnoonehadanyideawheretheEmirmightbefound.Itwasveryprobablytrue.AnessentialpartoftheEmir’swarplanwastokeepconstantlyonthemove,coveringanimmenseterritory.AyoungAlgerianguidewasassignedtothepriest,andtheyspentseveraldaysvigorouslyhikingfromoneplacetoanother.Atlonglast,somewherenearMascaratheyfoundAbdel-Kader,sittingunderafigtree.

Thepriest,likesomanyotherEuropeanswhoactuallymettheEmir,wassurprisedathismildappearanceandquietmanner.Officialpropaganda,ofcourse,haddescribedhimasafierceandbloodthirstybarbarian.Abdel-KaderwelcomedSuchetandexpressedappreciationforthekindnesstowardtheAlgerianprisoners.Thetwomensattogetherunderthetreeandnegotiated,usingtheEmir’sinterpreter.Abdel-KaderagreedtoreleasesomefiftyadditionalFrenchprisoners,evenwithoutanequalnumberofAlgerianprisonersinexchange.

ThentheystartedtalkingaboutwhatreallyinterestedtheEmir:religiousfaith.

Whilegrowingup,Abdel-Kaderhadlearnedsomethingaboutotherreligionsfrombooks,buthehadnotknownanyChristiansuntiltheFrenchinvasion—whichhadinitiallyseemedtohimlikea“crusade,”anattackonIslam.AshemetmoreFrenchmen,hewaslearningmoreaboutChristianity,forbetterandworse.NowhewelcomedthechancetotalkwithadevoutandknowledgeableChristian,fortherewerecertainquestionsthatpuzzledhim.

Forinstance,thedivinenatureofJesusChrist—abasicquestion,becauseMuslimsesteemJesusasaprophetbutdonotbelievehewasofthesamenatureasGod.Abdel-KaderalsowantedtounderstandthepurposeofCatholicpriestsbetter.Suchetsaidthattheirministrywastotreatallmen,regardlessofreligion,asbrothers.Butwhy,askedAbdel-Kader,didn’tallFrenchmenobservethebeliefsoftheirreligion?Suchetansweredwiththesamequestion:whydidn’tallMuslimsobservetheteachingsoftheirreligion?Abdel-Kadercouldonlyimplythatheagreed.HisfellowMuslims’ignoranceoftrueIslamwasaconstantgrieftohim.

Attheendofthisdifficultbutsurprisinglyfruitfulexpedition,SuchetbroughtBishopDupuchaglowingreport.Prisoners-of-warwouldbeallowedtowritetotheirfamilies,andtheEmirhadevenagreedtoallowCatholicprieststostaywithFrenchprisoners.

ButSuchet’sreportwasasfarasthetwopriestsgotwiththeirgoodintentions.AgainBugeaudandhisgeneralssteppedinandputastoptoideasabouttreatinghumanelywiththeenemy.Nopriestsforprisoners,nosofteningofBugeaud’spolicyofbruteforceanddestruction,absolutelynofurthercommunicationwiththeEmir.Warwasagrimbusiness.ItwouldbedemoralizingforFrenchtroopstoaccepttheideathattheAlgeriansandtheirleaderweregoodpeople.Muchbettertothinkofthemasmonsterstobefeared,hated,andultimatelydestroyed.

CHAPTER6

WAROFTOTALCONQUESTEarlyin1839,Abdel-KaderwroteasurprisinglettertotheSultanofMorocco.Hispeople,hesaid,werefinallyunitedandlawful—somuchsothat“ayounggirlcouldcrossthecountryalone,easttowest,nightorday,withoutfearofasinglebadencounter.”1

Bythefallof1839,however,bothFrenchandAlgerianswereitchingtostartfightingagain.Whathadhappened—andwhywouldeithersidehavepreferredthehorrorsofwartoeventheuneasypeaceachievedbytheTafnaTreaty?

Themomentofoptimismhadpassed.Abdel-Kaderknewthatifheheldtothetruceinhopesofgainingstrength,hisadversarywouldsurelygrowevenstronger.EuropeansettlerswerearrivingallthetimeandseizingtheAlgerians’land.Themostcompellingreasonforrenewinghostilities,however,wasthatdelaywouldundermineAbdel-Kader’sownstrength.Hiscouncilorskeptremindinghimthathemustrevivethecallforjihad,orthetribeswouldnotstaywithhim.Andwhyshouldtheyhavetopaythespecialjihadtaxiftheyweren’tfightingjihad?SometriballeaderseventhoughtAbdel-Kader’streatywiththeFrench,whichlookedmorelikeanalliance,madehimapoorleaderofjihad.

TheinterludeofpeacehadgivenAbdel-Kadertimetostartonhisgrandplanofrevitalizinghispeopleandformingaunifiedstate.ButifthetribesdefectedandmadetheirownpeacewiththeFrench,hisAlgerianstatewouldsoondisintegrate.Hewouldhavetosetasidethatgoalforawhileandtakedirectactionagainsttheinvaders.

TheFrench,meanwhile,werestilldebatingthebasicquestion:shouldtheylimittheircontroltoafewcoastaltownsplussomesettlementsoninteriorplainsnearAlgiers—orgoall-outandtakethewholecountry?Voicesforthelatterchoiceweregrowinglouder.

ThenfreshscandaleruptedovertheTafnaTreaty.TheFrenchgovernmenthadalwaysdislikedthetreatybecauseitgaveAbdel-Kadersomuchterritory,andnowsecretprovisionsrevealedthatthankstotheEmir’sskillfulbargaining,Francehadgivenawayevenmore.Abdel-Kaderwouldbesuppliedwithalargequantityofriflesandgunpowder,andinreturnhewouldgiveGeneralBugeaudaconsiderablesumofmoney.ThegovernmentinPariswasstartingtowonderwhethertheEmirreallyneededallthosearmsonlytokeepthetribesinline.Or,withhisincreasinglyimpressivearmy,couldheactuallybepreparingforrenewedwarwithFrance?Maybeitwastimetoscrapthattreaty.

THESTARTOFALL-OUTWAR

Bothsides,therefore,wantedtobringaboutacrisis,acauseforwar.TheopportunitylayinthevaguelanguageoftheTafnaTreaty.AlthoughineffectthistreatygaveAbdel-Kadercontrolofabouttwo-thirdsoftheentirecountry,itreservedforFrancetheterritoryaroundAlgiersextendingtoapoint“above”acertainriver.OrdidtheArabicwordinquestionmean“beyond”thatriver,astheFrenchargued?Abdel-

KadercouldnotaccepttheFrenchinterpretation,because“beyond”theriverwouldmeantheentirecountrytotheeast.

Nothingcameofeitherside’seffortstosolvethisconfusion.Abdel-KaderevenwrotetotheFrenchking—oneofthelastservicesthatLéonRochesperformedforhim.

InOctoberof1839,Governor-GeneralValéedecidedonatest.HewouldsendacontingentofsoldiersoverlandfromConstantinetoAlgiers.FortheFrench,thiswasalogicalwaytodevelopcontactbetweentheinlandcityofConstantine,recentlycaptured,andthecapitalcityonthecoast.TheFrenchsoldiers’route,however,wentthroughterritorythatAbdel-Kaderconsideredunderhiscontrol.IftheFrenchthoughttheycouldmarchthroughhisterritorywithouthispermission,wouldn’ttheytrytoclaimallthelandbetweenConstantineandAlgiers?

Abdel-Kaderwroteasharpprotest,towhichValéeansweredthattheexcursionwasnothingimportant,littlemorethanapleasantouting.Inasecondmessage,Abdel-Kadertookadifferenttack.Hedidnotwantwar,heexplained,buthiscouncilorswereallcallingforjihadandhehadtoobeyreligiouslawinsuchmatters.

HavingwarnedtheFrenchandsoughtlegalcounsel,Abdel-Kaderthentookaction:wellplanned,sudden,andlethal.InNovemberhisarmyattackedtheMitidjaplainsouthofAlgiers,whereaEuropeanpopulationhadsettled.Manyliveswerelostandvirtuallyallthehomesandfarmsdestroyed.Thewarwason.

ThiscampaignbroughttheEmirtheclosestheevercametodrivingtheFrenchbacktothesea.In1840thetribeswerefullybehindhim,hecouldcommandabout80,000men,andhewasattheheightofhispower.Itwasstillanunevenfight,astheFrenchhadatleastasmanysoldiers,muchbettertrained,andmanymoreinreserve.Nonetheless,withAbdel-Kader’sforcesattackingEuropeansettlementsaroundAlgiers,Oran,andTitteriprovince,theFrenchgovernmentgrewalarmed.Valée’scounter-offensivedidnotproduceresultsquicklyenoughtosatisfyParis,andhewasrelievedofhisdutiesasgovernor-generalinDecemberof1840.Hisreplacementinearly1841wasGeneralBugeaud.

Thiswasthetough,campaign-hardened,opinionatedBugeaudwhohadsignedtheTafnaTreatywithAbdel-Kaderin1837.Atthattime,hehadpraisedtheEmirtotheskies:honest,competent,reliable,justthemanwithwhomFrancecouldworkoutterritorialarrangementsthatwouldsuitbothsides.Furthermore,in1837Bugeaudwasstillonlyhalf-heartedabouttheFrenchpresenceinAlgeria.WhatreallyinterestedhimwasupgradingtheroadsandbridgesofhishomeprovinceinFrance!Thatwashowheintendedtousethemoneysecretlypromisedunderthetreaty.

BythetimeBugeaudreturnedtoAlgeriaasgovernor-general,however,hisviewshadturnedaroundcompletely.Nowhewasallforfull-scalewarandathoroughlyFrenchAlgeria.Franceshouldquicklyclearawaythenativepeople,sothatAlgeriansoilcouldbepopulatedwithEuropeancolonists.OnlytheFrenchflagwouldflyinAlgeria.UnderBugeaud’sleadership,thedebatewassettledatlast.Heimmediatelyundertookavigorous,aggressive,no-holds-barredmilitarystrategythatearnedhimadecidedlymixedreputation.

AtthetopofBugeaud’sinstructionsfromtheFrenchgovernmentwasthespecificordertogetridofAbdel-Kader.TheEmir,atfirstunawarethathewasthemaintarget,sentconciliatorymessages,butitsoonbecameevidentthatBugeaudhadotherplans.

BUGEAUD’SWAR

As1841progressed,thewartookonaterriblenature.Intheearlyyearsoftheconquest,theFrenchhaddestroyedcitiesandmassacredtheirpopulations.Nowtheyturnedthesametacticsupontheruralpeople.Theyraidedvillages,destroyingandkilling;theycutdownolivegrovesandfruitorchards,burnedfieldsofgrain.Insummertheymadetheterm“scorchedearth”anall-too-accuratedescriptionoftheAlgeriancountryside.Inwintertheydrovepeoplefromtheirhomestodieofcoldinthemountains.Theylearnedhowtofindthepeasants’storesofgrainhiddeninlargecontainersundergroundbysystematicallywalkingalongandproddingthegroundwiththeirbayonetsuntiltheyhitthetell-talestonelids.

Itwasawarwagedonapeople,notonastateorarmy.Bugeaud’sobjectivesweretomakelifevirtuallyimpossiblefortheruralpeople,andatthesametimetoturnthetribesawayfromAbdel-Kader.TribeswerecompelledtofightagainsttheEmirunderthreatofbeingde-portedtodistantFrenchpossessionsintheCaribbeanandtheSouthPacific.FrenchstrategynotonlydemoralizedtheAlgerianpeoplebutdisruptedthewholeeconomyofthecountry.ThedestructionofrurallifecutoffboththeincomeandthemilitaryintelligencethatAbdel-Kaderneededtocontinuethefight.

Meanwhile,BugeaudbroughtaboutmajorchangesintheFrencharmyanditsmethodsofwarfare.Earlier,thesoldiershadbeensentoutinarmiesofseveralthousands,asinEuropeancampaigns,eachmanheavilyburdenedwithhisequipment,bedding,andfood.Theyhadtodragheavycannonsandbaggagewagonswherevertheywent—nottomentionwearingtightwoolenuniformsinthedesertheat.Theydroppedalongthewayfromsickness,exhaustion,andsuicide.Forthisrecklesslyconceivedadventure,Francepaidahugepriceinthesufferingandsacrificeofitsownmen.

OnereasonBugeaudhadwantedthetime-outprovidedbytheTafnaTreatywastoundertakemajorreorganizationofthearmy.Hecreatedmuchsmallercontingentsofsoldiersthatcouldmoveswiftlythroughthecountryside,withoutheavyartilleryandotherequipment.Whenwarresumed,the“flyingcolumns”weremuchmoresuccessfulincarryingoutdestructivesortiesagainstthetribesandvillages.

TheFrencharmyreflectedlocalrealitiesinanotherwayaswell.Startingasearlyas1831,itincludedafewcompaniesofindigenoussoldiers:thezouaves,lightinfantry,andthespahis,lightcavalry.ThezouavesweremostlyBerbersfromtheKabylemountainsandthussomewhatseparatefromthemainpopulationofArabs.Bothspahisandzouavesworecolorfuluniforms,brightredandblue—andthisfactwouldplayanimportantroleinoneofthemajorcrisesofthewholewar.

Lookingahead,Bugeaudhadambitiousplansforhismilitary.ExpectingthatthetribeswouldallultimatelysubmittoFrancebutwouldneverreallybeloyal,hedecidedthatFrancewouldrunthecountrywithitsarmy.Frenchsoldierswouldpolicethetribesthroughamilitaryadministration,andalsobuildtheroadsandbridgesthatwouldencouragemoreEuropeanstocome.Beforelong,Bugeaudpredicted,theAlgerianswouldseethatthe“wheeloffortune”nowdefinitelyfavoredtheEuropeans—andwouldneverturntheirwayagain.

ABDEL-KADER’SWAR

Likeanymilitaryleader,Abdel-Kaderdidwhathethoughthadtobedonetoachievehisobjectives,nomatterhowmuchhemighthavepreferrednottotakeactionsthatwereruthlessordeceptive.Butwheneverpossiblehetriedtopreventbrutality,andhedemandedaremarkablyhighstandardofbehaviorfromhisfollowers.

Fromthestartofhiscommand,theEmirhaddeploredthesavagetraditionsoftribalwarfare.AtthebattleoftheMactaRiverinJune1835,thefirstmajorlossfortheFrench,hehadbeenhorrifiedtoseepilesofseveredFrenchheads.Yetheknewthatmakingchangestooquicklywouldalienatethetribes.

Therefore,heenforcednewrulesgraduallybutwithfirmdiscipline,anditusuallytookonlyafewexamplesofharshpunishment,suchasheavybeatings,togetthemessageacross.

Asforstrategy,Abdel-Kaderwaswellawarethatpitchedbattleswouldneverwork.Hehadfoughtinthiswayonlyonce,inJulyof1836attheSikkakRiver,andhisarmyhadbeencrushed.TheFrenchweretoostronginnumbers,disciplinedtraining,andarms.Guerillawarfarewastheonlyway:harassingtheenemy,cuttingsupplyandcommunicationslines,attackingwithoutwarninganddisappearingjustasquickly.

ForafewyearsAbdel-Kaderheldlinesofdefense—majortownsandfortifications—runningroughlyeastandwest.AllwerelosttotheFrencharmy,however,bytheendof1841.Inmostcasestheinhabitantshadbeenwarnedtoleaveintime,sotheFrenchfoundonlyemptystreetsandbuildings.

Whataboutallies,orhelpfromoutside?Inthespringof1840,soonaftertheFrenchcounter-offensive,theEmirsoughthelpfromBritainandevenfromtheOttomansultan;bothrefused.HecontinuedtoobtainarmsfromBritainthroughMorocco,buthisrelationswiththeMoroccansultanweregettingworse.Withoutbases,limitedtoguerillawarfarewithonlypartiallydependablefighters,Abdel-Kaderwasonhisownagainstamilitarysuperpower,possiblythestrongestmodernarmyintheworldatthattime.

Psychologicallyaswellasmilitarily,however,guerillawarfarecouldbehighlyeffective.SincetheEmirandhisarmycouldmovesoswiftlyonhorsebackthroughboththecountrysideandruggedmountainousareas,thewarbecameacat-and-mouseaffair.TheFrenchcertainlytried,buttheycouldneverquitecatchAbdel-Kader.Hewouldevade,escape,coverseeminglyimpossibledistancesinanight,strikeatarget,andvanish.BugeaudcomplainedthattofindAbdel-Kaderheneededamagician,andthesoldiersneededwingstocatchhim.Atthesametime,theAlgerianscouldnotinflictblowshardenoughtostoptherelentlessprogressoftheFrencharmy.

ButtheEmir’smendidhavemilitarysuccesses,andtheytookFrenchprisoners—whohadbeentoldbytheirofficersthattheirfate,ifcaptured,wouldbeworsethanhorrible.WhattheprisonersactuallyexperiencedisoneofthemostinterestingaspectsofAbdel-Kader’swholemilitarycareer.Althoughthewarwasbitterandbloody,theEmirwascarefultotreatallprisonersproperly.Itwasamatterofpolicy,religion,andhumanvaluesforhim.Indeed,heenjoyedtalkingwiththecaptives,especiallythewelleducatedofficers,andlearningmoreaboutthepeopleandcountrywhohadbecomehisenemy.

Abdel-Kader’sinsistenceondecenttreatmentofprisonerswasnotonlyhumanebutwisestrategy,asitunderminedFrenchpropagandaintendedtostiffensoldiers’determinationtofighttothedeath.Intryingtosethumanestandards,heprovidedamodelforlaterinternationalconventionsontreatmentofprisoners-of-war.

Europeanwomen,too,weresometimestakenprisoner.Somewerewomenwhomanagedcanteensforthearmiesinthefield,otherswerefromthesettlements.Abdel-Kaderputhismother,thehardworkingandcapableLallaZohra,inchargeofthewomen,andshesawtoitthattheywerefed,clothed,andprotectedagainstpossibleabuse.LallaZohraalsotookituponherselftolookaftersickandwoundedFrenchprisoners.

Allthistime,Abdel-Kaderhadtofightontwofronts:againsttheFrench,andagainstthefragmentednatureoftribalsociety.From1840-42thetribescouldseethathewascarryingonjihad,andtheysupportedhim.Thatis,theywouldbeloyaluntiltheFrenchmilitaryputthemundertoomuchpressure.Wheneveratribedefected,Abdel-Kaderhadtoweighcarefullytheparticularcircumstances.Wasthetribeweak-willed,opportunistic?Thentheyprobablydeservedpunishmentbyraiding.Orhadthey

resisteduntiltheywereexhaustedandhadnoresourcesleft?InthatcasetheEmir’sresponsewouldbemuchmilder.

Whatsoonbecamedevastatinglyclear,however,wasthefateofAbdel-Kader’sunifiedAlgerianstate.Asthewarwenton,thecitiesthatmighthaveservedashispoliticalcapitals—Mascara,Tagdempt,Tlemcen—allfelltotheFrench.EventhesmallvillageofGuetnaanditszawiya,whereAbdel-Kaderhadgrownup,wasdeliberatelydestroyedasablowtohismorale.Likewise,thetownsthatservedasthekhalifas’headquartersanddepotsforsupplieshadtobeabandoned.Abdel-Kader’sstatesimplydisintegrated.Onecanonlyimaginehisemotionsasheobservedthevanishingofhisdream.WithitwentallhopeofanauthenticAlgerianstateformorethanahundredyears.

THESMALA,ABDEL-KADER’S“FLOATINGCAPITAL”

AlthoughtheEmirhadtobeconstantlyonthemove,towardtheendof1842hecreatedanewmeansofholdinghispeopletogether.Thiswasthesmala—literally“household”—atentcitythathousedtheEmir’sarmyandtheirfamilies.Italsohousedtribeswhohadjoinedhim,refugeesfromdestroyedtownsandvillages,prisoners-of-war,Frenchdeserters,hostagesfromtribesbeingdisciplined,andmore.Sincethepeopleneededtheirlivestockforfood,thesmalaincludedtensofthousandsofanimalsaswell.

Thesmalasetupschools,workshops,marketsandbazaars,mosques,everythingneededtokeepasocietygoing.Abdel-Kader’smotherhandledthefinances,mostlyforpurchaseofgrain,andAlgerianJewsloyaltotheEmirprovidedforthedestitute.

Thetentsofthesmalawerecarefullyarrangedinseveralconcentriccircles.TheEmir’sfamilywasinthecenter,hiskhalifasandtheirfamiliesinthefirstcircle,andsoon,withthetribesandcommonpeopleontheoutside.Byearly1842,sixtyorseventythousandpeoplewerelivinginthesmala,andattimespossiblymore.Itbecameasortof“floatingcapital,”becausewhenevernecessary,thewholecollectionoftents—hundredsofthem—couldbedismantled,moved,andsetupagainsomewhereelseinthesameorder.

Unfortunatelythisbecamenecessaryquiteoften,asAbdel-KaderandhispeoplealwayshadtokeephidingfromtheFrench.Althoughthesmalahadtoserveasthecenterofhispoliticalpower,itsunstable,nomadicnaturewasinevitablydemoralizing.Whereverthesmalasettled,moreover,theconcentrationofpeopleandanimalsnearlywreckedtheenvironment.Thesheep,goats,horses,camels,anddonkeysneededagreatdealofwaterandoftenreducedwatersourcestomuddyholes.Sicknessspreadquickly.Abdel-Kaderappointedofficialstotrytoprotectthelandandwatersources,butitwasalosingstruggle.

AssoonastheFrenchgeneralslearnedaboutthesmala,theygavetopprioritytofindingit.“Flyingcolumns”wentoutfrequentlyandinalldirections,accordingtoaregularplan.

InMayof1843amobileunitofaboutfivehundredsoldiersunderthecommandoftheking’stwenty-one-year-oldson,theDukeofAumale,wentoutsearching.Suddenly—almostbyaccident—theydiscoveredthetentcityspreadoutbeforethem.Thepeopleofthesmalawerefranticallybusysettingupinanewlocation.Seeingthebrightredcloaksofthespahis,theindigenouscavalrymenintheFrencharmy,theyatfirstthoughtthatAbdel-Kader’smen—whoalsoworereduniforms—werereturning.Theysentuploudcheersofwelcome.Bythetimetheyrealizedthattheapproachingsoldiersweretheenemy—andaverysmallnumberatthat—itwastoolate.TheFrencheasilydemolishedtheentiresmala.

Abdel-Kader,whowaselsewhereatthetime,learnedofthecatastropheafewdayslater.Hisownfamilyhadbeenspiritedtosafety,butthreethousandprisoners,allthelivestock,andtheentiretreasury

hadbeentaken.And—whatespeciallystunnedthemarabout-warrior—hislibraryofsomefivethousandpreciousmanuscriptshadbeentotallyburnedandscatteredtothewinds.

FRENCHCONQUESTACCOMPLISHED?

TheheartbreakingdestructionofAbdel-Kader’ssmalawasaturningpointinthewholecampaignofresistance.Foratleastayearandahalf,theAlgerians’fortuneswerelow.Abdel-Kadersetupamuchsmaller“floatingcapital,”actuallyjustalargecamp,andmovedittosafetyinMorocco—wheretheAlgerianswereneverreallywelcome.HisarmyremainedinAlgeriaunderthecommandofoneofhismosttrustedkhalifas,BenAllal.

Bytheendof1843,Bugeaudandhisgeneralswererejoicing,confidentthatthewarwasnearlywon.ThefightagainstAbdel-Kaderhadbecomelargelyaman-hunt,andtheFrenchcolumnspursuedhimrelentlessly.Althoughhealwaysmanagedtoeludethem,barelyescapingwithhislifeonatleasttwooccasions,theyclearlyhadhimontherun.InNovembertheEmir’skhalifa,BenAllal—respectedbytheFrenchgeneralsaswellasthetriballeaders—waskilledinabattle.Tofurtherdemoralizethetribesandvillages,theFrenchdisplayedhisseveredheadwidelyfordays.ThenBugeaudorderedaburialwithmilitaryhonors.

TheFrenchestablishedmilitarycontrolovertheareasthattheyhadpacified,uptothenorthernedgeoftheSahara.Bugeaud—whoalwaysadmiredAbdel-Kader—keptthebasicorganizationofthecountrysidethattheEmirhadcreatedinhisshort-livedstate.Muslimofficialswereappointed,buttheFrenchmilitaryheldthepower.MoreandmoreEuropeansweresettlingonlandsseizedfromthetribes.ThemilitaryadministrationweighedheavilyontheimpoverishedandexhaustedAlgerians...andunderneath,angerwascomingtoaboil.

CHAPTER7

THEDEVASTATINGTIDESOFWARSuddenlythewartookanotherturn,insomewaysdownrightbizarre.Forthefirsttimeinseveralyears,Abdel-KaderwaschallengedasleaderoftheAlgerians’resistance.

ALGERIANRIVALS—ANDFRENCHBRUTALITIES

Earlyin1845,inamountainvillagenearthecoast,ayoungmanannouncedthatGodhadappointedhimtodriveouttheinfidels.ThismansoonbecameknownasBouMaza(whichcouldbetranslated“themanwiththegoat”)becausehispetgoat,heclaimed,conveyedGod’smessagestohim.Theruralpeople,oppressedanddisheartened,yetinspiredbytraditionalbeliefsin“saints,”eagerlyfollowedthecharismaticnewleader.

Describedasunusuallyhandsome,BouMazahadtheappearanceofamysticbutwasneverthelessaruthlessfighter.StartingbybutcheringsomeMuslimofficialsappointedbytheFrench,forseveralmonthsheledawidespreadinsurrectioninthecountryside.Hissuccessinspiredawholewaveof“Goatmen”whotookthesamenameandtactics,andsooninsurgencieswerecroppingupeverywhereandkeepingthecentralpartofthecountryinturmoil.

Abdel-Kaderfacedanawkwardsituation.Hisowncampaign,insofaraspossible,hadbeenorganizedanddisciplined.Incontrast,BouMazawasaviolentbandit.ShouldAbdel-Kaderopposethisrival,orfindsomewaytoworkwithhim?TheFrench,onthedefensive,wereafraidthatifAbdel-Kadershouldjoinforceswiththeseinsurgencies,recentlypacifiedtribesmighttrytoswitchbacktotheEmir.Meanwhile,therevivedresistancegaveAbdel-Kaderthechancetostrengthenhiscamp—stillinMorocco—andbuilduphisarmyagain.

ForabrieftimeBouMazajoinedAbdel-Kader’scamp,butitwasnotafriendlyallianceandhesoonleft.HesurrenderedtotheFrenchinApril1847andwastakentoParis—where,thankstohischarisma,hebecameasocietyidol!EventuallyhewenttofightintheCrimeanWar(1853-56),andtherehisstoryappearstohaveended.Theother“Goatmen”fadedaway.

WhileputtingdowntheBouMazainsurrection,however,theFrencharmycommittedatrocitiesthatgaveanindeliblyhorrificstaintotheiractionsinAlgeria.InDahra,amountainousregionfullofcaves,alargenumberoftribespeopletookrefugeinanextensive,many-chamberedcavern.WhentheFrenchofficerincharge,Pélissier,couldnotpersuadethemtosurrender,hehadtheentrancestothecavesystemblockedwithwoodandbrush,andsetonfire.Possiblyasmanyasathousandmen,women,andchildrendiedofsuffocation,alongwiththeiranimals.

Pélissier’sreportproducedoutrageinFrance.Thereafter,althoughatleastthreesimilaratrocitieswerecarriedout,killingmanyhundredsofpeople,theFrenchofficerstriedtokeepquietaboutit.Governor-GeneralBugeauddidnotexplicitlyorderhisarmytocarryoutsuchacts,butheopenly

approvedthem.Sohardenedhadmanyofficersandsoldiersbecomebythen,thatshockingdisplaysofcrueltyseemtohavebeenbrushedoff.ButpublicopinioninFranceandelsewhereinEuropewashorrified.

THEEMIR’SRESPONSE

TheBouMazainsurrectionsandtheFrenchbrutalitieshelpedspurAbdel-Kaderintoactionagain.Inthefallof1845hereturnedtoAlgeriafromMoroccowithsixthousandcavalryandrenewedsupportfrommanytribes.Forseveralmonthshemovedswiftlyacrossthecountry,sometimesridingfiftymilesinanight.HisgoalwastoreachtheKabyleMountainsintheeasternpartofthecountryandhelphisBerberkhalifagalvanizethelocaltribesintojihad.

Throughoutthebitterlyharshwinterof1845-46thecat-and-mousegamewenton.TheFrenchlostthreegeneralstocoldandexhaustion,plusmencountedinthehundreds,andhorsesinthethousands.Abdel-Kaderwashere,there,andattimesitseemedeverywhere.CatchingAbdel-KaderwasoncemoretheforemostobjectiveoftheFrencharmy,andeveryFrenchgeneralwantedthathonor.

InGreatBritain,neververysympatheticregardingFrenchimperialambitions,thepressfiredup.What?The“ButcheroftheBedouins”—theirnameforBugeaud—couldn’tcatchoneman?Maybethatmandidn’tevenexist!ThesatiricalBritishjournalPunchdescribedBugeaud’seffortsinarollickinglongpoementitled“CatchingAbd-el-Kader.”Here’sasample.

HemadethemostperfectarrangementsForcatchinghim’erehestarted,ButwheneverhegotToasuitablespot,Abd-el-Kaderhadjustdeparted.

TherewasgreatexpectationinParis,Buttothewarminister’ssorrow,Thetelegraph’staleRanthus,withoutfail,“Thecapture’sputofftillto-morrow.”

Francewonvictoriesbydozens—Andeachday,asthemarshal[Bugeaud]strodeon,WeweresuretohearThatthey’dmissedtheEmir,Butkilledthehorseherodeon.1

Americans,too,werefascinatedbythecourageousleaderofadoomedfightforfreedom.IntheMidwest,amanwhohadbeeneagerlyfollowingtheBritishpressreportsdecidedtonameanewtowninhonoroftheEmir.ThattownisElkader,Iowa,whichhasalwaystakengreatprideinitshistoricalconnectionwithAbdel-Kader.

Constantlypursued,theEmirwassavedfromcaptureseveraltimesbytribalpeoplewhoprovidedintelligenceaboutFrenchmoves.Butitwasgettingharderandharderforhimtokeepthetribes’activesupport.Theywereexhaustedanddiscouraged,andtheyfearedpunishmentbytheFrencharmy.Withan

armyofonehundredandsixthousand,thegeneralssenttheirflyingcolumnsaftertheEmirsopersistentlythatbythesummerof1846hewasagainforcedtoseekrefugeinMorocco.

THESIDIBRAHIMINCIDENTANDTRAGICAFTERMATH

SinceAbdel-Kader’swarfarewasbasedonguerillatactics,veryfewencountersstandoutinthehistoricalrecord.Oneincident,however,duringtherenewedcampaignthatstartedinthefallof1845,wasmemorable.Characterizedbyfoolhardythinking,bravery,andsufferingontheFrenchside,ithaddrasticafter-effectsfortheEmir.

NeartheborderbetweenAlgeriaandMorocco,theFrenchhadagarrisonatasmallportcalledDjemaaGhazaouet—“thepirates’base.”TheofficerinchargewasLieutenantColonelMontagnac,courageous,ambitious,andtough—toafault.InSeptemberof1845,helearnedthatAbdel-Kaderandhismenwerenearbyinthesteephillsclosetothecoast.Fedupwithawaitinggamethataskedsolittleofhim,Montagnacdecided—againstorders—tosetoffwithfourhundredandtwenty-fivementoseekaction.Inanarrowravinetheyranintoadeadlyambush,whichkilledMontagnacandmanyofhismen.AbouteightyoftheremainingsoldiersscrambledalongthesidesoftheravinetotakeshelterinasmallreligiousshrineknownasSidiBrahim.

SoconfidentofsuccesshadMontagnacbeenwhenhesetout,thatheandhismenhadnotbroughtfoodorevenwaterwiththem.Theywerebesiegedintheshrinefortwodays,allthewhiledefyingAbdel-Kader’sappealsforsurrender.Finally,desperatefromthirst,theFrenchsoldierstriedtodashbackthetwelvemilestotheirfortbythesea.Onlyseventeenoftheoriginalfourhundredandtwenty-fivemanagedtoreachsafety.Ninety-sevenwerecaptured,andtherestallkilled.

TheprisonersweretakentoAbdel-Kader’scamp,theremainsofthe“floatingcapital,”inMorocco.Soon,abouttwohundredmoreFrenchsoldiers,capturedfromanambushedsupplycolumn,joinedthem.Conditionswereextremelydifficultinthecamp.Withnowherenearenoughfoodorshelter,everyonesuffered,Algeriansandprisonersalike.Bugeaudrefusedrepeatedoffersofaprisonerexchange,sayingitwouldbeexploitedasasignofFrenchweakening.

Abdel-KaderwasawayandconstantlyonthemoveinAlgeria.Hehadlefthisbrother-in-law,BenThami,inchargeofthecamp,alongwiththetrustedkhalifaBouHamidi.Thewintermonthsdraggedon,provisionsgrewevenscarcer,andthetwomenarguedabouthowtohandletheproblem.BouHamidiwantedtoreleasetheprisoners,ashebelievedAbdel-Kaderwouldhavedone.BenThamidisagreed.OnanAprilnightin1846,BenThamimadehisdecision.HehadtheFrenchofficerstakentoaplaceofsafety,leavingtheordinarysoldiersintheirtents.Thenallthesoldiers,possiblyasmanyastwohundredmen,werekilled.

Whenhelearnedofthemassacre,Abdel-Kaderwasutterlydismayed.Thiswasnothisway—killingdefenselessprisoners-of-warincoldblood!Itwasaterribleblowtohisrulesofwar,hisstandardsofhumanebehavior,hisveryreputation.YetastheCommander,hehadtotakeresponsibilityforthewholematter.InFrance,theoutcrywasnowagainstthesupposedtreacheryandcrueltyoftheEmir.PopularsupportswungbacktoBugeaudandhiswarofcompleteconquest.TheuglyaccusationagainstAbdel-Kaderwouldhaunthimforyears.

THESULTANOFMOROCCO:PARTNERORRIVAL?

Abdel-KadernowhadtodealwithathirdadversarybesidestheFrencharmyandtheshiftingtribal

alliances:theSultanofMorocco,Abdar-Rahman.Withthepassingyears,thesultanhadcometoregardAbdel-KaderasathreatbecausesomanyMoroccansadmiredhimandwantedtojoinintheAlgerians’jihad.TheFrenchdemandedthatthesultannotsupportAbdel-Kader;andtheBritish,whowantedtopreventanyexcusefortheFrenchtoinvadeMorocco,alsoputpressureonhim.Therefore,whilethesultanreluctantlyallowedAbdel-Kadertoseeksafetyforhimself,hisarmy,andhiscamponMoroccansoil,therewasnofriendshipinvolved.

Inthespringof1844,theEmir’spopularitywiththeMoroccanpeopleforcedthesultantosendtroopstohelptheAlgerians.Asaresult,aconfrontationarosebetweenMoroccoandFrance.BugeaudinvadedMoroccoinAugustanddefeatedamuchlargerMoroccanarmy,ledbyaboastfulbutinexperiencedsonofthesultan.ThehumiliatingdefeatturnedSultanAbdar-RahmancompletelyagainsttheAlgerians,andhesignedatreatywiththeFrenchdeclaringAbdel-Kaderanoutlaw.

In1846,ashiscampaigninAlgeriawasdwindlingtoastandstill,Abdel-KaderhadtoretreattoMoroccooncemore.ButMoroccansoilwashardlyarefuge,andnowhisarmyandcampbecamethesultan’starget.MoroccansoldiersdestroyedtwoofthelargestAlgeriantribesstillloyaltoAbdel-Kader,whichseverelyunderminedhissupportinbothMoroccoandAlgeria.

ABDEL-KADERAGAINSTAWALL

Inhopesofavoidinganall-outwarwiththesultan,inNovemberof1847Abdel-KadersenthistrustedkhalifaBouHamiditothesultan’scapitalfornegotiations.Bythistime,mostofthekhalifashadbeenkilledorcaptured,andAbdel-Kader’shopesrestedheavilyonBouHamidi.Butinsteadofbeingtreatedasarespectedofficial,BouHamidiwasthrowninjailandforcedtodrinkalethaldoseofpoison.Abdel-KaderknewthathewouldhavetogethispeopleoutofMoroccoasquicklyaspossible.

Inmid-Decemberof1847,hemanagedtoevadetheMoroccanarmyandmovehiswholecampacrosstheriverthatmarkedtheboundarybetweenMoroccanandAlgerianterritory.Theywerenowsafer,buttheirsituationwasnolessdire.Thearmy’sranksweredepleted,thetribeswerefastdriftingaway,thefamiliesinthecampwerehungryandweak.AndtheFrenchpositionsinwesternAlgeriawerebynowsostrongthattheEmircouldseenochanceforfurtheractionagainstthem.

Abdel-Kaderwasvirtuallytrapped.Histwochoicesbecamestarkindeed.Hemightleavehiscampbehind,escapeintotheinterior,rallywhatforceshecould,andgoonwiththestruggle.Thatwaswhatmostofhisadviserswereurginghimtodo.Orhemightstaywithhispeople,andgiveintotheFrench.Foraleaderofjihad,whichwouldbethemorehonorablecoursetotake?Andhow,inthisdilemma,shouldhonorbedefined?

CHAPTER8

PROMISESKEPTANDBROKENOnthestormynightofDecember22,1847,thewindblusteredsofiercelythatAbdel-Kadercouldhardlyholdthepaperonwhichhewastryingtowrite.Finallyhejustattachedhissealtothepieceofpaperandgaveittotheyoungmessenger,alongwithaverbalrequesttotheFrenchgeneralforasafe-conductguarantee.

ThetwoarmieswerebothinthehighhillsabouttwentymilesfromthewesternmostcoastofAlgeria.Buttheirpositionswerevastlydifferent.GeneralAugustLamoricièrewasconfidentlyleadingacolumnofsoldierstowardanearbypassthathewantedtosecure.Abdel-Kader,cutofffromanychanceofasuccessfulattack,hadfinallymadehisdecision.

ABDEL-KADER’SDECISION

Backandforthbetweenthetwocamps,throughrainandwind,rodetheemissaryfortheFrench.Inhissecondmessage,Abdel-Kaderstatedhistermsforyielding.HewouldcompletelyceasehisstruggleagainsttheFrenchandleaveAlgeriaforever,onconditionthathe,hisfamily,andsupporterscouldliveinapredominantlyMuslimcityineitherEgyptorPalestine.GeneralLamoricièrewroteapromptreply,promisingtomeettheEmir’sterms.

Reassured,Abdel-Kaderandaboutsixty-fiveofhismensetoutfortheFrenchfortatDjemaaGhazaouet,the“pirates’base.”NeartheshrineofSidiBrahim—theveryplacewhere,twoyearsearlier,theyhadinflictedsuchaterribleblowontheenemy—theyencounteredFrenchcavalry.Thistime,however,therewasnoshooting.NorwasthereanyofthemockingorhumiliatingspectaclethatAbdel-Kaderhadfearedmighttakeplace.Instead,thefivehundredFrenchcavalrymenintworowssalutedAbdel-Kaderasherodepast.Hestoppedbrieflyattheshrinetopray,andthenrodeontotheFrenchfort.

Ontheway,theEmirmetLamoricière,amanofbothmilitarycompetenceandsocialconscience,whohadcampaignedagainstAbdel-Kaderforyears.Dismounting,hehandedthegeneralhissword.WhentheEmirorderedhismentolaydowntheirarms,however,Lamoricièretoldthemtokeeptheirweapons.Theywouldbewelcomehenceforth,hesaid,toserveFrance.

SoonafterAbdel-Kaderreachedthefort,hefoundthattheDukeofAumale,sonoftheFrenchking,hadalsoarrived.Inspiteofthebadweather,theprincehadcomeasquicklyaspossiblebyshipfromOrantomeetAbdel-Kaderandaccepthissurrender.Thiswastheveryofficerwho,backinthespringof1843,haddiscoveredtheEmir’s“floatingcapital,”thesmala,andutterlydestroyedit.

ThenextmorningtheDukereviewedhistroops.Abdel-Kaderremarkedonthecontrastbetweentheirexemplarytrainingandtheundisciplinedfightingstyleofhisownmen.HeofferedtheDukehisblackmare,thelasthorsehehadriddeninbattle,andtheprinceacceptedthegiftgraciously,promisinginturntoprotecttheEmirandhispeople.

Allthiswhile,theFrenchofficersandsoldiersatthefortwerecelebratingtheirvictory.Atlasttheyhaddefeatedtheirarch-enemy,thenotoriousEmirAbdel-Kader!Theyhadcaughtthewilyadversarywhohadforcedthemintosuchalong,costlystruggle,forfifteenblood-soakedyears!EveryofficerintheFrencharmyhadlongdreamedofreceivingthesurrenderoftheEmirandhisstubbornAlgerians—andthey,themenatthelonely“gathering-placeofpirates,”weretheonestohavethathonor.

Sittingquietlyinthetentprovidedtohim,Abdel-Kaderlookedatthematterdifferently.Heknewhecouldhaveescapedtothesouthandgoneonwiththewarsomehow,buthehaddecidedotherwise.Hewouldstopleadingtheresistanceatatimeandplaceofhisownchoosing,basedonhiscalculationofthesufferingthathispeople,whohadalreadysufferedsomuch,wouldhavetoendure.Hebelievedthatthiswasthebettercourseforeveryone.Fromhisviewpoint,therefore,itwasnotamatterof“surrender”or“givingup,”letalone“beingcaught.”Rather,itwasadeliberatechoicetoputanendtothestruggleandmoveontoaradicallydifferentlife,thelifethatheregardedashistruecalling.

Andtherewasoneotherreason,mostimportantofall.Hisdecision,Abdel-Kaderbelieved,wasmadeaccordingtoGod’swill.HewasnowconvincedthatGodhaddecidedforAlgeriatobegovernedbyFrance,aChristiannation.He,theEmirAbdel-Kader,wasonlytheservantoftheAlmighty—theliteralmeaningofhisname,infact.HemustacceptGod’sdecision.ThisunderlyingconvictionhelpsexplainmuchoftheEmir’sattitudesandactionsfortherestofhislife.

ABDEL-KADERATTOULON

MostbriefhistoricalaccountsoftheyearsafterAbdel-Kaderstoppedfightingstatesimplythathewas“imprisoned,”orkeptin“Frenchprisons.”Thisgivesaverymisleadingimpressionofwhatactuallyhappened.ThestoryofAbdel-Kader’streatmentinFranceisinsomewaysasdramaticasthestoryofhismanyyearsofresistanceinhishomeland.It’sastoryoffrustrationanddeterminationonAbdel-Kader’spart;andonthepartoftheFrenchgovernment,oneofdishonesty,betrayal—andsincereadmiration.

Withhisextendedfamilyofaboutforty-fiveindividuals,Abdel-KaderfirsttraveledbyseafromDjemaaGhazaouettotheportofOran.ArrivingonDecember25,1847,theEmirwasgreetedbyasmallcrowdofloyalbutsadArabs,andawelcomesurprise.FatherSuchet,thecourageouspriestwhohadhelpedcarryouttheprisonerexchangebackin1841,hadcometoconveygratitudefromBishopDupuchforAbdel-Kader’sdecisiontostopfighting.ItwasnotthelasttimetheEmirwouldhearfromDupuch.

FromOran,theEmirandhisgroupcrossedtheMediterraneantotheportcityofToulononthesoutherncoastofFrance.NowtheyhadtofaceamuchlongervoyagetotheeasternendoftheMediterranean.TheyweretoldthatnegotiationswereunderwayinbothEgyptandConstantinopletoarrangefortheEmir’sexile.Thatsoundedreasonable.

Butsomethingseemedwrong.Shouldn’ttherehavebeensignsofpreparationsforalongseavoyage?Abdel-Kadersawnothingofthesort.

Infact,thenextthingheandhispeopleknew,theywerebeinglockedupinaquarantinestation,asthoughforsomeinfectiousdisease.Tendayspassed.ThentheEmirandhisfamilyweretakentoagrim,prison-likefortressneartheharbor,FortLamalgue.TherestoftheAlgeriansweretakentoanotherfort.

WhathadbecomeofGeneralLamoricière’spromise,confirmedbytheroyalprincehimself?Itwasonthebasisofthatpromise,afterall,thatAbdel-Kaderhadagreedtoendresistance.NowtheFrenchgovernment—fornoapparentreason—seemedreluctanttoliveuptoitscommitment.

Abdel-Kaderbegantoprotest,forcefullyandeloquently.Deprivedofhisfreedomandtheopen

spacesandbeautyofhishomeland,nowhewasbeingdeniedwhathadfirmlybeenguaranteedhim.Unendur-able!HealsostressedthematterofFrenchhonor,insistingthatFranceliveuptotheidealsofitshighcivilization.Surely,heargued,thegovernmentunderstoodthatitwasinFrance’sowninteresttobehavehonestly,toprotectitsreputationamongtheEuropeanpowers?TheEmirarguedfromeveryangle.Dignifiedandproperhemightbe,inkeepingwithhisnaturalcharacterandtrainingasamarabout,buthewouldnotsufferinsilence.

Stillhereceivednoanswersorassurances.So,likeafieldcommanderwhomustadjusttotheterrainandtheenemy’stactics,theEmirrealizedhewouldhavetomakesomechangeshimself.Hewasresponsible,afterall,forhispeople.

Knowingtheimportanceofdisciplineforkeepingupmorale,Abdel-Kaderestablishedadailyroutineofprayer,reading,writing,andvisiting.Observerswereimpressedbythewaythecaptives,whokeptstrictlytothemselves,followedtheirroutinereligiously.ItwasalmostasthoughtheFrenchforthadbecomeasortofIslamicmonastery,likethezawiyawhereAbdel-Kaderhadbeeneducatedinhisyouth.ThedailypatternoflifeprovidedsomedegreeofcomfortfortheAlgerians—exceptforthemanyFrenchsoldiersguardingthematalltimes.

Meanwhile,Abdel-KaderkeptonaskingwhytheFrenchgovernmentwasnotlivinguptoitspromise.Allhegotwasvague,evasiveanswers.

ThetruthwasthatonthequestionofwhattodowiththeEmir,theFrenchgovernmentwassharplytorn.Asthesatiricalpressobserved,formerlynooneknewwheretofindtheEmir—andnownooneknewwheretoputhim.Ontheonehand,GeneralLamoricièreandothersarguedpassionatelythatpromisesmustbekept.Honorandhumandecencydemandedit—andGreatBritainwouldbeonlytooreadytoaccuseFranceoftreacherousnessiftheagreementwerebroken.TheDukeofAumaleemphasizedthesincerityandremarkablecharacteroftheEmir.

Ontheotherhand,manypeoplebelievedthatAbdel-Kaderwasstilltheenemyandwouldstillbedangerous,givenanyopportunity.Theywereshockedatthepromisesmadetohim.Eventheroyalfamilywasinconflict,angrythattheDukeofAumalehadagreedtothosepromises.ThepowerfulministerofwarinsistedthatAbdel-Kader—stilldescribedaslittlebetterthanabrutalsavage—wouldbearealdangerifturnedlooseintheArabworld.Hewouldstirupallkindsoftrouble;hemighteventrytoreturntoAlgeriaandresumefighting.AttheveryleasthewouldbecomeaninspirationforpopularuprisingsamongtheArabsubjectsoftheOttomanEmpire.Farbettertokeephimlockedup!

Andtherewasanothercriticalissue.NoonehadforgottenabouttheslaughteroftheFrenchprisoners-of-waratAbdel-Kader’scampinthespringof1846.Stirredupbythepopularpress,manypeoplestillbelievedthatAbdel-Kaderhimselfwastoblame.Moreandmore,publicopinionandthepopularpresswereaforcetobereckonedwithinFrenchpolitics.

AFRIENDANDANEWPROPOSAL

Meanwhile,atthegloomyfort,Abdel-Kaderatleasthadasympatheticlistener.Acapabletranslatorwasassignedtohim,LieutenantGeneralEugèneDaumas,whomtheEmirhadknownandrespectedduringtheearlyyearsofhisfightagainsttheFrench.Daumas,reluctantly,playedacomplexrole.HehadtointerpretFrenchactionstoAbdel-Kader,reportsecretlyonAbdel-Kader’swordsandmoods,andwinhisconfidenceenoughtopersuadehimtorespondasthegovernmentwishedhimto.Abdel-Kaderundoubtedlyrealizedallofthat,yetastrongfriendshipgrewbetweenthetwomen.DaumasdidwhathecouldtomaketheAlgerians’lotalittleeasier.

Inmid-January,Abdel-Kaderhadasmallvictory.Thankstohiscontinuingprotests,thoseofhisfollowerswhohadbeensenttootherplacesofimprisonmentwerebroughttoFortLamalgue.Nomatterhowcrowdedanduncomfortabletheconditionsatthefort,theAlgerianswantedtobetogether.

ButwhatabouttheFrenchgovernment’smostimportantpromisetotheEmir?Onedayinlatewinter,Daumaswasinstructedtopresent,aspersuasivelyaspossible,anewproposalfromtheministerofwar.TheAlgerianshadtwochoices.TheycouldindeedgotoAlexandria,Egypt,iftheyinsisted.Buttheywouldhavetoliveunderconstantguardfortheindefinitefuture.Alternatively—andsomuchbetter!—theycouldallstayinFrance.Theretheywouldliveinacountrychateauwithbeautifulsurroundings,privacy,andallthehorsestheywanted.Inthiswaytheywouldreleasethegovernmentfromthepromisemadebackatthe“pirates’base.”

Abdel-Kaderwasshockedbythegovernment’sbehavior,buthehadnotroubledecidingbetweenthetwoalternatives.HewouldchooselifeinEgypt,evenunderhousearrest.LifeinFrance,wherethepeopleandcustomsweresounfamiliartotheAlgerians,wouldneverbesuitableforhimandhispeople.Itwouldbeadeathsentence.Asforthetemptationsofluxury,hetoldDaumas:“Ifyouplacedinmyburnoose[hoodedcloak]allthediamondsandtreasureoftheworld,Iwouldthrowthemwithouthesitationintotheseainfrontofus.”1No,nothingcoulddistracthimfromwhathadfirstbeenpromised.

Daumas,whokeptacarefulrecordofhisconversationswiththeEmir,realizedhewouldgetnowheretryingtopromotethegovernment’soffer.Abdel-Kader’smoodswungbetweenanger,desperateunhappiness,andresignation.AshetoldDaumasduringbadmoments,hemightappeartobealive,buthewasreallyonlyadeadman.FinallyDaumassuggestedthatAbdel-KaderwritedirectlytoKingLouis-Philippe,askingforjusticeandapersonalmeetingwiththeking.Abdel-Kaderwroteaneloquentletter,assertingthatitwastheAlmighty’swillthatheputhimself,“asachild,”intheking’shands.

WhileAbdel-Kaderwaitedforananswer,DaumastriedtoprovidealittlevarietyinthelivesoftheAlgerians.OnedayhetookAbdel-KaderandsomeofhismentovisitthenavalarsenalinToulon,reportingafterwardthattheAlgerianswerewellreceivedwherevertheywent.ButAbdel-Kaderrefusedanyfurtherexcursions.Hedidnotwanttogivetheimpressionofaccepting,letaloneenjoying,hislifeinFrance.Hewasaprisoner,nota“guest.”Andhedidnotlikebeingstaredatinthestreet.

MuchmoretoAbdel-Kader’slikingwerehisconversationswithDaumasandothers.IncreasingnumbersofFrenchvisitorswerealreadycomingtoseehim.RememberingthesurprisinglywarmrelationshiphehadfoundwiththebishopandpriestinAlgiers,Abdel-Kadertookaparticularinterestindiscussingreligion.HealsowantedtotalkwithDaumasandothersaboutphilosophy,Franceanditsbafflingpolitics,andallsortsofmilitarymatters.Heassertedhisownviewstactfullybutfirmly.WhenDaumasaskedwhatadvicehemighthaveforthenewrulersofAlgeria,hereplied,“DoasIdid.GovernonlywiththeLawinyourhand,andthenyouwillsucceed.”2

AlthoughdevoutlycommittedtotheteachingsofIslam,Abdel-Kaderalsoknewwhentobeflexibleinhisbehavior.WhenDaumasinvitedtheEmirtohavedinnerwithhimandhiswife,Abdel-Kaderagreed—eventhougheatinginthecompanyofanotherman’swife,notrelatedbyfamilyties,wouldhavebeenunacceptableinAlgeriansocietyatthattime.HefoundMadameDaumas,stylishlybutmodestlydressed,intelligentandcharming.

Onanotherday,inlateFebruary,Abdel-Kaderagreedtohavehisportraitpainted.ManytraditionalMuslimsocietiesprohibiteddepictinghumanlikenesses,butAbdel-Kadersawnoneedforsuchrigidity.Soonawell-knownartistarrivedintheEmir’squartersinthegloomyfort.Buttheartisthadcomeformorethanonepurpose.Alongwithhisbrushesandoilpaints,hebroughtasecretmessagefromtheking.

Louis-PhilippehadatlastrespondedtoAbdel-Kader’seloquentletter.Yes,hewouldhonorthepromisemadetotheEmir.TheAlgerianswouldbesetfree.

REVOLUTIONAGAIN

TheAlgerians’rejoicingdidnotlastlong.Justafewdayslater,Francewentintoanotherpoliticaltailspin.Theyear1848wasatimeofpoliticalturmoilinmuchofEurope,andinFrance,KingLouis-PhilippewasbroughtdownbytheParismob.OnFebruary28thhegaveupthethroneandfledtoEngland.Themonarchywasfinished,andanewrepublicwasdeclared.WhatwouldthismeanforAbdel-Kader’shopes?

TheEmircouldnotunderstandhowitwaspossibleforthegreatFrench“sultan,”ashehadreferredtotheking,suddenlytovanish.Norcouldhemakesenseofagovernmentrunbycommittee.Howcouldfiveheads,insteadofonesupremeandwiseheadlikethechiefofatribe,makedecisions?

AhighofficialofthenewrepublicsooncamefromParistomeetthefamousprisoner.Abdel-KaderremindedÉmileOllivierthathehadneverbeenovercomebyforceofarms,andthathehadvoluntarilypromisednevertoreturntoorinterfereinAlgeria.OllivierreportedtohisgovernmentthatAbdel-Kader’soath,“whichisknownthroughoutthelengthandbreadthofAlgeria,makesitimpossibleforhimtoattemptacoup,becausehewouldtherebylosethatreputationforintegritywhichhasbeenhiswholestrength.”3Ollivier’sefforts,however,didnotgetfar.TheleadersoftheSecondRepublicdidnotconsiderthemselvesboundbypromisesmadebykingsorprinces.NodecisioncouldbemadeonAbdel-Kader’sfutureuntilelectionswereheldandthegovernmenthadachancetosettledown.

Thenewgovernment,justliketheoneithadreplaced,wassplitbyconflictingviews.Manypeople,includingsuchwell-knownwritersasVictorHugoandAlexisdeTocqueville,weighedinonthesubjectofAlgeria.SomesaidFranceshouldkeeponlytheportcitiesandletthenativechieftainsruntherestofthecountry,asundertheTurks.OtherssaidthatFrancemustnotneglectitsnoblemissioncivilisatrice—“civilizingmission”—inNorthAfrica.Stillothers,assertingthathatredwasinevitablebetweenEuropeansettlersandthenativepeople,insistedthatFrancemustquicklystrengthenthecolonialsocietyandmakeitdominant.

FinallytheSecondRepublicdecidednottohonorthepromisesmadetoAbdel-Kader.WhenhereceivedthisbadnewsfromtheunhappyDaumas,theEmirburstout,“Iambetrayed—andbythoseinwhomIhadplacedmytrust.Ifyoukeepushere,manyofuswilltakeourlives.”4Hispeople,hefeared,wouldlosefaithinhim,anditwasnosmallmatterfortheheadofatribetolosetheconfidenceofhispeople.

InApril1848,threeofAbdel-Kader’sbrothersandtheirfamilies—somethirty-fivepeopleintotal—arrivedfromAlgiers.TheyhadexpectedtogowiththeEmirtothepromisednewhomeintheeast,butinsteadtheyfoundthemselvesprisoners.Abdel-KaderpouredouthisgrieftoDaumas.“Iamaprisonerindefianceofinternationallaw,andnowmyfamily,whichwasfree,isluredintoaninsidioustrap.Ineverwouldhavebelievedthatanationsuchasyourscouldsinksolowastosnarementhewaychildrencruellysnarelittlebirds.”5

SostronglydidAbdel-Kadercomplainaboutbetrayalthatsomegovernmentofficialsthoughthemighttrytoescape—orelsetheBritishmightattemptadramaticrescue.Abdel-KadercouldnotremainontheMediterraneancoast:itwastooaccessible.TheAlgerianswouldhavetobemovedfromToulon,awayfromthesea.Andsoitwasdecided.Abdel-KaderwouldbesenttoachateaunearthePyrenees,

themountainrangebetweenFranceandSpain.

AMOVETOABETTERPRISON

TheFrenchgovernmenttriedtomakethemovesoundattractive.Afterall,thechateauatPauheldaspecialplaceinFrenchhistoryandhearts.ItwasthebirthplaceofanimportantFrenchking,HenryIV,whohadtriedtounitehiscountrywhenitwastornbyreligiouswarsbetweenCatholicsandProtestantsinthesixteenthcentury.Pauwasinabeautifullyscenicarea,withadelightfulclimate.EverythingwouldbefarmoreagreeablethanatFortLamalgue,Abdel-Kaderwasassured,andhewouldreallybejusta“temporaryguest.”

TheEmirknewverywell,however,thatthechateauwouldstillbeaprison.Worse,onlyhisfamilyandservantswouldstaywithhimatthechateau.TherestoftheAlgerianswouldbeheldelsewhereaspoliticalprisoners.OncemoreAbdel-Kaderexplodedindespairandfury.“Dragusthroughthestreets,overstones,throughbrambles,tillourbodiesareinshreds!Wewillbeanexampletothewholeworldthatallpeopleeverywheremayknowwhatliesinstoreforthosewhotrustyouinthefuture!”6Inacalmervein,theEmiremphasizedthatitwasnot“blood”thatwasimportantbutloyaltyandfriendship;hispeoplehadsacrificedeverythingtostaywithhim.Andatlastthegovernmentrelented.Atotalofseventy-sevenAlgerianswerecountedas“immediatefamily.”

OnApril23,theAlgerianssetoutfortheirnextplaceofcaptivity,byship,canalboat,andfinallybycoachoverthefoothillsofthePyrenees.WhatsortofawelcomedidtheyfindinthetownofPau?

CHAPTER9

THEIMPRISONEDCELEBRITYManyofthecitizensofPauwereappalledatthethoughtoftheEmirlivingamongthem.Thelocalpresscalledhimthe“monsterofthedesert.”Somepeoplearguedthatitwasaninsultfortheirfamousandrecentlyrestoredchateautobeinhabitedby“ahordeofsavageswhowouldbehappytowreckit.”ThetapestriesandantiquefurnishingswerecarefullyputawaybeforetheAlgeriansmovedin.

Abdel-KaderwasnotanyhappierthanthepeopleofPau.Thegloriousviewofthemountainscouldbeseenonlyfromwindowsinwhichironbarshadjustbeenset,andsoldiersstoodateverystrategicspotinthechateau.TheFrenchgovernmentclearlydidnotregardtheAlgeriansas“guests.”Moreover,thetrustedDaumaswasnolongerwithAbdel-Kader,andthetwomenbothregrettedthechange.Thenexttranslatorassignedtothejob,fortunately,wasalsowellqualified.EstèveBoissonnetwasakindandsympatheticmanandtheauthorofscholarlyworksonAlgeria.

ABDEL-KADERATTHECHATEAUOFPAU

ThemayorofPaumadeacourtesycallonMay3rd,asthechateau’snewresidentswerestillgettingsettled.Heevidentlybroughtbackanencouragingreport,formembersofthelocalsocietybegantosteeltheirnervesandmakevisitstomeettheEmir.Ithelped,indeed,thatnineteenth-centuryEuropeanswerefascinatedbytheexotic,romanticOrient.Asfearsandprejudicesfaded,thepeopleofPaubegantofindthenewcomersintriguing.Infact,theyrealized,theyhadthemostfamousArabofthetimeintheirmidst!ThedignifiedEmirbecameanobjectofgreatinterest.Evenifsomewhatmelancholyinmanner,hecouldturnonthecharmandwit,especiallywithladies,andhiscourtesyandrefinementmadeanimpressiononeveryone.

Thewavesofvisitorsgrewlargerandbolder.PeoplestartedcomingfromalloverFrance.Abdel-Kaderfinallyhadtolimithisvisitinghourstojusttwodaysaweek,sohecouldhavetimeforthereading,prayer,andreflectionthatweresuchanimportantpartofhislife.

Occasionallyavisitorhadaspecialreasonforwantingtopayrespects.AmanwhosefatherhadservedunderNapoleonBonapartepresentedAbdel-KaderwitharingcontainingabitofstonefromNapoleon’stomb.ThemoreAbdel-KaderlearnedaboutNapoleon,themoreinterestedhebecame,admiringbothNapoleon’smilitarybrillianceandhismoralcourageinadversity.Therewerestrikingsimilarities,Abdel-Kadernoted,betweentheobjectives,strategies,andfatesofthetwoleaders.Withothermilitaryvisitors,menhemightformerlyhavetriedtodefeatwitheverymeanspossible,Abdel-Kaderwasalsopoliteandcorrect.Hecouldevenenjoytheironyofhissituation.“Afterall,”hesaidtoonegroup,“manyofficersintheFrencharmyareindebtedtome.Withoutme,manyofyourcolonelswouldstillbecaptainsandyourgeneralsstillcolonels.”1

OnespecialvisitorlightenedtheEmir’sdays:MonsignorDupuch,formerlytheBishopofAlgiers.

WhentheChristianclericandtheMuslimmaraboutfinallydidmeetinperson,itwasasthoughtheywerelifelongfriends.

ManyobserversfoundacertaintraitintheEmir’sbehaviorremarkable—anditwouldbeconsideredjustasstrikingtoday.Itwashis“forgivenessofenemies.”Tobesure,theEmirdidattimeshaveoutburstsofangerwhenthebetrayalseemedespeciallycruel,andhedidsayharshwordsagainsttheFrenchgovernment,usingsurprisinglyvividlanguage.Butthosemomentsseemtohavebecomeincreasinglyrareasthemonthspassedandheacceptedtherealityofhisimprisonment.Then,gradually,theEmir’sspecialformofforgivenessbecameevident.OnmanyoccasionsheexpressedadmirationforFrenchmilitaryprowess,idealsofhumanrights,andcivilization.Heevensuggestedpossiblereasonsthatmightexplainthegovernment’sdecisionsagainsthim.

Daumas,onlearningofDupuch’sproposedvisit,wrotetohimabouttheEmir.“Youwillfindhimgentle,simple,affectionate,modest,resigned,nevercomplaining;excusinghisenemies—eventhoseatwhosehandshemayyethavemuchtosuffer—andneverallowingeviltobespokenoftheminhispresence.”2

ABDEL-KADER’SFAMILY

AlthoughtheAlgerianskepttothemselvesinthechateau,theyenteredtheculturallifeofPauonacoupleofoccasions.Abdel-KaderattendedapianoconcertandparticularlyenjoyedthepiecesbySchubert;hewouldhavelikedthemtobelonger,hesaid.Andwhenacircuscametotown,heallowedhisbrothertotakesomeofthechildren.

Fromtheonsetofhiscaptivity,Abdel-Kaderhadtakenontheroleof“father,”responsiblenotonlyforhisownfamilyandservantsbutforthewelfareofeachandeveryoneofhisfollowers.“Weareonefamily,”hetoldhiscaptorsrepeatedly.OnebitterFebruarydaywhiletheywerestillinsidethebone-chillingstonewallsofthefortressatToulon,DaumashadfoundAbdel-Kaderwithnowoodforafire.HesuggestedgettingsomefromtheEmir’scompanions,butAbdel-Kaderresponded,“No.”Ifitwereinhispower,hewouldhavegiventhemmore.Hewentontosaythatifhewereliketypical“greatchiefs”whoonlytookfromtheirpeople,“wouldtheArabshavecontinuedtofightastheydid?Wouldtheyhavesacrificedeverything—theirfortunes,flocks,lives—tofollowme?”3

Butasthemonthsdraggedon,Abdel-Kader’ssenseofresponsibilitygreweverheavierandthethoughtthathehadunwittinglyledallthesepeopleintocaptivitytormentedhim.Somanypeopleweresufferingbecauseofhim!Cold,illness,fear,forcedidleness—becauseofhim!Yethehadtokeeptheirspiritsup.Whenhereceivedthebadnewsthatthegovernmentdefinitelyregardedhimasaprisoner,hekeptittohimselfandwentonreassuringhispeople.

Inevitably,however,themonthsofcaptivityandseclusionweretakingatollonalltheAlgerians’health.Severaldied,includingthreeoftheEmir’syoungchildren.Theywereburiedinasmallplotonthegroundsofthechateau.DuringAugust,whentheMuslimsobservedthemonthoffastingcalledRamadan,thewomenandchildrengrewseriouslyweakened.TheyrefusedFrenchmaledoctorsbutacceptedvisitsbynursesfromalocalconvent,theDominicanSistersofCharity.Abdel-Kaderwasdeeplygratefulforthekindnessandhealingwaysofthenuns.

FLICKERINGHOPES,NEWMOVES

Atonepoint,suddenchangesinParisseemedtoturneverythingaround.InJuneof1848,Francewasonceagaincaughtupinrevolutionaryfever.Whenthebloodwaswashedfromthestreetsandthepoliticaldusthadsettled,thereseemedreasonforhope.GeneralLamoricière,whohadmadetheoriginalpromisetotheEmir,wasnowministerofwar,andAbdel-Kaderpromptlywrotetohim.Butforwhateverreasons,noresponsecamefromParis.

Weekspassed,andhopesfaded.SomeoftheAlgerianmenbecamesounhappytheythoughtupadrasticscheme.Theywouldsimplythrowthemselves,unarmed,againsttheirguards,whichwouldalmostcertainlyresultintheirdeaths.Abdel-Kaderquicklyputanendtotheplan,althoughhecouldcertainlyunderstandtheirdesperation.Learningofthisincident,Lamoricièreknewwhatascandalitwouldhavebeenforthegovernmentifsuccessful.Hepromptlyorderedthatalltheprisonersshouldbereleased—exceptforAbdel-Kader.TheEmir’smenrefused.Theywouldstaytogether,nomatterwhat.

InParis,meanwhile,theFrenchgovernmentwasalarmedbytheAlgerians’threatofgroupsuicideandtheirinsistenceonstayingwiththeircommander.NowtheministersarguedthattheEmirwastooclosetoSpain.TheBritishmightbetemptedtohelphimescapeoverthemountains.Yes,theAlgerianswouldhavetobemovedagain.Thistime,however,theymustbekeptsomeplaceclosetoParis,wheretheycouldbemorecarefullyguarded.

SoAbdel-Kaderandhislargefamilypreparedtomoveoncemore.TheirarrivalinPau,inlateAprilof1848,hadbeengreetedwithhostility,buttheirdepartureinearlyNovemberwastotalydifferent.Injustafewmonthsthetownspeople,Catholicnunsandclerics,andmanyothershadbeenwonoverbytheEmir’sgraciousbehavior.Abdel-Kadernowfelthimselfinfriendlysurroundings.Asanexpressionofappreciation,helethistranslatorBoissonnettakehimonabrieftourofthechateauanditstreasures—thetapestries,furniture,art,andpreciousobjectsthathadbeencarefulyputawaybeforethearrivalofthe“savages.”

Whenitwastimetoleave,Abdel-KaderrequestedthathebedriveninanopencarriagethroughthestreetstosayfarewelltothepeopleofPau.ThejourneyoftheAlgeriansnorthwardtoPariswaslikearoyalprocession.InthelargecityofBordeaux,MonsignorDupucharrangedawarmwelcome.Allalongtheway,Abdel-Kaderwasgreetedbydignitaries,enthusiasticcrowds,andinthetownofNantes,athirteen-cannonmilitarysalute.

ABDEL-KADERATAMBOISE

Theprisoners’destinationwasanotherfamouscastle,theChateauofAmboise.ItroseonacliffhighovertheLoire,amajorriverofFrance,andinthesixteenthcenturyhadbeenafavoriteresidenceofFrenchkings.Ithadadarkhistoryaswell,havingwitnessedgruesomeexecutionsofhundredsofprisonersduringthereligiouswarslaterinthatcentury.Bythe1800sthechateauwasinpoorshape—NapoleonBonapartehadevenuseditasaprison.Asrestorationswereunderway,itwasinalivableconditionwhenitbecamethenextresidenceoftheEmirAbdel-Kader.

Still,itwasaprison,andnowheavierrestrictionswereimposed.ForawhiletheFrenchgovernmentseemedobsessedwithsecurity.Novisitorswithoutspecialpermission.Noletter-writingunlessauthorized—whichmusthavebeenahardshipforamanwhoexpressedhimselfinwritingsofrequentlyandfluently.TwohundredsoldierswerenowassignedtoguardtheAlgerians.

FormonthsAbdel-Kaderkepttohisrooms,refusingeventowalkoutdoorsinthefreshair.Onlytheairoffreedomcouldmakehimwellagain,hesaid.Atleastthischateauhadmorelightandnobarsonthewindows.ButhowlongwouldtheAlgerianshavetolivethere?Noanswers,notahint.Inamoodof

resignation,theywentonwiththeirdailyroutineofprayer,meditation,visitingamongthemselves,andeducatingtheirchildren.Theyhadnowayofknowinghowveryslowlythewheelsofjusticewereturning—orevenwhetherthosewheelswereturningatall.

MOREPOLITICALSURPRISES

Then,onceagainFrenchpoliticswentthroughasudden,unexpectedturnover.Thelong-awaitedelectionstocreateanofficialSecondRepublicwereheldinDecember1848.Abdel-Kaderwasactuallyawrite-incandidateforpresident,thankstoenthusiasticfriendsinBordeaux.That,ofcourse,wassimplyagestureofadmiration—buttherealwinnerwasjustasimprobable.Itwasthecandidateconsideredleastlikelytowin:Louis-Napoleon,nephewofthegreatNapoleonBonaparte.

ManypeoplethoughtLouis-Napoleonwasanimpracticalman,toomuchofadreamer,anunrealisticfighterforlostcauses.Likehisfamousunclehehadgrandlyambitiousideasforhiscountry’sforeignadventures,butnottheskilltomakethemsucceed.Atthesametime,hewasgenuinelyanidealist,concernedabouthelpingoppressedpeoples.WhenAbdel-KaderlearnedthatthenewpresidenthadsympatheticviewsregardingthepeopleofAlgeria,hishopesroseagain.

Louis-NapoleonlistenedtotheEmir’ssupporters.ButhelistenedmorecarefullytohisownministersandmembersoftheFrenchparliament,whoinsistedonkeepingAbdel-Kaderaprisoner.TheyarguedthatconditionsinAlgeriawerestillunsettledanddangerous.Thenativepeoplechafedundermilitaryrule,andtheFrencharmywasmuchreduced.ManyEuropeancolonistswerereturninghome,discouragedbythehardlifeinAlgeria.Andnoonecouldkeepthejobofgovernor-generalformorethanafewweeks.No,thiswascertainlynotthetimetosettheEmirAbdel-Kaderfree.HowcouldhebetrustednottoreturntoAlgeriaandcauseevenmoretrouble?

Besides,therewasthematterofthatdreadfulmassacreoftheFrenchprisoners-of-war.Membersofthegovernment,referringtotheNorthAfricans’earlierunsavoryreputationaspirates,stillclaimedthatAbdel-Kaderwastoblame.Thesensationalistpresswhippeduppublicoutrage.So,lettheEmirgoonrantingaboutbrokenpromisesandhisliberty—butkeephimlockedup!Louis-Napoleondecidednottomakeanydecisionsthatmightrattlehisstillshakypresidency.

SUPPORTFROMMANYDIRECTIONS

Ontheotherhand,anumberofinfluentialpeopleinthegovernmentdidspeakfortheEmir.Militaryleaders,too,spokeup.TheEmir’soldadversary,theMarshallBugeaud,nowtriedtobehelpful,inhisway.HewrotetotheEmir“asatruefriend”andurgedthattheAlgeriansagreetosettlehappilyinthecountrysideofFrance,wheretheycouldenjoyahealthylife“cultivatingthesoil.”

Intheearlyspringof1849,MonsignorDupuchsucceeded—withmuchdifficulty—invisitingAbdel-KaderatAmboise.Afewmonthslaterhepublishedabooklet;itwastosettherecordstraightabouttheEmir,hesaid.Focusingontheaccusationabouttheprisoners-of-war,DupuchtriedtodemonstratethatAbdel-Kader’ssincerityandhumanecharactercompletelyrefutedsuchacharge.AsevidencehediscussedtheEmir’seffortstoendbarbarictraditionsinwarfare,hisconcernforallprisoners-of-war,andthemanyformerprisonerswhohadwrittentoandvisitedtheEmirtothankhimforthekindtreatmenttheyhadreceived.

Dupuchalsotoldhow,whenwarstartedagainin1839,Abdel-KaderhadfullypaidtheEuropeanadvisershiredtohelpwithhisarmyandmunitionsindustries,eventhoughtheyhadnotbeenabletofinish

theirwork.Hehadheardthisfromtheirownmouths,Dupuchadded,concludingthatallthistestimonywaspowerfulproofoftheEmir’shumanecharacter.

Meanwhile,Abdel-Kaderwasnotforgottenbythewiderworld.Infact,hisfamegrewsteadily.NumerousarticlesandbookswerepublishedabouthiminFrance,almostasthougheveryonewhohadeverbeentoAlgeriawantedtowriteabookabouttheEmir.

InGreatBritain,too,peoplewerefascinatedbyhisstory;andifthatstoryreflectedbadlyonFrance,somuchthebetter.TheBritishpublichappilymadeapopularheroofAbdel-Kader.Attheracetracksagainsthugeodds,asmallhorsenamedAbdel-KaderwontheGrandNationalSteepleChaseinboth1850and1851!

Journalistsandpoetsaliketookuptheirpensonbehalfofthishero,whonowappearedincrediblyromantic.WhiletheBritishpresshadearlierenjoyedreportingthehardtimethatAbdel-KaderwasgivingtheFrenchinwar,nowthetributesexpressedsympathywiththebetrayedEmir.ThefamousEnglishpoetWilliamMakepeaceThackeraypublishedapoemaboutAbdel-KaderimprisonedinToulon,whichbegan:

Nomore,thoulitheandlong-wingedhawk,ofdesert-lifeforthee;Nomoreacrossthesultrysandsshaltthougoswoopingfree:Bluntidletalons,idle-beak,withspurningofthychain,Shatteragainstthycagethewingthoune’ermay’stspreadagain.4

AmemberoftheEnglisharistocracywroteastirringpoemthatended—

GodsaveAbd-el-Kader!Tho’banish’dhebe,Tho’theFrankruletheplain,andtheFrankkeepthesea;ForthetribesofElGharb,fromBiskaratoRif,Shallariseattheneighofthywarhorse—GreatChief!5

Andfromthepenof“anEnglishLady”camethistribute:

TheagedEmirbowstofate:Hissorrowsclaimapeacefulgrave;HeseeksnoransomfromtheState,savethis,whichvalorgrantsthebrave.6

AnotherEnglisharistocrat,theMarquisofLondonderry,decidedtoseewhathecoulddoinperson.WithhiswifeanddaughterhesetouttovisitAbdel-KaderinthechateauatAmboise.Permissionwasgranted—buttheFrenchauthoritiesdecidedtomaketheexperienceasunpleasantaspossiblefortheinterferingEnglish.Theywerekeptwaitingforseveralhoursinonechilly,clutteredroomafteranother,untilfinallytheywereallowedtoseetheprisoner.Abdel-Kaderwelcomedthevisitorswithwarmth,andlatersaidfarewellwithsuchafirmembracethatLondonderrycomplainedofasoreneckafterwards.Nonethelesshewrote,“Ithinkthisindescribablyinterestingandnobleoldchiefwasmuchpleasedandgreatlyaffectedbyourvisit.”7(Inhismid-fortiesandstillveryfit,Abdel-Kaderwashardlyold—buttheEnglishlovedthatsortofimage.)

LondonderrywrotetoLouis-Napoleon,urgingthatevenifthereweresomeslightriskinsettingAbdel-Kaderfree,itwouldbegreatlyoffsetbytheworld’sadmirationofFrenchgenerosity.Louis-Napoleonansweredwithgreatcare:“IshallbeverygladtoseetheEmir,butIcanonlyseehimtoannouncegoodnews.”8Disappointedbutdeterminedtocontinuehisefforts,theMarquisandhisfamilywentbackto

London.

RESIGNATION—ANDLOOSERBINDS

Asthemonthsofcaptivitybecameyears,thefireofAbdel-Kader’sprotestdimmedandheseemedtogrowmoreresignedtohisfate.Hewouldsimplywait,trusting,forthenewpresidenttosethimfree.HetoldvisitorsthathethoughtFranceshouldnotbejudgedonjustamomentintime,butoveritslonghistory.

Abdel-Kader’sfive-yearimprisonmentwasnot,infact,timeoutofhislife.Hedidnotretreatintodiscouragementandlethargy,intellectualorspiritual.Onthecontrary,hekeptgrowing.HavingdeterminedtolearnaboutFrenchthinkingandcustoms,hedevelopedamuchmoreaccurate—andforthemostpart,positive—understandingofhisformerenemies.ThefloodofvisitorsgavehimopportunitytoobserveandreflectonallsortsofEuropeanpeopleandtheirmentalities.Hiscaptorswerewisetoallowthisfreeinterchange.

ThemoreAbdel-KaderlearnedandthoughtaboutFrenchcivilization—andwesterncivilizationingeneral—themorehisinterestgrew.Hesawthestrengths,andtheweaknessesandfailings.Heeventriedtoenvisagearoleforhimselfthatmighthelpstrengthenthespirituallifeofthenationthatheldhimcaptive.WiththeencouragementofhistrustedinterpreterBoissonnet,hesetdowninwritinghisthoughtsaboutreligion,politics,science,history,andculture.The“LettertotheFrench”thateventuallyemergedwillbedescribedlaterinthestory.

Atthesametime,Abdel-Kaderhadleisuretoreflectmoreonhisowncultureandtoassessthe“broaderpicture”—hisowntraditionanditsvaluesside-by-sidewiththecivilizationofthewest.AtonepointtheEmir’sformerinterpreterEugèneDaumas,whowaswritingabookabouttheSahara,wantedtheexperthelpthatonlyAbdel-Kadercouldprovide.Inthepartabout“HorsesoftheSahara,”Abdel-KaderwrotedetailedcommentariesaboutArabianhorses,atreasuryofinformationandopinionfromonewhoreallyknewhishorses.Inthesecondpart,abouthumanlifeinthedesert,hecontributedachapterabouttheimportanceofhuntingamongthetribes—possiblythedefinitivediscussionofhowhyenas,lions,andleopardshunt,andarehuntedinturn(orwereinthosedays).Thisbook,co-authoredwithDaumas,musthavebeenlikeabriskrideinthedesertbreezesforAbdel-Kader.

Gradually,evenwhileheateddebateswentonintheFrenchChamberofDeputies,thegovernmentrelaxedtherestrictionsplacedonAbdel-Kaderandhispeople.In1850,asatest,Louis-NapoleonallowednineteenAlgerianstoreturntotheircountry,andtherewasnouproarfrompressorpublic.AcomplimentarypoemthatAbdel-Kaderwrotetothepresidentledtoacarefulcorrespondencebetweenthetwomen.

TheEmiralsobegantoallowhimselfalittlemorefreedom.Hetookwalksintheformalgardensofthechateau,andhelearnedtoplaychess,admiringthegameforitsmentaldisciplineandsimilaritytomilitarystrategy.Inthespringof1851hestartedtoacceptafewsocialinvitations,returningthegoodwillshownhimbycitizensofAmboise,andhevisitedotherchateausintheregion.HeallowedsomeofthemaleAlgerianstoexplorethetownofAmboiseontheirown.ThedayswhenAbdel-KaderrejectedallthingsFrenchwerebehindhim.Nowhegraspedopportunitiesthatwouldleadtonewlearningandexperience.

ButformanyoftheimprisonedAlgerians,cutoffsolongfromtheirnormalwayoflife,depressionwasneverfaraway,norwereillnessanddeath.InadditiontothosewhohadsuccumbedatPau,twenty-fiveadultsandchildrenwererestinginasmallcemeteryinthechateaugardensatAmboisebythe

summerof1852.SomeweremembersoftheEmir’simmediatefamily.Ashewalkedamongthegravestones,hemusthavereflectedsadlythathestillcoulddonothingexceptwait...withfaiththateventuallyjusticewouldbedone.

CHAPTER10

FREEDOMANDANEWLIFEINEXILEOnanafternooninmid-Octoberof1852,nearlyfiveyearsafterhehadgivenuphisfightagainsttheFrench,Abdel-Kaderwasstrollingoutdoorswhenhereceivedanunexpectedorder.Hewastoappearimmediatelyinoneofthechateau’sformalsalons.TherehefoundLouis-Napoleon,PresidentoftheRepublic,waitingforhim.

“Abdel-Kader,”announcedLouis-Napoleon,“Ihavecometotellyouthatyouaresetatliberty.”ThentheinterpreterBoissonnet,withmuchemotion,translatedthePresident’swrittenstatement.“Foralongtime,asyouknow,yourcaptivityhascausedmegenuinegrief,foritremindedmeconstantlythatthegovernmentwhichprecededmehadnotkeptitspromisestoanunhappyenemy....”1

Abdel-Kaderhadalreadyrecognizedonevitalword—liberté,freedom.Hislongwaitwasnownearlyover.Kneeling,hekissedthehandofthepresident.

Intheceremoniesthatimmediatelyfollowed,theEmir’smotherLallaZohrawaspresentedtoLouis-Napoleon.ThenthepresidentandtheAlgerianssatdowntogethertoadinnerofcouscous,thetraditionalNorthAfricanwheatdish,servedwithvegetablesandmeat.InhisgratitudeAbdel-Kaderisreportedtohavesaid,“Othershaveoverthrownmeandimprisonedme,butonlyLouis-Napoleonhasconqueredme.”2

ABDEL-KADER’SLIBERATION:HOWITHAPPENED

WhatbroughtaboutthissuddenchangeinAbdel-Kader’sfate?Thefirstansweristhataninterestingassortmentoffriendsandsupporters—MonsignorDupuch,LordLondonderry,MarshallBugeaudandnumerousothers—hadbeenworkingbehindthesceneforyears,tryingtopersuadeboththegovernmentandtheFrenchpublicthatitwasnotonlyhonorablebutsafefortheEmirtobeliberated.Theeffortsofsomanyindividuals,withwidelydifferingbackgroundsandconcerns,wereproofoftheEmir’sremarkableabilitytoinspireloyaltyanddeterminationtoworkforjustice.

Therewereotherinfluencesaswell,andonewasthecharacterofLouis-Napoleonhimself.Inhisownpoliticalcareerhehadknownimprisonmentanddiscouragement,whichhelpedhimtosympathizewiththeEmirandtheAlgerianpeople.AnotherfactorwasthewayAbdel-Kader’sfatesooftenhungupontheturbulenceoftheFrenchpoliticalscene.Duringthesixtyyearsupuntil1852,theFrenchpeoplehadlivedunderamonarchy,arevolutionarymobanditsleaders,arepublic,anempireunderNapoleonBonaparte,anothermonarchy,anotherrepublic,andthenarepublicruledbyapopularlyelectedpresident—whohadjustseizedmorepowerandadded“prince”tohistitle.

AndnowPrince-PresidentLouis-Napoleonwantedtobeemperor!InthemonthjustbeforehisdecisiontoreleaseAbdel-Kader,hehadbeentouringFrancetotestpublicopinion.Hewaspleasedtofindthatpeoplewerefedupwiththeinstabilityofgovernment“bycommittee.”Theywerereadyto

relinquishsomeofthefreedomsandrightsofademocraticformofgovernmentforafirmhandatthehelm.Andtheywereveryeagerindeedforarevivalofnationalglory.Inshort,theFrenchwantedtobeanempireagainundertheruleofoneman—especiallyamanfromthefamilyoftheirnationalhero,NapoleonBonaparte.

Reassuredofhispopularity,Louis-Napoleonfeltthetimewasrighttocarryouthiscountry’spromises.ItwouldbesafetosetAbdel-Kaderfree.

THELIONINPARIS

BeforeleavingFrance,Abdel-KaderwantedtoseeParis,learnmoreaboutFrenchcivilization,andexpresshisappreciationforthesupportshownhimbysomanyFrenchpeople.OnOctober28,1852,hesetoffforared-carpettouroftheFrenchcapital.

HearrivedtofindallParisrejoicingovertheprospectofdramaticpoliticalchange.InvitedtothefamedParisoperathatveryevening,Abdel-KaderacceptedwhenassuredthatLouis-Napoleonwouldbeattending.Itturnedouttobeanabsolutelythrillingeveningattheopera.Theaudiencewentwildwhenamusicalpiecewaspresentedcelebratingthenewempire-to-come.“Empireispeace!”sangtheper-formers.Louis-NapoleoninvitedAbdel-Kadertotheroyalbox,wherethetwomengreetedeachotherwarmlyforalltosee.

Thenextday,athisrequest,Abdel-Kader’stourstartedwithsomeofthegreatchurchesofParis.FirstontheitinerarywasahugemonumentresemblingaRomantemple.TheMadeleinehadbeenbuiltbyNapoleonBonaparteinhonorofhisarmy,butlaterturnedintoaRomanCatholicchurch.Standingbesidethepriest,Abdel-Kaderprayedsilentlyatthealtar.Thewatchingcrowdswereamazed,andAbdel-KaderissaidtohavebeenpleasedthattheycouldwitnessaMuslimworshippinginaChristianchurch.ThentothefamousmedievalcathedralofNotreDame,whereAbdel-KadertookinterestinboththereligiousitemsandtherobesthatthefirstNapoleonhadwornforhiscoronationasemperorin1804.

AndthentotheNationalArtilleryMuseum,theHippodrometowatchanaerialbattlebetweentwoballoonists,theNationalLibrary,ahospitalforwarveterans,thetombofNapoleonBonaparte,theatricalperformancesandmoreopera,andthehorseraces.AttheNationalPrintingWorkstheEmircommented,“YesterdayIsawcannonswithwhichrampartsaretoppled.TodayIsawthemachinewithwhichkingsaretoppled.”3Fromhisownexperienceheknewaboutthepowerofthepress,forbothgoodandill.

Wheneverhewasallowedalittletimeathishotel,allsortsofvisitorspouredin—morethanthreehundredinall.AsusualAbdel-Kader,whoalwaysseemedabletothinkoftherightthingtosaytoeachindividual,spokegraciouslytowomenaswellasmen,tothemodestaswellasthepowerful,scholarsaswellassocietyfigures,commonsoldiersaswellasgenerals.HisoldfriendtheformerbishopofAlgiers,Dupuch,arrivedonemorningintimeforbreakfast.TheEmirwasdelighted,remindinghisvisitorthathe,Dupuch,hadbeenthefirstFrenchmantobelieveinhim.

Inthemidstofalltheacclaimandmutualadmiration,thesuspicionsregardingthemassacreofFrenchprisonersin1846seemedtohavefadedaway.Butforafewpeopletheylingered.Oneoftheofficerswhohadbeensparedwhenthecommonsoldierswerekilled,cametoseetheEmirinParisandraisedthesubject.Oncemore,Abdel-Kaderexplainedthathehadneitherknownaboutnorapprovedofthedeed.Thenwhy,askedhisvisitor,didhenotpunishtheculprits?

InafewwordsAbdel-Kadermadeclearnotonlythediresituationhehadfaced,buthissteadfastprinciples.“Icouldnotdoso.Mychiefswereinrevoltandnolongerobeyedme,mysoldierswere

embitteredbydefeatandhadbutahandfulofbarleytoliveon.Donotquestionmefurther—Idonotwishtoaccuseanother.”4AtlasttheFrenchofficerunderstood.

OnAbdel-Kader’sfinaldayinParishewenttothefamouspalaceatVersailles,homeofFrenchkingsforcenturies.Onthatoccasion,seatedonthewhitehorsethatLouis-Napoleonhadgivenhim,hewatchedthecavalrychargesandothermilitaryroutinesperformedinhishonor.Thencameadisplayofwaterworks—elaboratefountainsandjetsinthefamousformalgardens—andahugebanquet.

Byallaccounts,Abdel-KaderhadtakenParisbystorm.Hewas,asthenewspaperssaid,“thelionoftheday.”

LASTDAYSINFRANCEANDDEPARTURE

Indeed,morethanalion:almostaFrenchman.WhenapopularvotewastakenonNovember22,1852,todeclareLouis-Napoleonemperor,Abdel-Kaderwantedtocasthisvote—asaFrenchcitizen.AlongwiththirteenofhisAlgerianmen,hedidso.Byacuriouscoincidence,onexactlythesamedatetwentyyearsearlier,Abdel-KaderhadbeendeclaredCommanderoftheFaithful—againsttheFrench.HemadeanotherbriefvisittoParisinearlyDecembertowitnessLouis-NapoleontakinghisplaceinhistoryasEmperorNapoleonIII.

BackinAmboise,Abdel-Kadergotbusywritinglettersthankingindividualswhohadhelpedhim,withspecialgratitudeforthenunsoftheDominicanSistersofCharity,whohadtakencareoftheAlgerianwomenandchildren.Oneofthesistersdescribedhiminthisway:“Allowingcertainexceptionsofatheologicalnature,thereisnoChristianvirtuethatAbdel-Kaderdoesnotpracticeinthehighestdegree.”5ThetownspeopleofAmboiseraisedfundsforthecareofthesmallcemeteryinthechateau’sgarden.Inturn,Abdel-Kaderboughtanelegantcrystalchandelierfromthechateauitself,topresenttotheparishchurch.

FinallytheEmirandhisfamilyandsupporterswerereadytoleaveFrance.Onceagaintheirdeparturewasaprocession,markedbyreceptionsandcrowdsalongtheway,tothebusyportofMarseillesontheMediterranean.There,onDecember21,1852,almostfiveyearstothedayaftertheEmirhadstoppedfighting,theyboardedalargeandluxuriousshipfortheeasternMediterranean.

ButwhatwasAbdel-Kader’sdestination?NottheArabcitiesthathehadbeenpromised,AlexandriainEgyptorAcreinPalestine.Instead,onceagaintheFrenchgovernmentrearrangedtheEmir’slife.TheysenthimtotheheartoftheOttomanEmpire.

TheEmirhadbeeninformedearlierofthisdecision.Butwhythechange?Perhapstheemperor,forallhishighregardforAbdel-Kader,stillworriedaboutallowinghimfreedomintheArabcountries.InTurkeyhecouldbemorecloselyobservedand,ifnecessary,controlled.PerhapstheFrenchgovernmentthoughtthepresenceofAbdel-KaderinTurkeycouldstrengthenanalliancewiththeOttomangovernmentagainstRussianencroachmentsintheMiddleEast.Possibly,too,theFrenchassumeditwouldn’treallymaketoomuchdifference.OneMuslimcity,theymayhavereasoned,wasasgoodasanother,andatleasttheheartoftheOttomanEmpirewouldbemoreinterestingthantheprovincialtownsofEgyptandPalestine.

ABDEL-KADERINTURKEY

Inanycase,asAbdel-Kader’sshipapproachedConstantinople,theTurksgreeteditproperlywitha

twenty-one-gunsalute.Then,aftertheformalitiesofwelcomingspeeches,statedinners,andceremonialvisits,theAlgeriansweretakentothetownofBursa,aday’sjourneyfromConstantinople.BynowtheEmir’sfamilyincludedmorethanonehundredpeople—allhisfamily,heinsisted,whetherrelatedbybloodormarriage,orneither.

TheresidencethatawaitedtheminBursawasakhan,alargebuildingwithaspaciousopencourt,thesortofstructureusedforhundredsofyearsforthecaravansthatcarriedontradeintheeasternworld.Itwasroomyandincludedbaths,butwasbadlyneglected.Fortunately,theFrenchgovernmenthaddecidedtoprovideAbdel-Kaderwithagenerousannualallowance.Hewasabletofixupthekhanadequatelyandalsotopurchaseamorecomfortablehouseinthenearbycountryside.Therehesettleddown,usinganysurplusmoneytohelpthelocalmosquesandcharities.ThetownofBursa,nearamountainrange,wasscenicandcolorful;thefruitwasdelicious,andtheairclean.Itwasnotabadplacetolive.

ButithadnottakenAbdel-KaderlongtonoteadefinitecoolnessonthepartoftheFrenchdiplomatsinConstantinople.InFrancehehadbeentheemperor’sfriend,welcomedeverywhere.Herehestillseemedtoberegardedwithsuspicion.Hisnewinterpreter,GeorgesBullad,ayoungmanfromaprominentSyrianChristianfamily,hadgrownupinFrance.Abdel-Kaderlikedhim,buthewasawarethatBullad’sdutiesincludedreadinghismailandsendingdailyreportstotheFrenchministryofwar,whichstillmaintainedcontroloverhisactivities.TheEmirwasnolongeracagedhawk,butneitherwasheabletoflyfree.

Moreover,theattitudeoftheOttomanTurkstowardAbdel-Kader—eventhoughtheywerefellowMuslims—wasfarfromfriendly.Forawhile,someoftheTurkishofficialsworriedthathemightbepoliticallydisruptiveandencouragenationalistideasintheArabworld.FormorethanthreehundredandfiftyyearstheOttomanshadruledtheArablands,fromwhatisnowIraqintheeasttoAlgeriainthewest.Thankstotheirmilitarymighttheykeptorderexceedinglywell,butbeyondthattheydidverylittleforthepeopleandtendedtoconsidertheArabsculturallyinferior.Forhispart,Abdel-KaderhadnotforgottentheOttomansultan’sindifferencetohisstruggleagainsttheFrenchconquestofhishomeland.ThefactthattheTurkishandArabiclanguagesaretotallydifferentfurtherblockedcommunicationandaddedtotheAlgerians’feelingthattheydidnotbelonginthisnewland.

ABDEL-KADERBACKINPARIS

TheEmirenduredhisexileinBursaaslongashecould.Inthesummerof1855anearthquakebadlydamagedthetown,anditlookedtoAbdel-KaderlikeagoodtimetomakeatripbacktoParis.Hehadmorethanonepurposeinmind.Alwayseagerfornewknowledgeandtechnology,hewantedtovisittheUniversalExpositionthatwasgoingoninParisatthetime,ahugeeventwithtwenty-fourthousandexhibitorsandfivemillionvisitors.Hedidvisitit,againandagain,lookingcloselyatthenewusesofsteampower,modernprintingpresses,improvementsinveterinaryscience,andnotleastofallthesewingmachines—whichremindedhimofhowhehadstitchedhisowngarmentsbyhandasayouth.Moderntechnology,Abdel-Kaderwasconvinced,wasintendedbyGodtoservethecommongood.

TheEmir’smainpurposeinvisitingParis,however,wastotalkfrankly—buttactfully—withNapoleonIII.Hefearedthathisrequestmightnotbereceivedfavorably,inviewoftheemperor’sdecisiontosendhimtoTurkeyinthefirstplace.

Again,politicalconditionsplayedaroleintheEmir’sfate.France,Britain,andTurkeywereatwarwithRussiaintheCrimea,apeninsulathatjutsintotheBlackSea.WhenhearrivedinParisinSeptember1855,Abdel-KaderfoundtheFrenchdeliriouslyhappyovertheirvictoryinoneofthemajorbattles.A

religiousserviceofthankswasplannedatthecathedralofNotreDame;andafterinquiringwhetheritwouldpleasetheemperorforhimtobethere,Abdel-Kader—althoughillwithcholera—agreedtoattend.Weak,supportedbyaFrenchofficer,hewasmetwithloudcheersatthecathedral.

BoththeEmirandtheemperorwerehighinpopularity,whichcouldonlyhelppreparethewayforAbdel-Kader’srequest.WhenhewasabletomeetwithNapoleonIII,heaskedwhetherhisplaceofexilecouldbechangedtoanArabcountry.HehadDamascusinmind,whichhistranslatorGeorgesBulladhadbeenrecommending.WhentheemperorpromptlysuggestedDamascus,Abdel-Kaderjustaspromptlyaccepted,andeveryonewashappy.

NapoleonIIIprovidedasteamshiptotakeAbdel-KaderbacktoTurkeyandfromtheretransporthimandhisfamilytotheportofBeirut.BythentheAlgeriancolonyinBursahadgrowntoabouttwohundredindividuals,asmoreandmoreofhiscountrymenwerechoosingtojointheEmirinexile.SomehadtotravelbylandtoBeirut,whereAbdel-KaderarrivedonNovember24,1855.

ABDEL-KADERINSYRIA

ThecoastofSyriainthatarea—nowtheRepublicofLebanon—ranalongsideahighandruggedmountainrangeknownasMountLebanon.ToreachDamascus,atravelerhadtocrossthismountainrangebyhorse,mule,camel,andfoot.

Abdel-Kadersetoutonhisjourneywithaninterestinginvitationinhand:tovisitthemountainhomeofaretiredBritisharmyofficernamedColonelCharlesHenryChurchill.Thisadventurous,dynamic,andhighlyopinionatedEnglishmanhadservedwithaBritishmilitaryexpeditiontoSyriain1840andlikedMountLebanonsomuchthathedecidedtostay.HehadvisitedAbdel-KaderinBursaacoupleofyearsearlier,andthetwomenhadformedaninstantfriendship.

TheroutetoColonelChurchill’shomepassedthroughanareainhabitedmostlybyDruze—followersofareligionrelatedtoIslambutwithdifferingbeliefsandafiercelyindependentwayoflife.Asheclimbedthemountainroad,Abdel-Kaderwassuddenlymetwithferociousgunfire.Fortunatelyitwasthegunfireofwelcome,awildlyenthusiasticreceptionbytheDruzechiefsandtheirmen.Theyknewofhisfame,hadheardofhiscoming,andnowtheybeggedhimtostay—ifnotforthenight,thenatleastforcoffee.

Abdel-KaderwaspleasedbythewarmthoftheseDruzechiefs—formidablewarriorswhentheyneededtobe—buthehadtopushontoChurchill’shome,actuallyanoldpalace.Duringtheirtimetogether,Abdel-KaderandChurchillagreedthattheEnglishmanwouldlatervisittheEmirinDamascusforaspecialproject:writingthestoryofAbdel-Kader’slife.

Continuingonhisjourney,Abdel-KaderandhisgroupdescendedtheslopesofMountLebanon,crossedaflat,fertileplain,andascendedanothermountainrange,lowerandlessrugged.FinallytheyreachedthevalleyoftheriverBarada,wherethecityofDamascusstood,oneoftheoldestcontinuallyinhabitedsitesonearth.AllalongtheroadtheEmirwasgreetedwithcheersofwelcome.Agroupofhorsemenrodeouttomeethim,includingfriendsandformersoldiersinhisarmywhohadmigratedearliertoSyria.Thencamethrongsofordinarypeopleand,asheenteredthecity,awelcomebyTurkishtroopsandmilitaryband.

Abdel-KaderhadaspecialreasonforwantingtobeexiledtoDamascus.Itwastherestingplaceofhisspiritualandintellectualmaster,themedievalphilosopherandmysticMuhyiad-DinIbnArabi,whoseworkshadgreatlyinfluencedAbdel-Kader.IbnArabi,consideredpossiblythegreatestmedievalSufi

thinker,wasbornin1165C.E.inAndalusia,SpainattheheightofIslamiccivilization.Hetraveledthroughouthislife,teachingandwriting,andfinallysettledinDamascus.Therehediedin1240C.E.andwasburiedinanearbyvillagecalledSalihiyya.Inhisowntime,IbnArabihadchallengedorthodoxreligiousideas,andhadcriticizedtheentrenchedreligiousleaderssomuchthattheytookrevengeafterhisdeathbyheapinggarbageonhistomb.

Thegravehadlongsincebeencleanedoffandatombandshrineerected;butatthetimeofAbdel-Kader’sarrivalinDamascus,Salihiyyawasconsideredashabbyandcrime-riddenplace.Nonetheless,heinsistedonvisitingthetombofIbnArabievenbeforeenteringthecity.SalihiyyawouldplayanimportantroleintheEmir’slifelateron.

INDAMASCUS,AHOMEATLAST

InDamascus,apleasantplaceedgedbyrockyheightsandfamousforitsfruittrees,Abdel-Kaderboughtaverylargehouse.Itwaslocatedinthecenterofthecity,convenientlyclosetoboththeChristianquarteroftheoldcityandtheGreatMosque,oneoftheoldestandmostimpressiveinthewholeMuslimworld.

Actually,Abdel-Kader’shousewasthreeverylargehousesjoinedtogether,makingastructureaboutaslongasasoccerfield.Notonlywasitroomyenoughforfamilyandservants,followersandvisitors,butitsoonbecamesomethinglikeazawiya,areligiouscenteropentoall.Peoplecouldcometheretoconverse,seekhelp,orsettledisputes.EveryFriday,theEmirgavebreadtothepoorpeopleofDamascus,whowouldlineupatthehousetoreceiveit.Abdel-Kader’shugehousewasaverywiseinvestment—probablymorethanevenhecouldhavepredicted—aseventswouldprovewithinjustafewyears.

AtlastAbdel-Kaderwasabletostepintowhatheregardedashistruerole—aspiritualteacher.HisdailyclassesattheGreatMosquewereinconstantdemand.InparticularhetaughtagroupofscholarsabouttheworksofhismasterIbnArabi,whichhelpedpreservetheseimportantwritingsforfuturegenerations.Abdel-Kaderdidnotthinkofhimselfasaspiritualmasterbutasapilgrimstillinsearchoftruthandunderstanding.Heregardedhisstudentsnotasdisciplesorfollowers,butmorelikefellowseekers.

Tobesure,therewerepocketsofresentmentinDamascus.JustasthereligiousestablishmenthadopposedIbnArabisixcenturiesearlier,themuftiandotherIslamicofficialsofDamascusdidnotwelcomethisnewcomer,whosesuperiorknowledgeandcharactertendedtoshowuptheirsmall-mindedness.ButformostoftheMuslimsofSyria,Abdel-KaderembodiedthreehighlyesteemedrolesinIslamicculture:amaraboutanddescendentoftheProphetMuhammad,ascholarandteacher,andnotleastofall,adefenderofIslamandleaderofjihad.

YetwhilehewasthankfullyreturningtotheintellectualandspiritualrolethathefeltGodhadintendedforhim,Abdel-Kaderwasalsoverymuchinvolvedintheworldaroundhim.HekeptupwiththenewsthroughtheArabicpress,andengagedincorrespondenceandconversationwithmanypeople.Moreover,nowhecouldactuponhisdesiretoimprovepeople’slivesthroughmodernmethodsandtechniques.Heboughttractsoffarmland,undertookagriculturalprojects,promotedroadconstruction,andbuiltatollbridge.ThankstothepensionthattheFrenchgovernmentcontinuedtoprovide,heandhisfamilycouldlivecomfortablyandatthesametimebegeneroustoothers.

Asacommunityleader,Abdel-Kaderplayedanotherimportantroleintheworldaroundhim.HehadfoundanAlgeriancolonyalreadylivinginDamascus,includingformerfightersinthestruggleagainsttheFrenchconquest.Somemen,whohadservedwithFranceintheCrimeanWar,cametoliveinDamascus

ratherthanreturntoAlgeria.Abdel-Kaderboughtmoreproperty,muchofitinthecenterofthecitynearhislargehouse,andmorehousesforfamilymembersandothersinneed.ThecolonygrewintoacommunitycloselyattachedtotheEmirforhisleadershipandcounsel.

TheseAlgerians,andespeciallythemensincetheycouldbeactiveinpubliclife,areoftenreferredtoinhistoricalaccountsas“Abdel-Kader’sAlgerians.”TheirplaceinthesocialandpoliticalsystemsofSyria,however,presentedsomethingofaproblem,andtheTurkishoverlordshadreasontowonderaboutthem.SincetheywerepartiallysupportedbyfundsfromFrance,didthatmakethemFrenchnationals?OrmighttheybeanarmofimperialFrance,alwaysreachingformoreinfluenceinthearea?OrpossiblyaninspirationforArabnationalistideas?AttheleasttheywereasymbolofArabresistancetoforeigndomination,whichcouldincludetheOttomanEmpire.EvenasMuslimsinapredominantlyMuslimcountry,therefore,theAlgeriansmusthavefeltsomeoftheuneasinesstypicalofminoritystatus.

Atthesametime,everysooftenabrushwithofficialdomremindedAbdel-Kaderthathewasstillnotquitefree.WhenhewantedtomakeavisittoJerusalem,Hebron,andBethlehem,citiesthathaveprofoundreligioussignificanceforMuslimsaswellasforJewsandChristians,hefoundroadblocksinhisway.Specialauthorizationwasneeded—notfromtheOttomansbutfromFrenchauthorities,whostillhadtheirdoubtsabouthisloyalty.In1857theEmirdidsucceedinmakingashortvisittoJerusalemandnearbysites,butonlyonconditionthatGeorgesBulladshouldaccompanyhimandreportregularlytotheFrenchministerofforeignaffairs.

Latein1859ColonelChurchill,whomAbdel-KaderhadvisitedinMountLebanonafewyearsearlier,cametoDamascus.ThetwomengotstartedontheambitiousbutinspiringtaskofsettingdownthedetailsofAbdel-Kader’slife.BetweentheEmir’snoontimeandsundownclassesattheGreatMosque,hesetasidetimeeverydaytotalkwithChurchill.Theireffortsproducedoneofseveralnineteenth-centurybiographiesoftheEmir,althoughprobablytheonlyoneinEnglish.

Butastheyworkedtogether,couldtheyhavehadanyinklingthatafuturechapter—perhapsthemostdramaticofall—wasabouttoopen?

CHAPTER11

MADNESSINDAMASCUSInthespringof1860,politicaltensionsinMountLebanonburstintoflame.TheheatwassoonfeltinDamascus,andtheEmirAbdel-Kaderfoundhimselfinthemidstofit.

CRISISINMOUNTLEBANON

Forcenturiesthepeopleofthemountainhadenjoyedahighlevelofindependence.Whilerulingthemselvesquiteeffectively,theywerecarefultopaytheirtaxestotheOttomanEmpire.Forthisreason,andtheextremelyruggedterrain,theTurkshadnevertriedtoimposecontroloverthemountainthesamewaytheyhadoverallthesurroundingArablands.Everythingchanged,however,inthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.ThemaincausesweresocialandpoliticaldevelopmentswithinMountLebanonitself,andtheinfluenceofoutsidepowers.

InthenorthernpartofthemountainrangelivedtheMaroniteChristians,whofollowedaformofRomanCatholicismandhadlongbeensupportedbyFrance.FordecadestheyhadbeenmovingsouthintothepartofthemountainpopulatedmostlybytheDruze—whowerebackedbyGreatBritain,justtokeepthingsmoreorlessbalanced.TheMaronites,whooutnumberedtheDruze,wereincreasinginpower,andtheDruzefeltthreatened.TheOttomanssawthisgrowingclashasachanceforthemtostepinandgainmorecontrol.

Undertheseconditions,violencewasprobablyinevitable.InlateMayof1860,manythousandsofpeoplewereslaughtered,andscoresofvillagesandmonasteriesdestroyed.TheDruzewerethebetterfighters,andtheChristianssufferedthegreaterlosses.Ottomansoldiers,sentsupposedlytokeeporder,joinedinagainsttheChristians,killingandlooting.AroundfivethousandChristians,mostlywomenandchildren,managedtoescapetoDamascus.TheretheywereshelteredinChristianhomesandchurches,inevitablyaddingtothebadlyover-crowdedconditionsinthatcity.Moralewaslowandtensionhigh,whichgaverisetoallsortsofrumors.

ROOTSOFTROUBLEINDAMASCUS

AlthoughthesituationinDamascuswasinfluencedbythetroubleinMountLebanon,theplayersandcausesweredifferent.ThepressureofEuropeaninterests,bothpoliticalandeconomic,hadbeengrowingforyears.TheeconomyofSyria,andespeciallyDamascus,wasaffectedbadly,withlocalmarketsandindustriesforcedtogivewaytoEuropeangoods.Bythemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,peoplewerefeelinghurtbychangesinlandownership,trade,manufacturing,taxation,socialdevelopments,and,ofcourse,risingfoodprices.

TheOttomanadministration,whichhaditsownworries,didnothelp.Itsempire,nownearlysix

hundredyearsold,wascrumbling,andEuropeanpowerswereeagerlywaitingforthechancetodivideuptheremains.WiththelossofGreece,Egypt,andAlgeria,theTurkstightenedtheirholdontheArabcountries.InthissituationtheTurkishgovernorofDamascus,AhmadPasha,apparentlydecidedtousetheoldstrategyof“divideandconquer.”HecouldstrengthenhissupportamongtheMuslimsandDruzebyturningthemagainsttheChristians.

ThroughoutSyriaandPalestine,theChristianswereaminoritytoleratedunderOttomanruleandguaranteedcertainrights,solongastheybehavedthemselves.Intheyearsleadingupto1860theirstatushadbecomebothmoreprivilegedandmoreendangered,especiallybecauseofchangesthatfollowedtheendoftheCrimeanWarin1856.

InreturnforsupportingtheOttomansagainstRussiaduringtheCrimeanWar,theEuropeanpowershadimposedcertaindemandsontheirally.MostproblematicwasthedecreethatallChristiansintheOttomanEmpireshouldhaveequalrightswithMuslims:civil,political,andmilitary.TomanyMuslims,theveryideaofChristiansbeingofficiallyequaltothemwasinsulting.TheyhatedthenewrulingallthemorebecauseitwasimposedbytheinterferingandthreateningEuropeanpowers.EuropeansupportfortheChristiancommunities,manypeoplebelieved,wouldopentheArabcountriestoevermoreforeignpressure.Inthistimeofdecline,weakness,andconfusionintheMuslimworld,unscrupulousleaderscouldeasilyusetheChristiansasascapegoattoblameforallthetroubles.

TheChristiansofDamascus,mostlyGreekOrthodoxandGreekCatholic,numberedaboutfifteenthousandoutofatotalpopulationofaroundonehundredandsixtythousand.Theyhadnaturallywelcomedthenewreformthatgavethemequalrights—butsomeforgotthewiseprecautionofcontinuingtobehavemodestly.IntheeyesofmanyMuslims,theyflauntedtheirnewstatustooboastfully.AndtherewasonematteronwhichsomeChristiansclearlywenttoofar:theyrefusedtopaytheirtaxes.

Formerly,minoritieshadbeenprohibitedfromservingintheOttomanarmy—whichwasthelastthingtheywantedtodoanyway—andwereobligedtopayataxinstead.UnderthenewrulesbothChristiansandMuslimshadtopayataxtoavoidconscription,butthetaxonMuslimswasmuchhigher.AndnowsomeChristiansarguedthattheywouldnolongerpayanytaxatall.WhiletheTurksdidnotreallywantChristiansinthearmy,theydidwantthetaxmoney.In1860,therefore,theOttomangovernorofDamascusdecidedtomaketheChristianspayfouryears’worthoftaxes,aheavyburdenformanyfamilies.SomeChristiansrefused,andtheirattitudedeeplyoffendedmanyMuslims.Itwaslikeasparkindrygrass.

ABDEL-KADERTAKESSTEPS

ThiswasthetimeinhislifethatAbdel-Kaderhadintendedtodevotetopeacefulpursuitssuchasprayer,teaching,andcharitabledeeds.HemighthaveturnedhisbackonthegrowingtensionsinDamascus:itwouldnothavebeenunreasonable.Yethecouldnotescapetheworldaroundhim,ortherolethatfateseemedtohavecutoutforhim.Nordidhechooseto.

InMarch1860,hepickedupalarmingrumors.ItlookedlikethegovernorofDamascus,AhmadPasha,alongwithsomeleadersfromthecity’sMuslimsandtheDruzevillagesnearby,wereplottingto“correct”thearrogantChristiansofDamascus.“Correcting,”inthatsense,typicallyincludedbloodshed.

Fortunately,Abdel-KaderhadastrongallyintheFrenchconsul,MonsieurLanusse.HewentdirectlytoLanussewiththisinformation,hopingthattheEuropeanconsulswouldconfrontAhmadPashaandpersuadehimtocanceltheplot.Lanussefoundtheotherconsuls—fromBritain,Russia,Austria,Greece,andPrussia(Germany)—highlyskeptical.NonethelesstheydesignatedtheGreekconsul,whoknewTurkish,totalkwiththegovernor.AhmadPashadeniedtherumorsandassuredtheconsulsthattherewas

nocauseforconcern.

Theconspiratorslaidlowforawhile.Inthemeantime,Abdel-KaderinstructedhisAlgerianstobealertandtrytostopanytalktheyheardagainsttheChristians.WhenAbdel-Kaderhimselftriedtotalkwiththemuftiandotherreligiousleaders,hewasrebuffed.Manywereenviousofthismuch-admirednewcomerandhadnointerestincooperatingwithhim.

ByearlyMay,awarethatChristiansweregoingintohidingorleavingthecity,Abdel-Kaderwassurethattheplotwasstillalive.AgainhewenttoseeLanusse.AgainLanusseappealedtotheotherconsuls,andthistimetheyallwent—althoughreluctantly—toseeAhmadPasha.Againthegovernordeniedanyproblem.Hedidremark,however,thattheChristianswereactingrebelliously.Hewoulddowhathecould,butifthereshouldbealargeoutbreakofviolence,histroopswouldnotbeabletocontrolit.Theconsulswereapparentlysatisfiedwiththisrun-around.

ThencamethemassacresinMountLebanonandthefloodofterrifiedChristianrefugees—toppedoffbywildrumorsaboutChristiansplanningtoattacktheMuslims!InJune,atAbdel-Kader’surging,Lanusseagaintalkedwiththeconsuls,butthistimetheysimplylaughedathisfears.

NowAbdel-Kadertookamoreactiverole.HewentseveraltimestoseeAhmadPasha,arguingthatanattackontheChristianswouldnotonlybecowardlybutagainstthelawsofbothIslamandhumanity.TheChristianshadnoarms,nomilitaryexperience,nowaytodefendthemselves.Abdel-Kaderdeclared,“IwillgoandputmyselfwiththecavalryinthemidstoftheChristianquarter,andthereIwillfightaslongasIhavebreath.Iwilldie,ifnecessary,forthehonorofIslam,whoselawforbidscrimesofthisnature.”1

TheEmiralsoreachedouttotheDruze—whohadgivenhimsuchawarmwelcomefiveyearsearlierbutnowappearedtobepartoftheplot.HesenttheDruzeleadersafirmbutcarefullettersaying,“SomeofyourhorsemenhavealreadybeenpillaginginthevicinityofDamascus.Suchactionsareunworthyofacommunitydistinguishedforitsgoodsenseandsoundpolicy.”2

Atthesametime,Abdel-Kaderdecidedtobepreparedfortrouble.HeaskedLanussetousehisspecialdiplomaticprivilegestobuyallthearmsandammunitionhecould;theFrenchconsulpromptlydidsoandturnedthemovertotheAlgerians.TheEmirtoldhismenwholivedoutsideDamascustocomeintothecity,ingroupssmallenoughtoavoidnotice.Heurgedthemtokeeptryingtopersuadepeopleinthecitytokeepthepeace.Hetalkedwitheveryleaderhecould,fromthemunicipalcouncilofDamascustovillageshaykhs.Againhetriedtoreasonwiththereligiousleaders,onlytogetanothercoldshoulder.

Bynowthegovernor,AhmadPasha,wasgrowingnervous.TheEuropeanpowerswouldholdhimresponsible,Lanussehadwarnedhim,ifharmcametotheChristians.Hemovedhisfamilytothecitadel,alargefortifiedareanearthecenterofthecity.Then,ashehadpromisedAbdel-Kader,hesenttroopstotheChristianquarter—buttheyturnedtheirgunsontheChristians,ratherthanthedirectionfromwhichattacksmightcome.SomeoftheChristianstriedtoappeasethesoldierswithfoodandgifts,andotherswiselymadetheirescapefromDamascus.FinallyAhmadPashatriedtopersuadetheDruzeleadersoutsidethecitytoholdoff.Butitwastoolate.AllofDamascuswaswaitingforanincidenttolightthefuse.

MADNESSERUPTS

ThatincidentstartedonSunday,July8,1860,whenafewMuslimboysdrewcrossesonthepavementintheChristianquarter,thenspatandscatteredtrashonthemandforcedpassingChristianstostampon

them.(Accountsvaryastothedetails.)TheChristianscomplainedtothegovernor,andhe—suspiciouslyreadytocooperate—hadtheculpritsarrestedandbeaten.Thenextdaytheboyswerepubliclytakentothespotandforcedtocleanthepavement.Anoutragedmobquicklyformed,readyforaction.ThewholeincidentwasapparentlycontrivedtolookasthoughAhmadPashawastryingtoprotecttheChristians,whileactuallyenragingtheMuslims.

Anditworked.IttouchedoffoneofthemostinfamouseventsofmodernMiddleEasternhistory,aweek-longnightmareofdestruction,looting,andwholesalemurder.WhileAbdel-Kader’sroleintryingtoaverttroublewasvital,hisactionsinthemidstoftheconflagrationmadeanevenmoreremarkablestory.

Knowingthattheinternationalrepresentativeswouldbeprimetargetsofamobenragedagainstwesterninfluences,Abdel-KadersentmessengerstotheconsulswholivedorhadofficesintheChristianquarter,urgingthemtocomeimmediatelytohishouse.InpersonhewenttotheFrenchconsulate,whichwasalreadysurroundedbyamob,andtookLanussebackwithhim.TheBritishconsul,thinkinghishousesafe,stayeduntilhereceivedawarning;thenhegotamessagedeliveredtoAbdel-Kader,whopromptlysentoutanotherrescuemission.

TheRussianconsulatehadalreadybeenlootedwhenAbdel-Kaderandtwoofhissonsreachedit,andthepeopleeithermurderedorvanished.AttheGreekconsulate,theAlgeriansfoundsomethreehundredrefugeesandescortedthemalltoAbdel-Kader’shouse.AFrenchdoctorwiththemwrotelater,“Inthoseindescribablemomentsofanguish,heaven,however,sentusasavior!Abdel-Kaderappeared,surroundedbyhisAlgerians,aroundfortyofthem.Hewasonhorsebackandwithoutarms,hishandsomefigurecalmandimposing.”3

TheAmericanvice-consul,Dr.MichaelMishaqa,hadadramaofhisown.Whenamobcametohishouse,heescapedbythegarden,scatteringgoldcoinstodistracthispursuersasheranthroughthestreets.DisguisedasaNorthAfrican,butbeatenandbloody,hewasfinallybroughttoAbdel-Kader’shouseandreunitedwithhisfamily.Herecordedhisexperienceslaterinalivelyhistoryofthearea,abookthatheentitledMurder,Mayhem,Pillage,andPlunder.

RESCUINGTHECHRISTIANS

Abdel-Kaderhadaboutathousandofhisownmen,manyofthemformerfighters,armedandready.NowtheygavetopprioritytorescuingtheChristians.

HorrendousdestructionhadalreadysweptthroughtheChristianquarter.TheDamascusmob—whichhadstartedasrabblemostlyfromthelowestclasses—wassoonjoinedbyMuslimsandDruzefromoutsidethecity,crazywithexcitementandgreedyforthespoils.TheriotersfirsttargetedthehousesofrichChristians,seizingeverythingthatcouldbecarriedaway,downtothewoodworkandtiles.BeforelongthewholeChristianquarterwasburning.Somewomenandchildrentriedtoescapetheflamesbyrunningacrosstheflathousetops,leapingoverspacesbetweenthem.Churches,houses,andshopswerealllooted,andmanypeoplemurdered.

Inthemidstofthischaos,Abdel-Kaderhimselfwenthurryingthroughthestreets,callingtotheChristianstofollowhimtosafety.HedescribedhisactionsinaletterwrittenonJuly18,1860,whichwaseventuallytranslatedfromtheArabicandpublishedbytheNewYorkTimes.“Seeingmattersweresodesperate,”hewrote,“IlostnotimeintakingundermyprotectiontheseunfortunateChristians.Isalliedforth,takingmyAlgerianswithme,andwewereabletosavethelivesofmen,women,andchildren,andbringthemhomewithus.”4HealsosentgroupsofhisarmedmentosearchthroughtheChristianquarter,

shouting,“WeareAbdel-Kader’smen,don’tbeafraid!We’vecometosaveyou.”Peopleemergedfromwherevertheyhadtriedtofindshelter,manyfilthyfromhavinghiddenindrainsandwells.AstreamofrefugeesbegantofindtheirwaytoAbdel-Kader’shugehouse.

Itappearsfromthevariousaccountsthat,despitethemob“inastateoffrenzy,”asAbdel-Kaderdescribedthem,heandhismenwerenotgivenanyrealtroubleastheywentabouttheirrescuemissions.TheAlgerians’reputationforhavingfoughtjihadintheirhomecountrystillcarriedweightwiththeMuslims.

Afewincidentsstandoutintheoftenconfuseddescriptionsofthosedaysofviolence.OnoneofhismissionsAbdel-KaderwenttoaFranciscanmonasteryandurgedthemonkstocomewithhim.Afraidoftreachery,theyrefused—onlytodiealittlelaterwhentheirhousewastorchedbythemob.Anotherrescueattempthadamuchbetteroutcome.Atanorphanage,fortunatelyoutsidetheChristianquarter,theSistersofCharitynunsandLazaristfathersquicklymarshaledtheirstudents,manybarefootbutinuniform.Abdel-Kaderandhissons,witharmedAlgeriansoneachside,ledaprocessionofafewhundredchildren,plusthenunsandmonks,tosafetyintheEmir’shouse.

Whatabouttheforcesoflawandorder,whileallthiswasgoingon?Abdel-Kaderfoundnohelpfromthereligiousleaders.Whenhehurriedtothehomeofthemufti,earlyintheoutbreakofviolence,hewastoldfirmlythatthemuftiwashavinghisnapandcouldnotbedisturbed.Worsestill,theOttomangovernortooknoaction.Onthatpoint,individualswhosurvivedanddescribedtheriotswereintotalagreement.Someofthegovernor’ssoldiersjoinedinthelootingandeventurnedtheirgunsandbayonetsonpeopletryingtoescapethefires.AsthegovernorhadwarnedAbdel-Kader,thesetroopswerehardlythecreamoftheOttomanarmy;butclearly,neitherweretheyunderanyinstructionstorestoreorder.OneTurkishcommanderwhodidtrytostoptherioterswaschargedwithinsubordination.

ForseveralnightsAbdel-Kadersleptonamatattheentranceofhishouse,sothatnooneseekingrefugewouldbeturnedaway.Atdawnonthethirddayoftheriots,July11th,heconfrontedalargemobwhoknewthathewasshelteringChristiansandhadcometohishousedemandingblood.Accordingtothereportsofthisscene,theEmirstoodbeforethemenandwaiteduntiltheyfinallyquieteddown.Heappealedtothe“lawofGod”andtheirownsenseofhumanity.Hadtheysunksolowinhonor,heargued,thattheywantedtoslaughterdefenselesswomenandchildren?

ThemobstillshoutedfortheChristiansandevenmockedAbdel-Kader,sayingthathehimselfhadbeena“greatkillerofChristians.”

“IfIslewChristians,”theEmiranswered,“itwasinaccordancewithlaw.Theywereinvadingourlandandfightingagainstourfaith.Ifyouwon’tlistentome,thenyouarelikebeastsinthefield,caringonlyforyourfood.”

Stillthecrowdyelledforblood,untilAbdel-Kadersaid,“TheseChristiansaremyguests.Trytotakeoneofthem,andyou’lllearnhowwellmysoldiersfight.Wewillfightforajustcause,justaswedidbefore!”5

Hecalledforhishorseandweapons.Ashemounted,hismensurroundedhim,brandishingtheirownriflesandshouting“Allahuakbar!Godisthegreatest!”Intimidated,themobgraduallygaveupandmeltedaway.Abdel-Kadermusthavefeltbothreliefandbitterdisappointment,ashesawhisthreatofforcewinoutoverhisappealtoreasonandmercy.

TOTHECITADEL

Allthiswhile,Abdel-Kader’smenkeptpatrollingtheChristianquarterandbringingmorepeopletohishouse.Althoughtherefugeeswerenowsafe,theyweresufferinginthemidsummerheat.Nobodykepttrackofnumbers,buttheremayhavebeenasmanyasfourthousandmen,women,andchildrenbythattime,packedintotheEmir’shouseandcourtyardwithoutfoodandwater,letalonesanitation.Abdel-Kadersentsometothehomesofhisbrothersandfriends,butconditionswerestillintolerable.

Finallyhemadeadifficultdecision:heappealedtoAhmadPasha.Thegovernor,bynowfullyawareofthehorrorshehadunleashedandthepricehemightpersonallyhavetopaylater,offeredtolettheChristianscometothecitadel.TheywouldnotbeprotectedbyTurkishsoldiers,hepromised,butbyAbdel-Kader’sAlgerians.

TheChristians,however,werehorrifiedastheverythoughtofleavingtheirhavenandbeggedAbdel-Kadernottosendthemoutintothestreetsagain.Abdel-Kadersworethathewoulddefendthemwithhisownlife.TwooftheconsulsstayingintheEmir’shousevolunteeredtoaccompanythefirstgroup,andanarmedAlgerianguardwasready.Althoughmanyoftherefugeesstillhadtobedragged,theydidreachthecitadelinsafety,andthereaftertheChristianswentwithmoreconfidence.Beforelongthecitadel’slargeopencourtyardwasfullofpeople,safebutsuffering,astherewasnoshelterfromthesunandverylittlefoodorwater.

Withhisspacioushousemostlyemptied,Abdel-KaderwentrightbacktorescuingmoreChristians.Thistimeheusedadifferentstrategy,spreadingwordthatanyonewhobroughtaChristianrefugeesafelytohishousewouldreceiveamonetaryaward.Itworked,andforafewmoredaysAbdel-Kaderstayedclosetohisentrance,handingoutcoinstothosewhocooperated.Wheneveragroupofahundredrefugeeshadbeengathered,theyweretakentothecitadel.

Bytheweek’send,thefiresofmasshysteriawereburningout.Theviolentphaseofthisevent—theworstsectarianconflictthatDamascusoranyotherArabcityhadexperienced—wasalmostover.Accuratenumbersofthosekilledcouldnotbedetermined,butestimatesofseveralthousanddeadwereprobablyreasonable,includingpeoplewholaterdiedofwoundsandsickness.Unquestionably,thenumberswouldhavebeenmuch,muchhigherwithouttheeffortsofAbdel-KaderandhisAlgerians.AcommonestimateisthatelevenortwelvethousandChristiansweresavedinthiswayfromalmostcertaindeath.6

ThegreatmajorityoftheMuslimsofDamascusdidnotjoininorapproveoftheriots.Earlier,manyofthebettereducatedMuslimshadtriedtodampentherisingtension.Now,horrifiedbytheviolence,theytookintheirChristianneighbors,oftenatrisktothemselves.Themassacre,fire,anddestructionwereactuallyconfinedtotheChristianquarter,anareaonlyaboutathirdofasquaremile.Inanotherpartofthecity,whereChristianslivedasaminorityamongMuslims,therewaslittleornotrouble,thankstogoodleadershipbyMuslimsandcarefulbehaviorontheChristians’part.

AFTERMATH

Whatbecameofthethousandsofdestituterefugees?TheChristianquarterwastotallydestroyed—theyhadnohomesleft.SomepeoplefromtheupperclassesstayedforawhilewithAbdel-KaderandotherAlgerianfamilies,orpossiblywithChristiansinotherpartsofDamascusorinoutlyingvillages.Agreatmanypeople,however,hadtoremainforweeksinthecitadelundergrimconditions.Fortunately,theTurkishofficialinchargewasacompassionatemananddidthebesthecould.

SincetherewasnosupportfortheminDamascus,manyoftherefugeessetoutforBeirut.Atleastthreethousand,escortedingroupsbyAbdel-Kader’sAlgerians,crossedthetwomountainrangestothe

sea,mostofthemonfoot.InBeirut,whereforeignwarshipshadarrivedinresponsetothetroublesinMountLebanon,theyhadabetterchanceofinternationalattentionandprotection.CharitablegroupssuchasAmerican,British,andothermissionariescouldalsooffersomehelp,althoughtheirresourceswerealreadybadlystretchedbythethousandsofrefugeesfromMountLebanon.

AsforthegovernorofDamascus,AhmadPasha,hewasreplacedwithamazingspeed.OnJuly16,1860,justoneweekafterthetroublestarted,thenewgovernorarrivedandtriedtorestoreorder.Thesituationremainedextremelytenseanddangerous.

BythesecondhalfofJuly,newsoftheriotsandmassacreshadreachednewspapersinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Theinternationalreactionwasquick.FranceandotherEuropeanpowersproposedtosendamilitaryforcetoDamascus—doubtlessforreasonspartlyhumanitarianbutalsoplainlypolitical.TheOttomangovernmentknewthatsuchanexpeditionwouldleadtofurtherinternationalpressuresandevenoccupation,sotheylostnotimeinplanningacounter-move.

AhighlyrespectedTurkishdiplomat,FuadPasha,hadalreadybeensenttodealwithMountLebanon.BythetimehegottoBeirut,thetroubleinDamascuspresentedhimwithanevenbiggerproblem.OnJuly29th,accompaniedbythreethousandOttomansoldiers,heenteredDamascuswithashowofforceintendedtoconvinceboththepeopleofDamascusandtheinternationalpowersthathewascompletelyincharge.

FuadPashaconsultedefficientlywiththeEuropeanconsulsandmilitaryofficers,andalsowithAbdel-Kader.Hethensetupaspecialtribunaltoarrest,try,andpunishtheperpetratorsofviolence—basedlargelyonthememoriesofpeoplewhohadexperiencedthatviolence.Thetribunalmadealistofsomefourthousandsixhundrednamesandeventuallynarroweditdowntothreehundredandfiftyindividuals,ofwhomthreehundredandthirty-eightwerefoundguilty.Notsurprisingly,mostoftheonehundredandeighty-oneexecutedbypublichangingwerefromthelowerclasses,whiletheonehundredandfifty-sevenmoreimportantindividualsweresentencedtoexile.

AhmadPasha,whohadservedasgovernorofDamascusforonlyatroubledsixmonths,facedafiringsquad.Theextentandexactnatureofhisguiltisstillsomewhatuncertain;butwhateverhisactualroleintheplot,clearlyhedidnothingtopreventortrytocontrolthe“murder,mayhem,pillage,andplunder.”

Asthefallseasonmovedon,lifeslowlybegantoreturntonormal.ThelastrefugeesleftthecitadelinlateSeptember,andtheChristianquarterwassufficientlycleanedupforrebuildingtostartbyJanuaryof1861.FuadPashaalsotriedtodealwiththeimmenselycomplicatedmatterofevaluatingChristians’lossesanddeterminingcompensation—whilealwaysonguardtopreventforeigncriticismandintervention.

LOOKINGBACK

HowtoexplainsuchaviciousoutbreakofsectarianviolenceinDamascus?Accusationsflewinmanydirections.PlottingbytheOttomans?OrbyeitherGreatBritainorFrance,orboth,toextendtheirpoliticalandeconomicinfluenceinSyria?AsfortheMuslims,manyoftheviolentlooterswerenotresidentsofDamascusbutcamefromoutside,almostasiforganizedlikeahiredmob.Inanycase,rebelliousness,anger,andconfusionwereabroadintheland,justwaitingtoignite.

AndwhatabouttheChristiansandtheirunwisebehaviorinasituationalreadyverydangerous?TheAmericanvice-consul,Mishaqa,aChristianhimself,pointedoutthataminoritywithlittlepower,livinginatimeandplaceoftension,shouldremembertodefertothepowerful.

Abdel-Kader,too,tookaseriousviewoftheChristians’responsibility.Theyshouldhaveobeyedthelawandpaidtheirtaxes,therelativelysmallamountthatexemptedthemfrommilitaryservice.Evenifthegovernmentisharsh,Abdel-Kaderbelieved,thelawmustbeobeyed.Forgovernmenttofunction,authoritymustberespectedandtaxespaid.Heknewthetruthofthatverywell,fromhisownstruggletoconsolidatetheAlgeriantribesandcreateanewgovernment.

ASSESSINGABDEL-KADER’SROLE

AlthoughotherMuslimsalsorescuedChristiansindanger,Abdel-Kaderplayedauniqueandcrucialrole.HehadtriedrepeatedlytowarntheEuropeanconsulsoftheplot,andhadwarnedAhmadPashatostopbeforeitwastoolate.HehadmobilizedhisAlgerians,urgingthemtoencouragepeaceandtolerance,whileatthesametimepreparingfortheworst.Heorganizedanddirectedalarge-scalerescuemissiondayafterday,venturingoutinthedangerousstreetsandattimesconfrontingthemobhimself.Heturnedhisownhomeintoarefugeecamp,notrestinguntilthousandsofdesperatepersonsofallageswereassafelycaredforaspossibleunderextremelydifficultconditions.HisdeterminationtokeepgoingandtobewhereverhewasneededwaslikearepriseofhisyearsasaresistancefighterinthecountrysideofAlgeria.

ThroughoutEuropeandtheUnitedStates,thepressandthepublicwereasfascinatedbyreportsofAbdel-Kader’sroleastheywerehorrifiedbytheactualevents.NowtheimageoftheEmirasaprotectorofChristiansovershadowedthevividimagesofearlieryears—first,thefierceopponentofChristianFrance,laterthe“deserthawk”unjustlyimprisoned.TheNewYorkTimeswrote:“ItisnolightthingforhistorytorecordthatthemostuncompromisingsoldierofMohammedan[Muslim]independence...becamethemostintrepidguardianofChristianlives....”7

TheworldsawAbdel-Kaderasaheroalmostwithoutequal.He,however,sawhisroleinadifferentlight.ThisisoneofthemostsignificantaspectsofAbdel-Kader’sactionsintheDamascusriots.Itwasnotdesireformorefamethatmotivatedhim,orsomeformofreproachtotheOttomans,andcertainlynotawishtogainstillmorefavorfromFrance.Rather,theEmirexplainedthathetriedtosaveinnocentlivesbecauseitwasnotonlythemorallyright,humanethingtodo,butthewaytoobeyGod’swill.“Thesemotivesamountedtoasacredduty.Iwassimplyaninstrument,”hesaid,asreportedintheFrenchpress.Inapersonalletterhesummeditup:“WhatwedidfortheChristians,wedidtobefaithfultoIslamiclawandoutofrespectforhumanrights.”8

NothingasextraordinaryasAbdel-Kader’srescuingoftheChristians,however,couldhavejustoneexplanation.Inspiteofallhehadsaidaboutputtingpoliticalmattersbehindhim,heremainedaveryperceptivepoliticalobserver.HeknewthatattacksontheChristiansofSyriawouldopenthedoortoincreasedinterferencebyEuropeanpowers.Indeed,hehadtriedtogetthatwarningacrossinthemidstoftheriots,shoutingatthemobtothinkaboutwhattheir“crazybehavior”wouldleadto.AndheknewthatifitcametoopenhostilitiesbetweentheEuropeanpowersandtheMuslimsofSyria,boththeTurksandthelocalpeople,hewouldbecaughtinthemiddle.Abdel-Kaderdidnotwanttohaveachoiceofthatsortforceduponhim.

Therewasanotherunderlyingreason.Abdel-KaderbelievedthatIslam,thereligionhefollowedsodevoutly,neededtoberestoredandstrengthenedintheheartsofitsbelievers.Hewrote:“Allthereligionsofthebook[Islam,Christianity,andJudaism]restontwoprinciples—topraiseGodandtohavecompassionforhiscreatures....ThelawofMohammedplacesthegreatestimportanceoncompassionandmercy....ButthosewhobelongtothereligionofMohammedhavecorruptedit,whichiswhythey

arenowlikelostsheep.”9Hisownefforts,hemusthavehoped,couldsetanexampleofhowatrueMuslimliveshisorherfaith.

CHAPTER12

ABDEL-KADER’SVISIONFORTHEWORLD

WhenAbdel-Kader’seffortswerenolongercriticallyneededtohelprestoresanityinhisadoptedcity,hewithdrewfromsociety.Heneededtimetocleansehissouloftheviolenceandmadnessinwhichhehadbeenforcedtoimmersehimself.FortwomonthshelivedattheGreatMosqueofDamascus,praying,meditating,andhealing.Someonefromhishousebroughthimonemealaday,hisonlycontactwiththeoutsideworld.

TheGreatMosquewasespeciallyappropriateforAbdel-Kader’sretreat.BuiltonthefoundationofanearlyChristianchurch,whichrestedonmuchearlierpagantemples,itwascompletedin715C.E.bytheearliestMuslimrulersofDamascus.Onthewallswerebeautifulimagesoftrees,gardens,rivers,andfountains,createdingoldandbrightlycoloredmosaicsbyChristianartisansfromtheByzantineEmpire.WaterandlushgreeneryhavetraditionallybeenapowerfulsymbolofparadiseforMuslims,buttheseimagessuggestsomethingmore:thepossibilitiesofChristiansandMuslimscreatingbeautyandreligiousharmonytogether,aprospectdeartoAbdel-Kader’sheart.

Laterin1860,Abdel-KadercontinuedhisspiritualrevivalbygoingonashortpilgrimagetoanIslamicshrineintheSyriancityofHoms.Onhisreturn,hestoppedatthefamousRomansiteinBaalbek,inwhatisnowLebanon.Thetemplesandcolumnsarestillamongthemostenormousintheworld,anditwouldbeinterestingtoknowwhathethoughtashemarveledatthesheersizeofthosemonumentstopagangods.Couldheseeaconnectionbetweenthosereligiousideasandhisown?

HONORSANDMORE

WhileAbdel-Kaderwastryingtoretreatfromworldlyconcerns,theworldwaseagertoshowerhimwithhonors.NapoleonIIIpromptlysenthimamedalforthehighesthonorthatFrancecouldbestow,theLegionofHonor.Othercountriesfollowedsuit,andmedalscamefromRussia,Prussia,Greece,thePope,andeventheOttomansultan.Inseveralofhisphotographs,Abdel-Kaderdisplaysalltheselargemedalsonasashacrosshisbody.TheAmericangovernmentsenthimapairofcustom-made,gold-inlaidColtpistols—agesturethatappearsironicatatimewhentheEmirwastryingtoputviolencebehindhim.

Meanwhile,notcontentwithmedals,somepeopleinFrancewishedtohonortheEmirbyputtinghimbacktowork.Inthefallof1860,ananonymouspamphletappearedinParis,entitled“Abdel-Kader:EmperorofArabia.”ThewriterarguedthattheOttomanEmpire,onitslastlegs,shouldbereplacedbyanArabempiremadeupofSyria,MountLebanon,Palestine,andpartofwhatisnowIraq.Abdel-Kaderwouldbetheperfectheadofstate,thepamphletstated,becauseofallhisoutstandingqualitiesandaccomplishments.Theproposalcreatedquiteastiratfirst,butinternationalrivalriessoonputanendtoit.IftheFrenchlikedtheprospectofAbdel-KaderrulingSyria,theBritishwouldinevitablyblockit—

eventhoughthatmeantcontinuingtopropuptheOttomanEmpire.

HowdidAbdel-Kaderfeelabouttheidea?Noone,itseems,thoughtofaskinghimuntilafewmonthslater.Thenhemadehiswishesplain.“Mycareerinpoliticsisover.Ihavenoambitionforworldlyglory.Fromnowon,Iwantonlythesweetpleasuresoffamily,prayer,andpeace.”1

In1865,however,alongcameanotherjoboffer,thistimefromNapoleonIII.Heproposedthatwiththeever-increasingEuropeansettlementofAlgeria,thecountryshouldbedivided,onepartfortheEuropeans,theotheranArabkingdom.AndwhoforkingbetterthanAbdel-Kader?Thisideanevergotofftheground.TheEuropeansettlerswerehorrified,andAbdel-Kaderwasequallynegative.NotonlyhadhepromisednevertosetfootonAlgeriansoilagain,hesaid,buttheAlgerianpeoplewouldnotaccepthim.Bynowhewastooprogressiveinoutlook,toocloselyassociatedwithaspectsofmodernthinkingandwesternways.ThepeopleofAlgeria,impoverishedanddispossessed,clungmorefiercelythanevertotraditionalwaysandwouldrejectaleaderwhowasnow,insomerespects,sodifferentfromthem.Besides,hereallymeantit:hehadnointerestwhatsoeverinworldlypower.

TRAVELSSACREDANDSECULAR

Onetrip,sacredinawaybecauseespeciallydeartoAbdel-Kader’sheart,wasveryshort.EverymorninghecarriedhisbelovedmotherLallaZohrauptotheroofofhishouse,soshecouldsitinthesun.In1861,attheendofalonglifeofbothhardshipandhonor,deprivationandgenerosity,LallaZohradied.ThelossstruckdeepinAbdel-Kaderandcontributedtohisdecisiontoundertakeathirdpilgrimage.

TheEmirsetoutforMeccaonJanuaryof1863.Hewantedtomakeadoublepilgrimage,requiringthathestayandtakepartinthepilgrimageofthefollowingyear.ButwhileinMecca,Abdel-KaderfoundhimselfsomuchindemandbyIslamicscholarsandothervisitorsthathehadtoretreattohissmallroomandlivelikeahermit.Formonthshestudiedandprayed,eatingandsleepingsolittlethathishealthsuffered.Recoveringintimeforthesecondpilgrimage,hereturnedtoDamascusinJuneof1864.

Inthefollowingyear,Abdel-Kaderundertookanothertrip,butofaverydifferentsort:toParis.Thisvoyage,althoughoneofhis“secular”journeys,gavehimachancetodemonstrateaspiritualvalue:hisbeliefinreconciliation,evenwithwrong-doers.StoppinginConstantinople,hespokedirectlywiththesultanandaskedforthereleaseofthehigh-rankindividualsfromDamascuswho,inthetrialsafterthemassacres,hadbeenfoundguiltyandexiledorimprisoned.Abdel-KaderwashardlyafavoriteinConstantinople,buthisinternationalrenownandreputationforreligiouspietygavehisargumentsweight.Thesultanlistenedandgrantedhisrequest.

InFrance,enthusiasticallywelcomedbytheParisians,Abdel-KaderthankedNapoleonIIIinpersonforthehonorshehadreceived.Hevisitedoldfriends,includinghisformerinterpretersDaumasandBoissonnet,wenttotheoperaagain,andattendedaconcertthatdemonstratednewmusicalinstrumentssuchasthesaxophone.

Twoyearslater,in1867,backtoParishewent,officiallyinvitedtoseethesecondUniversalExpositionofscienceandtechnology.OnthisoccasionAbdel-KaderalsocrossedtheEnglishChannelforthefirsttime,tovisitthecountrywherehehadarousedsomuchinterestfirstasaresistancefighter,thenasa“cagedhawk,”andfinallyasaprotectorofChristians.HisfourdaysinEngland,asidefromanaudiencewithQueenVictoria,passedsimplyenough.HeenjoyedseeingthesightsofLondonlikeanyothervisitor—WestminsterAbbey,theBritishMuseum,theHousesofParliament—andespeciallythefamousCrystalPalace,atthattimethelargestbuildingevermadeofplateglass.ThelatestachievementsintechnologywerealwayshighontheEmir’s“mustsee”list.

THEEMIRANDTHECANAL

ThemostimportanttripduringthistimeinhislifetookAbdel-KadertoPortSaidonthecoastofEgypt,inthefallof1869.TheoccasionwastheopeningoftheSuezCanal,whichlinkedtheMediterraneanwiththeRedSea.Thecelebration,whichincludedthefirstperformanceattheelegantCairoOperaHouse,builtexpresslyfortheoccasion,waspossiblythemostsplendideventofthecenturyintheMediterraneanworld.ThiswasnocasualvisitfortheEmir,orevenacourtesyinvitationtositwithdignitariesfromalloverEurope.Hewasparticularlyhonored,becauseamongallhisotheractivitiesandinterests,Abdel-Kaderhadplayedakeyroleintheconstructionofthecanal.

Yearsearlier,whiletheEmirwasstillaprisonerinFrance,oneoftheprominentmenwhohadvisitedhimwasthediplomatFerdinanddeLesseps.Later,deLessepsbecametheprincipalpromoterforthecanalproject.FindingtherulerofEgyptreluctanttogoalongwiththeplan,in1861hevisitedAbdel-KaderinDamascustoaskforhelp.TheEmirwasdelightedtobecomeinvolved.Hegotbusywritingletters,helpedwintheEgyptianruler’sapproval,andthediggingproceeded.

ThewholeSuezCanalprojecthadamuchmoreprofoundmeaningforAbdel-Kaderthanjustatriumphofmodernengineering.Thislong-dreamed-ofachievementnowmadeitpossibleforshipstogofromEuropetoIndiaandotherpointseastwithouthavingtovoyageallthewayaroundAfrica.Thusitwasbothapassagewayandabridge.Itbroughtplacesclosertogetherbyconnectingthegreatoceansandseasoftheworld;itlinkedEastandWest,alongwiththepeoplesandculturesofthoseworlds.WhetherspeakingtogroupsofengineersortheCanalCompany’sshareholders,Abdel-KaderalwaysdiscussedtheSuezCanalinspiritualterms,callingit“inspiredbyGod.”Soimportantwastheprojecttohiminthissense,thatonhisreturnfromhisdoublepilgrimagetoMeccahemadeapointofstoppinginEgyptattheconstructionsite.

Connectionsandbridge-building,bringingdifferentpeoplesintouchbothphysicallyandspiritually:thatwaswhatinspiredAbdel-Kadermostatthistimeinhislife.

ABDEL-KADER’SIDEASANDWRITINGS

Likehisspiritualmaster,themedievalSufimysticIbnArabi,Abdel-Kaderwroteabundantly.Hestartedputtingtogetherhisspiritualwritings,manyofwhichreflectedtheinfluenceofIbnArabi,duringhisfirstyearsinDamascus.Byconveyinghisspiritualandphilosophicalinsightsinwriting,hecarriedforwardtheheritagehehadreceivedfromstudyingtheSufimasterinhisyouth.Thisvitalconnectionisincreasinglyrelevanttoday,asinterestinIbnArabiisgrowingamongscholarsandintheMuslimworld.ThecityofIbnArabi’sbirthinSpain,Murcia,holdsamajorinternationalfilmfestivalinhishonoreachyear,especiallyforfilmsthatemphasizeconciliation,understanding,andrespectfordiversebeliefs.

TheEmir’sspiritualwritings,basedinSufimysticism,aredifficultformostpeopletograsp;butforthepurposesofthisstoryofhislife,oneideastandsoutclearly.Abdel-KaderfirmlybelievedthatGodisauniversalpresence,theoneenduringreality,andthatallreligionsreallyworshipthesameGod.NotjustthethreemonotheisticAbrahamicreligions(Judaism,Christianity,andIslam),butallothersaswell.Hestates:“...GodaddressesallthosewhohavebeenreachedbytheKoranicrevelationorearlierrevelations—Jews,Christians,Mazdeans,idolaters,ManicheansandothergroupsprofessingvariedopinionsandbeliefswithrespecttoHim—toteachthemthattheirGodisone....AllthebeliefswhichareprofessedaboutHimareforHimjustdifferentnames.”2

Tofurtherexplain,hesays:“Allah[theArabicwordforGod]isnotlimitedbywhatcomestoyour

mind—thatistosay,yourcreed—orenclosedinthedoctrineyouprofess....IfyouthinkandbelievethatHeiswhatalltheschoolsofIslamprofessandbelieve—Heisthat,andHeisotherthanthat!IfyouthinkthatHeiswhatthediversecommunitiesbelieve,Heisthat,andHeisotherthanthat!...EachofHiscreaturesworshipshimandknowsHiminacertainrespectandisignorantofHiminanotherrespect.”3Inotherwords,saysAbdel-Kader,noonereligionorindividualcanknoweverythingaboutGod.PartofeveryunderstandingofGodistrue—butthere’salwaysmore.Godcannotbecompletelyunderstood.

Abdel-KaderremindshisreadersthattheholybookofIslam,theKoran,explicitlystatesthatdifferencesaregood,thatGodpurposelycreatedpeopletobedifferent.Diversityofhumancommunities,withdifferingculturesandreligiousideas,isoneofGod’smanyblessingsonhumankind.

Withthesebeliefs,Abdel-Kadercouldtalkforhourswithpeoplewhofolloweddifferentreligions—ornorecognizedreligionatall.Hecouldlearnfromthemandsharehisownconvictions,withouthavingtoinsistthatsuch-and-suchabeliefaboutGod,orwhatGodwanted,wasabsolutelyright,orthataparticulardoctrinewaswrong.Theobjectiveofdialoguewasnottoopposeortowinover,buttorevealthetruthscommontoallreligions.

Indeed,Abdel-Kaderbelievedthathisabilitytoaccept“divisions”inunderstandingconfirmedthathehadaspecialroleinbridgingdifferences:IslamandChristianity,EastandWest.IfbothMuslimsandChristianswouldlistentohim,hesaid,itwouldpreventalotoftrouble.

“LETTERTOTHEFRENCH”

Afewyearsearlier,duringhisresidenceinTurkey,Abdel-Kaderhadsetdownhisthoughtsinquiteadifferentway.AFrenchscholarhadaskedhimtowritehisautobiography,buttheEmirchosetowritealongphilosophicalessayinstead.ItwaspublishedinParisin1858andarousedmuchinterest.AlthoughAbdel-Kadergaveitadifferenttitle,ithasbeenknowneversinceas“LettertotheFrench”—meaningthoughtfulpersonsofwesternsocietyingeneral.4Incontrastwiththestyleofhisspiritualwritings,Abdel-Kader’s“Letter”soundsasthoughheweretalkingtothereader.Hepointsouttruthsaboutrelationsbetweenpeople,andbetweenhumansandGod,andsuggestsappropriatebehavior.TheLetterishisbestknownliterarylegacy.ItisimportanttodayasastatementofideasandfaithbyaMuslimwhowastraditionallyeducatedanddevout,butalsoremarkablyopen-mindedandreceptive.

Thefirstsectionisaboutknowledge,bothintellectualandspiritual.Thesecondisonmoralbehavior,divinelaw,andtheroleoftheprophets;andthethirddiscussesthehistoryandimportanceofwriting.

InAbdel-Kader’sviewofthephysicalworld,eachanimalandplanthasadistinguishingcharacteristicthathelpstodefineit.Whatmakeshumankindunique?Theloveofknowledge,thepursuitoftruth.Desireforknowledgecomesfromacombinationofintellectualandmoralability,whichcanperhapsbestbereferredtoasreason(aqlinArabic).Abdel-Kadernotesthatreasondiffersfromonepersontoanother,bothin“richness”andinquantity.Everyonehasenoughtoacquiresomeknowledge,butsomepeoplehavemuchmorethanothers.

Indiscussingdifferentkindsofknowledge,Abdel-Kaderrathersurprisinglyputspoliticsatthemostbasiclevel—yetconsidersitthemostimportantsubjectofknowledge.By“politics”hemeanssimplytheartoflivingtogether.Humansaresocialcreaturesandmustcooperateinordertosurvive.Frictionandquarrelsareinevitable—betweenhusbandandwife,parentsandchildren,shepherdsandlandowners,betweenallhumanindividualsandgroupings.Therefore,peopleneedthekindofknowledgethatguidesbehaviorinajustandrighteousway,basedongenerosityandcaringratherthanloveofpower.Religiousleadersshouldnotseekpower,hesays,buttheyshouldopposeinjusticeandhavethecouragetoconfront

theworldlyrulerswhenthoserulersarenotwiseorjust.

Abdel-KadergreatlyadmiredmanythingsaboutFranceandespeciallytheaccomplishmentsofscholarsandengineers.InhisLetterheobservesthatitwasthehugedifferencebetweenmodernknowledgeandthestagnanttraditionalthinkingofAlgeriansocietythatenabledFrancetoconquer.HecallsontheIslamicworldtostopopposingprogressundertheguiseof“preservingvaluesandprinciples”;itshould“liberate”knowledge,joinmodernity,andopenitselftoEuropeanknowledge—butcontrolitsownfuture.

YettheEmirfearsthatmodernsocietyistoosecular.Frenchscholarsarelackinginthespiritualrealm,hebelieves,andshouldacknowledgeGod’sroleintheiraccomplishments.Withoutthisrecognition,peoplearenotonlyungratefulandcutofffromdivinewisdom,butheadedforafall.

Abdel-Kader’sthoughtsareclearonthepersistingdebateoverscienceandintellectualknowledgeversusfaith.Heseesnocontradictionbetweenthem.Althoughfaithisabovereason,botharegiftsfromGod.Butusingreligiontodenyscience,andusingsciencetodenyreligion,arebothwrong.

Turningtomoralimprovement,Abdel-Kadersaysthatalongwithreason,therearethreeotheressentialqualities.Courage,meaningmoralcourage,istheabilitytodowhatisrightwithfirmness,generosity,andcompassion.Behaviorbasedonjustice,freefromanger,greed,andenvy,isthesecondquality.Self-controlholdsbackdestructiveimpulses.Butreasonisthemostimportantquality,becauseitenableshumanstotelltruthfromerror,tohavegoodjudgment,andtoapproachdivinewisdom.

Theroleofprophetshasbeentoteachdivinewisdom,ordivinelaw.Abdel-Kaderdescribestheprophetsas“doctorsofthespirit.”Justasagoodpatientobeysthemedicaldoctor,peopleshouldrespondtotheteachingsoftheprophetswithfaithandobedience.

Butwhatifthoseteachingsarehardtounderstand?Abdel-Kadertacklesthedifficultquestionofwealthinthiscontext.Itmightbelogical,henotes,toarguethatapersonshouldbeallowedtokeepallhiswealthanduseitonlyashewishes.Reason,however,sayssomethingelse.Godcreatedgoldandsilver,whichhavelittleuseinthemselves,tobeutilizedinexchangeforthingsthatareneededinlife—food,shelter,clothing.Everyperson,theEmirsays,needsandhasarighttothesebasicthings.Therefore,richesmustbeshared.

Generosityandneighborlinessnotonlyholdcommunitiestogetherbutareatthecoreofallreligions.Abdel-KaderremindsthereaderthatalltheprophetsofJudaism,Christianity,andIslambroughtthesamebasicmessage:glorifyGod,andshowcompassionforallGod’screatures.

AnimportantpointthatAbdel-Kadermakeswithclarity:religiouslawisnotfixedandpermanent.Stickingblindlyto“establishedopinion,”hesays,doesnotleadeithertotruthortoreligiousvitality.Justasamedicaldoctormayneedtoreviseaprescription,religiouslawmustchangeovertimetomeetchangesinpeople’sconditionsandneeds.Afterall,change—likeallcreation—comesfromGod.

InthethirdchapterofhisLetter,Abdel-KaderdiscusseshowtheremarkablehumanaccomplishmentofwritingdevelopedthroughtheachievementsoftheancientEgyptians,Hebrews,Persians,Romans,andGreeks.Hetracesthepathbywhichtheworksoftheancientphilosophers—inGreek,Latin,Hebrew—weretranslatedintoArabicbyMuslimscholarsduringtheheightofIslamiccivilizationandlatertranslatedintoEuropeanlanguages.Thustheyweresavedforworldcivilization.Ashewrotethischapter,histhoughtsmusthavereturnedtothelossofhisowncollectionofpreciousmanuscriptswhenhis“floatingcapital,”thesmala,wasdestroyed.

ThesearesomeofthehighlightsofAbdel-Kader’sideasthathehopedwouldresonatewiththe

educatedpeopleofthewest.5“LettertotheFrench”isstillofmuchinteresttoday.

ABDEL-KADERATHOME,WITHFRIENDSOFEVERYSTRIPE

WheneverAbdel-KaderwasathomeinDamascus,steadystreamsofpeoplecametoseehim—andhewasrarely“toobusy.”FormanyaEuropeantraveler,atouroftheMiddleEastwouldhavebeenincompletewithoutavisittotheEmirAbdel-Kader.HehadgottenusedtograciouslyreceivingvisitorsduringhisdaysofimprisonmentandasafreemaninParis;nowhewasabletokeepupanevenmorewelcomingstyleofhospitality.AlthoughbythistimehehadlearnedsomeFrench,hepreferredtospeakinhisownlanguage,Arabic,withaninterpreterathisside.Itdoesn’tseemtohavesloweddowntheconversation.

OccasionallyAbdel-Kadermusthavesurprisedhisvisitors.AnAmericantraveler,whohappenedtobeadentist,visitedtheEmirandwasstartledwhenAbdel-Kaderaskedforalittledentalwork.Thevisitorsaidhewouldhaveconsidereditanhonor,buthehadnotbroughthisinstruments.

Howeverfirmhisownreligiousandmoraltruthswere,Abdel-Kaderwasalwayswillingtoembracedifference.Indeedhemadesurethathewouldhaveplentyofopportunity,becausehisfriendswerecertainlynotallproper,orreligiouslyupright,orevensociallyrespectablepeople.Heseems,infact,tohavebeendrawnespeciallytoun-conventionalindividuals.Intheyearsfollowingthetroublesof1860,twoofAbdel-Kader’sfavoritevisitorswereamongthemosteccentric,controversialEnglishpersonalitiesoftheirtime.

SirRichardBurton,theBritishconsulinDamascusfrom1869-71,wasamanforwhomnoadventurewastoorisky.Indisguise,hehadactuallyvisitedMeccaonthepilgrimage—afeatstrictlyforbiddentonon-Muslims.Heknewtwenty-fivelanguages,hadexploredthesourceoftheNileRiverinAfrica,andhadwanderedonhorsebackacrossSouthAmerica.Enjoyinghisreputationasa“godlessdevil-of-a-fellow,”hehorrifiedpeopleatdinnerpartieswithluridstoriesfromhisstudiesandtravels.HeandhiswifeIsabelspurnedlivinginafashionablehouseinthecityandchoseinsteadtheshabbyvillageofSalihiyya,whereIbnArabi’stombstood.

Athoroughgoingrebel,Burtonrejectedreligiousbelief.Incharacter,hewasamanasdifferentfromAbdel-Kaderascouldpossiblybe—andthetwobecamefastfriends.WithhiswifeIsabel—everybithispartnerinexploringdangerousplaces,ridingacrossthedesert,shooting,andsoforth—BurtonspentmanyhoursvisitingwiththeEmir.Whenhewasabruptlyrecalledfromhisjobasconsul,onlytwofriendssaidgoodbyeastheBurtonsleftDamascuslateatnight—andonewasAbdel-Kader.

TheotherwasJaneDigby,abeautiful,intelligent,talentedEnglishwoman.Sheandherhusband—herfourthandfavorite,anArabBedouinchief—livedsixmonthseachyearinatentinthedesert.TheothersixmonthstheylivedinDamascus,wheretheyfrequentlyvisitedAbdel-Kader.LikeRichardBurton,JaneDigbyhadlongsincerebelledagainstheraristocraticsocialclassandformanyyearshadmadenosecretofherconstantsearchforlove.Asamaturewoman,however,shewasmuchmorethanjustacharmingeccentric.Duringtheriotsof1860,shenotonlyshelteredChristiansbutwentintothesmolderingChristianquarter,itsstreetsstillstrewnwithcorpses,totakefoodandmedicationstoanysurvivors.

IsabelBurton’smemoirsgivequiteadifferentpictureoftheEmirfromthegraveappearanceinhismanyphotographs.Shedescribeshow,whensheandherhusbandvisited,hewouldcomeforward“withoutstretchedhandstograspmine,hisfacebeaming,”andsoonservecupsoftea“withapeculiarherb.”6Yearslater,sherecalledtheidylliceveningsspentontheroofoftheBurtons’housewithAbdel-Kader

andJaneDigby.Thisunlikelyfoursomewouldsmoketheirnarguilehs(elaboratewater-pipes)andsettledownto“talkandtalkandtalkfarintothenight,aboutthingsabove,thingsonearth,andthingsundertheearth....Itwasallwild,romantic,andsolemn.”7

Abdel-KaderseemstohavefoundsomuchtovalueinthefriendshipofboththeBurtonsandJaneDigbythatideasofsociallycorrectbehaviorwerequiteirrelevanttohim.Withtheraregiftoffocusingontheessentialqualitiesofthehumanbeing,heevidentlyfeltfreetoassociatewithwhomeverhepleased,regardlessofhisownstatusinsociety.

AmongAbdel-Kader’sotherclosefriendsinDamascuswasDr.MichaelMishaqa,theAmericanvice-consulwhohadsonarrowlyescapeddeathduringthemassacres.Inhismiddleyears,inLebanon,hehadabandonedhisoriginalGreekCatholicfaithandacceptedProtestantism,learnedfromAmericanmissionaries.Hewaswelleducated,thoughtful,andanesteemedmedicaldoctor.Inspiteofhisownactofreligiousrebellion,MishaqaagreedwithAbdel-Kaderthatpublicrebelliousness,asintheeventsof1860,cannotbecondoned.Decidingforoneselfwhetherornottoobeyauthority,hebelieved,onlyleadstochaos.

TherewasonepersonwhoserelationshipwithAbdel-Kaderhadaspecialcharacterbecauseithadsomehowwithstoodbetrayal.ThatindividualwasLéonRoches,whohadbeensoclosetotheEmirfrom1837to1839andfinallyadmittedthathehadneverreallyacceptedIslam.Roches,wholaterledahighlyadventurouslifeasasecretagentanddiplomat,keptintouchwithAbdel-Kaderthroughoccasionalcorrespondence.TheyexchangedsympatheticlettersaboutthedeathofAbdel-Kader’smother,andwhenRocheswasconsideringwhethertowritehismemoir,Abdel-Kaderencouragedhimtodoso.8Yetthetwomenwerenevertomeetagainfacetoface.

POLITICALCOMPLICATIONS—ANDLINGERINGQUESTIONS

Abdel-Kaderlivedformanyyearsaftertheeventsof1860hadfocusedtheworld’sattentiononcemoreuponhim.Eveninhislateyears,however,hewasnotfreeofthepoliticalcomplicationsthathadalwaysbedeviledhislife.

TheOttomanauthoritiesviewedAbdel-Kaderwithintensedistrust,allthemorebecauseofhisloyaltytoFrance.Hehadtowalkacarefullinebetweenthetwo—theOttomanEmpire,growingweakerandthereforemoreharsh,andtheFrenchEmpire,increasinglypushingintotheMiddleEastandAfrica.WiththegrowinginfluencesofIslamicrevivalmovementsandArabnationalism,theEmir’srelationswithgroupsknowntobehostiletowardtheTurks,suchastheDruzeandthereligiousbrotherhoods,sharpenedOttomansuspicions.Yet,strangelyenough,atleastthreeofAbdel-Kader’sclosefamilymembersdecidedtosupporttheTurksandbecameofficialsinConstantinople.

AsforhiscontinuingadmirationandloyaltytoFrance,it’shardtoknowjustwhattothinkofthatextraordinaryattachmenttoaformerenemy.Tobesure,Abdel-KaderdependedonfinancialsupportfromFrance,andaverylargenumberofpeopledependedonhim.Butconsideringthelongsweepofhisstory,somequestionspersist.Forinstance,howcouldAbdel-Kader,recognizingthatFranceintendedtosuppresshispeoplecompletelyandreplacethemwithEuropeans,havecontinuedtorespecthiscaptors?Howcouldhe,knowingoftheatrocitiesinflictedonhispeoplebytheFrencharmy,havebeenabletoforgiveandapparentlyforget?

Therearenosimpleanswers.Perhapshedidhavethatmuchpowerofforgiveness.Perhapshewasunusuallycapableofputtingthingsbehindhim,closingthedooronamajorpartofhispastlife,concentratingonthehereandnow—andofcourse,theeternal.Hemayhavefeltthathisspiritualand

mentalhealth,andhisabilitytobeawise,clear-headedteacherandexampletoothers,requiredthatheavoidthinkingaboutthecondemnablebehaviorofhisformerenemy.

ButthemostimportantexplanationmayhavelaininhiscompletetrustinGod.InDecemberof1847,atthetimewhenAbdel-Kaderdecidedtostopresisting,hewasconvincedthatGodhadmadetheultimatedecision.God,theall-knowingandall-powerful,haddeterminedthatAlgeriashouldhenceforthbegovernedbyFrance.Abdel-Kader’srole,asadevoutservantofGod,wastoacceptthedecisionandmakethebestofit.FocusingonlyonthegoodqualitiesoftheformerenemywouldlogicallybepartofGod’splanforhim.Intheend,Abdel-Kader’sestimationofFrancemaysimplyhavetobeacceptedaspartofthestoryofthisinfinitelycomplex,extraordinaryman.

THEDESERTHAWK’SLASTYEARS

Asidefromhisawarenessofwhatwasgoingonintheworld,Abdel-Kader’slateyearsseemtohavebeencomfortableandserene,surroundedbyhisfamilyinhishugehouseinDamascusandhismorerestfulhouseinthenearbycountryside.Forallhisrefusalofluxury,itistouchingtonotethattheEmirdidindulgehimselfinafewsmallways.Thetraditionalcostumeheworewassimpleandunadornedbutalwaysofspotlesswhitefabric,incontrastwithhishairandbeard—whichremainedveryblack.Onoccasionhemightdisplayhiscollectionofmedals,aswhenhesatforpaintedportraitsbyavarietyofartists,andnumerousphotographs.AtatimewheneveninEuropesomepeoplewerestillsuperstitiousabouttheirlikenessesbeing“captured,”Abdel-Kaderwasfascinatedbyphotography.

Itwasalwaystheotherworld,however,theonesoughtthroughprayerandmeditation,thatmeantthemosttoAbdel-Kader.Thatworld,closetohisGod,waswhathadalwaysgivenhislifeitstruestmeaning.Theendofthatremarkablelifecameattheageofseventy-sixafterashortillness,onMay25,1883.

Accompaniedbyrespectfulgroupsalongtheway,Abdel-Kader’sbodywasbornefromhiscountryhometheshortdistancetoDamascus,inthecarriagethatNapoleonIIIhadgivenhim.Theconsulsandalargecrowdwerewaitingtodohimhonorinthecenteroftheoldcity,believedtobetheancientfoundationofDamascus.FromtherehewascarriedtotheGreatMosqueforprayers.Finally,hewasburiedoutsidethecity,nexttothetombofhisspiritualmaster,ShaykhIbnArabi.Hehadchosenthisresting-placeeventhoughitwasintherough,rundownareacalledSalihiyya,wherethedetermineddoubterRichardBurtonhadmadehishome.Indeathasinlife,Abdel-Kaderbroughtoppositestogether.

EPILOGUE:

ALGERIAAFTERABDEL-KADERTheEmirAbdel-KaderkepthiswordandneverreturnedtoAlgeria,yethemusthavekepttrackofwhatwasgoingoninhishomeland.

LASTFLICKERSOFRESISTANCE

ThereweremanyyearsofterriblehardshipandmiseryfortheAlgerianpeoplewhendrought,cropfailures,locustplagues,andepidemicsbroughtfamineanddeath.Therewereyearsofgoodharvestwhenthetribescouldrevivesomewhat,onlytobefollowedbyanothereconomiccrisis.OccasionaloutbreaksofresistancetotheFrenchcontinuedinthe1850sand1860s,butanyrebellionwassooncrushed.Thenthepeoplewouldbepunished,theirvillagesandforestsdestroyed.

Thelastseriousinsurrectionstartedearlyin1871.Someeighthundredthousandpeoplejoinedin,mostlyimpoverishedKabyles(Berbers),andforafewmonthsattackedsettlers’farmsandvillagesandfortsoverawidearea.TheFrenchfinishedofftheinsurrectioninJune1872,andthistimeimposedpunishmentintendedtocompletelydiscourageanyfurtherthoughtofresistance.Thetribeswereallbutruinedbylandconfiscationandfinancialpenalties.

ForseveralyearsthepeopleofAlgeriahadonefriendinahighplace:theemperorofFrance.NapoleonIIIisaproblematicfigureinFrenchhistory,criticizedespeciallyforhisunwiseforeignadventures.ButwhereAlgeriawasconcerned,hejustifiedAbdel-Kader’sfaithinhim.Callingfor“perfectequalitybetweennativesandEuropeans,”includingpubliceducationandaccesstocivilandmilitaryemployment,hepromisedhisprotectiontotheindigenouspopulation.HewantedtostoptheongoingseizureoftheMuslims’landandmakeAlgeriaabettercountryforeveryone.

ButNapoleonIII’svisionwasdoomed.InJulyof1870,tensionsintheEuropeanbalanceofpowerledFranceintoashortbutdisastrouswarwithPrussia.Theemperorwastakenprisoner,theSecondEmpiremetaswiftend,andFrancebecamearepubliconceagain.

Abdel-Kader’spersonalloyaltytoNapoleonIIIneverwavered.OnoneoccasionnotlongaftertheFrenchdefeat,somevisitorstohishomeweremakingsarcasticremarksaboutthedisaster.Afterlisteninginsilence,Abdel-Kadergotupandlefttheroom.Hereappearedafewminuteslater,nowwearingthemedaloftheFrenchLegionofHonor.Itwasawordlessstatementofhiscontinuedesteemfortheemperorwhohadbestoweditonhimin1860.

COLONIALALGERIATRIUMPHANT

Thesettlers(colons)inAlgeriaweredelightedwiththeoutcomeoftheFranco-PrussianWar.Themilitaryadministrationofthecountrywasfinished,andnowtheroadwasopentotheircompletecontrol

ofAlgeria.ComingfromseveralMediterraneanandEuropeancountriesinadditiontoFrance,thecolonsregardedthemselvesasquitedistinctfromFrenchmen.TheywereAlgerians—infact,theonlyAlgerians.TheindigenousArabandBerberpeoplewerereferredtosimplyasMuslims,andtheyexisted,justbarely,onthemargins.

Meanwhile,therelationshipofAlgeriatoFrancehadbeenmadeevenmorecomplicatedbyoneofthestrangestpoliticalarrangementseverthoughtupbyacolonialpower.In1848,thegovernmentoftheSecondRepublichaddeclaredAlgeriaanactualpartofFrance—notacolonyorapossession,butasmuchapartofthemothercountryasBrittanyorProvenceorParisitself.Itmeant,atleastintheory,thatthelawsandpoliciesofFrancewouldapplyequallytoAlgeria.Thecolons,however,vigorouslyresistedanyactionfromParisthatdidnotpleasethem.

Thenew“Algerians”dealtwiththenativepopulationinthreemainways.SeizingmoreandmoreoftheMuslims’landbywhatevermeanspossible,theypushedtheruralpeopleintoeversmaller,morearid,lessproductiveareas.Second,theirrepresentativesintheFrenchParliamentmadeitofficialpolicytoundermineMuslimsocietyandidentity.Thetraditionalaristocracylostallpower.Themarabouts,Abdel-Kader’sclass,weregivenasomewhatprotectedstatus,butlostthepeople’srespectbecauseregardedascollaborators.TheIslamicjudicialsystemwasrestrictedalmostoutofexistence.

Thethirdlineofattackconsistedofhumiliatinganddiscriminatorymeasures.TheMuslimpopulationwassubjectedtoprosecutionandpunishmentinwaysneverappliedtotheEuropeans,andforcedtopayheavytaxesimposedexclusivelyonthem.Inshort,thecolonsintendedtoreducetheMuslimstoapermanentandpowerlessunder-class,asourceofcheaplaborandnothingmore.

ThereweremanypeopleinFrancewhodeploredthisgrossinjustice.Certainstatesmenandadministratorstriedpersistentlytobringaboutreform,butthesettlersocietyandgovernmentofAlgeriacouldalwaysblockanychangethatmightaffecttheirtotaldominationofthecountry.

THE“CIVILIZINGMISSION”OFFRANCE

WhatabouttherenownedFrenchcivilization,somuchadmiredbyAbdel-Kader?Fromtheverystartoftheconquest,someobservershadcalledforspreadingthiscivilizationtotheconqueredpeoplethrougheducation.Buthow?FortheentirehistoryofFrenchAlgeria,oneapproachafteranotherwastried,withlittleornosuccess.Inanycaseithardlymattered.ThecoloncommunitiesrefusedeverythingthatwouldbenefittheMuslims.

Formanyyearstheindigenouspeoplethemselveswerereluctanttoaccepttheschoolsofferedbytheirconquerors.AfterWorldWarI,however,whenmanyAlgerianMuslimsservedintheFrencharmy,peoplebegantoseetheneedformoderneducation.Suddenlythedemandforschoolingtookoff—buttheschoolswerenotthere.Bythe1950s,ontheeveofdrasticchangeinAlgeria,theindigenouspeoplewerestill85-90%illiterate,andforwomentheestimatewasashighas98%.TheveryfewurbanMuslimswhohadmanagedtoreceivesecondaryandhighereducationdidnotincludeprofessionsthatwouldbeneededforamodernnation.TheFrench“civilizingmission”inAlgeriawasalwaysamatterofmuchtoolittle,muchtoolate.

Nevertheless,lackofeducationdidnotstopAlgerianMuslimsfromstartingtoworkforreform.Theearlyactivists,inthe1920s,includedformersoldierswhohadseensomethingofEurope,urbanworkers,andmenwhohadgonetoFranceforwork.Theyfoundwaystoorganize,mostlyunderground,andcalledforcivil,political,andhumanrightsequalwiththeEuropeanpopulation.

ABDEL-KADER’SNATIONALISTHERITAGE

DidtheEmirAbdel-Kader,whohadfoughtsohardforfreedomacenturyearlier,leaveapersonalheritagethatcouldcontributetothefuturestruggle?Hislargefamilyofbrothersandtensons,didnotfollowinhisfootsteps.HisgrandsonKhaled,however,becameoneofthefirstMuslimswhocouldbecalledanAlgeriannationalist.

In1919,KhaledpresentedapetitiontotheAmericanpresident,WoodrowWilson,callingforjusticetowardtheAlgerianMuslims.Afewyearslater,withamilitaryeducationandcareerbehindhim,Khaledbecameaprominentvoiceforreformssuchasequalstatusandgreaterpoliticalrepresentation.Hewaselectedtopublicoffice,wroteaweeklypapercalled“Audacity,”andbotheredthecolongovernmentenoughforthemtosendhimintoexile.KhaledattemptedtokeepupthestrugglebyconnectingwithpoliticalgroupsinParis,butwascaught,imprisoned,andagainexiled.LikehisgrandfatherhewassenttoDamascus,wherehediedin1936;buthisreputationcontinuedtoinfluencethegrowingnationalistorganizations.

TheEmirAbdel-Kader’simportanceasanationalsymbolwouldcomelater.

ALGERIA’SWARFORINDEPENDENCE

TheNorthAfricancampaignoftheAlliesduringWorldWarII,especiallytheAmericanmilitarylandinginNovember1942,broughtinternationalattentiontoAlgeria.Oneofthemostprominentnationalistleaders,FerhatAbbas,drewupamanifestoin1943callingforanautonomousAlgerianstate,stillconnectedtoFrance.Ayearlater,GeneralCharlesdeGaulle,presidentoftheFreeFrenchgovernmentinexile,signedadecreeabolishingalldiscriminationagainstMuslims.Butagain,itwastoolittle,toolate.MostofthenationalistleadersbythenwantedafreeAlgerianstate.Aftertenyearsoffrustration,eventhemoderateFerhatAbbashadtoadmitthat“Thereisnoothersolutionthanthemachinegun.”1

OnNovember1,1954,aseriesofterroristactionsinAlgeriaandaformaldeclarationannouncedthestartoftheAlgerianwarforindependence.Theprimaryorganizationcoordinatingthestruggle,theFLN(NationalLiberationFront),werereadytonegotiatewiththeFrenchgovernmentifitrecognizedtheAlgerianMuslims’rightstoself-determination,buttheanswerwas“No.”FrenchAlgeria,stillregardedasanintegralpartofthemothercountry,wouldbedefendedbyeverymeanspossible.

TheAlgerianwargrewintothelongest,mostdestructive,bitter,andbloodyofanyofthestrugglesforself-determinationfollowingWorldWarII.ItnotonlydevastatedthelandofAlgeria,butledtoviolentcrisesintheFrenchhomelandandwithintheFrencharmy.ByMarch1962,FrancefinallyrealizedthatmilitaryvictorywasimpossibleandAlgeriawaslost.

WithanindependentAlgeriaestablished,almosttheentireEuropeanpopulationpackedtheirbagsandleft.Withthemwentmostofthemanagers,merchants,professionals—inshort,thepeopleneededtorunamodernstate.ItwassomethingliketheexodusoftheTurkishrulingclassin1830,whichlefttheFrenchconquerorsfacinganungovernablecountry.

Fortunately,themodernAlgeriannationalistshadforeseentheneedfororganization.MuchasAbdel-Kaderhadtrieddesperatelytoorganizehispeople,army,andstateunderconstantthreatofwar,thenationalistshadtolearnhowtomanageinthemidstofconflict.Whileperhapsinevitably,independenceforAlgeriahasbeenmarkedbydissensionanddisappointment,thefreenationhaswithstoodseverethreatsandhassucceededasafullyfunctioning,vigorousmemberoftheinternationalcommunity.

Oneofthefirstceremonialactsofthenewgovernmentwastobringthegreatnationalhero,theEmirAbdel-Kader,homeatlast.In1966hisremainsweretransportedfromthetombinthefoothillsaboveDamascusandreinterredinthecemeteryofAlgiers.Afittinggesture—butnotwithoutirony.Abdel-Kader’sownwisheshadbeentoremainforeternityinDamascus,nexttohisspiritualguideIbnArabi.

ABDEL-KADERINHISOWNTIMEANDTODAY

TheEmirAbdel-Kader—young,handsome,andvigorousatthestartofhisstruggle,nobleandastonishinglyablethroughouthiscareer—wasatrueinternationalcelebrity.Inthenineteenthcenturymanybooksandarticleswerewrittenabouthimasaresistance-leaderandastheembodimentofinterfaithgoodwill.FortheFrenchandotherswhoknewhim,includingpeopleoftheArabandMuslimworlds,hewasaheroofthehighestorder.In1873theNewYorkTimessummeduphiscareerthus:“Iftobeanardentpatriot,asoldierwhosegeniusisunquestionedandwhosehonorisstainless,astatesmanwhocouldweldthewildtribesofAfricaintoaformidablearmy,andaherowhocouldacceptdefeatanddisasterwithoutamurmur—iftobealltheseconstitutesagreatman,Abd-el-Kaderdeservestoberankedamongtheforemostofthefewgreatmenofthecentury.”2

AlthoughhisfamehaddwindledbythemiddleofthetwentiethcenturyandfewpeopleunfamiliarwithNorthAfricaknewabouthim,todayAbdel-Kaderisagainstartingtoreceivetheattentionhedeserves.Hisstoryishighlyappropriateforourtimes,whenweneedunderstandingandcooperationamongfollowersoftheworld’sreligiousfaithsmorethanever.

Itseemsright,moreover,thatAbdel-Kadershouldberememberedasonewhofaithfullytriedtocarryoutjihad—initsmostauthenticsenseofstruggleforrighteousnessandinthemostmeaningfulways.Justashefoughtagainsttheoppressionofhisownpeople,hefoughtagainstwrongdoingthatafflictedothers.Throughouthislife,hetriedtocombatinjusticeandnarrow-mindedignorance.Andperhapsmostvaluablyfortoday,heencouragedthespiritualandmoralmeetingofminds,thesharedpathofmutualrespectbywhichallhumansmaywalktowardtruth.

NOTES

CHAPTER1:BARBARYPIRATESANDFRENCHADVENTURES

1PierreGentydeBussy,Del’ÉtablissementdesFrançaisdanslaRégenced’Alger(Paris:FirminDidotFréres,1839),p.202.

CHAPTER2:ANUNLIKELYLEADEREMERGES

1BrunoÉtienne,Abdelkader(Paris:Hachette/Pluriel,2010),p.109.

CHAPTER3:THEEMIR’SSTRATEGY

1MahfoudBennoune,TheMakingofContemporaryAlgeria,1830-1987(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988),p.38.

CHAPTER4:ABDEL-KADER’SVISIONFORHISPEOPLE

1RaphaelDanziger,Abdal-QadirandtheAlgerians:ResistancetotheFrenchandInternalConsolidation(NewYork:Holmes&Meier,1977),p.95.

CHAPTER5:FRENCHMENINTHEEMIR’SLIFE

1AhmedBouyerdene,EmirAbdel-Kader:HeroandSaintofIslam(Bloomington,IN:WorldWisdom,2012),p.53.

CHAPTER6:WAROFTOTALCONQUEST

1BrunoÉtienne,Abdelkader,p.176.

CHAPTER7:THEDEVASTATINGTIDESOFWAR

1RachelHeavner,ed.,“Abd-el-KaderinBritishandAmericanLiterature,”CELAAN(ReviewoftheCenterfortheStudiesoftheLiteraturesandArtsofNorthAfrica),Vol.6,Nos.1&2,Spring2008,pp.58-59.

CHAPTER8:PROMISESKEPTANDBROKEN

1JohnW.Kiser,CommanderoftheFaithful:TheLifeandTimesofEmirAbdel-Kader(Rhinebeck,NY:MonkfishBookPublishing,2008),p.210.Manytravelersinthenineteenthcenturykeptdetaileddiariesandjournals,aswellaswritinglongletterstofriendsandfamily.NaturallymostofthosewhomettheEmirwouldhavewantedtodotheoccasionjustice.Thankstothepopularityofwriting,alongwiththeEmir’sownletterstoofficialsandfriends,wehaveaninterestingrecordofhisspeechandbehavior,plusinsightsintohisthinkingandemotions.

2WilfredBlunt,DesertHawk:AbdelKaderandtheFrenchConquestofAlgeria(London:Methuen,1947),p.234.

3Ibid.,p.235.

4JohnKiser,CommanderoftheFaithful,p.217.

5Ibid.,p.217.

6WilfredBlunt,DesertHawk,p.238.

CHAPTER9:THEIMPRISONEDCELEBRITY

1JohnKiser,CommanderoftheFaithful,p.229.

2WilfredBlunt,DesertHawk,p.240.

3Ibid.,pp.231-32.

4CELAAN,p.45.

5Ibid.,p.51.

6WilfredBlunt,DesertHawk,p.245.

7Ibid.,p.247.

8CELAAN,p.23.

CHAPTER10:FREEDOMANDANEWLIFEINEXILE

1VistaClayton,ThePhantomCaravan,orAbdElKader,EmirofAlgeria(Hicksville,NY:ExpositionPress,1975),p.262.

2JohnKiser,CommanderoftheFaithful,p.255.

3AhmedBouyerdene,EmirAbdel-Kader,p.138.

4WilfredBlunt,DesertHawk,p.256.

5JohnKiser,CommanderoftheFaithful,p.262.

CHAPTER11:MADNESSINDAMASCUS

1AhmedBouyerdene,EmirAbdel-Kader,p.108.

2VistaClayton,ThePhantomCaravan,p.283.

3AhmedBouyerdene,EmirAbdel-Kader,p.111.

4“TheDamascusMassacres:LetterfromAbd-el-Kader,”TheNewYorkTimesarchive,August20,1860.

5BecauseAbdel-KaderspokeinArabic,whichwasthenusuallytranslatedintoFrenchandlaterintoEnglish,itisimpossibletohavecompletelyaccuraterecordsofwhathesaid.Thisistrueforthequotationsattributedtohimthroughoutthisbook.Inthisparticularsceneofconfrontation—atwhichnoonewastakingnotes,ofcourse!—wecanhaveonlythegistofwhatwassaid.Thedialogueappearsinthreeorfourdifferentbooks,allvaryingslightlybutagreeingonthegeneralideas.

6LeilaTaraziFawaz,AnOccasionforWar:CivilConflictinLebanonandDamascusin1860(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994),p.97.

7“Abd-el-KaderandtheUnitedStates,”TheNewYorkTimesarchive,October20,1860.

8JohnKiser,CommanderoftheFaithful,p.302.

9Ibid.

CHAPTER12:ABDEL-KADER’SVISIONFORTHEWORLD

1JohnKiser,CommanderoftheFaithful,p.311.

2MichelChodkiewicz,TheSpiritualWriingsofAmir‘Abdal-Kader(Albany,NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1995),p.125.

3Ibid.,pp.127-28.

4Abdel-Kader’soriginaltitlesuggestshowheregardedthepurposeofhisessay.Hecalledit(translatedfromtheArabic):“BriefNotesIntendedforThosewithUnderstandinginOrdertoDrawAttentiontoEssentialQuestions.”Thatwasshortenedsomewhattothefollowing:“RemindertotheIntelligent,AdvicetotheIndifferent.”

5InadditiontoAbdel-Kader’sLettreauxFrançais(Algiers:EditionsANEP,n.d.)itself,thisdiscussionisbasedmainlyontreatmentofthesubjectinJohnKiser,CommanderoftheFaithful,pp.265-72andAhmedBouyerdene,EmirAbdel-Kader,pp.125-26,136,144,180,193.

6IsabelBurton,TheInnerLifeofSyria,Palestine,andtheHolyLand(London:HenryS.King,1875),p.125.

7IsabelBurtonandW.H.Wilkins,TheRomanceofIsabelLadyBurton,Vol.2(London:Hutchinson,1897),p.397.

8LéonRoches’autobiography,Trente-deuxansàtraversl’Islam,publishedinParisin1887,waswrittensomeforty-fiveyearsafterthetimehespentwithAbdel-Kader.Althoughhereliedonpersonallettersandotherdocumentsfromtheperiod,thattime-lapse—andhistendencytoromanticize—shouldbekeptinmind.Nevertheless,hisdescriptionsareamongthemostdetailedandvividofthemanyreportswrittenabouttheEmir.

EPILOGUE:ALGERIAAFTERABDEL-KADER

1Charles-RobertAgeron,ModernAlgeria:AHistoryfrom1830tothePresent(Trenton,NJ:AfricaWorldPress,1991),p.106.

2TheNewYorkTimes,February25,1873,inCELAAN,p.101.

TIMELINE1807:Abdel-Kader,sonofMuhyiad-DinandLallaZohra,isborninGuetnanearMascara.

1825:Abdel-Kaderandhisfatherleaveforthepilgrimage(hajj)toMecca;imprisonedinOranbyTurkishbeyforaboutayear.

1827:Returnfrompilgrimage,havingalsovisitedtoEgypt,Syria,andIraq.

1830:FranceconquersAlgiersinretaliationfordey’sinsulttotheFrenchconsul;startoftheFrenchconquestofAlgeria.

1832:Muhyiad-Dinleadsjihad—resistance—againstFrenchinwesternAlgeria;Abdel-KaderactiveinattacksonOran.TriballeadersacceptMuhyiad-Din’sproposalofhissonasleader;Abdel-Kaderrecognizedas“Commander(amir)oftheFaithful.”

1833:Abdel-KaderconsolidateshispowerinwesternAlgeria.DeathofMuhyiad-Din.

1834:Abdel-KaderandGeneralDesmichelssigntreaty,enlargingterritoryundertheEmir’scontrol.

1835:Desmichelsrecalled;Frenchstepupwarontribes.Abdel-Kader’sarmysoundlydefeatsFrenchatbattleofMactaRiver.

1836:FrenchdefeatEmir’sarmyatSikkakRiver,butfailtotakeConstantineineasternAlgeria.

1837:Abdel-Kadersignsasecondtreaty,withGeneralBugeaud;TreatyofTafnafurtherenlargesEmir’sterritory.FrencharmyconquersConstantine.

1838:Abdel-KaderovercomesthefortressofAinMadhiintheSaharabysiege.TheEmir’sarmyatitsgreateststrength.

1839:NewFrenchgovernor-general,Valée,breaksTreatyofTafna.Abdel-Kaderresumescombat,attackingEuropeansettlements.

1841:WarintensifiesunderBugeaudasgovernor-general.Frenchtakemostcities.EmirproposesandachievesprisonerexchangewiththehelpofChristianclerics.

1842:Abdel-Kaderestablishesthesmala,atentcity,ashis“floatingcapital.”

1843:DukeofAumaledestroysthesmala;Emir,army,andremainsofhiscampretreattoMoroccoforsafety.

1844:MoroccodrawnintoconflictwithFrance;sultannowregardsAbdel-Kaderasenemy.

1845:InsurrectionsledbyBouMazaandothers.Frenchkillmanycivilianstrappedincaves.Abdel-

Kader’sguerillawarfarerevives.FrenchmilitaryexpeditiondestroyedatSidiBrahim,prisonersheldinAbdel-Kader’scamp.

1846:Frenchprisonerskilledatcamp.Abdel-KaderretreatstoMoroccoagain.

1847:Witharmyandtribalsupportweakened,Abdel-KadercomesunderattackbybothMoroccansandFrench;moveshiscampbacktoAlgeria.InDecemberAbdel-Kaderdecidestostopfighting,approachesFrenchgeneral.Histermsaccepted,withfamilyandfollowersheistransportedtoToulon,France.

1848:Frenchgovernmentbreakspromise,imprisonsAbdel-KaderandhisAlgeriansfirstinToulon,thenChateauofPauinPyrenees,theninChateauofAmboisenearParis.PoliticalchangesinFrance:abdicationofKingLouis-Philippe,declarationofSecondRepublic,electionofLouis-NapoleonBonaparteaspresident.Bylaw,AlgeriadeclaredpartofFrance.

1849:ContinuingcontroversyoverwhethertoreleaseAbdel-KaderbecauseofdistrustandsuspicionsregardingkillingofFrenchprisoners.SupportforAbdel-Kaderfrommanyindividuals.

1851:Louis-Napoleondeclareshimselfprince-presidentinbloodlessseizureofpower.

1852:Louis-NapoleonliberatesAbdel-Kader,whothenvisitsParisashonoredguest.Francebecomesanempire,withLouis-NapoleonnowcalledEmperorNapoleonIII.Abdel-Kader,hisfamily,andfollowersembarkforexile.

1853:Contrarytooriginalagreement,Abdel-KaderandAlgeriansexiledtotheheartofOttomanEmpire;settlesinBursa,Turkey.

1854:CrimeanWar(France,GreatBritain,andOttomanEmpirefightagainstRussia).

1855:Abdel-KadergoestoParis,requestschangeofresidence;NapoleonIIIagrees.Withfamilyandfollowers,theEmirjourneysfromTurkeytoDamascus.HesettlesdownashonoredteacherofreligionandheadofAlgeriancommunity.

1856:CrimeanWarconcludeswithallies’victory;peacetermsforcedontheOttomansregardingtherightsofChristiansforeshadowtrouble.

1857:Abdel-KadermakespilgrimagetoHolyLand(Jerusalem,Bethlehem,Hebron).

1858:PublicationofAbdel-Kader’s“LettertotheFrench”inParis.

1860:SeveresectarianconflictinMountLebanon.Abdel-KadertriestopreventpossibleattackonChristiansofDamascus,preparesfortrouble.Riotsandmassacresbreakout;theEmirandhisAlgeriansrescueandsavelivesofmanyChristians.Abdel-KaderhonoredbyEuropeannationsandtheUnitedStates.

1861:DeathofAbdel-Kader’sbelovedmother,LallaZohra.

1863:Abdel-KaderundertakesdoublepilgrimagetoMecca.

1864:ReturnstoDamascus,visitingconstructionsiteofSuezCanalenroutefromArabia.

1865:Abdel-KadervisitsParis.InConstantinople,requestsreleaseofindividualsfoundguiltyfollowing1860massacres.

1867:Abdel-Kader’slastvisittoParisattheinvitationofNapoleonIII;enjoysUniversalExpositionofindustrialandtechnologicalachievement.BrieflyvisitsLondonandmeetsQueenVictoria.

1869:HeattendsofficialinaugurationofSuezCanal;honoredforhisearliersupportofthecanalproject.

1870:FrancedefeatedinwarwithPrussia;SecondEmpireends;ThirdRepublic(1870-1940)proclaimed.

1871:LastsignificantuprisinginAlgeria;Frenchimposeseverepunishmentontribes.RiseofEuropeansettler(colon)power.

1883:DeathofAbdel-KaderathishomenearDamascus;burialneartombofhisspiritualmaster,medievalSufithinkerShaykhIbnArabi.

GLOSSARYagha(Turkish):anadministrativeofficer,nextinimportancetoakhalifa.

Allah(Arabic):literally,“God”;thenameusedbyMuslimsandArabic-speakingChristianstorefertotheoneGod.

baraka(Arabic):“blessing”or“protection”;believedtobesentbyGod.

bey(Turkish):titleofaprovincialgovernorundertheRegencyofAlgiers.

burnous(Arabic):ahoodedcloak,usuallyofwool.

colon(French):asettler;amemberofacolonyestablishedbyonecountryintheterritoryofanothercountry.

consul:officialrepresentativeofagovernment,stationedinanothercountry.

corsair:aprivateer;asea-goingraiderworkingonbehalfofhisgovernment.

dey(Turkish):supremeruleroftheRegencyofAlgiers,undertheOttomanEmpire.

emir(Arabicamir):“commander,”“prince”;Abdel-Kader’stitlewas“CommanderoftheFaithful.”

Druze:areligioussectrelatedtoIslam,centeredinpartsofLebanonandSyria;thewordcanbeusedforthereligionandforthemembers,bothsingleandplural.

GreekCatholic:aformofChristianityunderthepopeofRome,followingritesdifferentfromthoseofRomanCatholicism.

GreekOrthodox:aformofChristianityunderthepatriarchofConstantinople,followingritesdifferentfromthoseofRomanCatholicism.

guerillawarfare:irregularcombat,suchasrapid,unexpectedattacks,harassment,andsabotagebysmallgroupsoffighters.

hajj(Arabic):thepilgrimagetoMecca;personswhohavemadethepilgrimagecanbecalledhajjorhajji,atermofrespect.

indigenous:original,ornative,toacertainlocality.

Islam(Arabic):literally,“submission”(toGod’swill);thereligionfoundedbytheprophetMuhammadintheseventhcenturyC.E.inArabia,basedonbeliefinoneall-powerfulandall-mercifulGod.

jihad(Arabic):literally,“struggle”—primarilymoralandspiritual,butalsotoprotectIslamandMuslims

againstassault.

khalifa(Arabic):“lieutenant,”“second-in-command,”representativeofthecommander.

khan(Arabic):alargebuilding,usuallyinatown,wherecaravanscouldstopontheirtradingroutes.

Koran(Arabic):theholybookofIslam,consistingofrevelationsthatMuslimsbelieveweredeliveredfromGodtotheprophetMuhammad;alsospelledQur’an.

makhzen(Arabic):the“warrior”tribesusedfortax-collectingandcontrolundertheRegencyofAlgiers.

marabout(Arabicmarbut):amemberofthereligiousandintellectualeliteoftraditionalNorthAfricansociety,esteemedfortheirpietyandpossiblesupernaturalpowers.

Maronites:followersofaformofChristianityrelatedtoRomanCatholicism;thelargestChristiangrouplivinginMountLebanon.

mosque:anIslamichouseofworship,equivalenttoachurchorsynagogue.

mufti(Arabic):ahighIslamicofficialwhointerpretsthereligiouslawforMuslims.

Muslim(Arabic):afollowerofIslam;alsospelled“Moslem.”(Theword“Mohammedan”isobsoleteandnotacceptable.)

narguileh:aformofpipeforsmokingtobacco—thesmokeiscooledbypassingthroughwaterinaspecialbottle;alsocalledawater-pipeor“hubbly-bubbly.”

orthodox:theformofareligionorotherthoughtsystemrecognizedasestablishedor“correct.”

Ottoman:theTurkishempirethatoriginatedinCentralAsiaandspreadwestwardsbyconquest,establishingitscapitalinConstantinoplein1463andcontrollingtheArablandsofsouthwestAsiaandNorthAfrica,alongwiththeBalkansandpartsofEasternEurope;defeatedinWorldWarI,itsoonafterwardceasedtoexist.

pasha(Turkish):amanofhighrankandimportance,originallyundertheOttomanEmpire.

pilgrimage:ajourneytovisitacertainplaceforreligiousreasons;thepilgrimagetoMecca,thebirthplaceoftheprophetMuhammadandtheholiestsiteinIslam,isadutyrequiredofeveryMuslim,ifatallpossible.

pitchedbattle:abattleinwhichplansarelaidandforcesarrangedinadvanceofactualcombat.

qadi(Arabic):anIslamicjudge.

Qadiriyya(Arabic):thereligiousbrotherhoodtowhichAbdel-Kaderbelonged;foundedinmedievaltimesbyAbdal-Qadiral-Jilani(“Qadir”isanotherspellingof“Kader”).

qaid(Arabic):anadministrativeofficeratthetriballevel.

Ramadan(Arabic):themonthintheIslamicyearduringwhichMuslimsfastfromdawntotwilightasareligiousduty.

rayah(Arabic):thesettledagriculturalandnomadictribesintraditionalAlgeria,withlesspowerthanthemakhzentribes.

regency:aformof“semi-royal”rule;thenamegiventothewholeterritoryofAlgeriaundertheOttomanEmpire.

republic:aformofgovernmentwithanon-royalchiefofstatewhousuallysharespowerwithagroupofrepresentativesofthepeople,selectedbypopularvote.

royalist:pertainingtorulebyahereditarymonarch.

sectarian:pertainingtothecoexistenceoftwoormoredifferentsects—orreligiousgroups—livinginacertainplace.

shaykh(Arabic):achiefofasubdivisionwithinatribe;alsoaspiritualmasterofaSufiorder.

smala(Arabic):literally“household”;thenamegiventoAbdel-Kader’s“floatingcapital,”atentcityfortensofthousandsofmilitaryandcivilianresidents.

spahi(Turkish):amemberofacavalrycorpsofindigenousAlgeriansservingintheFrencharmy.

Sufism:amysticalformofIslamthatemphasizesdevotionalexercisesaimedatbringingtheSuficlosetoGod.

sultan(Arabic):supremeruler;titleoftheheadoftheOttomanEmpire.

tribe:alargegroupheldtogetherbyfamilytiesandastrongsenseofidentity.

zawiya(Arabic):areligious(Sufi)center,traditionallyincludingplacesforinstruction,study,andprayerpluslivingquartersforstudentsandscholars;akintoamonastery.

zouave(Berber):amemberofaninfantrycorpsofindigenousAlgeriansservingintheFrencharmy.

SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHYTwobookswereparticularlyusefulinmyresearchforthisbiography:CommanderoftheFaithful:TheLifeandTimesofEmirAbdel-Kader,byJohnW.Kiser,providesavivid,detailedaccountofthelongeraofcombatbetweentheAlgeriansandtheFrenchconquerors,aswellastheEmir’slaterlife.ForemphasisonthespiritualsideofAbdel-Kaderanditscontributiontohisworldlyrole,IfoundmanyhelpfulinsightsinAhmedBouyerdene’sbook,EmirAbdel-Kader:HeroandSaintofIslam.

Abdel-Kader.LettreauxFrançais.Algiers:EditionsANEP,n.d.

Ageron,Charles-Robert.ModernAlgeria:AHistoryfrom1830tothePresent.Trenton,NJ:AfricaWorldPress,1991.

Arquilla,John.Insurgents,Raiders,andBandits:HowMastersofIrregularWarfareHaveShapedOurWorld.Chicago:IvanR.Dee,2011.

Bennoune,Mahfoud.TheMakingofContemporaryAlgeria,1830-1987.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,1988.

Blunt,Wilfrid.DesertHawk:AbdelKaderandtheFrenchConquestofAlgeria.London:Methuen,1947.

Bouyerdene,Ahmed.EmirAbdel-Kader:HeroandSaintofIslam.TranslatedbyGustavoPolit.Bloomington,IN:WorldWisdom,2012.

Burton,Isabel.TheInnerLifeofSyria,Palestine,andtheHolyLand.London:HenryS.King,1875.

Chodkiewicz,Michel.TheSpiritualWritingsofAmir‘Abdal-Kader.Albany:StateUniversityofNewYork,1995.

Clayton,Vista.ThePhantomCaravan,orAbdElKader,EmirofAlgeria.Hicksville,NY:ExpositionPress,1975.

Danziger,Raphael.Abdal-QadirandtheAlgerians:ResistancetotheFrenchandInternalConsolidation.NewYork:Holmes&Meier,1977.

Daumas,Eugène.TheHorsesoftheSahara.TranslatedbySheilaM.Ohlendorf.Austin,TX:UniversityofTexas,1968.

———.TheWaysoftheDesert.TranslatedbySheilaM.Ohlendorf.Austin,TX:UniversityofTexas,1971.

Djebar,Assia.Fantasia:AnAlgerianCavalcade.Porstmouth,NH.:Heinemann,1993.

Étienne,Bruno.Abdelkader.Paris:Hachette/Pluriel,2010.

Fawaz,LeilaTarazi.AnOccasionforWar:CivilConflictinLebanonandDamascusin1860.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994.

Harik,ElsaMarston.“TheCivilizingMissionofFranceinAlgeria:TheSchoolingofaNativePopulation.”InThePoliticsofEducationinColonialAlgeriaandKenya,byElsaMarstonHarikandDonaldG.Shilling.Athens:OhioUniversityCenterforInternationalStudies,1984.

Heavner,Rachel,ed.Abd-el-KaderinBritishandAmericanLiterature.ReviewoftheCenterfortheStudiesoftheLiteraturesandArtsofNorthAfrica(CELAAN),Vol.6,Numbers1&2,Spring2008,Sara-togaSprings,NY,SkidmoreCollege.

Kiser,JohnW.CommanderoftheFaithful:TheLifeandTimesofEmirAbdel-Kader.Rhinebeck,NY:MonkfishBookPublishing,2008.

Koulakssis,Ahmed,andGilbertMeynier.L’ÉmirKhaled,premierza’im?Identitéalgérienneetcolonialismefrançais.Paris:L’Harmattan,1987.

Mishaqa,Mikhayil.Murder,Mayhem,Pillage,andPlunder:TheHistoryoftheLebanoninthe18thand19thCenturies.TranslatedbyWheelerM.Thackston,Jr.Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1988.

Ruedy,John.ModernAlgeria:TheOriginsandDevelopmentofaNation.Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversity,2005.

Sullivan,AntonyThrall.Thomas-RobertBugeaud:FranceandAlgeria,1784-1849:Politics,Power,andtheGoodSociety.Hamden,CT:ArchonBooks,1983.

Wolf,JohnB.TheBarbaryCoast:AlgiersUndertheTurks1500to1830.NewYork:W.S.Norton,1979.

BIOGRAPHICALNOTES

ELSAMARSTONisanaward-winningauthorofover20teenandchildren’sbooks,specializingintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica,ancientandmodern.Shehasamaster’sdegreeininternationalaffairsfromHarvardUniversitywithfurtherstudyattheAmericanUniversityofBeirut,andhaslivedinEgypt,Lebanon,andTunisiawithherhusband,thelateProfessorIliyaHarikofIndianaUniversity.InadditiontoherbookswithWisdomTales(TheCompassionateWarriorandTheOliveTree),herrecentworkincludesSantaClausinBaghdadandOtherStoriesAboutTeensintheArabWorld,WomenintheMiddleEast:TraditionandChange,TheByzantineEmpire,andMuhammadofMecca,ahistoricalbiography.ShelivesinBloomington,Indiana.

BARBARAPETZENisDirector,MiddleEastConnections,andsitsontheboardofdirectorsoftheAbdel-KaderEducationProject.ShepreviouslyservedasoutreachcoordinatorattheHarvardCenterforMiddleEasternStudies.ShehasdesignedandtaughtcoursesonMiddleEasternhistory,Islam,andwomen’sstudiesatDalhousieUniversityandSt.Mary’sUniversityinNovaScotia,Canada.SheearneddegreesfromColumbiaCollegeandOxfordUniversity,whichsheattendedasaRhodesScholar.HeracademicinterestsincludethehistoryandpresentconcernsofwomenintheMiddleEastandtheIslamicworld,theroleofIslaminMiddleEasternandothersocieties,relationsandperceptionsbetweentheIslamicworldandtheWest,andthenecessityforglobalizingK-12educationintheUnitedStates.

Teachers,educators,parents,andstudentscanvisit:www.wisdomtalespress.comforfreeeducationalmaterials,includingstudyguidesanddiscussionquestions,tofacilitatetheuseofthis

bookinclassroomandindependentstudy.

PersonalwaxsealofAbdel-Kader

FormoreinformationandanarrayofresourcesaboutEmirAbdel-Kader,pleasevisittheAbdel-KaderEducationProjectwebsite:www.abdelkaderproject.orgStartedinElkader,Iowa,theAbdel-KaderEducationProjectisgrowingaworldwidemovementtorevivethelegacyofEmirAbdel-

Kader.Theirgoalistorestorethehistoricalmemoryofaremarkablehumanbeingwhoseimportancetodayisgreaterthanever.

EngravingofAbdel-Kaderincombatduringthe1840s

Deserthorsemen,mid-19thcentury

CamelcaravanattheEl-KantaraOasis,Algeria

KabylieMountainRoad,Algeria

PortraitofMarshalThomas-RobertBugeaud,depictedasGovener-GeneralofAlgeria,byCharles-PhilippeLarivière

EngravingofGeneralAugustLamoricière

TheChateauofAmboise,whereAbdel-Kaderwasheldcaptive

PaintingofLouis-NapoleonannouncingtheliberationofAbdel-KaderonOctober16,1852,byAnge

Tissier,1861.Abdel-Kader’smother,LallaZohra,kissesthehandofLouis-Napoleon.

PortraitofEmperorNapoleonIII,byAlexandreCabanel,c.1865

Abdel-Kaderwithhismostfaithfulcompanions,photobyLouis-JeanDelton,1865

PhotoofAbdel-KaderathishomeinDamascus,attributedtoGustaveLeGray,c.1860

ADamascusstreet,photobyFélixBonfils,c.1860

PaintingofAbdel-KaderprotectingtheChristiancommunityofDamascusduringtheriotsof1860,by

Jean-BaptisteHuysmans,1861

ThedestructionoftheChristianquarterofDamascus,photobyFrancisBedford,1862

Abdel-Kader,photobyÉtienneCarjat,1865