ELECTRONICS WITH DISCRETE COMPONENTS

Enrique J. Galvez Department of Physics and Astronomy Colgate University

WILEY

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

^

CONTENTS

Preface vii

1 The Basics 1

1.1 Foreword: Welcome to Electronics! I 1.2 Charge and Potential 2 1.3 Capacitors 4 1.4 Electrical Current 6 1.5 Resistors 7 1.6 Magnetic Devices 12

1.6.1 Magnetic Fields and Coils 12 1.6.2 Inductors 14

1.7 Power 15 1.8 Circuits 16

1.8.1 Equivalent Resistances 16 1.8.2 Kirchhoff's Laws 18 1.8.3 Voltage Dividers 19 1.8.4 Multiloop Circuits 21 1.8.5 Transient Circuits 22

1.9 Abstractions and Symbol Jargon 27 1.10 Problems 28 1.11 Lab Projects 34

1.11.1 An Application of the Voltage Divider: A Darkness Sensor 34 1.11.2 Delayed Switch 34

xi

XII CONTENTS

1.11.3 RC Circuit as an Integrator and Differentiator 35 1.11.4 Practicum Test 36

PART I DIGITAL 37

2 Introduction to Digital Electronics 39 2.1 Number Systems 41

2.1.1 Number-System Conversions 42 2.1.2 Arithmetic Operations 43

2.2 Codes 44 2.3 Signed Numbers 45 2.4 Binary Functions 46

2.4.1 Fundamental Gates 46 2.4.2 Universal Gates 48 2.4.3 Specialty Gates 49 2.4.4 Utilitarian Gates 51 2.4.5 Matrix Representation 52

2.5 Logic Families 54 2.6 1С Wirings 56 2.7 Problems 58 2.8 Lab Projects 62

2.8.1 Serial Transmission of ASCII-Coded Characters 62 2.8.2 Practicum Test 64

3 Combinational Logic 65 3.1 Boolean Algebra 66 3.2 Theorems 66 3.3 NAND-Gate Implementation 67 3.4 Representation of Boolean Functions 68

3.4.1 Analytical 68 3.4.2 Tabular 68 3.4.3 Graphical 69

3.5 Simplification of Functions 69 3.5.1 Algebraic 69 3.5.2 Graphical 70

3.6 Karnaugh Maps 71 3.6.1 Minterms 71 3.6.2 Two-Variable Map 72 3.6.3 Three-Variable Map 75 3.6.4 Four-Variable Map 76 3.6.5 Don't Care Conditions 77

3.7 More Than Four Variables 79 3.7.1 Three-Dimensional Karnaugh Maps 79 3.7.2 Brute-Force Logic 79

3.8 Wrap-Up 79 3.9 Wiring Digest: Open Collector/Drain Outputs 79 3.10 Problems 81 3.11 Lab Projects 86

CONTENTS xiii

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

Pragmatic Designing Adders Decoders Demultiplexers Encoders Multiplexers Problems Lab Projects 4.8.1 Multiplexing

3.11.1 The TTL Half Adder: Design and Construction 86 3.11.2 The Arithmetic Logical Unit 89 3.11.3 Practicum Test 89

4 Advanced Combinational Devices 91

91 92 94 98 99 100 103 104 104

5 Sequential Logic 107

5.1 Definitions 108 5.2 Flip-Flops 109 5.3 D Flip-Flop 111 5.4 Edge-Trigger 112 5.5 JK and T Flip-Flops 114 5.6 Applications of Flip-Flops 115

5.6.1 Latch or Register 115 5.6.2 Frequency Divider 116 5.6.3 Switch Debouncers 116 5.6.4 Counters 118

5.7 Shift Registers 123 5.8 Multivibrators 124 5.9 Memory 125

5.9.1 Memory Cell 125 5.9.2 Memory ICs 126 5.9.3 Memory Addressing 127 5.9.4 Memory Access 129

5.10 Epilogue to Digital: Digital I/O 130 5.10.1 Application: Digital Input from Switches 131 5.10.2 Application: Digital Output to Lights 132

5.11 Problems 134 5.12 Lab Projects 141

5.12.1 Sequential Circuits 141 5.12.2 Memory Access 143 5.12.3 Practicum Test 145

PART II ANALOG 147

6 AC Signals 149

6.1 AC Circuits 150 6.1.1 Representation of AC Signals 150

XIV CONTENTS

6.1.2 Capacitor in an AC Circuit 6.1.3 Inductor in an AC Circuit 6.1.4 Complex Numbers 6.1.5 Redefinition of Reactances 6.1.6 Generalized Ohm's Law 6.1.7 Dissipated Power 6.1.8 Worked Example

6.2 Equivalent Circuits 6.2.1 Thevenin's Theorem 6.2.2 Norton' s Theorem

6.3 Circuit Loading 6.3.1 Maximizing Signal Transfer 6.3.2 Maximizing Power Transfer

6.4 Problems 6.5 Lab Projects

6.5.1 Circuits and Thevenin 6.5.2 AC Signals 6.5.3 Diagnosing AC Signals 6.5.4 Impedance Matching 6.5.5 Practicum Test

7 Filters and the Frequency Domain

7.1 RC Filters 7.2 High-Pass Filters 7.3 Low-Pass Filter 7.4 Cascading Filters 7.5 Important Considerations for Filter Desig

7.5.1 f vs. A) 7.5.2 Determining wc

7.6 Transformer 7.7 Resonant Circuits and Band-Pass Filters 7.8 Higher-Order Filters 7.9 Fourier Series 7.10 Problems 7.11 Lab Projects

7.11.1 Filters 7.11.2 Application: Audio Filter 7.11.3 Fourier Analysis 7.11.4 Practicum Test

8 Diodes

8.1 Physics of Semiconductors 8.1.1 Structure 8.1.2 Energetics 8.1.3 Compounds 8.1.4 Doping 8.1.5 The p-n Junction

8.2 Diodes 8.3 Designing Diode Circuits

8.3.1 Load Line Method 8.3.2 "Quick and Dirty" Circuit Design for Diodes

8.4 Diode Fauna 8.4.1 LED and Laser Diode 8.4.2 Photoconductor Photodiodes 8.4.3 Photovoltaic (Solar) Cells 8.4.4 Zener Diode 8.4.5 More Diodes

8.5 Diode Applications 8.5.1 Rectification 8.5.2 Clipping 8.5.3 Diode Clamping 8.5.4 Peak Detector 8.5.5 Voltage Multipliers 8.5.6 Zener Regulator 8.5.7 Touch Sensors

8.6 Problems 8.7 Lab Projects

8.7.1 I-V Curve 8.7.2 Diode Clamp 8.7.3 Make-and-Take LED Flasher 8.7.4 Application: A Regulated Power Supply 8.7.5 Zener Diode Circuits 8.7.6 Solar Cells 8.7.7 Practicum Test

Transistors 9.1 The Bipolar-Junction Transistor

9.1.1 Operation of the В JT 9.1.2 The Transistor Switch 9.1.3 The Emitter Follower 9.1.4 Current Source 9.1.5 The Voltage Amplifier 9.1.6 Biasing the Transistor

9.2 Field-Effect Transistors 9.2.1 Inside the FET 9.2.2 Operation of the FET 9.2.3 The MOSFET Switch 9.2.4 Current Sources 9.2.5 Variable Resistors

9.3 Problems 9.4 Lab Projects

9.4.1 BJT Transistors 9.4.2 FET 9.4.3 Practicum Test

XVI CONTENTS

10 Operational Amplifiers

10.1 Negative Feedback 10.2 Closed-Loop Circuits

10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 10.2.2 Follower 10.2.3 Inverting Amplifier 10.2.4 Summing Amplifier 10.2.5 Differential Amplifier 10.2.6 Current Source 10.2.7 Current-to-Voltage Converter 10.2.8 Integrator 10.2.9 Differentiator 10.2.10 Impedance Transformer 10.2.11 Complex Feedback and the "Mystery Circuit' 10.2.12 Active Filters 10.2.13 Sample and Hold 10.2.14 Voltage Regulators 10.2.15 Feedback Digest

10.3 Open-Loop Circuits 10.3.1 Peak Detector 10.3.2 Comparator 10.3.3 LM555 Timer 10.3.4 Relaxation Oscillators

10.4 Real Op-Amps 10.4.1 Voltage Gain 10.4.2 Slew Rate 10.4.3 Common-Mode Gain 10.4.4 Input Impedance 10.4.5 Output Impedance 10.4.6 Output Current 10.4.7 Input Bias Current 10.4.8 Input Offset Voltage 10.4.9 Power Supply Voltage

10.5 Problems 10.6 Lab Projects

10.6.1 The Inverting Amplifier 10.6.2 Noninverting Amplifier 10.6.3 Mystery Circuit 10.6.4 Servo and a Constant-Illumination Controller 10.6.5 Real Op-Amps 10.6.6 Practicum Test

11 Connecting Digital to Analog and to the World

11.1 TTL Gates 11.1.1 Totem-Pole Output 11.1.2 Modified Totem-Pole Output 11.1.3 Tristate Output

11.2 CMOS Gates

CONTENTS XVII

11.3 Interfacing 308 11.3.1 Analog Driving Digital 308 11.3.2 Digital Driving Analog 309 11.3.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 310

11.4 Interfacing the World 314 11.5 Problems 315 11.6 Lab Projects 318

11.6.1 Stepper Motor 318 11.6.2 Connecting to the Analog World 319

Appendix A Logic Board 321

Appendix В If the Circuit Does Not Work 323 B.l Design 323 B.2 The Obvious 324 B.3 Placement 324 B.4 Pins 324 B.5 Breadboards 324

B.5.1 Past the Obvious 324 B.5.2 Digital Circuits 324 B.5.3 Analog Circuits 325

B.6 Abusive Power 325 B.7 Stuck 325 B.8 Done! 325

Appendix С Curve Tracer 327 C.l I-V Curves for Diodes 327 C.2 I-V Curves for Transistors 328

Index 331