ELEN E6761 Fall ’00 - Lecture 2 IP Addressing, DNS & Hardware
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ELEN E6761Fall ’00 - Lecture 2IP Addressing, DNS & Hardware
Professor Dan Rubenstein
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TA Info
Vassilis Stachtos e-mail: [email protected] Office: 801 CEPSR
Office Hr: Thurs, 4pm – 6pm Mailbox: E2 (by the EE main office)
• NOTE: recently changed (used to be E3)
Java?: will confirm before next assignment
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Did you get my e-mail?
You should have if you submitted the survey If not, please e-mail me ([email protected])
and (re)submit the survey
Microsoft Word: if submitted in Word before my e-mail, then o.k. In future: No Microsoft Word!!!
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HW info
HW#1 not ready yet, will send it in an e-mail due a week from the time of the e-mail
HW#0… (go over math questions at end if there is time)
PA#1 is due now!!!
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Overview of Today’s Lecture
DNS Recursive Queries Iterated Queries Caching
IP Addressing Class-based CIDR
LAN Hardware / addressing MAC address Repeater Hub Bridge
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Routers
Complex device that determines where to forward packets Used in large-scale networks (i.e., it is typically not
used to forward pkts within a LAN) a packet arrives on one interface leaves on other(s) heading twd desired destination(s) routers must
• determine where to fwd pkts with given destination address• use routing protocols to communicate with other
routers
router
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Addresses and Interfaces
interface: connection between host or router and the physical network link routers typically have multiple interfaces hosts may have multiple interfaces
Interfaces have addresses Hosts don’t have addresses(their interface does) Routers don’t have addresses (their interfaces do)
to network
interface
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Internet addressing schemes A host interface has 3 types of addresses:
host name (Application Layer): e.g., medellin.cs.columbia.edu
IP address (Network Layer or Layer 3): e.g., 128.119.40.7
MAC address (Link Layer or Layer 2): e.g., E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
Actually, so do router interfaces:traceroute cs.umass.edu (from medellin.cs.columbia.edu)1 mudd-edge-1.net-columbia.edu (128.119.240.41)2 nyser-gw.net.columbia.edu (128.59.16.1)3 nn2k-gw.net.columbia.edu (128.59.1.6)4 vbns-columbia1.nysernet.net (199.109.4.6)5 jn1-at1-0-0-17.cht.vbns.net (204.147.132.130) etc…
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host names: convenient app-to-app communication
IP: efficient large-scale network communication
MAC: quick-n-easy LAN forwarding
Why 3 Addressing Schemes?
medellin.cs.columbia.edu
128.119.40.7128.
119.
40.7
128.
119.
40.7
128.
119.
40.7
128.
119.
40.7
E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
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Translating between addresses
Hostname (medellin.cs.columbia.edu)
IP address (128.119.40.7)
MAC address (E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B)
DNS
ARP
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DNS: Domain Name System
People: many identifiers: SSN, name, Passport #
Internet hosts, routers: IP address (32 bit) - used
for addressing datagrams
“name”, e.g., gaia.cs.umass.edu - used by humans
Domain Name System: distributed database
implemented in hierarchy of many name servers
application-layer protocol host, routers, name servers to communicate to resolve names (address/name translation) note: core Internet
function implemented as application-layer protocol
complexity at network’s “edge” – interior routers don’t maintain any DNS-related info
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DNS name servers
no server has all name-to-IP address mappings
local name servers: each ISP, company has local
(default) name server host DNS query first goes to
local name server
authoritative name server: for a host: stores that host’s
IP address, name can perform name/address
translation for that host’s name
Why not centralize DNS? single point of failure traffic volume distant centralized database maintenance
doesn’t scale!
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DNS: Root name servers
contacted by local name server when can not resolve name
root name server: contacts
authoritative name server if name mapping not known
gets mapping returns mapping to
local name server ~ dozen root name
servers worldwide
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Simple DNS example
host surf.eurecom.fr wants IP address of gaia.cs.umass.edu
1. Contacts its local DNS server, dns.eurecom.fr
2. dns.eurecom.fr contacts root name server, if necessary
3. root name server contacts authoritative name server, dns.umass.edu, if necessary
requesting hostsurf.eurecom.fr
gaia.cs.umass.edu
root name server
authorititive name serverdns.umass.edu
local name serverdns.eurecom.fr
1
23
4
5
6
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DNS example
Root name server: may not know
authoritative name server
may know intermediate name server: who to contact to find authoritative name server
requesting hostsurf.eurecom.fr
gaia.cs.umass.edu
root name server
local name serverdns.eurecom.fr
1
23
4 5
6
authoritative name serverdns.cs.umass.edu
intermediate name serverdns.umass.edu
7
8
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DNS: iterated queries
recursive query: puts burden of
name resolution on contacted name server
heavy load?
iterated query: contacted server
replies with name of server to contact
“I don’t know this name, but ask this server”
requesting hostsurf.eurecom.fr
gaia.cs.umass.edu
root name server
local name serverdns.eurecom.fr
1
23
4
5 6
authoritative name serverdns.cs.umass.edu
intermediate name serverdns.umass.edu
7
8
iterated query
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DNS: caching and updating records
once (any) name server learns mapping, it caches mapping To see the benefits of caching, compare time to “lookup”
domain name:• e.g., www.cnn.com is almost always cached• e.g., something like www.meat.com usually not cached
cache entries timeout (disappear) after some time update/notify mechanisms under design by IETF
RFC 2136 http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/dnsind-charter.html
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IP Addressing IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host, router interface IP addresses associated
with interface, not host, router
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol some IP addresses left
open can be dynamically
assigned (e.g., to a laptop)
when interface connected
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.2223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
223 1 11
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IP Addressing IP address:
network part (high order bits)
host part (low order bits)
What’s a network ? (from IP address perspective) device interfaces with
same network part of IP address
can physically reach each other without intervening router (i.e., on the same LAN)
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.2223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
network consisting of 3 IP networks(for IP addresses starting with 223, first 24 bits are network address)
LAN
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IP AddressingHow to find the networks? Detach each interface
from router, host create “islands of
isolated networks”
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.3
223.1.1.4
223.1.2.2223.1.2.1
223.1.2.6
223.1.3.2223.1.3.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.2
223.1.7.0
223.1.7.1223.1.8.0223.1.8.1
223.1.9.1
223.1.9.2
Interconnected system consisting
of six networks
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IP Addresses: Class-based (Old)
0network host
10 network host
110 network host
1110 multicast address
A
B
C
D
class
1.0.0.0 to127.255.255.255
128.0.0.0 to191.255.255.255
192.0.0.0 to239.255.255.255
240.0.0.0 to247.255.255.255
32 bits
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Classless Interdomain Routing network part can be any # of bits Format: a.b.c.d/x, where x indicates # of bits in network
part (the prefix)
128.119.48.12/18 = 10000000 01110111 00110000 00001100
high order bits form the prefix once inside the network, can subnet: divide remaining
24-x bits subnet example:
CIDR addressing (New)
129.128.0.0/10
18 relevant bits
129.188.0.0/14
129.176.0.0/14129.160.0.0/12 Note: picture
shows prefix masks, not interface addrs!
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Routing with CIDR
Packet should be sent toward the interface with the longest matching prefix
1000 1101000 1101 00
1000 0110
1000 1101 1000 1101 001
1000 1101 0011
1000 1100 1101
1000 1101 0110
Advertised masks
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Hierarchical Routing
scale: with 50 million destinations:
can’t store all dest’s in routing tables!
routing table exchange would swamp links!
administrative autonomy internet = network of
networks each network admin may
want to control routing in its own network
Our routing study thus far - idealization all routers identicalnetwork “flat”… not true in practice
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Hierarchical Routing
aggregate routers into regions, “autonomous systems” (AS)
routers in same AS run same routing protocol “intra-AS” routing
protocol routers in different AS
can run different intra-AS routing protocol
NOTE: IP addressing format remains flat e.g., Hierarchical routing
protocols with CIDR addressing
special routers in AS run intra-AS routing
protocol with all other routers in AS
also responsible for routing to destinations outside AS run inter-AS routing
protocol with other gateway routers
gateway routers
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Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
Gateways:•perform inter-AS routing amongst themselves•perform intra-AS routering with other routers in their AS
inter-AS, intra-AS routing in
gateway A.c
network layer
link layer
physical layer
a
b
b
aaC
A
Bd
A.a
A.c
C.bB.a
cb
c
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Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
Host h2
a
b
b
aaC
A
Bd c
A.a
A.c
C.bB.a
cb
Hosth1
Intra-AS routingwithin AS A
Inter-AS routingbetween A and B
Intra-AS routingwithin AS B
Future lecture: specific inter-AS and intra-AS Internet routing protocols
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The Internet Network layer
routingtable
Host, router network layer functions:
Routing protocols•path selection•RIP, OSPF, BGP
IP protocol•addressing conventions•datagram format•packet handling conventions
ICMP protocol•error reporting•router “signaling”
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
Link layer
physical layer
Networklayer
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LAN technologies (Link Layer)
MAC protocols used in LANs, to control access to the channel Token Rings: IEEE 802.5 (IBM token ring), for computer
room, or Department connectivity, up to 16Mbps; FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface), for Campus and Metro connectivity, up to 200 stations, at 100Mbps.
Ethernets: employ the CSMA/CD protocol; 10Mbps (IEEE 802.3), Fast E-net (100Mbps), Giga E-net (1,000 Mbps); by far the most popular LAN technology
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LAN Addresses and ARP
IP address: drives the packet to destination network LAN (or MAC or Physical) address: drives the packet to
the destination node’s LAN interface card (adapter card) on the local LAN
48 bit MAC address (for most LANs); burned in the adapter ROM the address stays with the card card’s MAC address can’t be changed
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LAN Address (more)
MAC address allocation administered by IEEE A manufacturer buys a portion of the address
space (to assure uniqueness) Analogy: (a) MAC address: like Social Security
Number (b) IP address: like postal address MAC flat address => portability IP hierarchical address NOT portable (address
stays with the network, not the host interface) Broadcast LAN address: 1111………….1111
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ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
MAC address IP address Each IP node (Host, Router) on the LAN has ARP
module and Table ARP Table: IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN
nodes < IP address; MAC address; TTL> < ………………………….. > TTL (Time To Live):
timer, typically 20 min
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ARP (more)
Host A wants to send packet to destination IP addr XYZ on same LAN
Source Host first checks own ARP Table for IP addr XYZ If XYZ not in the ARP Table, ARP module broadcasts ARP pkt:
< XYZ, MAC (?) >
ALL nodes on the LAN accept and inspect the ARP pkt Node XYZ responds with unicast ARP pkt carrying own MAC
addr:
< XYZ, MAC (XYZ) >
MAC address cached in ARP Table Benefit of ARP: self-configuring (plug-n-play) – makes
life easier for the sys-admin!!
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Routing pkt to another LAN
Say, route packet from source IP addr <111.111.111.111> to destination addr <222.222.222.222>
In routing table at source Host, find router 111.111.111.110 In ARP table at source, find MAC address E6-E9-00-17-BB-
4B, etc
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Ethernet Widely deployed because:
Cheap as dirt! $20 for 100Mbs! First LAN technology Simpler and less expensive than token LANs and ATM Kept up with the speed race: 10, 100, 1000 Mbps Many E-net technologies (cable, fiber etc). But they all
share common characteristics
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Ethernet Frame Structure
Sending adapter encapsulates an IP datagram (or other network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet Frame which contains a Preamble, a Header, Data, and CRC fields
Preamble: 7 bytes with the pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with the pattern 10101011; used for synchronizing receiver to sender clock (clocks are never exact, some drift is highly likely)
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Ethernet Frame Structure (more)
Header contains Destination and Source Addresses and a Type field
Addresses: 6 bytes, frame is received by all adapters on a LAN and dropped if address does not match
Type: indicates the higher layer protocol, mostly IP but others may be supported such as Novell IPX and AppleTalk)
CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped
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Baseband Manchester Encoding
Baseband here means that no carrier is modulated; instead bits are encoded using Manchester encoding and transmitted directly by modified voltage of a DC signal
Manchester encoding ensures that a voltage transition occurs in each bit time which helps with receiver and sender clock synchronization
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Ethernet Technologies: 10Base2 10==10Mbps; 2==under 200 meters maximum length
of a cable segment; also referred to as “Cheapnet” Uses thin coaxial cable in a bus topology Repeaters are used to connect multiple segments (up to
5); a repeater repeats the bits it hears on one interface to its other interfaces, ie a physical layer device only!
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Hubs, Bridges, and Switches
Used for extending LANs in terms of geographical coverage, number of nodes, administration capabilities, etc.
Differ in regards to: collision domain isolation layer at which they operate
Different than routers hubs, bridges, and switches are plug and play don’t provide optimal routing of IP packets
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Hubs
Physical Layer devices: essentially repeaters operating at bit levels: repeat received bits on one interface to all other interfaces
Hubs can be arranged in a hierarchy (or multi-tier design), with a backbone hub at its top
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Hubs (more)
Each connected LAN is referred to as a LAN segment Hubs do not isolate collision domains: a node may
collide with any node residing at any segment in the LAN
Hub Advantages: Simple, inexpensive device Multi-tier provides graceful degradation: portions of the
LAN continue to operate if one of the hubs malfunction Extends maximum distance between node pairs (100m per
Hub) can disconnect a “jabbering adapter”; 10base2 would not
work if an adapter does not stop transmitting on the cable can gather monitoring information and statistics for display
to LAN administrators
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Hubs (more)
Hub Limitations: Always broadcasts pkts (i.e., no smarts about which
link to send on) Single collision domain results in no increase in max
throughput; the multi-tier throughput same as the the single segment throughput
Individual LAN restrictions pose limits on the number of nodes in the same collision domain (thus, per Hub); and on the total allowed geographical coverage
Cannot connect different Ethernet types (e.g., 10BaseT and 100baseT)
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10BaseT and 100BaseT
10/100 Mbps rate; latter called “fast ethernet” T stands for Twisted Pair 10BaseT and 100BaseT use Hubs
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10BaseT and 100BaseT (more)
Max distance from node to Hub is 100 meters 100BaseT does not use Manchester encoding;
it uses 4B5B for better coding efficiency
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Bridges
Link Layer devices: they operate on Ethernet frames, examining the frame header and selectively forwarding a frame base on its destination
Bridge isolates collision domains since it buffers frames
When a frame is to be forwarded on a segment, the bridge uses CSMA/CD to access the segment and transmit
Are also self-configuring (plug-n-play)
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Bridges (more)
Bridge advantages: Isolates collision domains resulting in higher total
max throughput, and does not limit the number of nodes nor geographical coverage
Can connect different type Ethernet since it is a store and forward device
Transparent: no need for any change to hosts LAN adapters
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Backbone Bridge
100BaseT
collision domains
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Interconnection Without Backbone
Not recommended for two reasons:- Single point of failure at Computer Science hub- All traffic between EE and SE must path over CS segment
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Bridge Filtering
Bridges learn which hosts can be reached through which interfaces and maintain filtering tables
A filtering table entry:(Node LAN Address, Bridge Interface, Time Stamp)
Filtering procedure:if destination is on LAN on which frame was received
then drop the frameelse { lookup filtering table if entry found for destination
then forward the frame on interface indicated;else flood; /* forward on all but the interface on
which the frame arrived*/
}
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Bridge Learning
When a frame is received, the bridge “learns” from the source address and updates its filtering table (Node LAN Address, Bridge Interface, Time Stamp)
Stale entries in the Filtering Table are dropped (TTL can be 60 minutes)
Bridgepkt fr.
AE-00-2F-4A-6E-F2
Table:AE-00-2F-4A-6E-F2
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Bridges Spanning Tree
For increased reliability, it is desirable to have redundant, alternate paths from a source to a destination
With multiple simultaneous paths however, cycles result on which bridges may multiply and forward a frame forever
Solution is organizing the set of bridges in a spanning tree by disabling a subset of the interfaces in the bridges:
Disabled
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Bridges vs. Routers
Both are store-and-forward devices, but Routers are Network Layer devices (examine network layer headers) and Bridges are Link Layer devices
Routers maintain routing tables and implement routing algorithms, bridges maintain filtering tables and implement filtering, learning and spanning tree algorithms
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Routers vs. Bridges
Bridges + and -
+ Bridge operation is simpler requiring less processing bandwidth
- Topologies are restricted with bridges: a spanning tree must be built to avoid cycles
- Bridges do not offer protection from broadcast storms (endless broadcasting by a host will be forwarded by a bridge: cost of plug-n-play)
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Routers vs. Bridges
Routers + and -+ Arbitrary topologies can be supported, cycling
is limited by TTL counters (and good routing protocols)
+ Provide firewall protection against broadcast storms
- Require IP address configuration (not plug and play)
- Require higher processing bandwidth
Bridges do well in small (few hundred hosts) while routers are required in large networks (thousands of hosts)
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Ethernet Switches
A switch is a device that incorporates bridge functions as well as point-to-point ‘dedicated connections’
A host attached to a switch via a dedicated point-to-point connection; will always sense the medium as idle; no collisions ever!
Ethernet Switches provide a combinations of shared/dedicated, 10/100/1000 Mbps connections
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Ethernet
Some E-net switches support cut-through switching: frame forwarded immediately to destination without awaiting for assembly of the entire frame in the switch buffer; slight reduction in latency
Ethernet switches vary in size, with the largest ones incorporating a high bandwidth interconnection network
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Ethernet Switches (more)
Dedicated
Shared
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Gbit Ethernet
Use standard Ethernet frame format Allows for Point-to-point links (switches) and
shared broadcast channels (hubs) Uses Hubs called here “Buffered Distributors” Full-Duplex at 1 Gbps for point-to-point links
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Hardware in the Layering Hierarchy
Network Routers
Link Bridges, Switches
Physical Repeaters, Hubs
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IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
Wireless LANs are becoming popular for mobile Internet access
Applications: nomadic Internet access, portable computing, ad hoc networking (multihopping)
IEEE 802.11 standards defines MAC protocol; unlicensed frequency spectrum bands: 900Mhz, 2.4Ghz
Basic Service Sets + Access Points => Distribution System
Like a bridged LAN (flat MAC address)
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Ad Hoc Networks
IEEE 802.11 stations can dynamically form a group without AP
Ad Hoc Network: no pre-existing infrastructure Applications: “laptop” meeting in conference
room, car, airport; interconnection of “personal” devices (see bluetooth.com); battelfield; pervasive computing (smart spaces)
IETF MANET (Mobile Ad hoc Networks) working group
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PPP: Point to point protocol
LAN-like connectivity for a host (e.g., over a modem-line) (when used w/ IP, assigns an IP address to the host
Pkt framing: encapsulation of packets bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in
the data field error detection (no correction) multiple network layer protocols connection liveness Network Layer Address negotiation:
Hosts/nodes across the link must learn/configure each other’s network address
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Not Provided by PPP
error correction/recovery flow control sequencing multipoint links (e.g., polling)
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PPP Data Frame
Flag: delimiter (framing) Address: does nothing (only one option) Control: does nothing; in the future possible
multiple control fields Protocol: upper layer to which frame must be
delivered (eg, PPP-LCP, IP, IPCP, etc)
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Byte Stuffing For “data transparency”, the data field must
be allowed to include the pattern <01111110> ; ie, this must not be interpreted as a flag
to alert the receiver, the transmitter “stuffs” an extra < 01111110> byte after each < 01111110> data byte
the receiver discards each 01111110 followed by another 01111110, and continues data reception
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PPP Data Control Protocol
PPP-LCP establishes/releases the PPP connection; negotiates options
Starts in DEAD state Options: max frame length; authentication protocol Once PPP link established, IPCP (Control Protocol)
moves in (on top of PPP) to configure IP network addresses etc.
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HW#0
Problem 5 model
s
r0
r1rn…
p0
p1p1
Problem 6 model
s
r1rn…
pp