Eldridge 2012 (Thesis)

ARCHAEOFAUNAL REPRESENTATION OF LATE WESTERN THULE

REGIONALIZATION: INSIGHTS FROM THE SNAKE RIVER

SANDSPIT SITE IN NOME, ALASKA

A

THESIS

Presented to the Faculty

of the University of Alaska Anchorage

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

By

Kelly Anne Eldridge, B.A.

Anchorage, Alaska

August 2012

iii

Abstract

This thesis explores the connection between Western Thule regionalization and

historic Iñupiat socioterritories on the Seward Peninsula by comparing archaeofaunal

assemblages to territory-specific subsistence patterns. A faunal analysis of the Snake

River Sandspit site (NOM-146) in Nome, Alaska, and published faunal analyses of 15

additional Western Thule sites are used to test the antiquity of historic Iñupiat

socioterritorial subsistence patterns. In general, results indicate that regional subsistence

practices linked with territorial boundaries on the Seward Peninsula have changed little

since Western Thule occupation.

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Table of Contents

Page

Title Page ............................................................................................................................. i

Signature Page .................................................................................................................... ii

Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiv

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................ xvi

Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1

Research Problem ............................................................................................................2

Thesis Organization .........................................................................................................3

Chapter Two: Theoretical Overview .................................................................................. 5

Regional Archaeology .....................................................................................................5

Zooarchaeology ...............................................................................................................8

Taphonomy ..................................................................................................................8

Taxonomic identification ...........................................................................................11

Quantification ............................................................................................................11

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Page

Ageing ........................................................................................................................13

Season of Site Occupation .........................................................................................14

Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns .............................................................................16

Summary ........................................................................................................................19

Chapter Three: The Seward Peninsula .............................................................................. 20

Physical Environment ....................................................................................................20

Geography ..................................................................................................................20

Climate .......................................................................................................................22

Vegetation ..................................................................................................................23

Wildlife ......................................................................................................................23

Cultural Environment ....................................................................................................29

Prehistory ...................................................................................................................29

American Paleoarctic tradition, 13,000-9,000 BP .................................................29

Northern Archaic tradition, 6,000-4,000 BP .........................................................30

Arctic Small Tool tradition, 4,200-1,000 BP .........................................................30

Denbigh Flint Complex .......................................................................................30

Choris culture ......................................................................................................31

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Page

Norton-Near Ipiutak culture ................................................................................31

Ipiutak culture .....................................................................................................32

Northern Maritime tradition, 1,500-150 BP ..........................................................32

Punuk ..................................................................................................................32

Birnirk .................................................................................................................33

Western Thule .....................................................................................................33

Historic Period .......................................................................................................36

Previous Archaeological Research ............................................................................37

Summary ........................................................................................................................39

Chapter Four: Snake River Sandspit Site Background ..................................................... 40

Field Methods ................................................................................................................40

Site Description .............................................................................................................42

House A .....................................................................................................................43

House B .....................................................................................................................43

Midden .......................................................................................................................45

Radiocarbon Dating .......................................................................................................47

Overview of Artifact Assemblage .................................................................................48

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Page

Implications of Artifact Assemblage .............................................................................52

Late Western Thule culture .......................................................................................52

Season of Site Occupation .........................................................................................60

Summary ........................................................................................................................61

Chapter Five: Snake River Sandspit Site Methods ........................................................... 63

Laboratory Methods .......................................................................................................63

Taxonomic Classification ..........................................................................................64

Quantification ............................................................................................................65

Ageing ........................................................................................................................65

Season of Death .........................................................................................................67

Perthotaxic Analysis ..................................................................................................67

Summary ........................................................................................................................68

Chapter Six: Snake River Sandspit Site Results ............................................................... 69

Archaeofauna .................................................................................................................69

Birds ...........................................................................................................................70

Mammals ...................................................................................................................76

Terrestrial Mammals ..............................................................................................77

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Page

Marine Mammals ...................................................................................................83

Fishes .........................................................................................................................88

Mollusks ....................................................................................................................89

Perthotaxic Data .............................................................................................................89

Intrasite Faunal Analysis ...............................................................................................93

Season of Site Occupation .............................................................................................95

Winter Occupation .....................................................................................................96

Summer Occupation ................................................................................................104

Ethnographic Subsistence Data ...............................................................................105

Summary ......................................................................................................................108

Chapter Seven: Seward Peninsula Comparative Sites .................................................... 110

Archaeofaunas .............................................................................................................110

Ayasayuk (NOM-009). ............................................................................................111

Uqshoyak (TEL-155) ...............................................................................................112

Wales Hillside Site (TEL-025) ................................................................................115

Wales Beach Site (TEL-026) ...................................................................................116

Kurigitavik Mound (TEL-079) ................................................................................118

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Page

Ikpek Area Site (TEL-104) ......................................................................................119

Kitluk River Site (KTZ-145) ...................................................................................120

Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-087) ....................................................................121



Deering Western Thule House 1 (KTZ-300) ...........................................................125

Deering Western Thule House 2 (KTZ-301) ...........................................................127

Cloud Lake Village (BEN-033) ...............................................................................128

Salix Bay Site (BEN-106) .......................................................................................128

Kuzitrin Lake West Village (BEN-053) ..................................................................129

Regional Analysis ........................................................................................................129

Summary ......................................................................................................................140

Chapter Eight: Discussion............................................................................................... 141

Site Comparisons to Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns ..........................................141

Summary 144

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................145

References ....................................................................................................................... 148

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Page

Appendix: NOM-146 Faunal Database back pocket

xi

List of Figures

Page

Figure 2.1: Location of 19th century villages identified by Ray (1964, 1975) and traditional Iñupiat territories 17 Figure 3.1: Location of Nome on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska 22 Figure 4.1: Profile of House A 43 Figure 4.2: Plan view of House B, NOM-146(b) 44 Figure 4.3: Photograph of House B profile 45 Figure 4.4: Plan view of the midden, NOM-146(c) 46 Figure 4.5: Calendrical date ranges of radiocarbon samples from NOM-146 47 Figure 4.6: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00293] 54 Figure 4.7: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00671] 54 Figure 4.8: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00088] 55 Figure 4.9: Ivory Fishing Lure from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00303] 56 Figure 4.10: Striated potsherd with pie-crust rim from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00378] 57 Figure 4.11: Pottery vessel from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00304] 57 Figure 4.12: Seal figurine from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00310] 59 Figure 4.13: Ivory Human Figurine from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00022] 59 Figure 6.1: Percentages of Number of Identified Specimens from NOM-146 69 Figure 6.2: Compilation of cutmarks from 12 right ringed seal mandibles 91 Figure 6.3: Bird presence on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska 97 Figure 6.4: Possible ages (in months) of skeletal elements indicative of yearling status 98

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Page Figure 6.5: Small ice seal femora. Ages from left to right: neonate, yearling, yearling, yearling, juvenile, adult, adult 99 Figure 6.6: Small ice seal humeri. From left to right: neonate, yearling, yearling, yearling, juvenile, adult 99 Figure 6.7: Presence of mammal neonates on the Seward Peninsula 100 Figure 6.8: Possible ages (in months) of certain caribou skeletal elements 101 Figure 6.9: Tundra hare epiphyseal fusion sequence elements 103 Figure 7.1: Location of Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula used in intersite comparisons 111 Figure 7.2: Composition of NOM-146 archaeofauna; NISP=5,605 (unidentified remains not included) 130 Figure 7.3: Composition of KTZ-300 archaeofauna; NISP=2,230 (unidentified remains not included) 131 Figure 7.4: Composition of KTZ-301 archaeofauna; NISP=731 (unidentified remains not included) 131 Figure 7.5: Composition of KTZ-145 archaeofauna; NISP=2,765 (unidentified remains not included) 132 Figure 7.6: Composition of TEL-155 archaeofauna; NISP=9,784 (unidentified remains not included) 133 Figure 7.7: Composition of TEL-079 archaeofauna; NISP=8,910 (unidentified remains not included) 133 Figure 7.8: Composition of KTZ-101 archaeofauna; NISP=421 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included) 134 Figure 7.9: Composition of KTZ-087 archaeofauna; NISP=412 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included) 134

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Page Figure 7.10: Composition of TEL-025 archaeofauna; NISP=335 (unidentified remains not included) 135 Figure 7.11: Composition of TEL-026 archaeofauna; NISP=12,665 (unidentified remains not included) 135 Figure 7.12: Composition of NOM-009 archaeofauna; NISP=1,133 (unidentified remains not included) 136 Figure 7.13: Composition of TEL-104 archaeofauna; NISP=316 (unidentified remains not included) 136 Figure 7.14: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 2010; NISP=4,209 (unidentified remains not included) 137 Figure 7.15: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 1988; NISP=1,124 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included) 137 Figure 7.16: Composition of BEN-053 archaeofauna; NISP=512 (unidentified remains not included) 138 Figure 7.17: Composition of BEN-106 archaeofauna; NISP=390 (unidentified remains not included) 139 Figure 7.18: Composition of BEN-033 archaeofauna; NISP=2740 (unidentified remains not included) 139 Figure 8.1: Location of comparative Western Thule sites and traditional Iñupiaq territories 142

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List of Tables

Page

Table 3.2: Modern marine mammals of the Seward Peninsula. 25

Table 3.3: Most common birds of the Seward Peninsula 26

Table 3.4: Most common overwintering birds of the Seward Peninsula 27

Table 3.5: Important subsistence fishes near Cape Nome and Safety Sound 28

Table 4.1: Number of artifacts from NOM-146 48

Table 4.2: Personal adornment, ceremonial and warfare artifacts from NOM-146 49

Table 4.3: Household equipment, tools, and transportation artifacts from NOM-146 50

Table 4.4: Fishing and hunting artifacts from NOM-146 51

Table 4.5: Manufacturing and unidentified artifacts from NOM-146 52

Table 6.1: Number of vertebrate fauna from NOM-146 69

Table 6.2: Bird remains from NOM-146 70

Table 6.3: Terrestrial mammal remains from NOM-146 77

Table 6.4: Age categories of NOM-146 non-canid land mammal remains 78

Table 6.5: Age categories of NOM-146 canid remains 78

Table 6.6: Marine mammal remains from NOM-146 83

Table 6.7: Age categories of NOM-146 pinniped remains 84

Table 6.8: Fish remains from NOM-146 88

Table 6.9: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with cutmarks 90

Table 6.10: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with gnawmarks 92

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Page Table 6.11: NISP and %NISP of burned NOM-146 faunal remains 93

Table 6.12: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in House B 94

Table 6.13: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in the midden 95

Table 7.1: NOM-009 vertebrate remains 112

Table 7.2: TEL-155 mammal remains 114

Table 7.3: TEL-155 bird and fish remains 115

Table 7.4: TEL-025 vertebrate remains 116




Table 7.8: KTZ-145 vertebrate remains 121


Table 7.10: KTZ-088 (1988 excavation) vertebrate remains 123

Table 7.11: KTZ-088 (2010 excavation) vertebrate remains 123




Table 7.15: BEN-033 vertebrate remains 128



xvi

Acknowledgments

This thesis originated from a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers salvage archaeology

project, which would not have occurred without the cooperation and assistance of the

City of Nome and the Nome Eskimo Community. Thanks to those individuals who first

identified the existence of the Snake River Sandspit site: Mark Pipkin, Mike Hahn, and

especially Margan Grover, who also directed site excavation, organized community

involvement, and originally analyzed the artifact assemblage. Thank you to everyone

who helped excavate the site: Karlin Itchoak, Mark Cassell, Helen Lindemuth, Al Sahlin,

Boogles Johnson, Aaron Wilson, Beverly Gelzer, Meghan Ten Eyck, Guy McConnell,

Chris Floyd, and at least a dozen more who volunteered their time, effort, and shovels.

Thank you to the University of Alaska Anchorage for providing lab space for the

faunal analysis, and to the Alaska Consortium of Zooarchaeologists, University of Alaska

Anchorage Anthropology Department, and Museum of the North Mammalogy and

Ornithology Departments for providing access to their comparative faunal collections. I

will be forever indebted to those who assisted with the faunal analysis: Diane Hanson,

David Yesner, Nancy and Tom Eldridge, Erika Malo, Eric and Heather Smith, Nick

Riordan, Jessequa Parker, Dominique Cordy, and Hillary Palmer. And finally, this thesis

would never have existed without the encouragement and editorial skills of my academic

advisory committee: David Yesner, Diane Hanson, Doug Veltre, and Margan Grover; the

patience of my fiancé, Dave Coleman; or the enthusiasm of parents, Tom and Nancy

Eldridge.

1

Chapter One: Introduction

This thesis focuses on regionalization in Western Thule culture on the Seward

Peninsula, northern Bering Sea region, Alaska. Two major models have been proposed

for the nature of material variation in Western Thule culture: temporal and geographical.

Both time and geography clearly affected the material culture of the Western Thule

people. Most of the literature, however, emphasizes temporally-based differences. More

specifically, cultural phases associated with the Western Thule culture are defined as

temporally sequential shifts in major technological traits due to internal cultural

innovations, introduction of external cultural influences, or climate change (Dumond

1987; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Morrison 1991; Stanford 1976). Material

differences due to adaptation of subsistence practices to diverse geographic regions is not

often cited as causal (for exceptions, see Bockstoce 1979; Harritt 1994). Numerous

authors, however, have recognized the association between subsistence resources and

both historic and prehistoric cultural territories (Ackerman and Ackerman 1973; Andrews

1994; Burch 1980, 2006; Friesen 1999; Helm 1965; Zedeño 1997).

The Iñupiat of northwest Alaska were organized into politically autonomous

socioterritorial groups that controlled discrete ecoregions in the early nineteenth century

(Burch 1980, 1998, 2006; Ray 1964, 1967, 1975). Burch (1998:316-318) calls attention

to the unknown antiquity of these cultural territories: anthropologists have suggested that

they date back to at least the eighteenth century (Ray 1964:86) if not the eleventh century

(Burch 1998:317). Burch (1998:318) suggests that the formation of the historic Iñupiat

2

nations may have occurred during the expansion of the Western Thule culture, and that

these early territories can be identified by comparing prehistoric sites with known historic

settlement patterns (Burch 1988).

To better understand Western Thule culture and to differentiate between temporal

and geographical effects, regional variations in subsistence must be identified and

assessed, to the extent permitted by archaeological visibility and preservation. Following

the links identified between subsistence and socioterritory, and Western Thule and

Iñupiaq cultures, this thesis explores Western Thule regionalization in light of historic

Iñupiat socioterritories through zooarchaeological analysis.

Research Problem

If nineteenth century Iñupiat societal differences were linked to unique

subsistence practices (Burch 1980:275) and historic socioterritorial boundaries were

demarcated hundreds of years ago (Burch 1998:317, 2006:7; Ray 1964), then regional

variations in Western Thule subsistence should correspond with the socioterritorial

boundaries documented during the early historic period on the Seward Peninsula in

northwest Alaska. These boundaries, encompassing what Ray (1967) identified as the

political unit or tribe, and Burch named socio-territorial units (1980) or nations (1998,

2006), differentiated linguistically and culturally similar people from their neighbors

(Burch 1980:262; Ray 1975:105). To test this hypothesis, an assemblage of archaeofauna

recovered from the Snake River Sandspit site (NOM-146), a Late Western Thule site at

the mouth of the Snake River in the city of Nome, Alaska, is analyzed and compared to

3

published analyses of archaeofauna from 16 Western Thule sites on the Seward

Peninsula. NOM-146 radiometrically dates to around A.D. 1750; its known features

include two partial houses and a midden. Data relevant to regional patterns obtained

through faunal analysis include both taxonomic composition and season of occupation.

Intersite comparisons of these data reflect the nature and degree of spatial variation in

subsistence and settlement, linked to larger patterns of cultural variability.

More specifically, the subsistence patterns represented at NOM-146 should reflect

those associated with the Ayasaagiaagmiut, the historic tribal nation within whose

territorial boundaries the site lies (Grover 2005; Schaaf 1995). Ray (1967:375, 1975:104)

notes that the traditional tribal society of the Nome area followed the small sea mammal

subsistence pattern, which emphasized the importance of seal, followed by beluga, fish,

and caribou, in addition to the berries, waterfowl and game birds, eggs, small land

mammals and plants commonly found in all geographic regions of the Seward Peninsula

and adjacent areas of the northern Bering Sea region. Burch (1980:286-287) also

documents the importance of seal, fish and caribou to the Iñupiat of the area, in addition

to occasional whaling and walrus hunting. A close examination of the archaeofauna

recovered from the Snake River Sandspit site, and comparison of those data to published

regional ethnohistories, are used to test these hypotheses.

Thesis Organization

This thesis is divided into eight chapters. Chapter Two examines the theoretical

underpinnings of the thesis, focusing on regionalization and zooarchaeology. Chapter

4

Three describes the environment and prehistory of the study area, the Seward Peninsula.

In Chapter Four, basic information about the Snake River Sandspit site, including the

excavation methods, radiocarbon dates and artifact assemblage overview, is reported.

The methods used in the faunal analysis of NOM-146 are described in Chapter Five.

Chapter Six conveys the results of the analysis of the NOM-146 archaeofauna, and

Chapter Seven synthesizes the published results of faunal analyses from additional

Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula. Chapter Eight discusses the above results,

examining the potential of the archaeofauna from Western Thule sites on the Seward

Peninsula to provide information on prehistoric regionalization and territoriality. The

database produced by the Snake River Sandspit faunal analysis (Appendix) can be found

on CD in the pocket on the back cover of the thesis.

5

Chapter Two: Theoretical Overview

Regional Archaeology

The development of what is now known as “regional archaeology” began in the

1930s with concepts of regional co-traditions pioneered by anthropologists such as Julian

Steward (Kantner 2008:38; McCartney 1992:195). In his monograph on the indigenous

peoples of the Basin-Plateau region, Steward (1938) emphasized the need to study how

humans adapt to their environment and the importance of an ecological approach in

anthropology. Interest in regional patterns of human behavior continued to increase

throughout the mid-twentieth century, and the emergence of the New Archaeology

enhanced the new “regional analysis” with discrete quantitative and graphical tools

(Kantner 2008:39; McCartney 1992:195). The development of processual archaeology

added spatial models and network analyses to the regional archaeology toolkit and led to

the definition of “subsistence-settlement systems” by Struever and others (Kantner

2008:40). In the last two decades, regional archaeology has been influenced not only by

new paradigms such as landscape archaeology, historical ecology, and neo-evolutionary

selectionism, but by new technologies like Geographic Information System (GIS)

modeling and computer simulations (Kantner 2008:60-62)

Today, regional archaeology exists as a “widespread, method-oriented perspective

for answering a variety of anthropological problems through the use of spatiotemporal

and contextual data from a sizable, contiguous area” (Kantner 2008:43). These areas, or

regions, are spaces where past human cultures have left material signatures (Kantner

6

2008:41). The geographic region is a flexible unit of spatial research defined by the

particular research question (Gallant et al. 1989:1; McCartney 2002:194). This flexibility

requires that the researcher clearly identify how and why they determined their regional

boundaries (Kantner 2008:42).

Most archaeological literature uses the term region in the common geographical

sense to include both behavioral areas (i.e., interacting communities) and physiographic

regions (e.g., drainage basins or coastal plains) (Kowalewski 2008:226). Regions are

defined where internal socio-political interactions are greater than external interactions

(Douglas 1995:241). Regions can be huge, like the Boasian culture areas, or relatively

small, like the “areas covered by individual Native societies” (McCartney 1992:194).

For the purposes of this thesis, I define region after Burch’s socio-territorial units

(1980:255), which equate to Ray’s political units or tribes (1967:373-375) and

Guemple’s regional bands (1972:83). These regions differentiate between people who

were generally similar to each other (were members of a single culture) but who “differed

in detail” (Burch 1980:262), in part due to association with particular geographic areas

and subsistence bases (Burch 1980:275; Guemple 1972:83; Ray 1967:374). In the

Iñupiaq cultural area during the early historic period, these territorially circumscribed

regions were autonomous political units (Burch 1998:3), probably centuries old (Burch

2006:7).

This particular type of region lends itself, in part, to the study of four of the basic

themes, which McCartney (1992:197-198) identified as questions needing examination

7

from a regional perspective: culture history/chronology (the “study of the evolution of

cultures and their adaptations in different regions”); human ecology (the study of

“subsistence and settlement,… seasonality and annual rounds”); settlement patterns (the

study of “intersite patterns for the regions” and the “variety of contemporary sites for

cultural-historical periods”); and social polities (the “investigation of territories that

correspond with local to regional political organizations”).

The above themes are examined here through the study of regional subsistence

patterns. The characteristics of exploited food resources are one of the most influential

factors in social organization, especially in Arctic and Subarctic cultures (Friesen 1999).

Friesen (1999:32, 33) describes how the standard Thule material culture was modified to

adapt to local environments, and notes that the primary differences between the Iñupiat of

north Alaska and the Inuit of the Mackenzie Delta vary with the accessible resources.

Because of this significant relationship between social organization and environment, all

subsistence behaviors must be identified to reconstruct prehistoric territories (Zedeño

1997:95). The use of a regional approach in zooarchaeological analysis is “crucial”

because it exposes general patterns of behavior which may not be revealed at the site

level (Friesen and Morrison 2002:23) and differentiates site and regional patterns

(Amorosi et al. 1996:151).

Throughout North America, regionalization is being recognized in cultural areas

once defined with general, sweeping statements (Sanger 2008:2). A regional approach to

a locally diverse area of the widely-distributed Western Thule culture will help identify

8

regional cultural patterns within the overarching Thule model. This thesis examines the

relationship between socioterritorial units and their food resources to identify the

regionalization of Western Thule culture on the Seward Peninsula. Zooarchaeology is

the analytical technique used to identify the subsistence strategies at the examined sites.

Zooarchaeology

Zooarchaeology is the study of animal remains recovered from archaeological

sites. Skeletal animal remains (hereafter referred to as faunal remains or archaeofauna)

can be identified and examined to provide information about the subsistence strategies of

the people who lived at the site, the season of site occupation, and the paleoenvironment.

Taphonomy. Zooarchaeological interpretations are affected by the taphonomy of

the archaeofaunal assemblage (Landon 2005:6; Lyman 1987:93). The word

“taphonomy” was coined in the 1940s by the Russian paleontologist Efremov to describe

everything that happens to an animal from the time it leaves the biosphere to when it

enters the lithosphere (Behrensmeyer et al. 2000:102; Gilbert and Singer 1982:22; Lyman

2008:264). There are seven types of taphonomic processes: biotic, thanatic, perthotaxic,

taphic, anataxic, sullegic, and trephic (Gilbert and Singer 1982:23; Lyman 1994a;

O’Connor 2000:20).

Biotic processes are factors occurring during an animal’s life, such as migrations

or molting. Thanatic processes involve the causes of death, such as drowning, being

hunted, or falling off a cliff. Perthotaxic processes are perhaps the most inclusive of

human involvement with an animal; they include all changes to an animal’s state

9

perpetrated by other animals (including humans), such as transportation from the kill site

(e.g., the schlepp effect), disarticulation and butchering methods, cooking practices,

cosmological procedures, scavenging by nonhumans, gnawing and chewing. Taphic

processes affect an animal after it has been deposited into the lithosphere and deal mostly

with natural and chemical weathering processes, such as root etching and bioturbation.

Anataxic processes occur after an animal has been deposited for some time and refer to

events like flooding or permafrost uplift – natural events that move the animal from its

original area of deposition (Gilbert and Singer 1982:23; Lyman 1994a; O’Connor

2000:20).

The last two processes, sullegic and trephic, include human actions after the

archaeological discovery of deposited faunal remains. The methods of excavation of the

remains, field sampling techniques, retrieval methods such as screen mesh size, and

experience of the excavator are sullegic factors. Trephic processes include “curatorial”

events such as the selection of various methods for numbering, labeling, identifying, and

preserving faunal remains (Gilbert and Singer 1982:24; O’Connor 2000:20).

All of the taphonomic processes listed above directly affect the composition and

interpretation of the archaeofaunal assemblage. The most obvious effect that taphonomy

has is on relative taxonomic abundance. Depending on the taphonomic processes to

which faunal remains were subjected, an individual animal may not be part of the

analyzed assemblage at all.

10

Taphonomic processes often produce measurable changes to the bones in faunal

assemblages. For example, biotic processes play an important role in the identification of

season and human settlement patterns. If migratory birds are found in the midden of a

site, then it is probable that they were killed (thanatic process) and brought back to the

village (perthotaxic process) during the season in which the birds occupied the

surrounding territory (biotic process). The age at death of an individual is also a biotic

event: for example, if the identified assemblage includes young ringed seal pups, for

example, the zooarchaeologist can assume that the pups were hunted shortly after they

were born in April. Biotic events can help the archaeologist reconstruct the

paleoenvironment. As seen in the faunal analyses of Crockford and Frederick (2007), the

identification of pups of the pagophilic (ice-loving) ringed seal, which gives birth on a

sea ice substrate, necessarily indicates the existence of sea ice.

Biotic processes can also change how perthotaxic and taphic processes affect

faunal remains. Munson and Garniewicz (2003) demonstrated how bone survival during

canid gnawing is dependent on the age at death and size of the animal. Another study by

Lam et al. (2003) showed how differential bone density of a specimen, which can be a

factor of age or element type, affected its likelihood to survive perthotaxic processes.

Some perthotaxic processes can change how other such processes affect faunal remains.

For example, cooked bone is less likely to survive carnivore gnawing than uncooked

bone (Munson and Garniewicz 2003).

11

Taxonomic identification. To use faunal assemblages to reconstruct site

paleoeconomies, the taxa present in the assemblage must first be identified. The

identification of archaeofauna to taxon is based on the morphology of a specimen;

accurate identification is affected by expectations of which fauna should occur in the site

area and by the species in available comparative collections (Bochenski 2008; Gobalet

2001). Comparative collections, composed of skeletal material from modern animal

species, are one of the most significant tools used by zooarchaeologists in the

identification of archaeofauna. Another important tool used in the taxonomic

identification of faunal remains is the animal osteology manual, or “bone atlas.”

Osteology manuals are useful in directing the zooarchaeologist to the likely taxa to

consult in a comparative collection.

Quantification. As a second step in reconstructing site paleoeconomies,

quantification of the taxa present in the assemblage must be undertaken. The method

most often used to count the taxonomic abundance of faunal assemblages is the Number

of Individual Specimens (NISP) technique (Grayson and Frey 2004:28); however, the

Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) technique is also common (Lyman 1994b:48;

Marshall and Pilgrim 1993:262).

The NISP technique is a count of each fragment in an assemblage that can be

identified to taxon (Grayson and Frey 2004; Lyman 1994b, 2008). It produces the

maximum taxonomic abundance (Grayson 1984) and generates larger sample sizes. This

method relies on the assumption that “cultural and noncultural fragmentation is uniform,

12

recovery rates are constant for each taxon, and all taxa have an equal opportunity to be

counted” (Reitz and Wing 2008:203). The main problem with NISP is its inability to

account for variations in fragmentation rates between taxa (Grayson and Frey 2004:40;

Lyman 1994b:47), whether the source of fragmentation is taphonomic or cultural.

Additionally, NISP is biased towards taxa with more elements in their skeletons

(Marshall and Pilgrim 1993:262; O’Connor 2000:56).

For the MNI technique, the most common skeletal element is identified for a

taxon, while taking specimen age and side of body into account (Grayson and Frey

2004:28; Lyman 1994b). For example, if ringed seal specimens identified from an

occupation horizon within a site are represented by three left femora, seven right ulnae,

and five right tibiae, the MNI for that occupation would be seven, as it takes at least

seven animals to produce the assemblage. MNI does not work as well for characterizing

faunal assemblages as does NISP when confronted with severely fragmented specimens,

because multiple fragments identified as a particular skeletal element might all be from a

single bone or at least a single animal (Marshall and Pilgrim 1993:267). To avoid

counting one animal multiple times, MNI is conservative and often under-represents the

number of individuals at a site. Although allowing for “apparent pairs” when using MNI

(for example, deciding that a left femur and right femur came from one animal based on

similar size and shape) can help alleviate this problem by increasing the recorded number

of individuals (O’Connor 2000:59), determining appropriate pairs is subjective and not

always scientifically rigorous (Lyman 2006). Also, unless sample sizes are significantly

13

large, MNI calculations tend to exaggerate the dietary importance of rare taxa. The most

serious disadvantage to the MNI technique, however, is aggregation, which can reduce

the MNI of an assemblage (Grayson and Frey 2004:40; Lyman 2008). Aggregation

occurs when multiple assemblages from within one site are combined.

When considering quantification, it is important to emphasize that archaeofauna

are only proxy indicators of past economic conditions. Research has demonstrated that

the overall patterns that can be obtained from the faunal remains are more significant and

useful than the exact number of NISP or MNI calculated from a single analytical unit.

The “particular method of quantification employed in this search for patterns appears to

be less important than other characteristics of the archaeofaunas under study” (Amorosi

et al. 1996:139).

Ageing. Ascertaining the age at which animals are harvested is significant for the

reconstruction of human cultural patterns (Storå 2000:200; Twiss 2008:329). In animals

with determinate growth patterns, age at death is commonly estimated by the analysis of

dental cementum increments, the eruption and attrition of teeth, and epiphyseal and

cranial fusion (Storå 2000:200).

In all mammals, teeth erupt through the alveolar bone of the maxilla or mandible

in a species-specific sequenced rate. These rates have been calculated for multiple

species by biologists, zooarchaeologists, and veterinarians, among others. For example,

dental eruption can be used for determining age at death until all of an individual’s teeth

are erupted. Age can also be estimated by examining the attrition of the teeth, usually by

14

measuring molar crown height (Greenfield and Arnold 2008:837-838). It is important to

note, however, that age estimates based on tooth eruption or attrition can be affected by

the animal’s age, sex, and diet (Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:117).

In a fashion similar to dental eruption, the fusion of the epiphysis to the diaphysis

of the long bones occurs at a rate specific to skeletal element and species. As an animal

matures, its epiphyses (usually located at the ends of bones) fuse to the corresponding

diaphyses. Juvenile animals have unfused epiphyses, while older juveniles and young

adults are represented by varying stages of fusion (Purdue 1983:1207). However, fusion

timing is affected by the sex of the animal and nutrition (Popkin et al. 2012:1791).

Increased sculpting of the bone surface also occurs as an animal ages. This sculpting can

involve the ossification of ligaments and tendons, an increase in the size and definition of

muscle attachments, and the formation of osteoarthritis (Greer and Gillingham 1977:43).

Age classes can be created based on sets of these criteria.

Season of Site Occupation. The identification of archaeofaunal taphonomy,

taxa, and age at death can assist in determining the season of occupation at an

archaeological site (Monks 1981; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002). The two most common

methods of interpreting seasonality with faunal remains are based on species

presence/absence and physiological events (Monks 1981; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002).

The presence/absence method is based simply on the acknowledgement that many

animal species are most accessible in a given area during certain times of the year.

Migratory species, for example many birds and fish, provide the clearest interpretation. It

15

is important to note, however, that the absence of a species in the archaeological record

does not necessarily mean that it was not present; it may also indicate that it was either 1)

not used or rarely used by that particular culture as a resource, or 2) its skeletal remains

were deposited elsewhere (Monks 1981:180-185; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:104).

The use of physiological events for determination of season of occupation,

involves ascertaining the age at death for the individual animals represented by the faunal

remains (Monks 1981:185-193). This involves determining the age of death for young

animals through epiphyseal fusion and dental studies as mentioned above, and combining

that known age with the probable date of birth (Monks 1981:190; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove

2002:107). Season of death can be ascertained from physical indicators such as the

timing of antler growth and shedding, seasonal osteoporosis (Monks 1981:191; Pike-Tay

and Cosgrove 2002:107) and the presence of medullary bone in birds (Monks 1981:193).

Other methods of analysis include skeletochronology (examining incremental

growth in structures of mollusks and fish, and adhesion lines or Harris lines in

mammals); the analysis of seasonal sex and/or age variations in a population

composition; and stable isotope analysis (Monks 1981:193-215; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove

2002:105-109). Additionally, there are indirect methods for estimating season of site

occupation that do not involve archaeofauna, such as matrix granulometry,

paleoethnobotany (e.g., coprolite analysis), settlement pattern studies, and the functional

analysis of tools (Monks 1981:218; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:103).

16

Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns

The traditional boundaries of the Iñupiaq tribes on the Seward Peninsula have

been studied by Dorothy Jean Ray (1964, 1967, 1975) and Ernest “Tiger” Burch, Jr.

(1980, 1988, 1998, 2006). The Iñupiaq tribes of the Seward Peninsula have occupied

their territories since at least the early eighteenth century (Ray 1964:86). The antiquity of

the Iñupiaq tribal nations is unknown; some believe that a regional system of tribal

nations has existed in northwest Alaska for over 1,000 years (Burch 1998:317).

Ray (1964:62) has identified three primary subsistence patterns on the Seward

Peninsula. The whaling pattern focused on whales, but walrus, seal, and fish are also

important (later, Ray [1975:104] changed the name of this pattern to “whaling-walrus”).

The small sea mammal pattern concentrated on seal and beluga, but also incorporated

fish and caribou. Caribou are the most important game species in the caribou hunting

pattern, but fish, seal, and beluga are also notable (Ray 1964:62).

Ray (1964:71, 1975:104) classified the large historic villages on the Seward

Peninsula by their subsistence pattern (Figure 2.1). Most coastal villages followed the

small sea mammal pattern (Cape Espenberg, Shishmaref, Port Clarence, Teller, Cape

Nome, Fish River, Golovin Bay, and Atnuk), while a few adhered to the whaling pattern

(Wales, King Island and Sledge Island). The caribou hunting pattern was followed at

Buckland, Candle, Deering, Kauwerak, Goodhope, and Koyuk.

17

Figure 2.1: Location of nineteenth century villages identified by Ray (1964, 1975) and traditional Iñupiat territories. Map based on Grover (2005) and Schaaf (1995).

Ray (1964:85) stressed that subsistence patterns were not associated with tribal

divisions. However, Burch (1980:275) found that each tribal territory was its own

“ecological zone” with a unique resource base and distinct annual subsistence cycle.

Although common elements existed, the annual subsistence cycle of each tribal nation

within its boundary was distinct (Burch 2006:32). Following Burch’s suggestion that

territorial boundaries encompassed distinctive ecoregions, we can extrapolate Ray’s

identification of village subsistence patterns to the territory in which they exist. The only

territory this does not work well for is the Pittagmiut; although Deering and Goodhope

18

are identified as having followed the caribou hunting pattern, Cape Espenberg is

classified as following the small sea mammal pattern.

Keeping the Pittagmiut exception in mind, we associate the Tapqagmiut,

Singagmiut, Ayasaagiaagmiut, Igniqtagmiut, Igatuingmiut, and Atnegmiut with the small

sea mammal subsistence pattern. The Kingikmiut territory is associated with the whaling

pattern, and the Qaviaragmiut, Kuuyungmiut, and Kangigmiut territories are identified

with the caribou hunting pattern. Burch’s (2006:41-51) investigation of historic

subsistence cycles of the Kangigmiut (Kanigmiut), Pittagmiut, Tapqagmiut, and

Kingikmiut (Kinikmiut) territories support this interpretation. However, Ellanna

(1983:458) suggested that historically, within the Kingikmiut territory and at Wales in

particular, the walrus may have been as important a subsistence species as the whale.

If subsistence patterns are associated with territorial ecoregions, and the territorial

boundaries as they existed in the early nineteenth century represent regional tribal

territories established hundreds of years before the present, then a regional examination

of archaeofaunal assemblages recovered from Western Thule sites on the Seward

Peninsula should identify the same subsistence patterns historically associated with their

locations. Ray (1964:64) notes that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,

families and villages stuck to their traditional subsistence pattern despite famine, disease,

and Euroamerican influences. Therefore, it is possible that traditional subsistence

patterns were maintained from antiquity (i.e., precontact times).

19

Summary

Regional archaeology is a method-oriented perspective useful for answering a

variety of questions about contiguous regions. In this thesis, regions are equated with

traditional territories, defined by Burch (1980) as socio-territorial units and by Ray

(1967) as political units. The overlapping themes of human ecology, settlement patterns,

territorial polities, and culture history are examined here through the study of regional

subsistence patterns on the Seward Peninsula. In this thesis, Western Thule subsistence

practices are identified through zooarchaeological analysis and are compared to historic

socioterritorial subsistence patterns in order to test the hypothesis that historic Iñupiat

territories correspond to prehistoric regionalization.

20

Chapter Three: The Seward Peninsula

Physical Environment

Geography. The Snake River Sandspit site is in Nome, Alaska, on the

southwestern Bering Sea coast of the Seward Peninsula in northwest Alaska. The Seward

Peninsula is an ecoregion (Gallant et al. 1995; Nowacki et al. 2002) within the Western

subregion of Alaska (Armstrong 2010:8; MacDonald and Cook 2009:26). Originally

coined by Crowley in the 1960s, the term ecoregion refers to a “region of relative

homogeneity in ecological systems or in relationships between organisms and their

environments” (Gallant et al. 1989:1) which provides a “geographical framework in

which similar responses may be expected” (Bailey 1983:366). Their boundaries are

delineated “on the basis of detailed information about ecosystems at the site level, or by

analysis of the environmental factors that most probably acted as selective forces in

creating variation in ecosystems” (Bailey 1983:365).

The Seward Peninsula ecoregion has extensive, narrow coastal plains bordered by

low hills with high peaked mountains in the interior. Interior basins are drained by

streams through narrow canyons. Coastal lowlands are dotted with numerous thaw lakes

(Gallant et al. 1995:32). For the purposes of this thesis, the Seward Peninsula ecoregion

is identified as the mainland and nearshore islands west of the Buckland and Koyuk

rivers (after Kessel 1989:3). It is flanked on the southern and northern sides by Norton

and Kotzebue Sound. At Cape Prince of Wales, the Seward Peninsula is the most

westward-reaching point of mainland North America and is only about 88 km from Asia

21

(Ray 1975:4). Most of the examined archaeological sites occur in the sandy, coastal

lowlands interspersed with rocky headlands (Bockstoce 1979:9).

The city of Nome is on the subarctic sandy strand of the coastal lowlands.

Thousands of lakes and ponds occur on the flats to the east, interrupted by the headland

of Cape Nome which rises to an elevation of approximately 200 m only 24 km from the

city. About 50 km inland from the city are the 1,000 m-high Kigluaik Mountains

(Bockstoce 1979:11; Critchfield 1949:276; Ray 1975:6).

Nome is on Norton Sound, west of the delineation distinguishing the sound from

the Bering Sea (Figure 3.1). Norton Sound is a shallow body of water; its average depth

of 17 m gradually decreases until it reaches around 2 m in Norton Bay at the eastern end

of the Sound. The primary exception to this is a corridor of deep water (to 30 m in depth)

that parallels the coast until it ends near Safety Sound, about 35 km east of Nome

(Bockstoce 1979:9).

22

Figure 3.1: Location of Nome on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska.

Climate. Historical temperature records for Nome show an average July

temperature of 50°F and an average January temperature of 3°F (Critchfield 1949:276).

Relative humidity throughout the year hovers between 75 and 90 percent, with an annual

precipitation of approximately 50 cm (Bockstoce 1979:9; Critchfield 1949:276). Shore-

fast ice forms at the end of October and merges with pack ice during November, although

open water can still be regularly found during the winter around Sledge Island, about 24

km west of Nome. Pack ice usually disappears in June (Bockstoce 1979:13; Ray 1975:6-

23

7). During the ice-free period, driftwood from the Yukon River amasses on the beaches

of Norton Sound (Bockstoce 1979:9).

Vegetation. In the summer, boggy muskeg forms on top of the discontinuous

permafrost that underlies much of the Seward Peninsula. Tundra, often composed of

sedges, is common in areas of well-drained soil, while beach grasses grow on the active

sand beaches of the coasts (Bockstoce 1979:9; Critchfield 1949:276-277). More

specifically, low scrub and herbaceous (mostly tussock-forming) vegetation covers the

hills and lower mountain slopes. Tall scrub vegetation occurs along streams and

floodplains. Common species include dwarf Arctic birch (Betula nana), resin birch (B.

glandulosa), diamondleaf willow (Salix planifolia), netleaf willow (S. reticulata), and

various mosses and lichens. Berries such as mountain cranberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea),

bog blueberry (V. uliginosum), and crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) are also common

(Gallant et al. 1995:32-33). The utilized edible flora around Nome are numerous and

include such plants as beach greens (Honckenya peploides), Labrador tea (Ledum

groenlandicum), and wild chive (Allium schoenoprasum) (Bockstoce 1979:11).

Wildlife. With the exception of a few species discussed below, the animal

population on the Seward Peninsula has changed relatively little in the past few hundred

years; therefore contemporary biological data are useful to the NOM-146 faunal analysis.

MacDonald and Cook (2009) have identified the numerous wild mammals which occur

on some if not all of the Seward Peninsula (Table 3.1). For unknown reasons, caribou

have been absent from the Seward Peninsula since the late nineteenth century (Bockstoce

24

1979:14; Burch 1998:270; MacDonald and Cook 2009:223; Murie 1935:64; Ray

1967:62), although recently they have begun to reoccupy the area (MacDonald and Cook

2009:224; Schneider et al. 2005:29). However, they were formerly numerous and an

important prehistoric subsistence resource (Bockstoce 1979:14; Ray 1967:62).

Additionally, muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) occurred throughout the Arctic coastal and

foothill areas until the mid-1800s (MacDonald and Cook 2009:231; Reynolds 1998:734)

and probably also resided on the Seward Peninsula (Burch 1998:293).

Table 3.1: Modern land mammals of the Seward Peninsula.

Taxon Common Name Spermophilus parryii Arctic Ground Squirrel Castor canadensis Beaver Dicrostonyx groenlandicus Collared Lemming Lemmus trimucronatus Brown Lemming Microtus oeconomus Root Vole Myodes rutilus Red-backed Vole Ondatra zibethicus Muskrat Erethizon dorsatum Porcupine Lepus americanus Snowshoe Hare Lepus othus Alaska or Tundra Hare Sorex cinereus Cinereus Shrew Sorex monticolus Dusky Shrew Sorex tundrensis Tundra Shrew Sorex yukonicus Alaska Tiny Shrew Lynx canadensis Lynx Canis lupus Wolf Vulpes lagopus Arctic Fox Vulpes vulpes Red Fox Ursus arctos Brown Bear Ursus maritimus Polar Bear Gulo gulo Wolverine Lontra canadensis River Otter Martes americana Pine Marten Mustela erminea Ermine Mustela nivalis Least Weasel Neovison vison Mink Alces americanus Moose Rangifer tarandus Caribou

Source: MacDonald and Cook (2009).

25

MacDonald and Cook (2009) have also identified numerous mammals occurring

in the waters around the Seward Peninsula (Table 3.2). Marine mammals traditionally

important for subsistence included ringed seals, bearded seals, spotted seals, Steller’s sea

lions, and northern fur seals (Bockstoce 1979:13), as well as walruses, belugas,

porpoises, and large whales (Oquilluk 1973:231). Although walrus are only occasionally

seen today, the waters off Cape Nome supported an estimated population exceeding

200,000 before American whalers began to take walrus in the mid-nineteenth century

(Foote 1964:18), and would have been a significant subsistence species in prehistoric

times. Today, beluga whales are the most important regional cetacean species taken for

subsistence purposes; however, oral traditions note that gray whales and bowhead whales

were formerly hunted from Sledge Island (Bockstoce 1979:13).

Table 3.2: Modern marine mammals of the Seward Peninsula.

Taxon Common Name Callorhinus ursinus Northern Fur Seal Eumetopias jubatus Steller’s Sea Lion Odobenus rosmarus Walrus Erignathus barbatus Bearded Seal Histriophoca fasciata Ribbon Seal Phoca largha Spotted Seal Pusa hispida Ringed Seal Balaena mysticetus Bowhead Whale Eubalaena japonica North Pacific Right Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata Common Minke Whale Balaenoptera musculus Blue Whale Balaenoptera physalus Fin Whale Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback Whale Eschrichtius robustus Gray Whale Orcinus orca Killer Whale Delphinapterus leucas Beluga Phocoena phocoena Harbor Porpoise

Source: MacDonald and Cook (2009).

26

More than 200 species of birds also occupy the Seward Peninsula (Kessel

1989:59), the greatest numbers of which are found in wetland areas (Kessel 1989:31).

Bird populations are greatest on the Seward Peninsula in the spring and fall during

seasonal migrations (Bockstoce 1979:14; Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Most common birds of the Seward Peninsula, in descending order.

Taxon Common Name Anas acuta Northern Pintail Somateria spectabilis King Eider Clangula hyemalis Long-tailed Duck Calidris pusilla Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris mauri Western Sandpiper Phalaropus lobatus Red-necked phalarope Larus hyperboreus Glaucous Gull Sterna paradisaea Arctic Tern Uria aalge Common Murre Aethia pusilla Least Auklet Aethia cristatella Crested Auklet Catharus minimus Gray-cheeked Thrush Spizella arborea American Tree Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis Savannah Sparrow Calcarius lapponicus Lapland Longspur Carduelis flammea Common Redpoll Gavia stellata Red-throated Loon Chen caerulescens Snow Goose Branta bernicla Brant Branta canadensis Canada Goose Aythya marila Greater Scaup Somateria mollissima Common Eider Grus canadensis Sandhill Crane Pluvialis dominica American Golden-plover Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed Godwit Calidris melanotos Pectoral sandpiper Calidris alpina Dunlin Phalaropus fulicarius Red Phalarope Stercorarius longicaudus Long-tailed Jaeger Larus canus Mew Gull

Source: Kessel (1989:42).

27

Although some shorebird species were used for food (Bockstoce 1979:15;

Oquilluk 1973:230, Ray 1975:116), most of the birds hunted for subsistence belong to the

anatid (waterfowl), larid (gull), or alcid (auk) families. Loons, ptarmigan, pelagic

cormorants, sandhill cranes, and snowy and short-eared owls were also hunted for food

(Bockstoce 1979:15; Burch 1998:295; Oquilluk 1973:230; Ray 1975:116). Some of

these popular subsistence birds commonly overwinter on the Seward Peninsula (Table

3.4).

Table 3.4: Most common overwintering birds of the Seward Peninsula, in descending order.

Taxon Common Name Somateria mollissima Common Eider Somateria spectabilis King Eider Clangula hyemalis Long-tailed Duck Falco rusticolus Gyrfalcon Falcipennis canadensis Spruce Grouse Lagopus lagopus Willow Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus Rock Ptarmigan Larus hyperboreus Glaucous Gull Pagophila eburnean Ivory Gull Uria lomvia Thick-billed Murre Cepphus grylle Black Guillemot Bubo virginianus Great Horned Owl Bubo scandiacus Snowy Owl Picoides pubescens Downy Woodpecker Perisoreus canadensis Gray Jay Corvus corax Common Raven Poecile atricapillus Black-capped Chickadee Poecile hudsonica Boreal Chickadee Cinclus mexicanus American Dipper Lanius excubitor Northern Shrike Plectrophenax nivalis Snow Bunting Plectrophenax hyperboreus McKay’s Bunting Pinicola enucleator Pine Grosbeak

Source: Kessel (1989:57).

28

The Bering Sea is one of the most productive bodies of water in the world

(Ackerman 1988:56). Fishes were an important subsistence resource across the Seward

Peninsula (Ray 1975:114). Bockstoce (1979:16) identified numerous subsistence fish

species and the season in which they were caught (Table 3.5). Marine invertebrates such

as king crab (Lithodes sp.) and mollusks also played a significant subsistence role in the

area around Nome (Bockstoce 1979:17).

Table 3.5: Important subsistence fishes near Cape Nome and Safety Sound.

Season Taxon Common Name Summer Oncorhynchus keta Chum Salmon Summer Oncorhynchus gorbuscha Pink Salmon Summer Oncorhynchus tshawytscha Chinook Salmon Summer Oncorhynchus nerka Sockeye Salmon Summer Oncorhynchus kisutch Coho Salmon Summer Clupea pallasii Pacific Herring Summer Platichthys stellatus Starry Flounder Summer Salvelinus alpinus Arctic Char Summer Thymallus thymallus Grayling Summer Myoxocephalus spp. Sculpin Summer Mallotus villosus Capelin Summer Thaleichthys pacificus Eulachan

Autumn/Winter Coregonus autumnalis Arctic Cisco Autumn/Winter Coregonus sardinella Least Cisco Autumn/Winter Coregonus pidschian Humpback Cisco Winter/Spring Eleginus gracilis Saffron Cod Winter/Spring Myoxocephalus spp. Sculpin Winter/Spring Lota lota Burbot Winter/Spring Esox lucius Northern Pike Winter/Spring Salvelinus alpines Arctic Char

Year-round Arctogadus glacialis Arctic Cod Year-round Osmerus mordax dentex Arctic Smelt

Source: Bockstoce (1979:16).

29

Cultural Environment

Prehistory. Documented human settlement of the Seward Peninsula dates back

about 10,000 years (Keene et al. 2009; Larsen 1968), shortly after rising sea levels

inundated the Beringian land bridge. Stretching between Siberia and Alaska, Beringia is

thought to have been the main corridor for human entrance into North America. The

oldest well-dated archaeological sites in eastern Beringia are southeast of this region, in

central Alaska, and date to 14,000 B.P. (Hoffecker and Elias 2007). 1

The following is a summary of the known prehistoric cultural patterns, identified

primarily by different artifact types, which existed in northwest Alaska. This timeline

provides an outline of human occupation in the area as currently understood by

archaeologists (see Giddings and Anderson 1986; Harritt 1994).

American Paleoarctic tradition, 13,000-9,000 BP. Artifact assemblages from the

American Paleoarctic tradition included large polyhedral cores, prismatic blades, and

small wedge-shaped cores, microblades, blade-like flakes, flake burins, trianguloid and

ellipsoidal bifaces, and side-slotted bone or antler points into which blade-like flakes

were mounted (Harritt 1994). Information about settlement patterns is “scanty,” but all

recorded habitations occurred inland, often in river valleys (Anderson 1984:82). There

are two sites dating to this time period on the Seward Peninsula: the Trail Creek Caves

site (Larsen 1968; Vinson 1993) and the Serpentine Hot Springs Fluted Point site (Keene

et al. 2009).

1 All radiocarbon dates cited in this thesis are listed as calibrated dates and are converted to calendar years before present (B.P.).

30

Northern Archaic tradition, 6,000-3,000 BP. Distinctive artifacts of the

Northern Archaic tradition include asymmetrical projectile points with deep, wide side-

notches and convex bases; large unifacially-flaked knives; unifacially-flaked endscrapers;

and, after about 4,500 years ago, stemmed projectile points (Esdale 2008; Harritt 1994).

Typical dwellings were characterized by semisubterranean house floors and stone-lined

tent rings; both probably reflected skin-covered tents with willow frames and unlined

central hearths (Anderson 1984). Although there are currently no sites recorded for this

period on the Seward Peninsula, Esdale (2008:10) has noted numerous potential sites.

Arctic Small Tool tradition, 4,200-1,000 BP. The Arctic Small Tool tradition is

composed of four sequential cultures, which may or may not be related. They are the

Denbigh Flint Complex, the Choris culture, the Norton-Near Ipiutak culture, and the

Ipiutak culture. These cultures provided the oldest-known coastal settlements in

northwestern Alaska.

Denbigh Flint Complex. The Denbigh Flint Complex existed between 4,200 and

3,500 years ago (Giddings 1950). The artifact assemblage included burins, flaked stone

projectile points, side-blade insets, and end-blade insets (Harritt 1994). Dwellings were

shallow, semisubterranean sod houses with short entrance tunnels. House floors were

either square or round, and had large, stone-lined central hearths. Stone-lined, skin-

covered tents were also used seasonally (Anderson 1984). Archaeological sites on the

Seward Peninsula with Denbigh Flint complex components included Cape Espenberg,

Trail Creek Caves, Kuzitrin Lake, and Agulaak Island.

31

Choris culture. The Choris culture, first defined by Giddings (1957), lasted from

approximately 2,700 to 2,400 years ago (Mason 2010:74). Artifact assemblages from

Choris sites included pottery, burins, flaked-stone projectile points, side-blade insets,

end-blade insets, and in the later period, ground slate tools (Harritt 1994; Mason 2010).

Dwellings were large, semisubterranean sod houses. House floors were oval with stone-

lined and stone-paved central hearths. Circular tents were also used seasonally

(Anderson 1984). Sites dating to this period are on the Seward Peninsula at Cape

Espenberg, Trail Creek Caves, and Agulaak Island.

Norton-Near Ipiutak culture. The Norton-Near Ipiutak culture is a combination

of two regional phases (Giddings and Anderson 1986; Larsen and Rainey 1948) that

lasted from 2,400 to 1,300 years ago (Mason 2010:74). Recently, the Near Ipiutak

culture has been subsumed completely into the Norton culture (Mason 2010). Artifact

assemblages include slab knives, fiber-tempered pottery, toggling harpoons, ground slate

tools, side-blade insets, end-blade insets, stone netsinkers, and oil lamps (Harritt 1994;

Mason 2010). Dwellings varied, depending on region, between large semisubterranean

sod houses with long entrance tunnels and small semisubterranean sod houses with short

entrance tunnels. House floors varied between square and round in shape, usually with

central hearths (Anderson 1984). Sites with Norton or Near Ipiutak components on the

Seward Peninsula are at Trail Creek Caves, Kugzruk Island, Ikpek, Cape Espenberg,

Agulaak, Cape Nome, and Gungnuk.

32

Ipiutak culture. The Ipiutak culture was first defined by Larsen and Rainey

(1948). It lasted from approximately 1,800 to 1,100 years ago (Mason 2010:75). The

artifact assemblage is similar to the Norton-Near Ipiutak assemblage except for its lack of

pottery, ground slate tools, or oil lamps. Additional common artifacts include birch-bark

containers, open-work carvings, and tools decorated with incised line patterns (Harritt

1994; Mason 2010). Dwellings were square to round semisubterranean sod houses with

short entrance tunnels (Anderson 1984). Seward Peninsula sites with Ipiutak

components, both coastal and inland, are at Trail Creek Caves, Cape Espenberg, and

Deering.

Northern Maritime tradition, 1,500-150 BP. The Northern Maritime tradition,

originally defined by Collins (1964), is composed of three related cultures: the Punuk,

Birnirk, and Western Thule cultures. The details of this tradition are not well understood;

Jensen (2009:78) has called for a better consensus on what cultural labels in the tradition

actually mean.

Punuk. The Punuk culture, identified by Collins in the 1920s and 1930s on St.

Lawrence Island, dates between approximately 1,100 and 700 years ago (Mason

2010:77). Punuk artifact assemblages include pottery, oil lamps, atlatl counter weights,

ground-slate harpoon end-blades, bola weights, drum handles, and bow guards.

Dwellings had slab stone floors and used whalebone for house supports (Mason 2010).

Only Kurigitavik Mound in Wales on the Seward Peninsula has positively identified

Punuk components (Harritt 1994:247).

33

Birnirk. The Birnirk culture, first defined by Mathiassen (1930), was a coastal

culture that existed from approximately 1,300 to 700 years ago (Mason 2010:78). Birnirk

artifact assemblages include flaked end-blade and side-blade insets, flaked semilunar

knife blades, burin-like tools, ground-slate ulus, open socket harpoon heads, ground slate

harpoon end-blades, and sand/gravel-tempered pottery (Harritt 1994; Mason 2010).

Dwellings were small semisubterranean sod houses with long entrance tunnels. Houses

were square and occasionally had small kitchens attached to the main room. Skin tents

were also used seasonally (Anderson 1984). Archaeological sites at Cape Nome and

Cape Prince of Wales, and the Birnirk Burial Mound in Wales (before it eroded away)

have Birnirk components.

Western Thule. Although hotly debated by archaeologists, the Western Thule

culture occurred from 1,000 to 150 years ago or the time of Euroamerican contact. The

term “Thule” refers to a cultural pattern recognizable from Alaska to Greenland. The

Thule culture was first defined by Therkel Mathiassen (1927) in his report on the

archaeology of the Central Eskimos based on data collected during the Fifth Thule

Expedition across Canada. Mathiassen (1927), noting the Asian traits of some of the

artifacts and the apparent importance of whaling, suggested that its origins would be

found in Alaska.

The term “Western Thule” was first used by Larsen and Rainey to describe one of

the cultures they identified during their excavations at Point Hope between 1939 and

1941 (Bockstoce 1979; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Larsen and Rainey 1948). The

34

first Western Thule material, however, was identified at Kurigitavik Mound in Wales by

Jenness in 1926 and labeled as “Alaskan ‘Thule’ types” (Jenness 1928; Morrison 1991).

Since its identification in Alaska, the chronology of the Western Thule culture has been

debated by numerous authors. Most archaeologists agree that the Western Thule culture

first appeared around 1,000 years ago (Anderson 1984; Bockstoce 1979; Giddings and

Anderson 1986; Harritt 1994; Harry et al. 2009; Mason 2010). Although the exact origin

of Western Thule is unknown, its beginnings have recently been suggested to date to as

early as 1500 B.P. (Park 2010). Consensus on its origin is more firm, however, than on

what happened after its initial development. Western Thule culture has been defined as

being supplanted by descendant cultures anywhere from around A.D. 1500 (Bockstoce

1979; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Park 2010) to A.D. 1700 (Mason 2010) or even A.D.

1900 (Arutiunov and Fitzhugh 1988).

Giddings and Anderson (1986) suggested that the Western Thule phase ends

around 550 years ago, when the archaeological assemblages from Cape Krusenstern

demonstrate a decline in whaling and a decline in settlement complexity. They described

this ensuing cultural pattern, which appears like the Western Thule except for the decline

in whaling and settlement size, as the Kotzebue Period. The Kotzebue period lasts until

the historic period (Giddings and Anderson 1986).

Both Bockstoce (1979) and Anderson (1984) believed that shortly after the initial

development of Western Thule the culture developed into regionally specific phases, such

as the Cape Nome Phase at Cape Nome (Bockstoce 1979) and the Nukleet Culture at

35

Cape Denbigh (Giddings 1964). Stanford (1976) and Morrison (1991) disregarded these

regional phases, and instead loosely divided the Western Thule culture into Early and

Late periods, ending with the historic period.

Harritt (1994) embraced the idea of regional patterns and developed a cultural

sequence for the Seward Peninsula based primarily on data from excavations in the

Bering Land Bridge National Park along the southern shore of Kotzebue Sound. He

labeled the regional Thule culture, identified by Stanford (1976) and Morrison (1991) as

Late Western Thule, as the Imuruk Period (Harritt 1994:277), based on distinct

subsistence patterns (Harritt 1994:270). Within the Imuruk period are the Wales Phase

and the Espenberg Phase (Harritt 1994:277-279). The Wales phase belongs to the

Seward Marine tradition, which corresponds to Ray’s (1964) “whaling pattern” of

subsistence, while the Espenberg phase belongs to the Seward Strand tradition, which

corresponds with her “small sea mammal pattern” of subsistence (Harritt 1994:278-279).

Although they do not always agree on the specific sequence and chronology of

the Western Thule culture, most archaeologists do agree on the types of cultural material

that characterize it. Of the more than 150 artifact types specified by Mathiassen (1927)

as characteristic of the Thule culture in Canada, most also apply to Western Thule culture

(Mathiassen 1930). These include, but are not limited to, sand/gravel-tempered pottery,

thin open-socket harpoons, large whaling harpoons, umiaks, kayaks, ground slate tools,

baleen “wolf-killers,” decorated needle-cases, seal scratchers, leisters, netsinkers, fish

lures, and carved ivory figurines. Settlements occurred both coastally and inland, with

36

deep semisubterranean sod houses with long entrance tunnels. House floors included

both single-room and multiple-room plans, often with central hearths. Skin tents were

also used seasonally. Overall, the Western Thule culture involved a rich, complex pattern

of living focused on sea mammal subsistence but included technology for hunting land

mammals and birds (Anderson 1984; Giddings and Anderson 1986; Harritt 1994; Mason

2010; Mathiassen 1927).

A less contentious term often equated with the later Western Thule culture is late

prehistoric. This phrase refers to sites belonging to the immediate forbearers of the

Iñupiaq people, usually dating to between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries A.D.

(Anderson 1984). The term protohistoric is sometimes used to refer to sites dating to the

time between the late prehistoric and historic periods, when western trade goods were

becoming common in the artifact assemblages but actual contact with Russians and

Euroamericans was rare, or had not occurred locally.

Historic Period. The exact start of the historic period in northwestern Alaska is

debated. Some equate its beginning with the year 1778, when Captain James Cook

landed on the northern Alaska mainland (Anderson 1984); others point to 1789, the year

the Russians opened the Anyui Market on the Kolyma River in Siberia (Morrison 1991).

In any case, the late eighteenth century signifies the burgeoning of the trade of

Euroamerican goods to the Alaska Native peoples in northwest Alaska, although trade

items such as tobacco and guns were still rare until the mid-nineteenth century, when

New England whalers frequented the coast (Anderson 1984; Morrison 1991). By the end

37

of the nineteenth century, western traders, prospectors and missionaries frequented

northwest Alaska year-round, and western trade goods were commonly used by Alaska

Native peoples (Anderson 1984).

Previous Archaeological Research. The Seward Peninsula has 454 recorded

sites (excluding traditional cultural places) with prehistoric or protohistoric components

(AHRS 2011). Diamond Jenness undertook the first archaeological investigation on the

Seward Peninsula in 1926. Jenness (1928) identified and explored some of the large,

ancient village sites visible around the modern communities of Wales and Teller. Aleš

Hrdlička (1930) surveyed along parts of the Norton Sound coast in 1926. In 1928 and

1929, Henry Collins (1929, 1930) surveyed the coast around Norton Sound and up

around the Bering Sea coast to Shishmaref, identifying and testing many important sites.

In 1936, Collins (1940) excavated sites at Cape Prince of Wales. In the 1940s, Louis

Giddings, Wendell Oswalt, Froehlich Rainey, and David Hopkins undertook

archaeological surveys and excavations on the Seward Peninsula (Giddings 1964).

Some, such as Helge Larsen, identified and excavated significant sites like the Ipiutak

ceremonial house in Deering (Larsen 1951). These individuals were also involved, along

with Gerald Henderson and James VanStone, with the Bering Strait Expedition of 1950,

the first large scale, collaborative archaeological investigation in the Seward Peninsula

region (Giddings 1964). In 1958, Giddings surveyed Cape Espenberg, and in 1959 he

continued Collins’ investigation of the Cape Prince of Wales area (Giddings 1967).

Larsen (1968) excavated the inland Trail Creek caves in 1961.

38

Archaeological work continued steadily after that, with surges in the 1970s and

1980s, due in large part to federal requirements under the National Historic Preservation

Act, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, the Archaeological and Historic

Preservation Act, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act, and the creation of the

Bering Land Bridge National Preserve in 1980, which prompted two of the largest

surveys on the Seward Peninsula in 1974 (Powers et al. 1982) and 1985 (Schaaf 1988,

1995). Most recently, excavations have been conducted in Wales (Harritt 2004, 2010),

Deering (Bowers 2009), Serpentine Hot Springs (Keene et al. 2009), and Cape Espenberg

(Foin et al. 2011; Mason and Alix 2012).

Previous archaeological research in the general Nome vicinity includes Hrdlička’s

(1930:90) brief survey of Safety Sound in 1926; and limited excavations around Cape

Nome and Safety Sound in 1950 by Rainey, in 1951 by Hopkins, in 1960 by Frederick

Hadleigh-West (Bockstoce and Rainey 1970:42-43), and in 1969 by Joan Townsend

(Townsend 1969:4-5) and John Bockstoce (Bockstoce 1979:24). More thorough

excavations at Cape Nome and Safety Sound were conducted by Bockstoce between

1970 and 1974 (Bockstoce 1979:27-29), and at Safety Sound by Howard Smith in 1977

(Smith 1985:2).

Archaeological research on the Seward Peninsula has identified numerous

Western Thule sites and site components. These include, but are not limited to, the Cape

Nome Beach sites and the Ayasayuk site near Nome (Bockstoce 1979); the Nuk site at

Safety Sound (Smith 1985); the Mitletavik site at Lopp Lagoon (Collins 1929; Harritt

39

1994); the Gungnuk site at Cape Darby (Giddings 1964); the Deering Archaeological

District (Bowers 2006, 2009); the Beach, Hillside and Kurigitavik Mound sites at Wales

(Collins 1937; Harritt 2004); the Uqshoyak site at Tin City (ENRI 2003; Harritt 2004);

the Cloud Lake Village near the headwaters of the Inmachuk River (Powers et al. 1982);

the Kitluk River site at the mouth of the Kitluk River west of Cape Espenberg (Saleeby

and Demma 2001); and 58 settlements (not including seasonal camps or lithic scatters)

identified in the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve (Harritt 1994).

Summary

The Seward Peninsula is a diverse ecoregion of northwest Alaska supporting

numerous flora and fauna. Archaeological research has been conducted on the Seward

Peninsula since the 1920s. Currently, the Alaska Heritage Resources Survey lists over

400 archaeological sites with prehistoric and/or protohistoric components on the

peninsula. One of these sites is the Snake River Sandspit site, in the city of Nome on the

southern coast of the peninsula. The documented prehistory of the Seward Peninsula

dates back 10,000 years. American Paleoarctic, Northern Archaic, Arctic Small Tool,

and Northern Maritime traditions have been identified on the peninsula. The Snake River

Sandspit site is one of many sites on the peninsula which belong to the Western Thule

culture, part of the Northern Maritime tradition.

40

Chapter Four: Snake River Sandspit Site Background

The Snake River Sandspit site (NOM-146) was discovered during construction of

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ (USACE) Nome Navigation Improvements Project.

The project began in 1996, when it was determined that the City of Nome was

inadequately served by its harbor, constructed between 1917 and 1923. In 1998, the

Alaska State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) agreed with USACE’s determination

that there were no historic properties in the area affected by construction of harbor

improvements. However, USACE supplied archaeological monitors during construction

in 2005 and 2006 (Cassell et al. 2007; Pipkin 2005), and three features and associated

materials representing an unknown, post-review archaeological site were identified.

Field Methods

Acting as a subcontractor for USACE, Mark Pipkin (2005) initially identified

House A, a partial semisubterranean house, during archaeological monitoring of

construction in May 2005. The profile of House A was measured and photographed.

Pipkin selectively collected 53 diagnostic artifacts from the house fill, but no faunal

remains. One charcoal sample was collected from the floor of the house for radiocarbon

dating. Once USACE and the SHPO were apprised of the discovery, the State

designation NOM-00146 (NOM-146) was applied to the site.

In late July 2006, while monitoring construction work at the site, USACE District

Archaeologist Margan Grover (2006) identified a scatter of prehistoric artifacts and

animal bones in a darkly-colored “stain” uncovered by a bulldozer pass. Construction

41

was halted, and Grover tested the area with shovel-skimming and troweling, identifying a

distinct 2 x 3 m stain in the sand matrix along with potsherds and seal and bird bones.

The site was flagged, and the City of Nome, the SHPO, and the Nome Eskimo

Community were notified of the discovery of a new feature of NOM-146.

An initial 50 x 50 cm test pit was excavated with shovel and trowel (Test Pit 1),

and the area was more thoroughly shovel-skimmed to define site boundaries. A second

50 cm x 50 cm test pit (Test Pit 2) was excavated to the south of the first test with shovel

and trowel. In addition to animal bone, Test Pit 2 yielded burned wood and a vertical

wooden post. Further delineation of site boundaries took place with a backhoe. The sand

matrix around the feature was then excavated with the backhoe to a depth of

approximately 1 m, revealing a partial semisubterranean house.

The excavation of this new feature, House B, followed its delineation.

Excavation involved USACE archaeologists Margan Grover and Helen Lindemuth and

volunteers Karlin Itchoak, Al Sahlin, and Boogles Johnson of the Nome Eskimo

Community. Using the southeast corner of the pedestal for the datum point, arbitrary

sections were delineated every 20 cm along the top of the feature, running north to south.

Six 6 m-long sections and one partial section were excavated with shovels and trowels.

All excavated sand was dry-sifted through a 6.34 mm (¼-inch) screen.

Subsequently, a second dark stain with scattered faunal remains and prehistoric

artifacts was identified while monitoring construction about 15 m north of House B.

Three 50 x 50 cm test pits were excavated. Faunal remains and artifacts were recovered

42

only from Test Pit A. The surrounding overburden was then carefully removed with a

bulldozer. The cultural layer was thin and, due to lack of structural wood materials, was

identified as a midden. All visible material was excavated, and multiple test pits were

dug to determine the edges of the midden. A datum point was selected, and a 1 x 1 m

grid was established to excavate the feature.

Mark Cassell was subcontracted by USACE to continue archaeological

monitoring while the midden was excavated (Cassell et al. 2007). Excavation occurred

with the assistance of multiple USACE archaeologists, biologists, and chemists, Cassell,

and volunteers from Nome Eskimo Community, the City of Nome, and Kawerak, Inc.

The site was initially divided into Layers 1 and 2, separated by a deposit of wood and

vegetative debris. As excavation progressed, the layer of vegetative debris disappeared,

and no additional layers were identified. In most areas of the site, the cultural layer was

at or below the water line. Excavation occurred during low tide, as most of the units

became flooded at high tide. The elevation below ground surface of all unit corners was

noted insofar as possible. In all, 75 m2 yielded cultural material. Approximately 80 m2

were excavated with shovels and trowels and dry-sifted through a 6.34 mm (¼-inch)

screen. Excavation was completed by the end of August 2006.

Site Description

The Snake River Sandspit archaeological site consists of a semisubterranean

house discovered in 2005 (House A), and a semisubterranean house (House B) and

43

midden discovered in 2006. All three features were more than 5 m below the surface of

the Snake River Sandspit, buried in a sandy matrix.

House A. House A was approximately 6 m wide and 1 m deep (Figure 4.1). A

single vertical post about 1.2 m long and 0.15 m in diameter was at the east end of the

house. Several prehistoric artifacts and faunal remains were observed in the house fill,

including seal bones, bird bones, potsherds, an ivory wedge, an antler point, and a drilled

rib. Fifty-three artifacts were selectively collected from the house fill, and a charcoal

sample was collected from the house floor for radiocarbon dating. Pipkin (2005:20)

estimated that only one-third of the feature was intact at the time of its discovery.

Figure 4.1: Profile of House A, NOM-146(a). From Pipkin (2005:15).

House B. House B was approximately 6 m long, 1 m deep, and between 1.5 and

2.5 m wide (Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Fourteen vertical posts were spread throughout the

feature. Deteriorated wooden floor boards and other wooden structural elements were

identified. A total of 456 artifacts and 3,752 faunal remains (not including mollusks)

44

were recovered from inside the feature. Four bulk samples, four charcoal samples, one

peat sample, and one vegetation sample were also collected.

Figure 4.2: Plan view of House B, NOM-146(b). From Eldridge (2012).

45

Figure 4.3: Photograph of House B’s west profile. Adapted from Grover (2007).

Midden. The midden deposit, consisting of a thin layer of organic material, wood

debris, faunal remains, and artifacts, was approximately 15 m north of House B (Figure

4.4). Within the midden, a small accumulation of unbroken hunting weapons, including

an intact atlatl, was found near a large whale humerus and vertebra. The humerus

appeared to have been purposefully outlined with smooth, multi-colored beach pebbles,

perhaps marking the existence of the hunter’s cache. A total of 639 artifacts and 4,828

faunal remains (excluding mollusks) were recovered from the midden. Nine peat

samples and one wood sample were also collected.

46

Figure 4.4: Plan view of the midden, NOM-146(c). From Eldridge (2012).

47

Radiocarbon Dating

Radiocarbon ages were obtained from four carbon samples collected from NOM-

146; the radiocarbon dates were calibrated with the Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration and

Paleoclimate Research Package (CalPal 2011). One charcoal sample from the floor of

House A produced a date of cal A.D. 1675±126 (240±60 B.P.; Beta-206697). A charcoal

sample from the hearth feature of House B produced a date of cal A.D. 1810±101

(130±40 B.P.; Beta-222485). Charcoal collected from the floor of House B produced a

date of cal A.D. 1813±102 (110±50 B.P.; Beta-222486). Finally, peat from the cache

feature within the midden produced a calibrated date of cal A.D. 1662±122 (250±50 B.P.;

Beta-222487). All four dates overlap over a period of 73 years, between AD 1711 and

AD 1784 (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5: Calendrical date ranges of radiocarbon samples from NOM-146. From left to right, error bars represent ±126 years, ±101 years, ±102 years, and ±122 years. From Eldridge (2012).

1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

House A House B House B Midden

Cale

ndric

al Y

ears

AD

NOM-146 Carbon Samples

http://www.calpal.de/

48

Overview of Artifact Assemblage

The site produced 1,148 artifacts (Table 4.1). Approximately one-quarter of the

artifacts were not analyzed (n=268, 23.3%), consisting of 13 artifacts from House B

(2.9% of the feature) and 255 artifacts from the midden (39.9% of the feature). Based on

material type, at least 12 of the 13 unexamined artifacts from House B and 219 of the 255

unexamined artifacts from the midden were from a historic context. These historic

artifacts are probably not associated with the intact cultural layers of House B and the

midden. They may have been mixed with the prehistoric site during the excavation.

Table 4.1: Number of artifacts from NOM-146.

House A House B Midden Total Recovered: 53 456 639 1,148 Unexamined: 0 13 255 268 Analyzed: 53 439 381 873

Source: Eldridge (2012)

Seven examined artifacts (four from House B and three from the midden) are

historic, including a cut nail, three unidentified metal fragments, two shards of worn

brown glass, and a thin button made from mother-of-pearl. The button, however, with

hand-drilled central holes, may be a pre- or protohistoric trade good. These artifacts may

have been mixed with the prehistoric site during excavation or historic use and were not

included in the analysis.

The analyzed artifacts were separated into functional classes based on the

generally understood use of each artifact. These classifications include: personal

adornment and ceremonial use, which includes all decorative items, carved figurines, and

49

items possibly used in ceremonies; warfare, which encompasses objects used solely

during raiding or warfare (Table 4.2); household equipment, which includes items used

on a daily basis by all members of the household, often, though not always, inside the

house itself; tools, items used to make things, cut things, or obtain plants; transportation,

which includes items such as sled pieces or kayak parts (Table 4.3); fishing equipment,

which includes items used for catching fish; hunting equipment (marine) are items used

to obtain sea mammals; hunting equipment (terrestrial) are objects used to obtain land

mammals and birds (Table 4.4); manufacturing, which are all scraps, preforms and

debitage (only two of which were stone); and unidentified are objects of unknown

function (Table 4.5).

Table 4.2: Personal adornment, ceremonial and warfare artifacts from NOM-146.

Artifacts House A House B Midden Personal Adornment/ Ceremonial Object:

Blue Bead - 1 - Perforated Tooth - 3 - Labret - 2 - Bird Figurine - 1 - Whale Figurine - 1 - Seal Figurine - - 1 Human Figurine (ivory) - 1 - Human Figurine (wood) - - 1 Needle Case Pendant - 1 - Drum Handle - - 1 Total: 0 10 3 Warfare: Armor Slate - 1 - Total: 0 1 0


50

Table 4.3: Household equipment, tools, and transportation artifacts from NOM-146.

Artifacts House A House B Midden Household Equipment: Potsherd 49 223 214 Pottery Vessel - - 1 Boiling Stone - 2 1 Ice-scoop Rim 1 3 3 Stone Lamp - 1 - Bucket Handle - 2 - Spoon - 1 - Snowbeater - 1 - Snow Shovel - - 1 Total: 50 233 220 Tools: Bow Drill Insert (stone) - 1 - Drill Tool - 3 - Ground-slate Ulu - 2 - Ground-slate Blade/Ulu - 7 - Chipped-stone Blade - 1 - Hammerstone - 2 - Rootpick - 4 4 Hide Scraper - 6 2 Awl - 1 1 Bodkin - 1 - Needle - 2 1 Needle Case - - 1 Thimble Holder - 1 - Tool Handle - 5 4 Adze Head - 1 - Wedge 1 6 4 Whetstone - 12 1 Total: 1 55 18 Transportation: Sled Piece - 7 10 Kayak Cleat - 1 - Umiak Cross-brace - - 1 Total: 0 8 11


51

Table 4.4: Fishing and hunting artifacts from NOM-146.

Artifacts House A House B Midden Fishing Equipment: Net-sinker (stone) - 26 7 Net-sinker (organic) - 3 1 Net-float (wood) - 1 1 Net Gauge - - 2 Marlinspike - 2 - Fishing Lure - - 1 Fishing Weight - - 1 Compound Fish Hook - 1 - Fish Spearpoint 1 - - Total: 1 33 13 Hunting Equipment (Marine):

Toggling Harpoon Head - 1 5 Harpoon Foreshaft - - 1 Harpoon Socketpiece - 1 - Ground-slate End-blade - - 1 Atlatl (wood) - - 1 Atlatl nock pin - - 1 Seal Net-sinker - - 1 Total: 0 2 10 Hunting Equipment (Terrestrial):

Bow Cable Stop - 1 - Arrow/Spearpoint - 9 11 Bird Blunt - 1 - Arrow/Spear Socketpiece

- - 1

Bola Weight - - 1 Gorget - 1 9 Total: 0 12 22


52

Table 4.5: Manufacturing and unidentified artifacts from NOM-146.

Artifacts House A House B Midden Manufacturing: Scrap - 11 17 Preform 1 23 21 Debitage - 13 25 Total: 1 47 63 Unidentified: Total: 0 24 17


Implications of Artifact Assemblage

Late Western Thule culture. As discussed in Chapter Three, Western Thule

culture is defined here as occurring between A.D. 950 and 1800. The composition of the

artifact assemblage from NOM-146, including harpoon heads, fixed projectile points,

fishing equipment, pottery, and decorative or ceremonial objects, is indicative of Late

Western Thule culture.

Of the six harpoon heads recovered from NOM-146, five have closed sockets.

All sealing harpoon heads dating from the late fifteenth to the early nineteenth century

recovered from Cape Krusenstern and the Choris Peninsula had closed sockets (Giddings

and Anderson 1986). Some of those closed-socketed heads also had bifurcated spurs,

similar to a few harpoon heads collected by Nelson (1899) and some excavated by Ford

(1959) in the Barrow area (Giddings and Anderson 1986:56). Barbed harpoon heads with

closed sockets, such as those described by Giddings (1964:38) from Nukleet and the

Intermediate Kotzebue Period (1952, Pl. XXXVIII:4) are thought to be characteristic of

late prehistoric western Alaska (Giddings 1964:38). The “Nuwuk” type of harpoon head,

53

identified by its closed socket, occasionally bifurcated dorsal spur, small, round line holes

with a groove for the line extending dorsally, and an end-blade slot parallel to the line

hole (Ford 1959:93; Stanford 1976:22), were found in both the early and late Thule levels

at Walakpa (Stanford 1976:102), Old Kotzebue period sites around Kotzebue (Giddings

1952; VanStone 1955), and late prehistoric sites at Point Barrow (McGhee 1974:45).

Two of the closed-socket harpoon heads recovered from NOM-146 have bilateral

barbs, line holes parallel to the plane of the point and barbs, and bifurcated dorsal spurs.

They display a mixture of characteristics from heads collected historically from Point

Barrow by P. H. Ray (Mason 1902), excavated from Nukleet and Kotzebue by Giddings

(1952, 1964), and excavated from Point Barrow by Ford (1959). The third harpoon head

from NOM-146 fits nicely into the Nuwuk type; it has a closed socket, a small round line

hole with a groove extending dorsally, an end-blade slot parallel to the line hole

(complete with triangular ground-slate end-blade), and incised decoration including a “Y-

shape” over the line hole. The fourth and fifth harpoon heads recovered from NOM-146

represent previously undocumented variations. Both have closed sockets, but one is self-

bladed perpendicular to the line hole (Figure 4.6), and the other, which is small (only

3.46 cm long), has an end-blade slot perpendicular to the line hole and thin channeling

carved along the sides (Figure 4.7).

54

Figure 4.6: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00293]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

Figure 4.7: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00671]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

The sixth harpoon head recovered from NOM-146 has an end-blade slot parallel

to the line hole, but its line hole is large and round, and it has a “sliced” socket, similar to

a closed socket except for a small, narrow opening on one side (Figure 4.8). A harpoon

recovered from a house on Cape Krusenstern, dating between A.D. 1300 and 1400, also

has a sliced socket (Giddings and Anderson 1986:61). This sliced form of socket

commonly occurs around the Bering Strait from late prehistoric to historic times

(Morrison 1991:33). None of the harpoon heads have the rivet-holes for end-blades

commonly seen toward the end of the late prehistoric period or the historic period, and

only one of them have the large, gouged line hole common to those times (Morrison

1991:33).

55

Figure 4.8: Ivory Harpoon from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00088]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

Five of the fixed organic points (used with either arrows or spears) from NOM-

146 belong to the “Late Thule” or “Thule-like” type of pile (Morrison 1991:20). They all

display one unilateral barb, square shoulders, and a conical tang. Another, fragmentary

point has a single unilateral barb, and can probably be included with the other five. This

type of projectile point has been identified from late prehistoric levels at Kurigitavik

Mound (Collins 1940), around Point Barrow (Stanford 1976), and at Cape Prince of

Wales (Morrison 1991).

Twelve of the fixed organic points recovered from NOM-146 had multiple small

barbs, either unilaterally or bilaterally placed. These are most likely prongs for fish

leisters, a common Western Thule artifact type (Mathiassen 1930:94; Ford 1959:149).

Thirty-seven netsinkers for fish nets came from NOM-146. Although netsinkers

are found in most Thule sites, they seem to be more prolific in sites after AD 1400

(Giddings and Anderson 1986:113). A single fish-shaped ivory lure was also found at

NOM-146 (Figure 4.9). This type of lure or line sinker is common in late prehistoric

sites around the Bering Strait area (Morrison 1991:24) and was used into the historic

period (Nelson 1983 [1899]).

56

Figure 4.9: Ivory Fishing Lure from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00303]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

Like all Western Thule pottery, the pottery recovered from NOM-146 was

variously tempered with organic and inorganic materials (Harry et al.2009:292). Most of

the potsherds were tempered with mixtures of sand and gravel, though some appear to

have grass incorporated in addition to the sand mixture. Although most of the pottery

recovered from the site was plain, a small number of specimens were striated ware and

some had “pie-crust” rims (Margan Grover, personal communication 2012; Figure 4.10).

Anderson et al. (2011) identified four common decorative styles around the Seward

Peninsula: linear stamp, check stamp, curvilinear stamp, and striated. The single

unbroken pottery vessel from NOM-146 (Figure 4.11) is approximately 7 cm high and 6

cm in diameter, or slightly smaller than the average coastal Western Thule cooking pot

(Harry et al. 2009:294).

57

Figure 4.10: Striated potsherd with “pie-crust” rim from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00378].

Figure 4.11: Pottery vessel from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00304].

58

Half a light blue glass bead was found in situ at NOM-146. This type of bead, a

Euroamerican trade item, might be expected in sites as early as ca. AD 1650 (Morrison

1991:104), and is often found at late prehistoric sites in northwestern Alaska (Powers et

al. 1982:181). Amulets and perforated teeth are also common in Western Thule sites

(Mathiassen 1930:94); three perforated teeth (two caribou, one pinniped) were found at

NOM-146.

Carvings of zoomorphic figurines are often found in late prehistoric sites

(Morrison 1991:45). Three zoomorphic figurines (seal, ptarmigan, and beluga) were

recovered from NOM-146 (Figure 4.12), as were two human figurines. One of the

human figurines, carved from ivory, has a realistic facial expression and arms with

defined fingers (Figure 4.13 ). Human figurines carved with realistic facial expressions

and arms are characteristic of the Thule period (Fitzhugh et al. 2009:113; Morrison

1991). Common decorative patterns found throughout the late prehistoric and earlier

periods include incised lines and the circle-and-dot motif (Giddings 1964:117;

Mathiassen 1930:95). An ivory kayak cleat recovered from NOM-146 has six circle-dots

carved into it.

59

Figure 4.12: Seal figurine from NOM-146(c) [2006.001.00310], 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

Figure 4.13: Ivory Human Figurine from NOM-146(b) [2006.001.00022]; 1:1 scale. From Eldridge (2012).

60

Artifacts associated with dog traction and archery are common in Thule culture

sites of all ages, as are ground-slate ulus (Giddings and Anderson 1986; Mathiassen

1930; Sheppard 1986). Two marlinspikes and one bow cable stop were found at NOM-

146. Numerous fragments of sled shoes and sled arches were also found, indicating the

use of dog traction. And at least two ground-slate ulus were recovered from the site.

Many more artifacts identified by Mathiassen (1930:93-95) as belonging to the

Western Thule culture, such as snow shovels, snowbeaters, atlatls, and spoons, were also

recovered from NOM-146. Moreover, no tobacco paraphernalia were found at the site,

corroborating a late precontact occupation (Morrison 1991:105).

Season of Site Occupation. One of the most common indirect methods for

determining season of site occupation is examining the season of artifact use (Monks

1981:218; Pike-Tay and Cosgrove 2002:103). The composition of the artifact

assemblage from NOM-146 includes equipment used during both times of ice and snow

and ice-free months, indicating that people inhabited the site at various times throughout

the year, if not year-round. Snow- and ice-related artifacts from NOM-146 include

multiple ice-scoop rim fragments, a broken snow shovel, a snowbeater, and sled pieces.

Additionally, artifacts associated with hunting or fishing that usually occurs during the

winter, such as the fish-shaped line sinker which was probably used for jigging for

tomcod and sculpin through the sea ice, corroborate a winter presence (Bockstoce

1979:92; Morrison 1991:57; Nelson 1899:175).

61

Artifacts used during the summer and autumn months recovered from NOM-146

include multiple root picks (used to dig up edible plants) and items associated with the

kayak or “open-water” style of hunting, such as the atlatl, the “loose” harpoon foreshaft,

and the large, heavy harpoon socketpiece. Additionally, equipment used to hunt

migratory birds, such as the bird blunt arrowhead, the bola weight, and the multiple

gorgets (commonly used for seagulls), could have been used at any time between the

birds’ arrival in spring and their departure in autumn. The multiple netsinkers and net

gauges also indicate occupation during the predominantly ice-free months (Bockstoce

1977:50; Nelson 1899:186).

Summary

Two partial house features and a midden identified as the Snake River Sandspit

site (NOM-146) were discovered in 2005 and 2006 during construction of improvements

to the Nome Harbor. In 2006, a house feature (House B) and the midden were excavated

with the help of numerous volunteers. The remains of House A and House B were

roughly the same size and contained artifacts, faunal remains, and structural wood

including vertical posts. The midden, north of House B, contained artifacts, faunal

remains, and wood. Four radiocarbon dates are used to suggest that the site was occupied

around A.D. 1750.

Most of the artifacts recovered from NOM-146 artifacts were analyzed, just over

half of which came from House B. Artifacts were divided into nine functional

classification groups: household equipment, fishing equipment, marine hunting

62

equipment, terrestrial hunting equipment, tools, transportation, warfare, personal

adornment/ceremonial objects, and manufacturing. Artifact types fit with other late

Western Thule assemblages; no Euroamerican goods were identified. Based on the

seasonal functions of the artifacts, it appears that the site was occupied throughout the

year.

63

Chapter Five: Snake River Sandspit Site Methods

Laboratory Methods

In 2006, all recovered materials from the second semisubterranean house and the

midden were shipped to Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska, and inventoried. The

faunal remains, specifically, were organized by provenience, counted, and placed in

plastic bags. In 2007, all materials were shipped to the Carrie M. McLain Memorial

Museum in Nome, Alaska. In 2009, most of the faunal remains from NOM-146 stored at

the Carrie M. McLain Memorial Museum were shipped to the University of Alaska

Anchorage (UAA) for analysis, which took place between 2009 and 2011.2

Faunal specimens were separated into individual skeletal elements, and most were

placed into individually-labeled airtight, plastic bags.3 The only deviation from this

occurred with rib elements that lacked a proximal end (head) and some small fish and

bird bone fragments. Those specimens were organized by provenience and were placed

together by lots into similar bags. Data collected during analysis and entered into a

Microsoft Excel database included the Carrie M. McLain Memorial Museum accession

number and Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (AHRS) number; provenience information

including the feature, unit or section of the site, area within the unit or section, and the

stratigraphic level; biological information including taxon, skeletal element, side of body

(i.e., left/right), portion of bone, and age of the animal; modification information 2 Analysis was facilitated by a Loan Agreement among the City of Nome, USACE, and UAA. 3 Sorting and data entry were assisted by Erika Malo, Staff Sergeant Eric Smith, Heather Smith, Department of the Army interns Jessequa Parker, Hillary Palmer, and Dominique Cordy, and Nick Riordan and Tom and Nancy Eldridge.

64

including the presence and location of butchering, gnawmarks, and degree of burning;

and additional comments by the excavators and analyst.

Taxonomic Classification. The faunal remains were initially sorted into the

basic biological categories of invertebrate phylum (mollusks) and vertebrate classes

(birds, mammals, and fishes) based on morphology. Specimens were then organized by

skeletal element and then separated into taxon based upon morphology. Each specimen

was analyzed with the use of comparative collections and osteological manuals (Bensley

1910; Cannon 1987; Cohen and Serjeantson 1996; Crockford 2009; Foster 1991; Gilbert

1990; Gilbert et al. 1996; Kasper 1980; McGowan and Bengston 1997; Olson 1996a,

1996b; Post nd; Schmid 1972; Smith 1979). Comparative specimens were from the UAA

Laboratory of Anthropology, the Alaska Consortium of Zooarchaeologists, and the

Museum of the North Departments of Ornithology and Mammalogy.

The comparative collections available to me did not contain all the species found

today on the Seward Peninsula. Few species in the collections were represented by more

than one specimen, a limitation that raised some concerns about my ability to

differentiate between inter- and intra-species variations. There are few published

osteology manuals that depict Alaskan species. The scientific and common names for

mammals during identification followed MacDonald and Cook (2009); bird names

followed Armstrong (2010) (with anatid subfamilies and tribes following Livezey

[1997]); and fish names followed Mecklenburg et al. (2002).

65

Quantification. Mammal, bird, and fish bone fragments were counted.

Fragments of mollusk shells recovered from the site were not counted; instead, they were

divided by provenience and identifiable type and were weighed using an Ohaus Dial-O-

Gram balance with 0.01 g precision. The Number of Individual Specimens (NISP) and

Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) were calculated for the vertebrate faunal

assemblage.

MNI was determined by counting the most common skeletal element for a taxon,

while accounting for side of body, portion of bone, and degree of epiphyseal fusion.

Small bone fragments (midshaft, proximal, or distal) were excluded from the count

because of an inability to determine if such fragments came from the same specimen or

represented separate specimens. Only complete specimens and fragmentary specimens

representing approximately three-fourths of the element were included in calculation of

the MNI. The only exception to this was when a small fragment was clearly

representative of a separate specimen based on the degree of epiphyseal fusion. For

example, a fragmentary specimen representing less than three-fourths of the element was

included if it was the only example of a specific age category for that taxon, such as

neonatal or juvenile. MNI was calculated both for the total site assemblage and for the

separate house and midden assemblages.

Ageing. The identified mammal taxa in the collection demonstrated a large range

of age at death. Due to the restriction on destructive testing of the assemblage4,

4 Destructive testing was not allowed by the Loan Agreement.

66

specimens were aged by identification of epiphyseal fusion, with the exception of tooth

eruption in a single bear specimen. Appropriate published ageing sequences were

available for hares (Lechleitner 1959; Tiemeier and Plenert 1964), cervids (Purdue 1983),

small seals (Storå 2000, 2002), canids (Sumner-Smith 1966), and bears (Andrews and

Turner 1992; Stiner 1998). An effort was made to distinguish between all other juvenile

(unfused epiphyses/unerupted teeth) and adult specimens (fused epiphyses/worn teeth).

Bone fragmentation was taken into account in age-at-death determinations; for

example, if the proximal end of a phocid ulna was fused, but the distal end was absent,

the specimen age was identified as “unknown,” as the distal end of the ulna fuses after

the proximal end, and without knowing the distal fusion stage it is impossible to

positively identify age-at-death (the specimen could be as old as a young adult or as

young as a yearling). If distal and proximal ends of the specimen were missing or badly

damaged, age-at-death was also identified as “unknown.”

Following published literature (e.g., Popkin et al. 2012; Spiess 1979:93; Walker

1987:8), I recorded four stages of epiphyseal fusion: 1) unfused, 2) partially fused, 3)

mostly fused, and 4) fused. In unfused specimens, epiphyses were completely detached

from diaphyses. Epiphyses were attached to diaphyses in both the partially and mostly

fused specimens, but the line of fusion was still completely visible or somewhat visible,

respectively. The epiphyses of fused specimens were joined completely to the diaphysis

and no line of fusion was visible. These data, taken together, were used to create the

67

following mammalian age classes: neonatal, yearling, juvenile, young adult, adult, and

old adult.

Season of Death. The two most common methods of interpreting season of site

occupation with faunal remains are presence of taxa and markers of physiological events

(Monks 1981). Using published life-history reconstructions of Alaska animals (e.g.,

Kessel 1989; Wynne 2007), I applied migratory data for the birds and sea mammals

represented in the assemblage, and data about birth times for the neonatal mammals

represented in the assemblage to calculate the season of death for many of the

archaeofaunal specimens.

Perthotaxic Analysis. The faunal remains from NOM-146 were examined for

modification, including cut-marks, gnawmarks, burning, digestion, and breakage.

Modification indicates how the animal was killed, butchered, and disposed (Reitz and

Wing 2008:168-170). When present, the number, orientation, and location of cut-marks

were noted. The number and location of gnawmarks were noted. The color and location

of burning was noted. Evidence of digestion was also noted. The fragmentation of each

specimen was recorded in terms of five categories: 1) proximal fragment present

(diaphysis and distal end missing); 2) proximal end missing; 3) distal fragment present

(diaphysis and proximal end missing); 4) distal end missing; and 5) mid-shaft fragment

present (distal and proximal ends missing).

68

Summary

All materials recovered from NOM-146 were inventoried between 2006 and

2007. Between 2009 and 2011, most (99.8%) of the archaeofauna were examined. All

specimens were analyzed using four comparative skeletal collections and multiple

osteological manuals. Biological (taxon, skeletal element, element side, element portion,

age) and perthotaxic aspects (butchery, gnawing, burning) were described. Mollusk

specimens were weighed, and the NISP and MNI of vertebrate specimens were

calculated. After analysis, all faunal remains were given accession numbers and returned

for curation to the Carrie M. McLain Memorial Museum in Nome, Alaska.

69

Chapter Six: Snake River Sandspit Site Results

Archaeofauna

All faunal remains collected from NOM-146 were analyzed, excluding one bulk

sample of 14 specimens from the midden that was not provided. Mollusks and an

arthritic horse (Equus sp.) specimen were not included in the analysis (Table 6.1 and

Figure 6.1). House B accounted for 43.7% of the total NISP, while the midden accounted

for 56.2%. More than half of the vertebrate remains (n=4,522) were identified to at least

taxonomic family.

Table 6.1: Number of vertebrate fauna from NOM-146.

House B Midden No Provenience Entire Site NISP 3,754 4,828 8 8,590

Figure 6.1: Percentages of Number of Identified Specimens from NOM-146.

Unidentified Mammals

34%

Marine Mammals 28%

Terrestrial Mammals

15%

Birds 17%

Fishes 6%

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Birds. The NISP for birds was 1,446, representing 16.8% of the collection (Table

6.2). House B accounted for 54.7% of the avian assemblage, while 45.6% of the

assemblage came from the midden. One specimen had no provenience. Sixteen taxa of

birds were identified, not including “unidentified bird” (Aves); unidentified bird

specimens accounted for 48.3% of the avian assemblage. “Unidentified bird” made up

over 80% of the 342 total axial elements (sternum, vertebra, ribs, synsacrum, and pelvic

girdle). Common and scientific names follow Armstrong (2010), while names of anatid

subfamilies and tribes follow Livezey (1997).

Table 6.2: Bird remains from NOM-146.

Common Name

Taxon House B Midden Entire Site NISP MNI NISP MNI NISP

Goose Anserini 4 1 2 1 6 Swan Cygnus sp. 1 1 1 1 2 Duck Anatini/Aythyini 44 4 8 1 52 Sea Duck Mergini 22 4 2 1 24 Eider Somateria sp. 11 2 2 1 13 Ptarmigan Lagopus sp. 201 17 242 19 443 Loon Gavia sp. 16 3 13 2 29 Albatross Diomedeidae - - 2 1 2 Shearwater Puffinus sp. 2 1 - - 2 Cormorant Phalacrocorax sp. 9 2 2 1 11 Gull Laridae 29 5 26 2 55 Kittiwake Rissa sp. 5 2 19 5 24 Alcid Alcidae 5 1 4 1 9 Murre Uria sp. 60 5 7 2 67 Puffin Fratercula sp. 2 1 2 1 4 Snowy Owl Bubo scandiacus 2 1 2 2 4 Unidentified Aves 379 - 319 - 699 Total: 792 - 653 - 1,446

Ptarmigan. The ptarmigan, either willow or rock (Kessel 1989), was the most

numerous bird taxon, accounting for 30.6% of the avian NISP. Wing elements (humerus,

71

radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) made up 36.3% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur,

tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) accounted for 30%. The most numerous element was the

humerus (n=66), followed by the tibiotarsus (n=65). Over half of the ptarmigan

specimens (54.6%) were from the midden. The most common element from House B

was the right humerus, while the most common element from the midden was the left

tibiotarsus.

Murres. Murres, either common or thick-billed (Kessel 1989), made up 4.6% of

the avian NISP. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) made up

29.9% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) accounted for

22.4%. The most numerous element was the tibiotarsus (n=10), followed by the

mandible (n=9). Most of the murre specimens (~90%) were from House B. The most

common element from House B was the right mandible, while the most common element

from the midden was the right tarsometatarsus.

Gulls. Gulls made up 3.8% of the avian assemblage. Over half of the specimens

(52.7%) matched the glaucous-winged gull (Larus glaucescens) comparative specimen.

Others are most likely mew, glaucous, Sabine’s (Xema sabini), or ivory gulls (Kessel

1989), none of which were available in the comparative collections. Wing elements

(humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) were 65.5% of the NISP, and leg elements

(femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) accounted for 16.4%. The most numerous element

was the ulna (n=15), followed by the humerus (n=9). Over half of the gull specimens

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(52.7%) were from House B. The most common element from House B was the right

ulna, while the most common element from the midden was the left carpometacarpus.

Ducks. Ducks, encompassing both dabbling and diving ducks (Livezey

1986:740), accounted for 3.6% of the avian assemblage. They were most likely northern

pintails, green-winged teals (Anas crecca), American wigeons (A. americana), northern

shovelers (A. clypeata), or greater scaups, although other species do occur in small

numbers in the region (Kessel 1989). Comparative specimens of most of the above

species were not available. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus)

represented 38.5% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus)

represented 15.4%. The most numerous element was the radius (n=7), followed by the

scapula (n=6). Most of the dabbling duck specimens (84.6%) were from House B. The

most common element from House B was the right ulna.

Loons. Loons, likely either Pacific loons (Gavia pacifica) or red-throated loons

(although three other loon species do occur in small numbers [Kessel 1989]), were 2.0%

of the avian assemblage. Comparative specimens of neither the Pacific nor red-throated

loon were available. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) and leg

elements (femur, tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus) were 31.0% of the NISP. The most

numerous element was the coracoid (n=5), followed by the carpometacarpus (n=4).

More than half of the loon specimens (55.2%) were from House B. The most common

element from House B is the right tibiotarsus, while the most common element from the

midden is the left coracoid.

73

Sea Ducks. Black scoters (Melanitta nigra), surf scoters (M. perspicillata),

white-winged scoters (M. fusca), long-tailed ducks, harlequin ducks (Histrionicus

histrionicus), common goldeneyes (Bucephala clangula), and red-breasted mergansers

(Mergus serrator) are the most common sea ducks in the region (Kessel 1989). Sea

ducks accounted for 1.7% of the avian assemblage. Multiple specimens matched the

comparative specimens of the long-tailed duck (n=11), harlequin duck (n=6), red-

breasted merganser (n=2), common goldeneye (n=2), and Barrow’s goldeneye (B.

islandica) (n=2). Wing elements (humerus, carpometacarpus) represented 45.8% of the

NISP, while leg elements (femur, tibiotarsus) represented 16.7%. The most numerous

element was the carpometacarpus (n=6), followed by the humerus (n=5). Most of the sea

duck specimens (91.7%) were from House B. The most common element from House B

was the right humerus.

Kittiwakes. Kittiwakes, probably the black-legged kittiwake (Kessel 1989), made

up at least 1.7% of the avian assemblage. Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna,

carpometacarpus) represented 41.7% of the NISP, while leg elements (tibiotarsus,

tarsometatarsus) accounted for 37.5%. The most numerous element was the tibiotarsus

(n=7), followed by the coracoid (n=4). Most of the kittiwake specimens (79.2%) were

from the midden. The most common element from House B was the left tarsometatarsus,

while the most common element from the midden was the left tibiotarsus.

Eiders. Eiders, most likely common or king (although both Steller’s [Polysticta

stelleri] and spectacled [Somateria fischeri] eiders also occur in small numbers in the

74

region) (Kessel 1989), accounted for fewer than 1% of the avian assemblage. Wing

elements (humerus, radius, ulna, carpometacarpus) represented 46.2% of the NISP, while

leg elements (femur, tarsometatarsus) represented 30.8%. The most numerous elements

were the radius and tarsometatarsus (n=3). Most of the eider specimens (84.6%) were

from House B. The most common element from House B was the right radius.

Cormorants. Cormorants represented less than 1% of the avian assemblage.

Although Kessel (1989) notes only the pelagic cormorant (Phalacrocorax pelagicus)

occurring around the Seward Peninsula, and numerous specimens matched the

comparative pelagic cormorant (n=7), one specimen clearly matched the comparative

double-crested cormorant (P. auritus). Wing elements (humerus, radius, ulna)

represented 45.5% of the NISP, while leg elements (femur, tarsometatarsus) represented

36.4%. The most numerous element was the humerus (n=3), followed by the femur

(n=2). Most of the cormorant specimens (81.8%) were from House B. The most

common element from House B was the right humerus.

Alcids. Alcids from the site most likely represented least auklets, crested auklets,

or parakeet auklets (although multiple guillemot and murrelet species also occur in small

numbers in the region [Kessel 1989] and one specimen clearly matched a comparative

ancient murrelet [Synthliboramphus antiques]). Alcids accounted for fewer than 1% of

the avian assemblage. Wing elements (humerus) made up 55.6% of the NISP, while leg

elements (femur) accounted for 1.1%. The most numerous element was the humerus

(n=5), followed by the sternum (n=3). The sternal fragments (MNI=2) are smaller than

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the comparative marbled and ancient murrelets. Over half of the alcid specimens

(55.6%) were from House B.

Geese. Geese accounted for less than 1% of the avian assemblage. Snow geese,

Canada geese, and brants are the most common species in the area, although other species

do occur in small numbers (Kessel 1989). Two specimens matched the Canada goose

comparative specimen. There were three wing elements (humerus, carpometacarpus) and

one leg element (tarsometatarsus). The most numerous element was the humerus (n=2).

Over half of the goose specimens were from House B.

Puffins. Puffins, either horned or tufted (Fratercula cirrhata) accounted for less

than 1% of the avian assemblage (Kessel 1989). One each of the following elements

were identified: femur, humerus, radius, and ulna. The specimens were divided equally

between House B and the midden.

Snowy Owls. Less than 1% of the avian assemblage was made up of snowy owl

specimens. Three wing elements (humerus, carpometacarpus) and one leg element

(tarsometatarsus) were identified. There were two specimens each in House B and the

midden. The right humerus was the most common element from the midden and the

most numerous element at the site (n=2).

Swans. Two swan specimens were identified. A fragment of a right ulna was

found in House B, and the proximal fragment of a left humerus was found in the midden.

The ulnar fragment matched the comparative tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus), a

common species on the Seward Peninsula (Kessel 1989).

76

Albatross. The two albatross specimens were from the midden. A complete

phalanx and proximal fragment of a left scapula were matched to a comparative black-

footed albatross specimen (Phoebastria nigripes). Although no albatross species is listed

in Kessel (1989), small numbers of short-tailed albatrosses were observed during six

decades of boat-based surveys in the Bering Strait near the Seward Peninsula (USFWS

2006a), and they were the dominant bird taxon of the north Pacific ocean until the late

19th century (Yesner 1976:263).

Shearwaters. The two shearwater specimens were from House B. A complete

right humerus and right ulna were compared to but did not match a comparative short-

tailed shearwater specimen (Puffinus tenuirostris), the only species of shearwater listed

by Kessel (1989). They most likely represent sooty shearwaters (P. griseus); although no

comparative specimens were available, small numbers of sooty shearwaters were

observed during three decades of boat-based surveys in the Bering Strait near the Seward

Peninsula (USFWS 2006b).

Mammals. Almost half (44.5%) of the approximately 6,600 mammal remains

could not be categorized by the analyst into as either land or sea mammals, and were

assigned to Mammalia or Carnivora taxonomic categories. Of these unidentified

mammals, five specimens had no provenience. More than half (60.8%) of the NISP were

recovered from the midden. Fewer than 1% of the specimens were carnivore teeth,

13.0% were skull fragments, 15.0% were vertebral fragments or epiphyses, and 27.1%

were rib fragments.

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Terrestrial Mammals. The NISP for terrestrial or land mammals is 1,286,

representing 15.0% of the collection. Fourteen taxa were identified, not including

unidentified land mammal (Table 6.3). Unidentified land mammals represented 1.8% of

the terrestrial mammal assemblage.

Table 6.3: Terrestrial mammal remains from NOM-146.

Common Name


Rodent Rodentia 2 1 4 1 6 Ground Squirrel Spermophilus parryii 34 6 35 4 69 Small Rodent Cricetidae 1 1 3 2 4 Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus 1 1 11 2 12 Hare Lepus sp. 23 1 18 1 41 Tundra Hare Lepus othus 192 7 264 8 456 Fox/Hare Vulpes/Lepus spp. 28 1 47 1 75 Fox Vulpes sp. 53 2 143 8 196 Canid Canidae 3 1 16 1 19 Canine Canis sp. 71 2 93 3 164 Dog Canis l. familiaris 17 2 15 2 32 Bear Ursus sp. - - 1 1 1 Caribou/Muskox Artiodactyla 1 1 2 1 3 Caribou Rangifer tarandus 62 2 123 2 185 Unidentified land mammal 11 - 12 - 23 Total: 499 - 787 - 1,286

Note: MNI calculated without taking age into consideration.

Tundra Hares. The tundra hare, the most numerous taxon, represented 35.4% of

the land mammal assemblage. Hare (Lepus sp.), probably tundra hare, represented an

additional 3.2%. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, sacrum,

innominate) represented 49.1% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements

(humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) are 50.9%. The

most numerous element was the tibia (n=59), followed by the femur (n=44). Over half of

the specimens were from the midden (57.9%). The most common element from House B

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was the right mandible, while the most common element from the midden was the left

humerus. Although most specimens were too fragmentary to age, 18.4% were from

adults (n=84) and 9.6% were from juveniles (n=44) (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4: Age categories of NOM-146 non-canid land mammal remains.

Taxon Neonatal Neo/Juv Juvenile Adult Rangifer tarandus - 1 17 63 Lepus othus - - 30 72 Ondatra zibethicus - 2 - - Spermophilius parryii - 1 19 16

Note: Calculated without vertebrae or sternabrae.

Foxes. Arctic and/or red foxes represented 15.2% of the land mammal

assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, sacrum,

innominate, baculum) represented 62.2% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal

elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx)

accounted for 37.8%. The most numerous elements were skull and mandible fragments

(n=20), followed by ribs (n=19). Most of the specimens were from the midden (73.0%).

The most common element from House B was the right humerus, while the most

common element from the midden was the left mandible. Although most of the

specimens were too fragmentary to age, 27.6% were from adults (n=54), 1.0% were from

young adults (n=2), and 6.1% were from juveniles (n=12) (Table 6.5).

Table 6.5: Age categories of NOM-146 canid remains.

Taxon Neonatal Neo/Juv Juvenile Young Adult Adult Canis sp. 1 11 37 1 9 Canis l. familiaris - 1 1 - 18 Vulpes sp. - - 9 2 45

Note: Calculated without vertebrae or sternabrae.

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Caribou. Caribou represented 14.4% of the land mammal assemblage. Axial

skeletal elements (skull, antler, sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, innominate) represented

39.5% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur,

tibia, podial, metapodial, phalanx) accounted for 60.5%. The most numerous element

was the first phalanx (n=22), followed by antler fragments (n=20), which were

differentiated from antler blanks and preforms (artifacts) by their fragmentary nature.

Over half of the specimens were from the midden (66.5%). The most common element

from House B was the right radius (MNI=2), while the most common element from the

midden was the right first phalanx (n=12, MNI=2). Although more than half of the

specimens were too fragmentary to age, 36.2% were from adults (n=67), 1.0% were from

young adults (n=2), and 12.4% were from juveniles (n=23) (Table 6.4).

Canines (Canis sp.). Canines, which are possibly wolves but most likely dogs,

represented 12.8% of the land mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull,

sternabra, scapula, rib, vertebra, sacrum, innominate) represented 51.8% of the NISP,

while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, podial,

metapodial, phalanx) represented 48.2%. The most numerous element was the rib

(n=15), followed by the skull (n=13). Over half of the specimens were from the midden

(56.7%). The most common element from House B was the right humerus, while the

most common element from the midden is the left ulna. More than half o f the specimens

were aged (53.7%). Twenty-one (12.8%) of the canine specimens were from adults,

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3.7% were from young adults (n=6), 29.3% were from juveniles (n=48), 6.7% were from

neonate/juveniles (n=11), and 1.2% were from neonates (n=2) (Table 6.5).

Foxes/Hares. Specimens of either foxes or tundra hares accounted for 5.8% of

the land mammal assemblage. The skeletal elements of the tundra hare are the same size

as those of the fox; when elements are fragmentary or unfused, it is difficult to

differentiate between them. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, rib, and vertebra)

represented 53.3% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, ulna,

femur, tibia, fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) represented 45.3%. The most numerous

element was the rib (n=26), followed by the tibia (n=10). Over half of the specimens

were from the midden (62.7%). Although most of the specimens were too fragmentary to

age, one specimen was identified as adult and four were from juveniles.

Arctic Ground Squirrels. Arctic ground squirrels represented 5.4% of the land

mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, rib, vertebra, innominate)

represented 50.7% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius,

ulna, femur, and tibia) accounted for 49.3%. The most numerous element was the

mandible (n=12), followed by the femur (n=9). An almost equal number of specimens

came from House B and the midden. The most common element from House B was the

right mandible, while the most common element from the midden was the left femur.

Over half of the specimens were aged (52.2%). Of those, adult specimens accounted for

23.2% (n=16), 27.5% were from juveniles (n=19), and one specimen was from a

neonate/juvenile (Table 6.4).

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Hares. Hare specimens, all but one of which were loose teeth, represented 3.2%

of the land mammal assemblage. One complete, adult right third metacarpal was much

smaller than those from tundra hares. It was more robust, but the same length as the

comparative snowshoe hare. More than half of the hare specimens came from House B

(56.1%).

Dogs. Dogs represented at least 2.5% of the land mammal assemblage.

Specimens were identified as dogs rather that Canis sp. if skeletal elements were as

robust as the comparative wolf specimens and as short as the comparative red fox

specimen. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula) represented 21.9% of the NISP, while

appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, metapodial)

accounted for 78.1%. The most numerous element was the tibia (n=5), followed by the

scapula (n=4). Over half of the specimens were from House B (53.1%). The most

common element from House B was the left ulna, while the most common element from

the midden was the right femur. Over half of the specimens were aged (62.5%). Of

those, over half (56.3%) were from adults (n=18), one was from a juvenile (3.1%), and

one was from a neonate/juvenile (3.1%) (Table 6.5).

Canids (Canis or Vulpes spp.). Canids, which may be wolves, dogs, or foxes,

represented 1.5% of the land mammal assemblage. All canid specimens were teeth,

84.2% of which came from the midden.

Muskrats. Muskrats represented less than 1% of the land mammal assemblage.

Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, innominate) accounted for 75% of the NISP,

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while appendicular skeletal elements (tibia, metapodial) represented 25%. The most

numerous elements were the mandible and scapula (n=3), followed by the tibia (n=2).

All but one specimen were from the midden. The most common element from the

midden was the right tibia. Although most specimens are too fragmentary to age, two

(16.7%) are from juveniles (Table 6.4).

Rodents. Unidentified medium-sized rodents represented less than 1% of the land

mammal assemblage. All elements were from the appendicular skeleton. The most

numerous element was the metapodial (n=4). Over half of the specimens (66.7%) were

from the midden.

Small Rodents. Less than 1% of the land mammal assemblage was composed of

very small rodents: three mandibles and one radius from a lemming or vole. Most of the

specimens (75.0%) were from the midden. The most common element in the midden was

the right mandible.

Caribou/Muskoxen. Three specimens, representing less than 1% of the land

mammal assemblage, are most likely caribou since muskoxen are thought to have been

rare, and were extinct on the Seward Peninsula by the 19th century. Two of the three

appendicular skeletal elements came from the midden.

Bears. One bear element was identified from the midden. It was a fragmentary

right maxilla with an unerupted first canine and unerupted fourth premolar. Based on

tooth eruption, the specimen was a neonate.

83

Marine Mammals. The NISP for marine or sea mammals is 2,375, representing

27.6% of the collection. Two specimens had no provenience. Nine taxa were identified,

not including unidentified sea mammal (Table 6.6). Unidentified specimens accounted

for less than 1% of the sea mammal assemblage.

Table 6.6: Marine mammal remains from NOM-146.

Common Name


Pinniped Pinnipedia 20 1 27 1 47 Walrus Odobenus rosmarus 2 1 14 2 16 Seal Phocidae 304 2 220 1 524 Bearded Seal Erignathus barbatus 34 2 50 3 84 Small Ice Seal Phocini 553 8 684 19 1,239 Spotted Seal Phoca largha 6 1 13 2 19 Ringed Seal Pusa hispida 154 8 219 12 373 Whale Cetacea 19 1 32 1 51 Beluga Delphinapterus leucas - - 3 1 3 Unidentified sea mammal 7 - 12 - 19 Total: 1,099 - 1,274 - 2,375

Note: MNI calculated without taking age into consideration.

Small Ice Seals. The most numerous category of sea mammal was the Phocini

tribe, which includes the ringed seal, ribbon seal (Phoca fasciata) and spotted seal around

the Seward Peninsula (MacDonald and Cook 2009; Wynne 2007). Small ice seals

accounted for 52.2% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull,

sternabra, scapula, rib, costal process, vertebra, sacrum, innominate, baculum)


ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) represented 42.5%.

Of the appendicular elements, metatarsals (n=136) outnumbered metacarpals (n=52) by

more than 2:1.

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The most numerous element was the rib (n=185), followed by the thoracic

vertebra (n=140). Over half of the small ice seal specimens came from the midden

(55.2%). The most common element from both House B (MNI=8) and the midden

(MNI=19) was the atlas (C1) vertebra. About half of the specimens are too fragmentary

to age. Of the aged specimens, fewer than 1% were from old adults (n=8); 16.1% were

from adults (n=200); fewer than 1% were from young adults (n=11); 25.3% were from

juveniles (n=314); 5.6% were from yearlings (n=70); and fewer than 1% were each from

neonate/yearlings or neonates (n=8) (Table 6.7).

Table 6.7: Age categories of NOM-146 pinniped remains.

Taxon

Neonatal

Neo/Year

Yearling

Juvenile Young Adult

Adult Old Adult

Pinnipedia indef. 2 1 - 5 - 5 - Odobenus rosmarus - 2 - 1 - 3 - Phocidae indef. 2 2 - 226 - 157 - Erignathus barbatus 1 2 3 18 - 12 1 Phocini indef. 6 7 70 160 - 61 4 Phoca largha - - - - - 8 - Pusa hispida - 1 6 19 19 176 3

Note: Calculated without vertebrae or sternabrae

Seals. Seals in the family Phocidae, which around the Seward Peninsula include

the small ice seals and the bearded seal (MacDonald and Cook 2009; Wynne 2007),

accounted for 22.1% of the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull,

scapula, rib, costal process, vertebra, sacrum, innominate) comprised only 16.8% of the

NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (radius, ulna, tibia, podial, metapodial,

phalanx) comprised 83.2%. Most of the elements (77.5%) were phalanges, which could

85

not be separated by genus due to a combination of lack of fusion, fragmentation or

inaccessibility of comparative specimens.

The most numerous element was the phalanx (n=289), followed by the ossified

costal process (n=73). Over half of the specimens (58.0%) were from House B. The

most common element from House B was the left fourth metatarsal. Only one fourth of

the specimens (25.2%) were too fragmentary to age. Of the other specimens, 30.0% were

from adults (n=157), 44.1% were from juveniles (n=231), and fewer than 1% each were

from neonate/yearlings and neonates (n=2) (Table 6.7).

Ringed Seals. Ringed seal specimens accounted for at least 15.7% of the sea

mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, scapula, innominate) represented

31.1% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (humerus, radius, ulna, femur,

tibia, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial, metapodial) represented 68.9%. Almost half of the

appendicular elements were flipper bones (n=116). The most numerous element was the

humerus (n=36), followed by the mandible (n=35). Over half of the specimens were

from the midden (58.7%). The most common element from House B was the left

humerus (MNI=8), while the most common element from the midden was the left femur

(MNI=12). Over half of the specimens were aged (59.0%). Of those, fewer than 1% of

were from old adults (n=3); 47.5% were from adults (n=177); 3.8% were from young

adults (n=14); 5.1% were from juveniles (n=19); 1.6% were from yearlings (n=6); and

one specimen was from a neonate/yearling (Table 6.7).

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Bearded Seals. Bearded seal specimens made up at least 3.5% of the sea mammal

assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, vertebra, innominate)


ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial, metapodial) accounted for 60.7%. The most

numerous elements were the radius, thoracic vertebra, and lumbar vertebra (n=7),

followed by the fourth metatarsal (n=5). Over half of the specimens were from the

midden (59.5%). The most common element from House B was the left navicular, while

the most common element from the midden is the left radius. One-third of the specimens

were too fragmentary to age (33.3%). Of the aged specimens, one was from an old adult

(1.2%); 31.0% were from adults (n=26); 28.6% were from juveniles (n=24); two

specimens were from yearlings (2.4%); two were from neonate/yearlings (2.4%); and one

was from a neonate (1.2%) (Table 6.7).

Whales. Whales, including both small and large species, accounted for 2.1% of

the sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, rib, and

vertebra) comprised only 11.8% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements

(humerus, phalanx) comprised 80.4%. The most numerous elements were vertebrae

(n=29). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (62.7%). About one-third of

the specimens were too fragmentary to age (35.3%). Three of the specimens (5.9%) were

from adults, 3.9% were from young adults (n=2), 45.1% were from juveniles (n=23), and

9.8% were from neonate/juveniles (n=5).

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Pinnipeds. Pinnipeds, including all seals and walruses, represented 2.0% of the

sea mammal assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, rib, costal process,

and vertebra) represented 55.3% of the NISP, while appendicular skeletal elements (ulna,

fibula, podial, metapodial, phalanx) accounted for 44.7%. There were only two non-

flipper appendicular elements. The most numerous element were the phalanx (n=8), and

rib (n=7). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (57.4%). Although more

than half of the specimens were too fragmentary to age (53.2%), 12.8% of the pinniped

specimens were from adults (n=6), 21.3% were from juveniles (n=10), 8.5% were from

neonate/yearlings (n=4), and two specimens were neonatal (4.3%) (Table 6.7).

Spotted Seals. Spotted seal specimens made up less than 1% of the sea mammal

assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, innominate) represented 42.1% of the NISP,

while appendicular skeletal elements (radius, ulna, femur, fibula, tibia/fibula, podial,

metapodial) represented 57.9%. The most numerous element was the skull (n=5),

followed by the femur (n=3). Over half of the specimens were from the midden (68.4%).

Although more than half of the specimens are too fragmentary to age, 42.1% were

identified as adults (n=8) (Table 6.7).

Walrus. Walrus specimens accounted for less than 1% of the sea mammal

assemblage. Axial skeletal elements (skull, sternabra, scapula, vertebra, innominate,

baculum) accounted for all but one specimen of the NISP: a left metacarpal. The most

numerous element was the scapula (n=4), followed by the sternabra (n=3). Most of the

specimens were from the midden (87.5%). The most common element from the midden

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was the left scapula. Half of the specimens were aged; three (18.8%) each were from

adults and juveniles, while two specimens were from neonate/yearlings (12.5%) (Table

6.7).

Belugas. Beluga specimens represented less than 1% of the sea mammal

assemblage. The three identified specimens included two humeri (probably left and

right) and a vertebra. One humerus was from a juvenile.

Fishes. The NISP for fishes is 540, representing 6.2% of the overall vertebrate

assemblage (Table 6.8). Four taxa (following Mecklenburg et al. 2002), not including

unidentified fish (Actinopterygii), were identified. Unidentified bony fish specimens

accounted for 51.3% of the fish assemblage. The most numerous family was the

Gadidae, or cods (36.1% of the fish assemblage). They were followed by the Salmonidae

family (1.0% of the fish assemblage), which includes salmon, trout, whitefish, Arctic

char, grayling, Dolly Varden, and steelheads; the Cottidae family (fewer than 1% of the

assemblage), which includes Irish lords and sculpins; and the Pleuronectidae family

(fewer than 1% of the assemblage), the flat fishes.

Table 6.8: Fish remains from NOM-146.


Actinopterygii 73 - 204 - 277 Salmonidae 47 1 9 1 56 Gadidae 97 20 98 7 195 Cottidae 3 1 8 1 11 Pleuronectidae - - 1 1 1 Total: 220 - 320 - 540

89

Mollusks. An NISP was not calculated for mollusk remains; instead, specimens

were weighed. A total weight of 25.15 g was obtained. Gastropods accounted for 9.6 g,

bivalves accounted for 3.5 g, and Mytilidae specimens, or mussels, accounted for 5 g.

All mollusk specimens were fragmentary.

Perthotaxic Data

Only 3.7% of the vertebrate remains from NOM-146 had indications of having

been cut with a man-made implement (Table 6.9). Of those, small ice seals in general

had the greatest number of cut bones, followed by ringed seal. The highest percentage of

visible bone cutmarks belonged to the Artiodactyla (which probably represent caribou)

and swan; however, since there are only three Artiodactyla specimens and two swan

specimens identified from the entire site, these percentages are not particularly

significant. It is more important to note that 33.3% of the whale remains (NISP=51) and

20.2% of the bearded seal remains (NISP=84) had visible cutmarks.

90

Table 6.9: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with cutmarks, in descending order of %NISP.

Common Name House B Midden Entire Site NISP %NISP NISP %NISP NISP %NISP

Caribou/Muskox 1 100% 1 50% 2 66.7% Swan 1 100% - - 1 50.0% Whale 4 21.1% 13 40.6% 17 33.3% Bearded Seal 1 2.9% 16 32.0% 17 20.2% Walrus - - 3 21.4% 3 18.8% Goose 1 25% - - 1 16.7% Ringed Seal 20 13.0% 34 15.5% 54 14.5% Spotted Seal - - 2 15.4% 2 10.5% Dog 2 11.8% 1 6.7% 3 9.4% Small Ice Seal 38 6.9% 63 9.2% 101 8.2% Eider 1 9.1% - - 1 7.7% Pinniped 2 10.0% 1 3.7% 3 6.4% Murre 4 6.7% - - 4 6.0% Caribou 4 6.5% 5 4.1% 9 4.9% Tundra Hare 11 5.7% 11 4.2% 22 4.8% Duck 1 2.3% 1 12.5% 2 3.8% Seal 3 <1% 8 3.6% 11 2.1% Fox 2 3.8% 2 1.4% 4 2.0% Fox/Hare - - 1 2.1% 1 1.3% Unidentified Mammal 14 1.2% 20 1.1% 34 1.2% Canine 11 15.5% 6 6.5% 17 1.0% Unidentified Bird 2 <1% 3 <1% 5 <1% Ptarmigan 2 <1% - - 2 <1% Total: 125 3.3% 191 4.0% 316 3.7%

Note: Excludes unidentified mammal ribs.

Only 16 bird specimens had cutmarks (1.1% of the total avian assemblage). Over

half were wing elements (56.3%), the majority of which were distal wing elements

(55.6%; i.e., radius, ulna, carpometacarpus). Of the non-wing elements, most were

tibiotarsi (57.1%). Marine mammals had 208 specimens with cutmarks (8.8% of the sea

mammal assemblage), 58 terrestrial mammal specimens had cutmarks (4.5% of the land

mammal assemblage), and 34 of the unidentified mammal specimens had cutmarks (1.2%

of the unidentified assemblage). For all mammals, the most common cut elements were

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vertebrae (46.6% of marine, 31.0% of terrestrial, and 85.3% of unidentified cut mammal

specimens). The second and third most common elements for marine mammals were

mandibles (16.8%) (Figure 6.2) and flipper bones (10.1%). The second most common

cut element for land mammals were foot bones (22.4%). The third most common

elements were humeri and radii (both 8.6%). No cutmarks were identified on fish

specimens.

Figure 6.2: Compilation of cutmarks from 12 complete right ringed seal mandibles; 1:1 scale.

The number of specimens with evidence of carnivore gnawing was 8.5% of the

NOM-146 vertebrate assemblage (Table 6.10). Of those, the greatest number of gnawed

bones belonged to small ice seals. Only 2.3% of total avian assemblage (NISP=33) and

3.1% of the unidentified mammal specimens (NISP=91) had been gnawed. Higher

percentages of the marine and terrestrial mammal assemblages had gnawmarks (19.4%

and 11.6%, respectively). Most of the gnawed birds bones (69.7%) were wing elements,

mostly humeri (NISP=20). The most commonly gnawed elements for marine and

92

unidentified mammals were vertebrae (30.2% and 79.1%, respectively). The second

most commonly gnawed marine mammal elements were flipper bones (13.9%). The

most commonly gnawed land mammal elements were foot bones (17.4%) followed by

humeri and innominates (both 12.1%). No gnawmarks were identified on any fish

remains.

Table 6.10: NISP and %NISP of NOM-146 faunal remains with gnawmarks, in descending order of %NISP.


Beluga - - 2 66.7% 2 66.7% Swan - - 1 100.0% 1 50.0% Spotted Seal 4 66.7% 5 38.5% 9 47.4% Walrus - - 7 50.0% 7 43.8% Bearded Seal 10 29.4% 26 52.0% 36 42.9% Dog 8 47.1% 5 33.3% 13 40.6% Sea Mammal 4 57.1% 3 25.0% 7 36.8% Canine 27 38.0% 8 8.6% 35 21.3% Land Mammal 4 36.4% 3 25% 7 30.4% Whale 6 31.6% 9 28.1% 15 29.4% Ringed Seal 29 18.8% 60 27.4% 89 23.9% Pinniped 6 30.0% 5 18.5% 11 23.4% Small Ice Seal 94 17.0% 159 23.2% 253 20.4% Caribou 10 16.1% 20 16.3% 30 16.2% Tundra Hare 14 7.3% 29 11% 43 9.4% Fox 2 3.8% 16 11.2% 18 9.2% Muskrat - - 1 9.1% 1 8.3% Eider 1 9.1% - - 1 7.8% Seal 14 4.6% 17 7.7% 31 5.9% Gull 1 3.4% 2 7.7% 3 5.5% Ptarmigan 13 6.5% 6 2.5% 19 4.3% Unidentified Mammal 30 2.6% 61 3.4% 91 3.1% Fox/Hare - - 2 4.3% 2 2.7% Duck - - 1 12.5% 1 1.9% Unidentified Bird 3 <1% 5 1.6% 8 1.1% Total: 280 7.5% 453 9.4% 733 8.5%

Note: Excludes unidentified mammal ribs

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Few of the vertebrate faunal remains from NOM-146 were burned and/or calcined

(Table 6.11). The greatest number of burned bones belonged to unidentified mammals,

which comprised 1.7% of the total unidentified assemblage. Fewer than one percent of

the land mammal assemblage was burned, as was only 1.6% of the marine mammal

assemblage. For both marine and land mammals, the most commonly burned elements

were vertebrae (65.8% and 85.7%, respectively). No fish or bird remains were burned.

Table 6.11: NISP and %NISP of burned NOM-146 faunal remains, in descending order of %NISP.


Walrus - - 1 7.1% 1 6.3% Whale - - 2 6.3% 2 3.9% Bearded Seal - - 3 6.0% 3 3.6% Small Ice Seal 8 1.4% 20 2.9% 28 2.3% Pinniped - - 1 3.7% 1 2.1% Canine 1 1.4% 2 2.2% 3 1.8% Unidentified Mammal 17 1.5% 32 1.8% 49 1.7% Fox 1 1.9% 1 <1% 2 1.0% Tundra Hare - - 1 <1% 1 <1% Caribou 1 1.6% - - 1 <1% Seal 1 <1% - - 1 <1% Ringed Seal 1 <1% 1 <1% 2 <1% Total: 30 <1% 64 1.3% 94 1.1%

Intrasite Faunal Analysis

The vertebrate archaeofauna are fairly evenly distributed between the midden and

House B: 54.8% of the birds came from the house feature, while 61.2% of land

mammals, 53.6% of sea mammals, and 59.3% of fishes came from the midden. In all,

43.7% of the vertebrate remains came from House B and 56.2% came from the midden.

In terms of perthotaxic events, 3.3% of the vertebrate remains from House B were cut,

94

while 4.0% of those from the midden had cutmarks. A greater percentage of the

vertebrate remains from the midden were gnawed (9.4%) than from House B (7.5%).

Additionally, a greater percentage of the midden had been burned (1.3%) in comparison

to only 0.5% of those remains from House B. More than half of the vertebrate taxa are

from the midden (Tables 6.12 and 6.13). Only three specific taxa were evenly distributed

between the features: puffin (NISP=4), snowy owl (NISP=4), and swan (NISP=2).

Table 6.12: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in House B, in descending order of %NISP.

Common Name House B NISP %TotalNISP Shearwater 2 100.0% Sea Duck 22 91.7% Murre 60 89.6% Duck 44 84.6% Eider 11 84.6% Salmon 47 83.9% Cormorant 9 81.8% Goose 4 66.7% Seal 304 58.0% Hare 23 56.1% Alcid 5 55.6% Loon 16 55.2% Dog 17 53.1% Gull 29 52.7%

95

Table 6.13: NISP and %NISP of vertebrate taxa most common in the midden, in descending order of %NISP.

Common Name Midden NISP %TotalNISP Beluga 3 100.0% Albatross 2 100.0% Bear 1 100.0% Flat Fish 1 100.0% Muskrat 11 91.7% Walrus 14 87.5% Canid 16 84.2% Kittiwake 19 79.2% Tiny Rodent 3 75.0% Fox 143 73.0% Sculpin 8 72.7% Spotted Seal 13 68.4% Rodent 4 66.7% Caribou/Muskox 2 66.7% Caribou 123 66.5% Fox/Hare 47 62.7% Whale 32 62.7% Bearded Seal 50 59.5% Ringed Seal 219 58.7% Tundra Hare 264 57.9% Pinniped 27 57.4% Canine 93 56.7% Small Ice Seal 684 55.2% Ptarmigan 242 54.6% Ground Squirrel 35 50.7% Cod 98 50.3%

Season of Site Occupation

In addition to the indirect seasonality suggested by the functions of artifacts from

NOM-146 in Chapter Four, direct seasonality indicators were identified from the site

archaeofauna. The NOM-146 faunal remains lend themselves to the two most common

methods of determining season of site occupation (presence/absence, physiological

96

events) as discussed in Chapter Two. For the purposes of this thesis, “winter” is defined

as the months of October (shikovik or “freeze-up season” in Iñupiatuun [Ellanna and

Sherrod 2004:118]), when modern shore fast ice usually forms (Burch 1998:300;

Koutsky 1981:10; Ray 1984:285), through April; “summer” is defined as the months of

May (sukloavik or when “the ice has gone out” in Iñupiatuun [Ellanna and Sherrod

2004:117]), when shore fast ice usually begins to break up (Burch 1998:297; Koutsky

1981:10; Ray 1984:285), through September.

Winter Occupation. Ptarmigan live on the Seward Peninsula year-round (Kessel

1989:131, 134; Figure 6.3). During the summer ptarmigan occupy the lowlands for

breeding and hatching. Between the end of July and September they form into large

postbreeding flocks, before moving to their wintering grounds in the highlands (Kessel

1989:131-135). Oquilluk (1973:99) notes that ptarmigan were traditionally most

commonly hunted during midwinter on the Seward Peninsula. Snowy owls, which

usually arrive on the peninsula around May and depart in October, will over-winter on

the peninsula if prey species are having a “boom” year (Kessel 1989:225-226; Figure

6.3).

97

Figure 6.3: Bird presence on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska (solid line = most common; dashed line = uncommon). Compiled from Kessel (1989).

A complete age range for pinnipeds was identified. Although the published

pinniped epiphyseal fusion sequences are extensive, Storå (2000:207) cautions against

age estimation of lone seal elements past the first year of life (Figure 6.4). In addition to

the lack of epiphyseal fusion in some elements, the cortex of the bones can often be

differentiated during the first few months of life due its “rough texture without clear

morphological features” (Storå 2000:207). Certain morphometrics of small ice seal

femora have also been correlated with age (Storå 2002).

98

Figure 6.4: Possible ages (in months) of skeletal elements indicative of yearling status. Compiled from Storå (2000).

The remains of small ice seals from NOM-146 include unfused elements

indicative of yearling status (Figures 6.5 and 6.6). Sixty-three specimens suggest an age

younger than twelve months (proximal femora, proximal radii, distal humeri). Two

specimens suggest an age likely younger than six months (scapula glenoid tubercle). And

four specimens indicate an age likely younger than four months (vertebral arch/centrum).

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

1st/2nd Phalanx (Distal)

Innominate (Acetabulum)

Cervical Vertebra (Arch)

Thoracic Vertebra (Arch)

Lumbar Vertebra (Arch)

1st Metacarpal (Distal)

Scapula (Glenoid Tubercle)

Femur (Proximal)

Radius (Proximal)

Humerus (Distal)

Unfused Epiphyses in Small Ice Seals

Unfused Unfused or Fusing

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Figure 6.5: Small ice seal femora. Ages from left to right: neonate, yearling (around 6 months old), yearling (around 6 m.o.), yearling (around 10 m.o.), juvenile, adult, adult. Ages based off of Storå (2000, 2002).

Figure 6.6: Small ice seal humeri. From left to right: neonate, yearling, yearling, yearling, juvenile, adult. Ages based off of Storå (2000, 2002).

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All of the small seals around the Seward Peninsula give birth in April (Wynne

2007); therefore, it is probable that at least some pups were taken during the late spring

before breakup. This conclusion is supported by 14 neonatal pinniped bones (MNI=2) in

the assemblage (Figure 6.7). Additionally, morphometrics from some femora are

correlated with modern specimens between six and ten months of age (Storå 2002:55),

indicating that some yearlings were also harvested during early and mid-winter.

Figure 6.7: Presence of mammal neonates on the Seward Peninsula (solid line = most common birthing date; dashed line = uncommon birthing date). Compiled from Wynne (2007).

Although large whale species were traditionally hunted during their migration

north in the spring from Cape Prince of Wales, King and Sledge Islands (Burch

1980:295; Ray 1967:71, 1975:111), it is impossible to tell whether the large whale

specimens recovered from NOM-146 are from individuals that were actively hunted or

those that washed up dead on shore. Today, dead bowhead, gray, and killer whales

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occasionally wash up on shore near Cape Nome throughout the ice-free months

(Bockstoce 1979:13).

Because there is no published sequence for caribou epiphyseal fusion, I compared

the caribou specimens from NOM-146 to a sequence created for white-tailed deer

(Odocoileus virginianus) (Figure 6.8). The resulting ages are necessarily only

suggestive; studies have shown that there can be between two and eight months

difference in fusion times between white- and black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus)

(Purdue 1983:1211), and they are more closely phylogenetically related than either is to

caribou. Purdue (1983:1210) also demonstrates a difference of three months or more

between the sexes; many bones fuse earlier in females than in males.

Figure 6.8: Possible ages (in months) of certain caribou skeletal elements. Compiled from Purdue (1983).

0 6 12 18 24

Radius (Proximal) Humerus (Distal)

2nd Phalanx 1st Phalanx

Tibia (Distal) Ulna (Proximal)

Femur (Proximal) Radius (Distal) Femur (Distal)

Tibia (Proximal) Ulna (Distal)

Humerus (Proximal)

Unfused Epiphyses in Caribou

Unfused Unfused or Fusing

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The caribou remains from NOM-146 include a few unfused and partially fused

specimens indicative of animals in their first year of life. Two specimens suggest an age

between five and eight months (2nd phalanx), while four specimens suggest an age

younger than eleven months (1st phalanx). Six specimens are at most around twenty

months old, but probably younger (distal and proximal femora, distal radius). In Alaska,

caribou give birth between late May and early June (Rearden 1981:90); therefore, some

caribou were hunted during winter.

Based on known tooth eruption sequences (Andrews and Turner 1992; Stiner

1998), the single bear specimen identified from NOM-146 is from a very young cub

during its first winter as a neonate. Both polar and brown bear cubs are born between

December and January, leaving the den around March or April (Rearden 1981:16-20;

Wynne 2007:68-69); therefore, if the bear specimen represents a hunted rather than

scavenged animal, one incidence of bear hunting at the site must have occurred during

the winter (Figure 6.7).

Published epiphyseal fusion sequences are available for the proximal humerus of

black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus). Ages resulting from these data are only

suggestive; unlike the black-tailed jackrabbit or snowshoe hare, tundra hares only give

birth to one litter of leverets per year around May, indicating that their growth patterns

differ from their faster-breeding relatives (Rearden 1981:148). According to Tiemeier

and Plenert (1964), who used more than 900 jackrabbit specimens in their calculations in

comparison to Lechleitner’s (1959) three, the proximal epiphysis of the humerus begins

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to fuse around six months of age. In tundra hares, this would occur in November. Of the

tundra hare humerus specimens from NOM-146 (n=33), a little over one-third had intact

proximal ends (n=12). Of those, nine were fused and three were unfused proximal

epiphyses (Figure 6.9).

Figure 6.9: Ratios of tundra hare epiphyseal fusion sequence elements at NOM-146.

A study of cottontail rabbit epiphyseal fusion (Hale 1949:218) briefly mentions

that the proximal tibia fuses shortly after the proximal humerus. If this pattern holds true

for tundra hares, it is probable that their proximal tibial epiphyses begin to fuse in

December or January. Of the tundra hare tibia specimens from NOM-146 (n=59), only

one-third had intact proximal ends (n=20). Of those, ten were fused, two were unfused,

and eight were proximal epiphyses (Figure 6.9). These data indicate that some tundra

hare were harvested before November, though the large number of humeri and tibiae

without intact proximal ends make it difficult to judge seasonal prevalence of acquisition.

Proximal Humerus MNI

Unfused Fused

Proximal Tibia MNI

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Summer Occupation. All birds other than ptarmigan and owl identified in from

the NOM-146 faunal assemblage are migratory species (Figure 6.3). Most arrive on the

Seward Peninsula during the spring and stay through the summer to breed, brood, and

molt. A few pass through on their way to and from breeding grounds further north during

the spring and fall. The brant, snow goose, and Canada goose usually arrive in May and

depart between September and October. Tundra swans arrive between late April and mid

May, and depart by early October. Numerous duck species are found on the Seward

Peninsula. In general, they arrive around early May and leave in September. Sea ducks

usually arrive around late May and depart by October. Eider ducks (Somateria spp.),

however, often stay through late November. Loons arrive on the peninsula between May

and June and depart around September (Kessel 1989).

The alcid specimens not identified as murres or puffins represent a number of

different seabirds, all of which have slightly different migratory schedules. Some arrive

in the region in April (e.g., Kittlitz’s murrelet) while others do not arrive until June (e.g.,

pigeon guillemot). Most alcids leave around October. Both common and thick-billed

murres arrive around late May and stay until freeze-up. Horned and tufted puffins arrive

around late May and usually depart around September. The pelagic cormorant arrives

around late April and often stays until freeze-up. Gulls arrive around early May and

depart between August and September. Black-legged kittiwakes also arrive in May, but

do not leave until September or October (Kessel 1989).

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The few beluga remains from NOM-146 include unfused specimens, and many of

the small, unfused whale bones unidentified to species likely also belong to juvenile

beluga. Although there is no published epiphyseal fusion sequence for beluga, it is

reasonable to suggest that completely unfused skeletal elements belong to beluga in their

first year of life. Beluga give birth around July, therefore unfused elements suggest late

summer harvests (Figure 6.7).

Ethnographic Subsistence Data. Ethnographic information on seasonal rounds

can be added to the above data to help establish site seasonality. As animal behavior will

not have changed significantly over the past few hundred years (except for the

intervention of the Little Ice Age), the timing of subsistence hunting will not have

changed greatly either. Subsistence hunting practices of descendant communities provide

helpful insights into the practices of their ancestors. Ethnographic information collected

from the Norton Sound area can be extrapolated to help suggest the subsistence practices

of the people who lived at NOM-146. Using ethnographic subsistence data from multiple

sources to help elucidate the season of site occupation at an archaeological site differs

from identifying the subsistence pattern of a prehistoric socioterritory in its generalized

application.

From interviews with local Iñupiat hunters, Bockstoce (1979:12) created a

seasonal round for the Cape Nome area. He found that caribou were usually hunted

during the winter from November to March, although there was a short, late-summer

hunting period as well (Bockstoce 1979:12; Oquilluk 1973:97). This corresponds with

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the Iñupiatuun word for the month of July, nuġġiaqtuġvik, which translates to the time “to

hunt caribou, particularly fauns, for clothing” (Burch 2006:32). Interviews done by

Schaaf (1988:37) and Ray (1975:117) support Bockstoce’s findings, although Koutsky

(1981:18) found that caribou were hunted in the foothills of the Nome, Fish River and

Golovin areas whenever possible.

Bockstoce (1979:12) and Ray (1975:113) both found that walrus and bearded seal

were hunted as they followed the edge of the icepack during the fall (September and

October) and the spring (April-June for bearded seal and May-July for walrus). Schaaf

(1988:36) was told that walrus and bearded seal were hunted primarily during spring

breakup, which is supported by Oquilluk (1973:99), and that smaller seals were hunted

around freeze-up as well as spring breakup. This corresponds with Mayokok’s report on

spring subsistence (1951). Bockstoce (1979:12) was told that ringed seals were hunted

all winter long, from October to May, which is supported by Koutsky (1981:17). Belugas

were hunted during the spring and summer, from May to July (Bockstoce 1979:12;

Koutsky 1981:18; Mayokok 1951; Schaaf 1988:36-37).

Migratory waterfowl and seabirds were hunted from the time they arrived in the

area around May until the time they departed, starting in August (Bockstoce 1979:12;

Koutsky 1981:18; Schaaf 1988:36). Waterfowl were and continue to be especially

numerous around Safety Sound (Ray 1975:116). Ptarmigan were snared throughout the

year, but were a critical resource in winter (Burch 1980:276; Koutsky 1981:17; Oquilluk

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1973:99; Ray 1975:117). And although all available owl species were utilized, snowy

owls were preferred (Oquilluk 1973:230).

Small terrestrial game was usually obtained in the fall and winter (Burch

1980:276; Koutsky 1981:17). Although snared year-round (Koutsky 1981:17-18), Arctic

ground squirrels were especially sought during late spring or early fall when their fur was

thickest (Ray 1975:117; Sheppard 1986:137). Similarly, hares were usually only sought

during late winter and early spring (Koutsky 1981:17; Oquilluk 1973:99), in part due to

the tularemia (“rabbit fever”) that is endemic to the population during the summer

months and is potentially fatal to humans (Sheppard 1986:136).

Tomcod were caught during winter, around February, while whitefish were

caught in the fall (August and September) (Bockstoce 1979:12) and winter (Koutsky

1981:17; Ray 1975:114). Salmon were caught during their spawning runs between June

and August (Bockstoce 1979:12; Koutsky 1981:18; Ray 1975:114; Schaaf 1988:36-37;

Sheppard 1986; Thornton 1931). At Wales, flounder were fished in February, and

sculpin were caught around March (Thornton 1931). In lagoons across the peninsula,

flounder were speared through the ice (Ray 1975:114). Mollusks were collected from the

beaches during the summer (Thornton 1931). This information is corroborated by other

ethnographic studies (e.g., Burch 1980; Ray 1975).

The faunal remains from NOM-146 indicate occupation of the site throughout the

year, with an emphasis on winter dwelling. The extensive age range of most mammal

species is indicative of year-round procurement. The existence of animal species hunted

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primarily during the summer, such as beluga and migratory birds, demonstrate a summer

component, but the animals with the greatest number of remains belonged to species

hunted primarily during the winter: ringed seal, tundra hare, and ptarmigan.

Summary

Over 8,500 faunal remains were recovered from NOM-146, more than half of

which were from the midden (56.2%). In all, more than half of the specimens were

identified to taxonomic family or more specific levels (i.e., tribe, genus, species). Almost

17% of the faunal assemblage was composed of seventeen bird taxa. Fifteen taxa of

terrestrial mammals accounted for 15% of the assemblage, and ten taxa of marine

mammals accounted for more than 27% of the assemblage. Five taxa of fish comprised

about 6% of the faunal assemblage. Over 25 g of mollusk fragments were recovered

from the site. Almost four percent of the total vertebrate assemblage exhibited cutmarks,

while over eight percent had been gnawed. Only 1.1% of the total vertebrate assemblage

had been burned.

Avifauna was more numerous in House B than the midden, while the majority of

marine mammal, terrestrial mammal, and fish taxa (excluding salmon) came from the

midden. There was slightly more gnawing and burning occurring in the midden

archaeofauna, while the cutmarks were identified at a similar rate between the two

features. Most of the rarer taxa were identified in only one feature: shearwater in House

B, and albatross, bear, beluga and flat fish in the midden.

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The presence/absence and physiological methods of seasonality combined with

ethnographic data on seasonal rounds indicate that NOM-146 was inhabited throughout

the year. Species indicative of winter habitation include ptarmigan, neonatal pinniped,

ringed seal, tundra hare, and young caribou. Summer use is shown by the presence of

migratory birds, young beluga, and salmon. The archaeofauna recovered from NOM-146

suggest a diet generally based on small sea mammals, with important seasonal

concentrations of birds, and small terrestrial mammals, and fishes.

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Chapter Seven: Seward Peninsula Comparative Sites

Archaeofaunas

As shown in Chapter Three, numerous Western Thule sites have been identified

on the Seward Peninsula. Unfortunately, few of those sites have been excavated, and

even fewer have had the recovered archaeofauna analyzed. The following sites have

published faunal analyses (Figure 7.1): the Nuk site (SOL-002); Ayasayuk (NOM-009);

Uqshoyak (TEL-155); Kurigitavik Mound, Beach and Hillside sites of the Wales

Archaeological District (TEL-079, TEL-026, and TEL-025); three sites in the Ikpek area

(TEL-086, TEL-093, and TEL-104); the Kitluk River site (KTZ-145); three sites at Cape

Espenberg (KTZ-087, KTZ-088, and KTZ-101); Western Thule Houses 1 and 2 of the

Deering Archaeological District (KTZ-300 and KTZ-301, respectively); Cloud Lake

Village (BEN-033); the Salix Bay site (BEN-106); and Kuzitrin Lake West Village

(BEN-053).

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Figure 7.1: Location of Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula used in intersite comparisons.

Assemblages containing a minimum NISP of approximately 300 to 400

specimens are usually large enough to accurately represent the major taxa utilized at the

site (Amorosi et al. 1996:134). Of the 18 published Western Thule archaeofaunal

assemblages on the Seward Peninsula, three have too few specimens to accurately portray

the subsistence practices. Therefore, the archaeofaunal data from SOL-002 (Smith

1985:15) and from TEL-086 and TEL-093 (Saleeby 1994:331-334) are not reported here.

Ayasayuk (NOM-009). NOM-009 is near Cape Nome on the northern coast of

Norton Sound. A one-meter-wide trench of unknown length was excavated through the

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midden in 1974 (Bockstoce 1979). The underlying features were identified as “not more

than five hundred years old” while some unexcavated portions of the site were occupied

into historic times (Bockstoce 1979:81). Due to slumping and erosion, no stratigraphy

was determined and the age of the recovered artifacts was identified only on the basis of

the artifact typology (Bockstoce 1979). A total NISP of 1,598 faunal remains were

recovered from the site (Bockstoce 1979:84; Table 7.1).

Table 7.1: NOM-009 vertebrate remains.

Taxa NISP Whale (Large) 11 Beluga 2 Walrus 5 Bearded Seal 101 Small Ice Seal 943 Dog 1 Caribou 18 Unidentified Mammal 465 Duck 30 Goose 2 Swan 1 Jaeger 1 Salmon 7

Source: Bockstoce (1979).

Uqshoyak (TEL-155). TEL-155 is on an eroding bluff on the Bering Sea coast,

southeast of Wales. Its archaeofauna were recovered in 2000 and 2002 from multiple

units around and in two house features (ENRI 2003:19-20). The site was dated

radiometrically to between A.D. 1440 and 1640 (ENRI 2003:33). The total vertebrate

NISP for the site was 9,784 (ENRI 2003:73-84; Table 7.2 and Table 7.3). Some of the

faunal remains identified from the site were likely either misidentified or represent long-

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distance trade items. Beaver do not occur on the western Seward Peninsula, and are

thought not to have occurred anywhere on the peninsula until recently (MacDonald and

Cook 2009:78). Moose were not known to occur on the Seward Peninsula until after the

1940s (Burch 1998:293; MacDonald and Cook 2009:217; Oquilluk 1973:231). Dall’s

sheep, the only sheep species that inhabits Alaska, do not occur on the Seward Peninsula

(MacDonald and Cook 2009:232) (although Oquilluk [1973:231] lists them as a

subsistence species for the Qaviaragmiut). And Cape Prince of Wales and the northern

coast of Norton Sound are the northernmost limits of the ranges of both northern fur seal

and Steller’s sea lion (MacDonald and Cook 2009:176-178).

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Table 7.2: TEL-155 mammal remains.

Taxa NISP Whale 253 Baleen Whale 1 Beluga 1 Porpoise 1 Walrus 165 Northern Sea Lion 8 Alaska Fur Seal 8 Bearded Seal 63 Spotted/Harbor Seal 2,469 Ringed Seal 123 Ice Seal 2,001 Pinniped 657 Unidentified Sea Mammal 464 Unidentified Carnivore 2 Brown Bear 1 Dog 99 Canine 43 Canid 8 Arctic Fox 58 Caribou 112 Moose 1 Even-Toed Ungulate 1 Sheep 1 Beaver 1 Arctic Ground Squirrel 78 Alaska Vole 2 Rodent 4 Unidentified Land Mammal 12 Unidentified Mammal 2,304

Source: ENRI (2003).

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Table 7.3: TEL-155 bird and fish remains.

Taxa NISP Marbled Murrelet 2 Rhinoceros Auklet 3 Common Murre 15 Auklet 8 Puffin 3 Alcid 14 Common Teal 2 Surface Feeding Ducks 24 Canada Goose 3 Goose 13 White-winged Scoter 73 Surf Scoter 3 Scoter 22 King Eider 226 Anatid 17 Gull 15 Glaucous Gull 1 Albatross 4 Cormorant 73 Common Loon 1 Loon 1 Raven 6 Ptarmigan 23 Unidentified Bird 253 Unidentified Mammal/Bird 3 Pacific Halibut 1 Pacific Cod 2 Unidentified Fish 32

Source: ENRI (2003).

Wales Hillside Site (TEL-025). TEL-025 is in the village of Wales, located on

Cape Prince of Wales in the Bering Sea. The site was radiometrically dated to ca. A.D.

980 (Harritt 2004:169). The archaeofauna included here are from a preliminary

presentation on faunal remains recovered from the site in 1996, 1998, and 1999 (Russell

and Harritt 2011). Although a total NISP of 519 was reported (Russell and Harritt

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2011:9), between 464 and 505 specimens were listed (Russell and Harritt 2011:12-20,

53). An NISP of 231 vertebrates was listed (Russell and Harritt 2011:12-20; Table 7.4).

Table 7.4: TEL-025 vertebrate remains.

Taxa NISP Walrus 31 Bearded Seal 2 Spotted Seal 1 Ringed Seal 3 Ice Seal 64 Unidentified Carnivore 2 Bear 2 Canine 5 Canid 1 Caribou 8 Even-Toed Ungulate 10 Unidentified Mammal 95 Scoter 3 Murre 1 Alcid 2 Unidentified Bird 9

Source: Russell and Harritt (2011).

Wales Beach Site (TEL-026). TEL-026 is west of TEL-025, in the village of

Wales on Cape Prince of Wales in the Bering Sea. The site radiometrically dated to ca.

A.D. 1485 (Harritt 2004:169). The archaeofauna described here were from a preliminary

presentation on faunal remains recovered from the site between 1998 and 2001, and in

2004 (Russell and Harritt 2011). Although a total NISP of 18,249 was reported (Russell

and Harritt 2011:23), between 13,878 and 25,987 were listed (Russell and Harritt

2011:26-35, 53). Of those, an NISP between 12,665 and 23,884 belonged to vertebrates

(Russell and Harritt 2011:26-35, 53; Table 7.5). Large whale elements were not collected

during excavation and are therefore not included in the data (Russell and Harritt

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2011:34). The specimens identified as “rabbit” are most likely snowshoe or tundra hare,

because rabbits are nonnative to Alaska (MacDonald and Cook 2009:121). The faunal

remains identified as “Arctic hare” are most likely snowshoe or tundra hare (also known

as Alaska Arctic hare), because Arctic hares do not occur in Alaska (MacDonald and

Cook 2009:123).


Taxa NISP Whale 37 Baleen Whale 43 Beluga 3 Walrus 1,285 Bearded Seal 48 Spotted Seal 3 Ringed Seal 39 Ringed/Spotted Seal 116 Ice Seal 9,883 Bear 6 Dog 17 Canine 365 Arctic Fox 30 Red Fox 26 Canid 5 Caribou 5 Even-Toed Ungulate 4 Arctic Hare 16 Rabbit 9 Lemming 1 Auklet 267 Murrelet 9 Alcid 51 Gull 11 Scoter 72 Duck 30 Loon 1 Snowy Owl 1 Unidentified Bird 263 Unidentified Fish 11


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Kurigitavik Mound (TEL-079). TEL-079 is near the village of Wales on Cape

Prince of Wales in the Bering Sea, northeast of TEL-026. The site was dated

radiometrically to between A.D. 1045 and 1475 (Harritt 2004:169). The archaeofauna

included here were from a preliminary presentation on faunal remains recovered from the

site between 1998 and 2006 (Russell and Harritt 2011). Although a total analyzed NISP

of 19,268 was reported (Russell and Harritt 2011:38), between 10,282 and 15,578

specimens were listed (Russell and Harritt 2011:41-51; 53). Of those, between 8,910 and

13,255 were vertebrates (Russell and Harritt 2011:41-51, 53; Table 7.6). No large whale

elements were collected during excavation and are therefore not included in the data

(Russell and Harritt 2011:51). The bird remains identified as “velvet scoter” are more

likely white-winged scoter, since velvet scoters do not inhabit Alaska (Armstrong 2010).

119


Taxa NISP Whale 79 Baleen Whale 92 Porpoise 7 Walrus 1,745 Bearded Seal 61 Spotted Seal 137 Ringed Seal 193 Ice Seal 2,951 Pinniped 1,899 Bear 156 Dog 13 Canine 516 Arctic Fox 45 Red Fox 15 Canid 11 Caribou 148 Surf Scoter 22 Velvet Scoter 28 Scoter 57 Anatid 109 Alcid 52 Unidentified Bird 295


Ikpek Area Site (TEL-104). TEL-104 is on the coast of the Chukchi Sea,

between the Lopp and Ikpek lagoons. The site was radiometrically dated to between

A.D. 1250 and 1650 (Harritt 1994:207). The archaeofauna were excavated in 1989 from

multiple features (Harritt 1994:192). A total NISP of 473 vertebrate remains were

recovered from the site (Saleeby 1994:331-333; Table 7.7).

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Taxa NISP Whale 1 Beluga 4 Walrus 1 Bearded Seal 2 Ringed Seal 221 Small Ice Seal 75 Brown Bear 3 Caribou 5 Deer Family 3 Unidentified Mammal 157 Unidentified Fish 1

Source: Saleeby (1994).

Kitluk River Site (KTZ-145). KTZ-145 is on a coastal dune at the mouth of the

Kitluk River. It is approximately 40 km west of Cape Espenberg. A badly eroded village

site, the remaining partial house and midden features were excavated in 1993. Based on

the artifact assemblage, the site was dated to ca. A.D. 1800 (Saleeby and Demma

2001:229). A total of 10,708 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Saleeby

and Demma 2001:234; Table 7.8). Two identified specimens either represent trade items

or are misidentified. Beaver do not occur on the western Seward Peninsula and until

recently did not occur anywhere on the peninsula (MacDonald and Cook 2009:78), and

Dall’s sheep do not occur on the Seward Peninsula; their nearest identified range is north

of the study area on the Lisburne Peninsula (MacDonald and Cook 2009:232).

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Table 7.8: KTZ-145 vertebrate remains.

Taxa NISP Whale 103 Walrus 43 Bearded Seal 24 Ribbon Seal 7 Spotted Seal 57 Ringed Seal 870 Small Ice Seal 580 Unidentified Seal Mammal 120 Wolf 2 Dog 15 Canine 5 Arctic Fox 192 Red Fox 39 Fox 35 Caribou 416 Dall’s Sheep 1 Tundra Hare 62 Snowshoe Hare 2 Hare 3 Beaver 1 Muskrat 14 Arctic Ground Squirrel 4 Brown Lemming 1 Vole 6 Unidentified Mammal 7,805 Dabbling Duck 5 Gull 2 Jaeger 1 Grouse/Pheasant 1 Unidentified Bird 117 Unidentified Fish 142 Unidentified Bone 18

Source: Saleeby and Demma (2001).

Cape Espenberg Area Site (KTZ-087). KTZ-087 is on a dune formation at

Cape Espenberg on the Chukchi Sea coast. Test excavations of four features at the site

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(Feature 10, 12, 47, and 50) were completed in 1988 (Harritt 1994:68, 81). Features 10

and 12 were dated to ca. A.D. 1275 (Harritt 1994:87), while Features 47 and 50 were

dated to ca. A.D. 1440 (Harritt 1994:96). A total NISP of 576 vertebrate remains were

recovered from the site (Saleeby 1994:331; Table 7.9). The single mammoth specimen

identified from the site must represent a curated artifact, as the species is not known to

have persisted on the Alaska mainland past the early Holocene (MacDonald and Cook

2009:54).


Taxa NISP Walrus 42 Bearded Seal 3 Ribbon Seal 11 Ringed Seal 224 Small Ice Seal 73 Caribou 26 Mammoth 1 Unidentified Mammal 163 Unidentified Bird 32 Unidentified Fish 1



Cape Espenberg on the Chukchi Sea coast. Archaeofaunal data are available from two

separate excavations. Test excavations of three features (Feature 1, 24, and 30) were

completed in 1988 (Harritt 1994:68, 96), and Feature 33 was excavated in 2010 (Foin et

al. 2011). Radiometric dates were acquired for Features 24, 30, and 33. Feature 24 was

dated to between A.D. 1550 and 1850 (Harritt 1994:105). Feature 30 was dated to

between A.D. 1200 and 1300 (Harritt 1994:108). Feature 33 was dated to between A.D.

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1675 and 1800 (Foin et al. 2011:30). It is important to note, however, that Feature 30 is

actually part of KTZ-087 (Owen Mason, personal communication 2010), and therefore

the inclusion of its faunal remains in the site assemblage may skew the data. A total

NISP of 1,679 vertebrate remains were excavated in 1988 (Saleeby 1994:333; Table

7.10). The mammoth or mastodon specimen must be a curated artifact; mammoths are

not known to have persisted on the Alaska mainland past the early Holocene (MacDonald

and Cook 2009:53-54). A preliminary examination of the archaeofauna excavated in

2010 reported an NISP of 4,209 vertebrate remains (Foin et al. 2011; Table 7.11).

Table7.10: KTZ-088 (1988 excavation) vertebrate remains.

Taxa NISP Walrus 8 Bearded Seal 10 Ribbon Seal 1 Ringed Seal 947 Small Ice Seal 119 Brown Bear 2 Canine 3 Arctic Fox 2 Red Fox 1 Caribou 26 Vole/Lemming 1 Mammoth/Mastodon 1 Unidentified Mammal 554 Unidentified Bird 3 Unidentified Fish 1


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Table 7.11: KTZ-088 (2010 excavation) vertebrate remains.

Taxa NISP Whale 3 Unidentified Seal 4,003 Canid 7 Fox/Hare 7 Caribou 67 Arctic Ground Squirrel 3 Unidentified Bird 19 Unidentified Fish 100

Source: Foin et al. (2011)


Cape Espenberg on the Chukchi Sea coast. Test excavations of five features (Feature 1,

2, 3, 14, and 15) were completed in 1988 (Harritt 1994:68-69). Three features yielded

radiometric dates: Features 2, 3, and 15 all dated to around A.D. 1650 (Harritt 1994:75,

80). A total NISP of 550 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Saleeby

1994:331-333; Table 7.12). The mammoth and/or mastodon specimens must be curated

artifacts; mammoths are not known to have persisted on the Alaska mainland past the

early Holocene (MacDonald and Cook 2009:53-54).

125


Taxa NISP Whale 1 Baleen Whale 1 Walrus 10 Bearded Seal 19 Ribbon Seal 1 Ringed Seal 273 Small Ice Seal 49 Polar Bear 1 Brown Bear 1 Canine 3 Caribou 40 Deer Family 2 Tundra Hare 1 Arctic Ground Squirrel 1 Mammoth 1 Mammoth/Mastodon 3 Unidentified Mammal 125 Unidentified Bird 17 Unidentified Fish 1


Deering Western Thule House 1 (KTZ-300). KTZ-300 is in the village of

Deering, located on the southern coast of Kotzebue Sound near the mouth of the

Inmachuk River. The site was excavated in 1998 and 1999. It was radiometrically dated

to around A.D. 1100 (Saleeby 2009:191). The analyzed vertebrate remains were sampled

from the floor of the house feature (Saleeby 2009:191), and have a total NISP of 4,620

(Moss 2009:182; Saleeby 2009:192; Table 7.13). A total of twelve whale specimens

were identified from both KTZ-300 and KTZ-301 (Strathe 2009:189).

126


Taxa NISP Walrus 1 Bearded Seal 5 Spotted Seal 7 Ringed Seal 153 Small Ice Seal 293 Ice Seal 5 Canine 70 Arctic Fox 4 Caribou 145 Hare 764 Muskrat 1 Unidentified Mammal 2,280 Cormorant 2 Pigeon Guillemot 2 Ancient Murrelet 1 Puffin 6 Murre 22 Alcid 12 Black-legged Kittiwake 5 Gull 1 Jaeger 1 King Eider 3 Steller’s Eider 1 Long-tailed Duck 2 Merganser 3 Scoter 7 Scaup 7 Diving/Sea Duck 378 Duck 1 Goose 19 Ptarmigan 26 Unidentified Bird 169 Unidentified Fish 54 Unidentified Bone 110

Source: Moss (2009) and Saleeby (2009).

127

Deering Western Thule House 2 (KTZ-301). KTZ-301 is in the village of

Deering, near KTZ-300. The site was excavated in 1998 and was radiometrically dated

to around A.D. 1150 (Saleeby 2009:194). The vertebrate remains were sampled from

bucketshots assumed to be from the floor of the house feature, and have a total NISP of

1,120 (Moss 2009:182; Saleeby 2009:195; Table 7.14). A total of twelve whale

specimens were identified from both KTZ-300 and KTZ-301 (Strathe 2009:189).


Taxa NISP Spotted Seal 8 Ringed Seal 77 Small Ice Seal 157 Ice Seal 8 Brown Bear 3 Canine 7 Arctic Fox 11 Caribou 308 Hare 104 Arctic Ground Squirrel 1 Unidentified Mammal 382 Puffin 1 Murre 8 Alcid 3 Black-legged Kittiwake 7 Gull 4 Diving/Sea Duck 6 Duck 3 Goose 4 Ptarmigan 6 Unidentified Bird 4 Unidentified Fish 1 Unidentified Bone 7

Source: Moss (2009) and Saleeby (2009).

128

Cloud Lake Village (BEN-033). BEN-033 is on the edge of a small pond just

east of Cloud Lake. It is about 15 km north of Imuruk Lake. In 1975, a 14 m-long trench

was excavated through its largest house feature and a small midden (Adams 1982:143).

The house was probably a qargi (Adams 1982:200), and based on the ceramic

assemblage was dated to between the late1700s and early 1800s A.D. (Adams 1982:199).

A total NISP of 6,643 vertebrate remains were recovered from the site (Adams 1982:186;

Table 7.15). Probably 95% of the unidentified mammal bone is caribou (Adams

1982:187).

Table 7.15: BEN-033 vertebrate remains.

Taxa NISP Bearded Seal 4 Caribou 2,727 Arctic Ground Squirrel 4 Unidentified Mammal 3,903 Anatid 5

Source: Adams (1982).

Salix Bay Site (BEN-106). BEN-106 is on Imuruk Lake. The site was

radiometrically dated to ca. A.D. 1450 (Harritt 1994:230). The archaeofauna came from

a 1 x 2 m trench excavated in 1990 (Harritt 1994:232). A total NISP of 577 vertebrate

remains were recovered (Saleeby 1994:331, 333; Table 7.16).

129


Taxa NISP Wolf 1 Red Fox 1 Caribou 386 Unidentified Mammal 187 Unidentified Bird 2


Kuzitrin Lake West Village (BEN-053). BEN-053 is on Kuzitrin Lake.

Excavated in 1990, archaeofauna were recovered from test pits in two features. The site

was radiometrically dated to ca. A.D. 1450 (Harritt 1994:223). A total NISP of 759

vertebrate remains were recovered from the two features (Saleeby 1994:331, 333; Table

7.17).


Taxa NISP Caribou 488 Deer Family 2 Arctic Ground Squirrel 1 Unidentified Mammal 247 Unidentified Bird 21


Regional Analysis

The major taxa components of the NOM-146 archaeofaunal assemblage are most

similar to those of three sites on the Seward Peninsula: KTZ-300, KTZ-301, and KTZ-

145. All four assemblages demonstrate a varied subsistence strategy. At NOM-146,

pinniped remains make up 41% of the identified NISP, birds make up 26%, and non-

caribou or canine land mammals make up 15% (Figure 7.2). At KTZ-300, non-caribou

130

or canine land mammals make up 34% of the identified NISP, bird remains account for

33%, and pinnipeds 21% (Figure 7.3). The people at KTZ-301 put slightly more

emphasis on caribou, with 42% of the identified NISP contributed by those remains, 34%

by pinniped remains, and 16% by non-caribou or canid land mammals (Figure 7.4). At

KTZ-145 there was a greater focus on pinnipeds (58% of the identified NISP), although

caribou and other land mammals account for 15% and 13% of the assemblage,

respectively (Figure 7.5). It is important to note that, although NOM-146, KTZ-145, and

the two sites in Deering are on opposite sides of the Seward Peninsula, they are all

located on coastal sand dune or spit formations at river mouths emptying into shallow

(between 9 - 15 m) water (NOAA 2004, 2007).

Figure 7.2: Composition of NOM-146 archaeofauna; NISP=5,605 (unidentified remains not included).

Pinniped

Whale Bird

Caribou

Canine

Land Mammal

Fish

NOM-146

131

Figure 7.3: Composition of KTZ-300 archaeofauna; NISP=2,230 (unidentified remains not included).

Figure 7.4: Composition of KTZ-301 archaeofauna; NISP=731 (unidentified remains not included).

Pinniped

Bird

Caribou

Canine

Land Mammal

Fish

KTZ-300

Pinniped

Bird Caribou

Canine

Land Mammal Fish

KTZ-301

132

Figure 7.5: Composition of KTZ-145 archaeofauna; NISP=2,765 (unidentified remains not included).

Ten archaeofaunal assemblages from nine of the sites on the Seward Peninsula

were heavily dominated by pinniped remains. Pinniped remains accounted for 78% of

the identified NISP at TEL-155 (Figure 7.6), and more than 80% of the identified NISP

of three site assemblages: TEL-079 (Figure 7.7), KTZ-101 (Figure 7.8), and KTZ-087

(Figure 7.9). Pinniped remains accounted for 90% of the identified NISP from both TEL-

025 and TEL-026 in Wales (Figures 7.10 and 7.11). Pinniped remains contributed 92%

of the identified NISP at NOM-009 (Figure 7.12), and 95% at TEL-104 (Figure 7.13).

Both the 1988 and 2010 excavations of KTZ-088 recovered archaeofaunal assemblages

heavily skewed towards pinnipeds (97% and 95% of the identified NISP, respectively)

(Figures 7.14 and 7.15). All of the sites are located on the coast. Except for one site,

none are close to the mouths of rivers. The site that is located at a river mouth, TEL-155,

has the lowest percentage of pinniped remains of the nine sites.

Pinniped

Whale

Bird

Caribou

Canine

Land Mammal

Fish

KTZ-145

133

Figure 7.6: Composition of TEL-155 archaeofauna; NISP=9,784 (unidentified remains not included).


Pinniped

Whale

Bird

Caribou

Canine Land Mammal

Fish

TEL-155

Pinniped

Whale

Bird

Caribou

Canine Land Mammal

TEL-079

134

Figure 7.8: Composition of KTZ-101 archaeofauna; NISP=421 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included).

Figure 7.9: Composition of KTZ-087 archaeofauna; NISP=412 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included).

Pinniped

Whale

Bird

Caribou Canine

Land Mammal Fish

KTZ-101

Pinniped

Bird

Caribou Fish

KTZ-087

135

Figure 7.10: Composition of TEL-025 archaeofauna; NISP=335 (unidentified remains not included).


Pinniped

Bird Caribou Canine Land Mammal

TEL-025

Pinniped

Whale Bird

Caribou Canine Land Mammal

Fish

TEL-026

136

Figure 7.12: Composition of NOM-009 archaeofauna; NISP=1,133 (unidentified remains not included).

Figure 7.13: Composition of TEL-104 archaeofauna; NISP=316 (unidentified remains not included).

Pinniped

Whale Bird

Caribou Canine Land Mammal

Fish

NOM-009

Pinniped

Whale Caribou Land Mammal

Fish

TEL-104

137

Figure 7.14: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 2010; NISP=4,209 (unidentified remains not included).

Figure 7.15: Composition of KTZ-088 archaeofauna excavated in 1988; NISP=1,124 (mammoth and unidentified remains not included).

Pinniped

Whale Bird Caribou Canine

Land Mammal Fish

KTZ-088 (2010)

Pinniped

Bird Caribou Canine

Land Mammal Fish

KTZ-088 (1988)

138

The archaeofaunal assemblages of the three sites in the interior of the Seward

Peninsula understandably have few, if any, marine mammal specimens. Most of the

faunal remains at all three sites are from caribou. At BEN-053, 96% of the identified

NISP belong to caribou (Figure 7.16), and caribou specimens contributed over 99% of

the identified NISP at both BEN-106 and BEN-033 (Figures 7.17 and 7.18). All three

sites are located by upland lakes or ponds, more than 45 km from the coast.

Figure 7.16: Composition of BEN-053 archaeofauna; NISP=512 (unidentified remains not included).

Bird

Caribou

Land Mammal

BEN-053

139



Bird

Caribou

Canine Land Mammal

Fish BEN-106

Pinniped Bird

Caribou

Land Mammal

BEN-033

140

Summary

Archaeofaunal analyses on assemblages large enough for regional analysis were

available for 16 Western Thule sites on the Seward Peninsula. Most of the sites were on

the coast; however, three were in the interior uplands. The faunal remains from the three

upland sites were composed primarily of caribou. The assemblages from nine of the

coastal sites were heavily skewed toward pinniped remains, while the faunal remains

from one coastal site were only slightly skewed towards small sea mammals. Three sites,

including NOM-146, demonstrated a varied subsistence strategy; the most common taxon

only accounted for about 40% of the assemblage. The caribou-heavy sites and those sites

with varied subsistence had more geographic similarity than sites that relied on

pinnipeds. The varied sites were at river mouths that emptied into shallow water.

141

Chapter Eight: Discussion

Site Comparisons to Socioterritorial Subsistence Patterns

The Western Thule sites described above are in five of the traditional

socioterritories identified by Ray (1964, 1967, 1975) and Burch (1980, 1988, 1998, 2006)

(Figure 8.1). Only three of the 16 archaeofaunal assemblages (NOM-009, BEN-053, and

KTZ-145) strongly adhere to the general historic subsistence patterns associated with the

territories within which they are located. The three sites around Wales (TEL-025, TEL-

026, and TEL-079) may or may not follow the whaling pattern associated with the

Kingikmiut territory; the fact that no large whale skeletal specimens were included in the

preliminary analyses of their assemblages greatly limits our understanding of the

importance of whales in the subsistence practices of these sites.

142

Figure 8.1: Location of comparative Western Thule sites and traditional Iñupiaq territories. Map based off of Grover (2005) and Schaaf (1995).

The other assemblages recovered from the Kingikmiut territory (TEL-104 and

TEL-155) suggest less emphasis on whaling than expected. Burch (2006:48) notes,

however, that historically most Kingikmiut whaling was based out of Wales, and after the

early spring bowhead hunt, people dispersed to seek walrus and other game. The people

who inhabited TEL-104 and TEL-155 may have also traveled to Wales for seasonal

whaling.

143

It can be argued that KTZ-145, the only site in the Tapqagmiut territory, does

follow the small sea mammal pattern, but with its slight emphasis on pinniped remains its

focus is far less obvious than the sites on Cape Espenberg or Cape Nome. All four

assemblages from the three sites on Cape Espenberg noticeably follow the small sea

mammal pattern. The similarity between the two faunal assemblages recovered from

KTZ-088 more than 20 years apart strengthens this interpretation.

As noted in Chapter Two, the Pittagmiut territory does not fit a single subsistence

pattern. This is supported by the large quantity of pinnipeds recovered from Cape

Espenberg, the extreme bias towards caribou seen at BEN-033 and BEN-106, and the

near impartiality demonstrated by the faunal remains from KTZ-300 and KTZ-301. This

may indicate that the Pittagmiut Iñupiat adhered to several different seasonal rounds, or

that there were additional boundaries within the identified socioterritory.

The faunal remains from KTZ-300 and KTZ-301 at Deering provide an

interesting look at the differences between geographically and temporally close sites.

While both sites demonstrated more of an equal emphasis on the major taxa than most of

the comparative sites, the taxa that they favor are different. KTZ-301 showed a slight

stress on caribou, followed by seal. The people at KTZ-300 appear to have been more

interested in small terrestrial mammals and birds. Although the village of Deering is

associated with the caribou hunting pattern (Ray 1964:71), Burch (2006:45, 48) noted an

emphasis placed on seals in the fall and winter. With this in mind, the archaeofauna from

144

KTZ-301 are more consistent with the expected Deering pattern than those from KTZ-

300.

The fact that at least one of the caribou-focused sites in the Pittagmiut territory

was a permanent winter village (based off of the presence of a qargi) and therefore did

not carry out winter sealing as suggested by Burch (2006:45) indicates that the people of

BEN-033 and BEN-106 had more in common with the occupants of nearby BEN-053

then with the people of Deering or Cape Espenberg. The single archaeofaunal

assemblage from the Qaviaragmiut territory (BEN-053) follows the expected caribou

hunting pattern.

The faunal remains from one of the two sites (NOM-009) in the Ayasaagiaagmiut

territory follow the expected small sea mammal pattern. Although the archaeofaunal

assemblage from NOM-146 has a slight emphasis on pinniped remains, it is not as much

as one might expect for the small sea mammal pattern. The importance placed on birds at

NOM-146 is greater than any comparative site other than KTZ-300. Although it would

be easy to attribute the NOM-146 bird remains to the proximity of Safety Sound, NOM-

009 is closer to the sound and few avifauna were recovered from that site. It is

interesting to note, however, that Ray (1964:71) was informed that historically villages

were not established in the Safety Sound area unless ptarmigan and hare were found

nearby. The large amount of tundra hare and ptarmigan recovered from NOM-146

endorse that oral tradition.

145

Summary. Although archaeofaunal assemblages from only three sites (NOM-

009, BEN-053, and KTZ-145) correspond robustly with their region’s historic

socioterritorial subsistence pattern, the faunal remains from six sites (TEL-104, TEL-155,

KTZ-087, KTZ-088, KTZ-101, and KTZ-301) are consistent with detailed ethnographic

reconstructions of historic subsistence for their particular areas within the territories.

Because no large whalebone was included in the analyses, the archaeofaunal assemblages

from the three sites at Wales were not comprehensive enough to test whether they

adhered to the whaling subsistence tradition of the Kingikmiut territory. Of the remaining

four sites, two (BEN-033 and BEN-106) seem to correspond more closely with a

geographically similar site (BEN-053) then with the historic subsistence pattern of the

area, and two (NOM-146 and KTZ-300) appear to have followed a more varied

subsistence base than expected.

Conclusion

This thesis set out to explore the connection between Western Thule

regionalization and the historic Iñupiat socioterritories on the Seward Peninsula.

Acknowledging the association between subsistence resources and cultural territories,

zooarchaeological analysis of archaeofauna from the Snake River Sandspit site (NOM-

146) and intersite comparisons with published regional archaeofaunal assemblages were

chosen as the methods to test the hypothesis. Ray’s (1967, 1975) identification of

historic village subsistence patterns were extrapolated to the unique seasonal round of the

146

larger socioterritory (Burch 2006). Archaeofaunal assemblages were compared to the

subsistence pattern expected of the territory within which sites were located.

Potential distortions of the data include the fact that the major taxa of the

archaeofaunal assemblages were identified by %NISP without taking the different meat

weights and utility indices for the species into account. If meat utility indices had been

generated, then the data may have resulted in better tests of goodness of fit with the

ethnographic characterizations of subsistence. Many of the assemblages used in the

regional intersite analysis represented only small, partial excavations of sites; sampling

strategies may have affected the accuracy of the faunal representation. Additionally,

some of the archaeofaunal data were obtained from preliminary faunal analyses; the data

may change when the analyses are complete.

Sixteen published faunal analyses from 15 sites were examined and compared to

the archaeofaunal assemblage recovered from NOM-146. Assemblages from the three

inland sites consisted almost entirely of caribou remains. Assemblages from nine of the

13 coastal sites were heavily skewed towards pinniped remains. Of the other four coastal

sites, one was slightly biased towards pinnipeds, while the other three demonstrated more

diverse emphasis on various species. NOM-146 was categorized as one of these sites:

analysis suggested that although pinnipeds, especially small ice seals, were important to

the people living at the Snake River Sandspit site, terrestrial mammals, birds, and fishes

also played a significant role in their diet.

147

After taking the lack of whale bone collection at some sites into consideration, 13

of the 16 sites provided valid archaeofaunal assemblages to test the hypothesis. Nine of

the sites corresponded with either the expected general socioterritorial subsistence pattern

or a more specific ethnographic subsistence pattern within the region. Two sites fit more

closely with the subsistence pattern of the closely neighboring territory (which may

indicate a shifted boundary line), and two sites had a more varied assemblage than

expected (although factoring meat utility into the data may alter this result). In general,

the results of this thesis indicate that, in spite of any minor alterations that may have

occurred as a result of recent climate change, regional subsistence practices on the

Seward Peninsula have changed relatively little since Western Thule occupation.

148

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Eldridge 2012 (Thesis)

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