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The Elamite and Tamil Connection:

By: Bipin Shah

Introduction:

The recent discoveries of Elamite seals in Iran and Mesopotamia may help us in

understanding the ancient history of India. Although, the work is still in progress at various

archeological sites but the discoveries so far are encouraging. The translation of the Elamite

seals gives some strong clues that we need to explore to fill the voids in Indian history and

that is the subject matter of this paper.

This is not to minimize what the ancient Aryans and others groups may have brought to

Indian civilization such as love for the spirituality, preference for pluralism, unified culture

and religious tolerance. All of them left some indelible marks on the present Indian culture.

The consistent lack of new discovery of Iron age Aryan archeology and or the inscriptions

comparable to Behistan of Persia restricts our knowledge and verification of only up to 3rd

century BC and raises an interesting question on Aryan geography of 6th century BC and

before. This is an important puzzle to solve for historians and archeologists.

The Rig-Veda text can be easily dated to 1800 -2000 BC but provides no clue to its geography.

The sister Avestan text also gives us some scant clues that the homeland was wintery cold but

omits the exact location. That leaves us to the mercy of linguists and theorist on the location

of urheimat (homeland).

The other puzzle that is still to be resolved is the presence of three separate language groups

living side by side for thousands of years. The Sanskrit, Tamil (Elamite) and proto-Austroloid

based tribal languages such as Munda but they have totally independent origins.

This reality cannot be ignored in overall context of profiling of the people of India. There has

not been sufficient resources or efforts spent to find out why India is the one of the rare

country in the world that enjoys this unique privilege of hosting three independently derived

languages with no roots connection except some exchange of loan words that can be called

as “lingua franca” . The present vast number of various regional languages and dialects

derived from these three mother languages of the past illustrate this point.

There are other civilizations with Aryan roots that have left sufficient archeology of their

existence in central Asia. The Hattusa of Hittite, the Behistan Inscription of Darius-I, in Persia

(Iran) who called themselves the Aryans.

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Lion gate of Hattusa-Turkey 1200 BC Behistan Inscription of Darius-I of Iran 522 BC re carved on Semiramis

inscription.

The Aryan epic of Mahabharata places the presence of Pandavas and Kauravas near Delhi,

Haryana and Punjab, while Krishna of Lunar dynasty is placed initially near present Matura

and then to Saurashtra region near Dwarka.

How this is is possible for someone who is essentially a Persian-Medes claim himself of Kuru

dynasty (vansh), some considerable distance apart from epic story? The geographical

differences have not been reconciled. Perhaps one way to look at this, during the ancient

period, there were no national boundaries as viewed in the present context and it changed

from time to time based on the might of the ruler who conquered the territories. The

landmarks like large mountain, mighty river or barren patch of the land understood to

separate the nationality or language group.

Further investigation leads us to believe that at one time there was a common vocabulary

existed among Indo-Iranian branch of Arias as shown below in the table form. This situation

in combination with “religious switch” of Good and evil Gods of both the ancient people

demonstrate that their differences probably were driven by their religious views than

physical boundaries or the language itself.

Proto-Indo-Iranian Avestan(Old Persian) Vedic Sanskrit (old Indic) English

1.aĉwa- ("horse") Av, aspa Asva Horse

2.bʰag- OP baj- (bāji; "tribute") Bhaga, Nazrana Tribute

3.bʰrātr- ("brother") OP brātar bhrātṛ Brother

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4.bʰūmī ("earth", "land") OP būmi bhūmī Earth-

5.martya ("mortal, "man") OP martya Martya Mortal

6.māsa ("moon") OP māha Māsa,Chadra Moon

7.wāsara ("early") OP vāhara ("spring") vāsara Morning

8.ṛta ("truth") Av aša, OP arta ṛta Truth

9.draugʰ- ("falsehood") Av druj, OP draug- druh- daugher

10sauma "pressed (juice)" Av haoma soma opium like

11 Av Hapta Septa Seven

12 Av Hindu Sindhu Indus

During Second World War, Hitler of Germany who claimed himself to be of Aryan nationality

while adopting Swastika (in inverted form) for Germany as a national symbol. His

understanding was more on racial term than other concepts of nobility, conduct and

spirituality.

Perhaps this may have inspired other colonial powers like British to claim Aryan history

through India. India in 17th century AD, became a beeline for Germans and British

archeologist, Indologists and linguists to learn Sanskrit and other derivative Prakrit languages.

With the local help, they succeeded in translating the ancient manuscripts of India that we

use as reference material as translated in English, that otherwise would have remained an

exclusive preserve of Brahmins and Royal bards.

Either this acts of colonial historians was prejudicial to Tamil speakers who are not

considered the part of Indo-European family of language or their biased was influenced by

local interpreters is not very clear. This bias had developed the understanding of the ancient

history of India in Indo-European lenses, in spite of their finds at Harrapan and Mohan-Je-

Daro that should have challenged that assumption or bias. There are plenty of archeological

evidence like the presence of megaliths in tribal areas of the east and various cave paintings

to suggest that India was habitated by Non-Sanskrit speakers longtime ago. The word “Arya”

has more to do with the way of life than just in context of the ethnicity, race or language

group.

There was and is a lack of comprehension in understanding the pre-history of India that

existed prior to Vedic time. The new discoveries of Elamite seals at the number of sites near

Susa, Iran or in the ancient province of “Ilam” as Iranians call it, speaks the same story for

Iran as India. Iran itself had preexisting languages and cultures prior to arrivals of Aryan

Medes and Persians.

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The wide presence of Buddhist archeology in Afghanistan and eastern parts of Iran and

Pakistan is more suggestive of India’s differing geography of the past than what our current

boundary defines.

The continuous and additive efforts by Kenoyer on Indus-saraswati civilization have started

to pay some dividends in unraveling the pre-history of India. Those ancient civilizations were

more urbanized with well planned cities than nomadic Aryans could have dreamed off either

in Persia, or Mesopotamia. The Aryan archeology in Central Asia is still intact. It is becoming

much clearer that Aryan question cannot be resolved on nationalist ground or debate. For

past 50 years or more, there have been intense debates among historians and Indologists to

design a model or theory that will explain the movement of Aryans from their original

homeland.

India had become a target of testing various theories due to the presence of their oldest

surviving Aryan language-Sanskrit. Over the millennia, India has emerged as a very diversified

nation and on the surface it does not fit the assumed profile of Aryans of any Aryan theories

but there are cultural layers of Aryans found everywhere either in the various languages,

epics, the spirituality and ethics that still dominates the Indian culture.

This article will spare the readers in rehashing the old Aryan theories and debates but support

the presence of earlier pre-Vedic cultures of India.

Elamite Connection to India and Archeological Finds of Iran:

Chogha Zanbil or “Dur Untash” is an ancient Elamite complex in the Khuzestan province of

Iran. Dur Untash Dur-Untash, which means the castle or the city of Untash named after King

Untash Napirisha, an Elamite king. Its size and splendor was intended to honor the gods and

to manifest the power of the king. Chogha in Bakhtiari language means hill. It is one of the

few existent ziggurats in Iran, just 10 miles west of Susa, once ruled by Elamites. It is almost

4000 years old. The South western Persia prior to the invasion by Mitanni /Medes was ruled

by a group who were known as Elamites and the land around Susa in Persia was called- the

land of "ILAM", Elamites land was situated at border of Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf.

The building materials used in the construction of Chogha Zanbil was mud bricks and baked

bricks very typical of all ziggurats’ construction of early Mesopotamia. The monuments were

beautifully decorated with glazed baked bricks, gypsum, ornaments of faience and glass. The

bricks had Elamite cuneiform inscription characters made by human hands. The glazed

terracotta statues such as Bulls and Winged griffins guarded the entrances to the ziggurat.

Near the temples of Kiririsha and Hishmitik-Ruhuratir, kilns were found that probably were

used for the production of baked bricks and decorated materials. The ziggurat was built in

two stages and in the second phase took its multi-layered form. A wall surrounded the

Ziggurat that had the inner wall of three concentric walls. Between the inner wall and the

middle wall several temples belonging to different Elamite divinities were built.

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Dur-Untash Ziggurats of Elamite near Susa, Iran-ruins and reconstruct Model

Bull and winged griffin of Elam outside of temple

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Some of the world's most ancient settlements have been excavated in the Caspian region and

on the Iranian plateau. The village life said to have begun over around 4000 BC as per

archeological evidence found in IV region. The Biblical story of Great flood is recorded and

repeated in various texts of the world in details. Rajtarangni of India that chronicles the

ancient history of Kashmir describes that the state of Kashmir was covered with the ice

sheets and was habitated by the people only after the big melt down, very similar mythology.

There have been numerous flood stories identified from ancient sources scattered around the

world. The stories that were discovered on cuneiform tablets, which comprise some of the

earliest surviving, writing, have obvious similarities. The Epic of Gilgamesh covers the similar

story as do the Hebrew bible. “The deluge overthrew the land." This is the headline in all that

stories.

Bronze Age sites of Iran and Elamite Ziggurat- 10 ml southwest of Susa, Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat-Temple layout

During the Bronze Age, the Iranian plateau was bounded on the east by the Hindu Kush and

the Himalayas and on the west by the lowlands of Ḵuzestan and Mesopotamia. The people

prospered greatly, owing to rich natural resources and the overland trade routes connecting

Fertile Crescent of Indus-saraswati valley and Mesopotamia lowlands, supplemented by the

sea routes. The trade was extended through central Asia, and Afghanistan. There is evidence

that at the end of the 4th millennium B.C. settlements through-out Iran were linked in a

common cultural and Trade network that the Assyrilogists called the “Proto-Elamite horizon.”

With a common communication tongue, if not the script. See Map below.

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Subsequently, however, distinct regional, cultural and political systems between eastern and

western Iran were developed. As these regions exhibited strong cultural continuity

throughout the Bronze Age, cultural development in each can be traced from the Proto-

Elamite period. Anatolia was once dominated by the ancient Elamites, who are considered

the descendants of Noah as per Biblical stories of flood. According to bible, the word Elam

derives from “Elam”, son of Sham and the grandson of Noah. The ancient Hebrew text also

contains the word Elam and the same word is present in the Tamil dictionary of India and also

corresponds with the Sumerian Elam (a), the Akkadian Elamtu, and the Elamite word for

themselves “Haltamti”. It can very well be said that the word “Haltamti” when reached India

in corrupted form just dropped out first three letters and with the etymology became the

word “Tamti” to “Tamil”. Mr. Prabhakaran, Tamil Tiger movement of Sri-Lanka knew his

history well when he demanded a separate homeland that he called “Elam.”

Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient near East around 2000

BC. The "Elamites" spread their empire to west under King Chedorlaomer. The Elamites had

struggled with the Assyrians for domination of Babylon. The great Babylonian dynasty of UR

was brought to an end about 1950 BC by the Elamites, who destroyed the city and took its

king prisoner. Many scholars believe that the Elamites empire boundaries included present

day Taxila and the areas of Baluchistan and Sindh.

Jewish Abraham had left Ur towards Cannon, when Neo-Elamite captured Ur. Jeremiah 49:36

prophesied in the Old Testament that “Elam will scatter them toward four direction of wind;

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and there shall be no nation whither the outcasts of Elam shall not come.” The Elamites were

later overthrown by the Assyrians, Medes and Persians. During Akkadian period, the Elamite

remained their vassals.

Once Akkadian-Elamite took control of Taxila and sindh, they may have controlled Indus-

saraswati valley cities and towns or they have made an extension thereof. They always had

trade relationship during early Sumerian-Akkadian period. We do not know if Indus-

saraswati region was either a colony or simple extension of Elamite kingdom of the past

consisting of Elamite nationality.

This statement may chill the hearts of “Aryan proponents” but the history is the history and

it is driven by the truth. When Hammurabi and successors attacked Elam Empire, the survived

one from war may have fled towards IV region and then on to further south. Since they

cannot go west or North dominated by Assyrians, the eastern routes through ancient

Gedrosia and sindh known through their trade relationship was the only option and then

heading further south. Some experts also suggest another route that may have been utilized

using monsoon wind to land near the port of ancient Muziris via sea. There are no other data

to prove or disprove this hypothesis.

However, the linguistic and genetics portrays a similar supportive picture through their

analysis. Tamil language of south India most likely originated from Elam and Haplogroup plot

shows the uniformity of haplogroup stretching up to Elam land. Some Elamites may have

settled in Baluchistan. See the maps below for the reference.

All indications point to the fact that Elamites were Semites like Jews and Arabs. Their

language has relationships in the family of Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic and proto Tamil

languages. Dravidian/Tamil has many words that are similar in Hebrew or Arabic. Similar

dialect is also used by tribes in Baluchistan. So probably there are some old links between the

Semites and Indian Dravids. Even today, the people of the extreme south of Iran and United

Arab Emirates look like south Indians.

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Elamite and Aryans:

The Iron Age Iran, the land of the Behistan inscription and the Aryans has a long and rich

history. Some of the world's most ancient settlements have been excavated in the Caspian

Sea region and on the Iranian plateau. According to Avestan Text, The Aryans may have left

the Northern cold region and moved down south and first appeared around Zagros mountain

sometimes around 2000BC and split into various groups such as the Hittite (Khati),

Medes(Madhu), Mitanni (Kurmi), Vedic(Sindhic or Hindic) and the Persians (Parsus)

throughout Asia.

Indian Rig-Veda does not provide any tangible clue to the Aryan geography and Avestan

references are climate related and does not talk about specific geography. This is why we

have a heated debate for over half century to determine the homeland of Aryans (Urheimat

issue). This debate began with linguistic construct of Proto-Elam and Proto-indo-European

language groups.

Regardless of the language issue, several thousand years of sharing the common geography

made the population so intermixed that now no ancient races can be traced or explained in

its purest form unless one chooses to be ultra nationalist and narrow minded in a mixed and

a globalized world.

The recorded history of modern Iran was dominated by several powers and invaders.

According to the recorded history, the first tribes to dominate this region were the Akkadian

and Elamite, or mixture of both. Following the Elamite were the Assyrians from North

western Mesopotamia who captured Elam near Susa. The Babylonians, Medes and Persians

Aryans followed after that. This sums up over 4000 years of Elam’s history in central Asia.

With various invasions, the migration had to follow. The motif over the ancient Assyrian

palace in Susa records the exodus of Elamites with their Bull driven carts with no involvement

of horses.

The Assyrilogists have conveniently divided the history of Elam into three periods, spanning

more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-

Elamite period:

1. Proto-Elamite: (3200 BC – 2700 BC based on clay tablet script)

This empire was from rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Three groups of people merged to make an

Elamite empire: The people from Ansan, Khuzestan and modern Luristan or Bakhtiari, near

Susa, Iran. The Proto-Elamite city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC in the watershed of

the river Karun (Kuru). It is considered to be the site of Proto-Elamite cultural formation and

perhaps why Darius-I, may have claimed Kuru Vansi.

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Exodus of Elamite since they cannot go west so they went east to Baluchistan and India-Note the absence of

horse but the presence of the bull cart. Motif from Palace at Susa of Assur Ban Pal.

As you can see from the map above Zagros Mountains pass through ancient Elam and some Aryan tribes

especially Medes and Kassite assumed to be of Aryan origin already were interacting with Elam.

Elam

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Since Mesopotamian period, the Solar deity was common in all religious tradition from east

to west, except perhaps the land of Elam and Indus- saraswati region where we still not have

found any seal depicting Surya (Sun) but we have a yogi seal or “Pashupati” seal that is

consistent with the popularity of Digambara Jainism, Ajivikism and Shaivism of South india.

2. Old Elamite period: (2700 BC – 1600 BC)

Based on the script from Eparti dynasty, the Sumerian king of Kish conquered the kingdom of

Elam by Enmebaragesi of Mesopotamia. This period included three dynasties: A. Avan

dynasty contemporary to the Emperor Sargon of Akkad and vassal to him. Sargon tried to

make the Akkadian the official language of his empire but was not successful. Elamite went

back to their script in use after he died and the empire weakened.

L. Austin waddle, an English historian has compared Sargon of Akkad as Purana king Sagar

and his son Menes as Manu. Sargon had seven sons named (Manu) Menes and one of them is

also considered to be same as Menes of Egypt who established the second dynasty. Waddell

hypothesized by comparing and matching Vedic genealogy with Mesopotamian genealogy of

kings. This was his theoretical frame work which he outlined in his book called “Makers of the

Civilization”. However, some of his hypothesis may need another look in view of recent

discoveries of Mesopotamia.

During Sargon’s rule, Mesopotamian developed the interest in Iron, metal, woods and Ivory

and their expedition to east became more common, this can also promote the migration of

humans either for trade or just to escape the war and conflict over resources. Their domain

did stretch to Gedrosia and Sindh (IV region).

The Indus-Sarshvati’s region’s collapse is estimated to have occurred around 2800 BC, so

there should be no resistance from any one from sub continent in absence of any military

challenge. So the chronology and sequencing of migration of Tamil and Sanskrit speakers

may have occurred during this period. Elam finally declared independence under the last

Avan king, Kutik-Inshushinak-I (2240–2220 BC), and threw off the Akkadian language,

promoting in its place the brief Linear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak- I, (Shishuniak or

Shishunaga of Indian) conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of

political unity. Around 1850 BC, Kudur-Mabug (Perhaps Indian Dashrath), apparently king of

another Akkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin (Bharat)

for 12 years on the throne of Larsa (Larka, Lanka), and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin (Ram-

Chandra), succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia for Larsa until

dislodged by Hammurabi (The law giver). More details are available on Dr. Ranjit pal’s web

site cited in reference section.

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Depiction of Larsa (Larka, Lanka) Hanuman type Royal court salute Mesopotamia Larsa king List-

cuneiform

How this Elamite cuneiform discovery squares with Epic Ramayana is hard to Judge? The

scribe, poets and historians have their own minds to put twist and turns in the epics, and

epics are not designed to meet the historical standards. We know that Ramayana was spread

to other southeast Asian countries by Tamil speakers of India and till today Rama’s victory

over Ravan is celebrated in south India, Thailand , Malaysia and Bali, Indonesia, but those

southeast Asians are not familiar with Gita or Mahabharata and do not observe any Vedic

rituals or practice. This remains a puzzle for the historians. It is suspected that The Elamite

migration may have started towards east during Sargon’s military campaign, and may have

continued over several centuries and Vedic Aryans followed the suit passing through land

route to east towards Baluchistan and onwards to doab of Ganges that supported the

agriculture. The Elamites having enjoyed the historical relationship may have used the sea

routes that carried them with the monsoon winds to south India.

3. Middle Elamite period: (1500 BC – 1100 BC)

The Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anzanite dynasties around 1500 BC.

Their rule was characterized by an "Elamization" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of

Anshan and Susa". While the first of these dynasties, the Kidinuids continued to use the

Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeeding Igihalkids and Shutrukids

used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in

importance in Susiana. The Anzanite dynasty provides very little information until the

Babylonian invasion of Susa.

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4. Neo-Elamite period: (1100 BC – 539 BC)

This period was characterized by increasing influence of Assyrian and Medians of Iran.

Achaemenids Empire of Persian began in 539 BC. The later Neo-Elamite period is

characterized by a significant migration of Indo-European speaking Iranians to the Iranian

plateau from north. The Medes that included Parthians, Sagartians, Margians, Bactrians,

Sogdians etc. became very powerful around 800 BC. Among those pressuring tribes were the

Parsu, first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore of Lake Urmiah, but who by

the end of this period would drive the remainder Elamites population out of their homes to

east and renames the Iranian Plateau as Persia. These Iranian Aryan groups at one time were

vassals of Akkadian and early Elamites.

If Asko Parpola’s theory is right on Indus script, the Part of Elamite Empire or extension

thereof was already present in IV region and moved south after abandonment of the major

cities. There is no proof now as Harrapan seals and the script remain undeciphered but clues

are there when the seals are compared. The similarity of religious seals exists between those

two ancient civilizations that enabled Mr. Parpola to come to the above conclusion. He

concluded: “Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization.”

Elamite Mother (Prithvi) Goddess Elamite sacred Bull deity

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Indus-saraswati Bull Terracotta deity Indus-saraswati Earth (Prithvi) Goddess

The Brahui tribe of Baluchistan speaks a related version of the Tamil language. Among the

Semite people, there is a common marriage custom and that is to marry one’s cousin. Arabs,

Brahui and some south Indians of Muslim faith observes this custom along with Parsee

community. Since Arabs founded Islam as Mohamed was from Saudi Arabia, this practice was

adopted by his followers throughout the world.

Some scholars claim the connection of Elamites to Tamils in earlier history of India, claiming

that ancient India’s name was "Illavart" before it was called “Aryavarta”.

Similarly, the state of Gujarat was called by different names during early common eras. The

northern Gujarat was called “Anarat” region (meaning land of non-Aryans), while southern

Gujarat was called “Lata”. The southern sindh was called “Suvira”. Saurashtra was called

“Suráshtra”. The word “Hindu” was given to Indians by Persian, meaning those leaving east of

the river Sindhu. This will not charm the hearts of many who do not recognize that the word

Hindu is given to us by others. Similarly, Rajasthan was called “Maru Mandal” or “Maru

Desh”.

The linguistics believes that the language of ELAM/Elamites was a linguistic isolate among

Semite languages. "EB" and "EM" is the Semitic root word for father and mother respectively.

These gives us the origin of words for father -Abba/Baba/Bapu/Appa and for the mother is

Amba/Amma/Ma found in various languages of India. Elamites were well mixed with Persian-

Aryans tribes and Vedic- Aryan tribes of India long time ago.

Similarly, the Semitic/Jewish word also may mean that "Abraham" means "father of all” or

“father of all priest” and Sarah as “Princess of God". Among various Semitic civilization of

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Jews, Arabs and ancient Elam, Abraham and Sarah may have become terms equivalent to

God and divinity. For Vedic people, Brahm and Saraswati became prominent terms associated

with God and divinity. So Abraham can be equated to Brahmin and Sarah can be equated to

Saraswati by Vedic people. In addition to this the term "Asura" used in India among Tamils

and Sanskrit speakers is similar to "Asher" of Semitic language of west Asia.

Kulli plate, very similar to ancient Indus plates with two tigers facing each other and motifs similar to those of

the Nal culture of Baluchistan. A closer look at the mysterious Kuli culture of Baluchistan that both pre-dated

and was contemporaneous with ancient Indus culture, and apparently was part of an elaborate trading network

that stretched west as far as the Jiroft culture in Iran. You see the signs of moon and star like symbols but do not

appear any sun symbol.

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Ancient Elam in Mesopotamia

The word “Elam” in Tamil means the homeland. This is exactly the way Elamite understood it

when they describe the areas near Susa in Western Iran as the land of “Elam” or “Ilam”. They

were contemporaries of the Egyptians, the Mitannis and the Hittites because Hittites were

the first to attack them. The Elamites concluded a major treaty with the Akkadian monarch

Naram-Sin. Elamite-Akkadian people became mixed during the early period and some of

them had Indian sounding names like Rim-Sin, Warad-Sin, Naram-Sin (Sin in Sumerian means

moon and Chandra in Sanskrit). Some have interpreted this as Ram Chandra, Bharat as Warad

Chandra or Narayan as Naram Chandra by Indians. The Elamite/Akkadian names like

“Shatruk” can be interpreted as “Shatrughana” and “Shushinak” as “Sheshnag”. The word

“Siwe /Sive” can be Indian “Shiva” and the Shaivism remains ever popular with the south

Indians.

Dr. Ranjit Pal, a Bhanadarkar Institute’ scholar wrote on his web site: http://ranajitpal.com/

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“Ram-Sin (also written as Rim-Sin) of Larsa was the same as Rama of Valmiki. This has been

maintained also by M.V.N. Krishna Rao at a later date. This implies that Warad-Sin who ruled

before Ram-Sin was Bharata, his half brother. T.C. Young Jr. Writes in the Cambridge Ancient

history about the peculiar role played by Kudur Mabuk, their father. He was apparently alive

when Warad Sin became king. Ram-Sin of Larsa, who is called an Elamite, is generally ignored.

The great Indian Epic Ramayana, on the other hand clearly indicates that Ram-Sin was Rama

who ruled Sumer, Elam and Indus-Saraswati. Ram-Sin was the longest reigning monarch of

Sumerian history who remains almost unnoticed due to a narrow perspective. Warad Sin

(1834-1823 B.C., middle chronology) and Ram-Sin or Rim-Sin (1822-1763 B.C.) as kings of

Larsa and Ur”

Artificially Created seal motif of Ram-Sita-Laxman and Hanuman as per the Story of Ramayana

These are some observation to mull over but similarities are also too numerous to ignore for

additional research. Nebuchadnezzar himself can be interpreted with a Tamil name of

“Neduncheziyan” or “Nedunchedianuru” or Vedic “Nabu”.

Nebuchadnezzar-1(1126-1103 BC) said to have visited India to pay his respect to 22nd Jaina

Tirthankara Neminath on the coast of Saurashtra. The region was controlled by Yadav Krishna

at that time and was called by “Andhakavrishnis” as per Mahabharata. Nebuchadnezzar-1

(Vedic Nabu?) was the fourth king of the Second Dynasty of Isin and Fourth Dynasty of

Babylon. He ruled for 23 years according to the Babylonian King List C and attacked Elam to

recover cultic idol of Marduk (Sun God-Mitra, Mithra) that was stolen by earlier Elam ruler.

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The cuneiform inscription of "Nebuchadnezzar-II” regarding Esagila temple and temple A-Zida, Eldest son

Nabopolassar, king of Babylon praying the recovered statue of Marduk, 6th

century BC from Museum in Israel.

The E temple was sacked several times during various invasions and looted. See the image of lion next to

Marduk, signifying Lion-Sun relationship similar to Bull-moon relationship.

The one of the three major language groups of India that has an apparent links to the ancient

Elamites, are the South Indian Dravidians-Tamils. If it is so, it represented their timing of

arrival in the South India prior to the arrival of Vedic Aryans in North India. In both instances,

the Harrapan civilization had been extinguished due to desiccation of soil or due to river flow

diversion or complete breakdown of trade links to Mesopotamia or other unknown climatic

events. This explains why Tamils settled in south while Aryans settled in Ganges Doab.

This research still remains the work in progress. Unfortunately, the archeological evidence

does not go beyond 3rd century BC in India and Harrapan seals in its cuneiform remain

undeciphered to test this hypothesis.

Aryans were definitely Iron Age nomadic people-settlers with chariots and horses with Grey

and black ware potteries (Harrapan used brown potteries). Aryan cultures are found in

central Asia with other tribes who called themselves Aryans and they also had their swastika

and linguistic similarities to prove it. The domestication of horses first appeared in central

Asia. Aryans performed the rituals of Asva Magha (Horse sacrifice) not common with Tamil

culture.

India and Thailand were first to domesticate elephants. IV region does have the elephant seal

but no horse seal. So, for East Asians like Chinese to stake a claim on elephant will be as

wrong as native Pre-Aryans Indians to claim the domestication of horses. The domestication

of horses occurred in central Asia and that proved to be a decisive military advantage in the

ancient world.

20

Elephant seal IV region Two horned antelope of India Antelope seal of IV region

Tamils and Hebrews connection:

The main Tamil-Dravidian deity was the moon god, Shiva. Throughout the Middle-East, the

ancient moon-god is considered to be the deification of Shem (and the fish-god being the

deification of Noah). Now having defined this, the prophecy of Jeremiah 49:39 could then be

viewed in different context.

One important thing to remember that proto-Elamite through middle Elamite along with

Indus –Saraswati valley was Bronze Age civilization. The animal seals that were proclaimed as

the horse was turned out to be the Indian antelope. The absence of the horse in Elamite

motif (below) and Harrapan seal (above) have striking similarities and suggestive that Aryans

riding their chariot and horses had not arrived in India then.

Other similarity to be noted between Jews and Elamites were both followed Moon calendar

by adding extra month or (Adhika Mas). The Jews celebrate Hanukkah, eight day festival of

light. Hindus celebrate Diwali, five day festival of light. Oil lamp & fried food is tradition of

both festivals. YAM was considered an important deity of ancient Jewish people. Among

Hindus they light oil lamp for YAM on 1 day before Diwali and Bhai Dooj festival is also called

as YAM DOOJ. The people of Kerala celebrate the "Onam" festival in the memory of the great

mythical King "Maha Bali" he was regarded as an Asura king. The “Onam” is also believed to

be the birthday of Mahadeva (Shiva), the Lord of Thrikkakara (Adinath). The famous

Thrikkakara temple had 28-day-long festival introduced by Mahabalipperumal, the former

king of Kerala. Under this tradition, it is mentioned that Goddess Kali would come to see Lord

Mahadeva.

Some south Indian historians hold the view that Onam was a festival prevalent in ancient

Assyria-Elamite. They named that temple in native language as "sigurai" or Ziggurat temple

per assyrilogists. The Onam deity resembles the shape of the Onam deity –Shiva Linga.

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Lord of Thrikkakara (Shiva or Adinath) of Kerala as an erect phallus

The celebrated good “Assur Mahabali” by south Indian can be construed as renegade

Assyrian Prince sympathetic to Elamites who migrated to India along with others. If Arya

called Asura as evil and they were supposed natives of India, we can be sure the natives will

not call them as Asura. We know also the Vedic king Sudasa who battled with Semiramis who

was an Assyrian queen of Mesopotamia.

The Assyrians who were Semitic people had their capital called "Assur" in the Mesopotamia.

Hebrew word for buffalo is “Rumai” and in Tamil is “Erumai”. “Eelai” is leaf in both languages.

The word “Erav” is the evening for Hebrew and but Night for Tamil. Some may consider this

as mere coincidence but they are too numerous to ignore.

The construction of the Jewish Temple and South Indian Temples are on the same plan. Both

have a sanctum sanctorum followed by a sanctuary and an outer court. There might have

been some relationship between the Pallava of southern India and the Pahlavas of

Mahabharata who were of Persian-Elamite origin. As outlined in my paper Genetic history of

Indian People, it is clearly established that the Dravidians were preceded in the subcontinent

by an Austro-Asiatic people. The Vedic migrants followed both of them later. The original

inhabitants may be identified with the speakers of the Munda and other tribal languages,

which are unrelated to either Indo-Aryan or Dravidian languages. This view is put forward by

Geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza. He stated his views in his book “The History and

Geography of Human Genes”, notwithstanding the proof of Indus-Saraswati people’s identity.

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Plans of Minaxi Temple south India Jewish Temple Plan Elamite Temple Plan

In spite of these explanations, we should make every one aware that the Elamo-Dravidian

language family is a hypothesized language family that links the Dravidian languages of India

to the extinct Elamite language of ancient Elam. Similarly Indo-European Language family is

also hypothesized language family. Several Linguists including David McAlpin has been a

chief proponent of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis along with American Indologists Franklin

Southworth. The extinct Harrapan language observations by Asko Parpola and other

Indologists also believes that the language(s) of the Indus Valley Civilizations may also be part

of this proto-elamite branch of the family.

Various experts have various theories. The genetic data shows that the people , group and

tribes came into india and also left india thousand of years ago and that is why india has the

most complex genetic history as outlined in my previous paper on Genetic History of India.

When those different groups of people arrived they were already mixed with other groups.

The historical Nebuchadnezzar -II is credited with rebuilding great monuments of Babylon as

well as conquering Judea and putting number of Jews to captivity.

23

Trades with Elam and Mesopotamia:

Ophir of the ancient world was a famous city from which ancient Egypt, Babylon, Sumeria and

other Middle East countries imported gold, sandalwood, ivory, gems, (wild animals and birds

(peacocks, monkeys). This now seems to be a corruption of the Tamil kingdom of Oviyar. The

Oviyar may be of the ruling tribes of South India and Sri Lanka both. Ophir (as the Greeks

called it is a corrupted form of Oviyar and was an ancient kingdom of South India and Lanka.)

The trades were handled through sea route when the Ships sailed from Oviyar to Sopara near

Thane and Lothal in Gujarat and onwards to Mesopotamia.

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Harrapan and Elamite Civilization:

Harrapan civilization is a fair debate. We do have the archeology but lacks the language to

make any connection with either the Sanskrit group or any other known cuneiform

languages. There are some strange similarities with Easter Island language off Chilean coast in

Pacific. The Indus valley script still remains a mystery of the “cuneiform world” until Rosetta

stone are found. Indus-saraswati or Harrapan civilization goes up to 4000 BC that existed in

cuneiform world of the Fertile Crescent. See below the time line of Harrapan civilization with

others.

Harrapan seals Indian antelope, pig, boar or deer with two types of Yogi-Shramana seals

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Proto Elamite seals and inscription and its similarities with Harrapan seals

There was one thing in common between Elamites, Medes, Persians and Vedic people; they

hated the Assyrians who they considered barbarians of the ancient world. There is a

consistent theme that can be found in epic literatures of Ramayana (Elamite origin) and

Mahabharata (Vedic origin); their common enemies were “Asura” probably referring to

Assyrians who uprooted both of them from Mesopotamia. One of the most important seal of

Indus-saraswati is the seal of Yogi, or dubbed as “proto Shiva” seal by some. That clearly

established the origin of Shramanic tradition of India.

A man wearing a headgear is sitting in yogic posture, with an erect phallus. The Animals

figures surround him. According to many art historians, this could be the earliest

representation of Shiva, and also shows the knowledge of yoga. Seals and terracotta figurines

believed to be portraying various yogic postures.

According to historians, the mature phase of the Indus-Saraswati civilization lasted from 2600

to 1900 BC. The discoveries at Mehrgarh, Pakistan, were to further push the Proto-IV

civilization to 6,000 BC. Eminent Pakistani archaeologist, Ahmad Hassan Dani said,

“Discoveries at Mehrgarh changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization.”

Elamite Mother (Prithvi) Goddess Elamite sacred Bull deity

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Indus-saraswati Bull Terracotta deity Indus-saraswati Earth (Prithvi) Goddess

Dancing Girl of Harrapan for worships Bharatanatyam- “Dance of fire” for Shiva worships

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Yogi seal Bronze statue of Shramana

Proto-Bharat Natyam for the worship of Shiva:

The dancing girl figurine reminds us how the shrine of Shiva at Somnath employed many

dancing girls in the temple worship of Shiva, performing the dance rituals that can be called

now classical Bharat Natyam. Bharata Natyam in Tamil also spelled as “Bharatanatyam”, is a

classical Indian dance form that originated in the temples of Tamil Nadu. This further support

the hypothesis advocated here that Shiva, Shramana and temple dancing are of Elam origin

and still very popular in south India. According to Bhimdeva Solanki’s biography kept by Jain

Acharya Hemachandra, Gujarat king fell in love with dancing girl of Somnath Shiva shrine and

made her his queen.

Rudra worship was practiced in ancient Harrapan region of northwest near Herat-

Afghanistan. Rudra is another name for Shiva and is featured in Veda. It is quite possible that

west and north Asian may have adopted them in from IV region or when they were vassals of

Akkadian-elamite rulers. We find no trace of solar deity in ancient Elamite religion. The Shiva

and Bull deity was popular with ancient Semites. Since today’s Hinduism is compendium of all

religious tradition of India, many deities are incorporated in a big tent of Hinduism. Now,

every Hindu in India recognizes and worships Shiva but he is more popular in South India.

During the Rajput age, Shaivism spread throughout India.

As a reality, a Hindu king was secular by nature to maintain peace and tranquility in his

kingdom and respected all the popular tradition observed by his people. The intolerance of

other religion and antagonism increased when Moslem took power in India due to their

rigidity in their belief that their religion is supreme above all. That aspect was more politically

driven than what their prophet had intended.

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The table below describes the various stages of the Indus-Saraswati civilization:

Date range

BC Phase______________________ Era________________

7000 – 5500 BC Mehrgarh I (ceramic Neolithic) Early Food Producing

Era

5500-3300 Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic) Regionalization Era

5500-2600

3300-2600 Early Indus-Saraswati

3300-2800 Indus-Saraswati 1 (Ravi Phase)

2800-2600 Indus-Saraswati 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I,

Mehrgarh VII)

2600-1900 Mature Indus-Saraswati Integration Era

2600-2450 Indus-Saraswati 3A (Nausharo II)

2450-2200 Indus-Saraswati 3B

2200-1900 Indus-Saraswati 3C

1900-1300

Late Indus-Saraswati (Cemetery H); Ochre colored

Potteries

Localization Era

1900-1700 Indus-Saraswati 4

1700-1300 Indus-Saraswati 5

1300-300 Painted grey-black Ware, Black-Polished-North (Iron

Age) Indo-Gangetic Tradition

J M Kenoyer, a leading expert on Indus Valley, says, “Crafts became most important for

reinforcing social and ritual status. These were efficiently controlled by new elites and

powerful merchants of the Indus cities. While the knowledge of specific craft technologies

were probably passed on from one generation to the next through kin networks and various

forms of ritual practice, the access to specific materials could have been carefully regulated

by controlling trade. At both Harappa and Nausharo, the building of massive mud brick walls

around the settlements would have been the most effective way to control the access to raw

materials. The walls and gateways would also have allowed for control of the export trade in

finished commodities.”

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Cultural Influence of India through Trades and settlements to south East Asia

Spread of Ramayana through South India

30

The greater India’s cultural zone exceeded its physical boundary and many southeastern

countries like Thailand and Cambodia used Sanskrit based names in their naming conventions

of places and individuals. This expansion of Hinduism was promulgated by Tamil speakers of

south India.

Moon, Bull Relationship with Shaivism of India:

Equally popular was the moon deity as mentioned above with Elamite and Jews and other

ancient civilization. See the list http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lunar_deities

Françoise Vallat summarized his conclusion of Elamite religion in his article: “The information

furnished by archeological excavations in Persia and by cuneiform documents permit a

summary description of some aspects of Elamite religion from the end of the 3rd millennium

B.C. until the Achaemenids period. As most of this material comes from Susiana (mainly Susa,

Chogha Zanbil, and Haft Tepe), a region under strong Mesopotamian influence, it is difficult

to extrapolate specifically Elamite features. Some such features can be identified from finds

on the Persian plateau, however, particularly at Kutangun, Naqs-e Rostam, and Tal-e Malian

in Fars; Malamir in Khuzestan; and Sahdad in Kerman; and at Liyan on the Persian Gulf.

Furthermore, certain details can be drawn from Mesopotamian documents, both written and

iconographic. Analysis of the Elamite religion thus requires isolation in the Susiana

documentation of elements that are not Mesopotamian and that can be compared with what

is otherwise known from the Persian plateau and adjacent areas To separate various deities

that were common with Sumerian, Babylonian and Elam, the specificity is required and they

were found in two broad categories of ritual sites: open-air sanctuaries and buildings. In the

first category three merit special attention: Kurangun Eza/Malamir, and Naqs-e Rostam.

At Kuringun (Seidl, 1986) a relief was carved at the top of a cliff, probably in the 17th century

B.C. The principal scene includes a god seated on a throne formed by a human-headed

serpent, an animal attribute of Napirisa (not Insusinak); he holds in his hands the rod and the

disk, symbols of supreme power, from which gush forth the waters of life. He is surrounded

by seven figures, of which one goddess, wearing a horned tiara, is probably his consort,

Kiririša. To the left is another scene, perhaps from the Neo-Elamite period, of a procession

composed of three superimposed ranks of praying figures descending toward the principal

scene.

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Kuringan defaced relief near Susa and artist’s sketch-Proto-Shiva God with water sprouting, & snake in the hand

Hindu Lord Shiva with River Ganga from the head, serpents on the neck and Linga-Phallus

Compare this to Elamite God found in Kuringan, Iran “god seated on a throne formed by a human-headed

serpent, an animal attribute of Napirisa (not Insusinak); he holds in his hands the rod and the disk, symbols of

supreme power, from which gush forth the waters of life”. Linga worship probably originates from aborigine of

India.

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Prophet Daniel describes the great place of Susa, Iran. See a picture of a marble carving to the

right. This colossal bull adorned the capital of a pillar in a great palace hall. The animal once

supported the great wooden rafters on his neck. This work of an in grey marble was found on

the site of ancient Susa, at one time the chief city of the kingdom of Elam (Daniel 8:2)

The rock reliefs at Eza/Malamir, Iran are divided into two groups, those at Sekaf-e Salman

southwest of Eza and those at Kul-e Farah to the northwest (Berghe, 1963; De Waele, 1981).

Each includes several ritual scenes: processions, musicians, animal sacrifices, and the like. It

seems that the images preceded the accompanying inscriptions (König, nos. 75-76), which are

of the late Neo-Elamite period, the first half of the 6th century B.C.- See more at:

http://www.iranchamber.com/religions/articles/elamite_religion.php#sthash.aj3QEhSC.dpuf

Horned bull at Susa (Elamite Period) Moon God “Sin” –Elamite, Accadian & Sumerian

The Tamil migration came to Sri-Lanka with Shaivism, the religion of Elam and Indus valley.

Numerous temples are found in Sri-Lanka and south India. To get a complete list see the

bibliography at the bottom. Shaivism as practiced in India today is a composite Hindu God but

the above find from the Elamite sites describes some similarities to Hindu Shiva. Shaivism is

very popular in south India and like any other ancient civilization the god and goddesses are

integrated among various cultures. The bull has a great importance in the culture of the

Dravidians, the agriculturalist. Some Dravidians see the bull as the national animal of the

Dravidians. The bull is the symbol of manhood, pride, courage and strength in Tamil culture.

Bull was worshiped by the ancient Dravidians. Lord Shiva is the patron god of the Dravidians

and his mount is a bull named Nandi. The name Nandi, was derived from the ancient

Dravidian word Pandi (bull).

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Egyptian Apis, Isis and Ishtar of Babylon were moon deities-semite Goddess

Presence of moon God symbols and Elamite shrine in Islam (Semite)

A Bull holding a spouted vessel proto-elamite; 3100–2900 B.C. Iran

34

The majorities of the Dravidians are Hindus and belong mostly to Shaivism faith (Lord Shiva).

Lord Shiva and Shaivism have origins in the Proto-Dravidian culture. The ancient Dravidians

believed in the man-woman equality and the universal parents (Shiva and Parvati). Women

are often in the center of art and culture. Bharat Natyam is a good example. The Mother

Goddess religion is a major part of the Dravidian religion. Lord Shiva and some other

Dravidian gods were adopted later in Hinduism.

Funerary Head of Elamite Elamite Inscription found in Iran

For the statue of gods in sanctum sanctorum or Shiva Lingam is made of black stone. Some

have speculated that the black stone of Medina Shrine of Prophet follows this convention

except it is a square and not a cylindrical triangle. The Shaivism was the dominant Hindu

belief of Tamils over millennia. The ancient Tamils were very close to the nature, they

worshiped animals and natural spirits. Tamils knew about various plants and their effects

what we call now southern Ayurveda. The plants were often used for medical or religious

rituals. Some religious practices of Tamils like Shramanism and exorcism by gods are not

necessarily Vedic in origin. There are many Tamil gods who are not recognized as Vedic gods.

Most of these gods belong to the group of Native gods and are not part of the Vedic religion.

The worship of ancestors and fallen hero was a part of the Tamil culture but now is popular

with all the Hindus.

Vinay Pandey writes in his blog http://www.importantindia.com/888/shaivism-the-origin-

and-growth-of-shavism/

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“The origin of Shaivism in India can be traced from very early times. It may be a legacy of the

non-Aryan religious belief of the pre-historic period. The excavations in the Indus valley have

revealed images of deities resembling Siva and phallus or Siva-lingam. However the cult of

Siva developed by the fusion of the character of many native deities, including the Vedic God

Rudra. In the ‘Rig-Veda’, Rudra is the God of destruction and storm. But in the `Yajur-Veda’, a

synthesis is made between his destructive and benevolent character. Gradually Rudra rose

into importance. In the ‘Svetasvatara Upanishad’, Rudra or Siva is regarded as the Supreme

God (Manadeva) and Adinatha (fist lord) of Jaina.”

Yet another writer opines that “Shaivism is strong among the Tamils of Southern India and Sri

Lanka. Some traditions credit the spreading of Saivism into southern India to the great sage,

Agastya, who is said to have brought Vedic traditions along with the Tamil language”.

Agastya was one of the septa Rishi who exchanged place with another Rishi in Puranic list

from time to time. Agastya is also featured in many languages of the world. Agastya (Tamil),

Agathiyar (Telugu), Agasta-Sanskrit, Anggasta-Malaya; Akkhot-Thailand is suggestive of the

spread from Tamil land to many places in Asia. Agastya is one of the Saptarishi who is

extolled at many places in the Vedas and regarded as a revered sage. Agastya is also believed

to be the author of Agastya Samhita.

Agastya connection with Rama is mentioned most among all the existing epic texts of

Ramayana, probably suggesting an Akkadian-Elamite origin. He is mentioned in the oldest

and most original existing versions of the Ramayana by Sage Valmiki, as having his abode in

the form of a hermitage in the Malaya Mountains. His main hermitage is placed by the epic

Ramayana somewhere in the western half of the Indian Ocean, further south of the so-called

Malaya Mountains, amongst a series or chain of large islands and submerged mountains. If

this story gives you any twist, it implies Elamite connection near Mesopotamia in the Gulf

region. Old Tamil literature contains several references to “agam” in the sense of ‘fort, palace

or inner place’. This also implies ancient Larsa or Lanka of Ramayana.

The story of the southern migration of the Velir from Dwaraka under the leadership of

Agastya is narrated by Naccinarkkiniyar in his commentary on Tolkappiyam. (Payiram; Porul,

1.34). - Dravidian Text. Agastya's legacy is also associated with the Chengannur Temple in

Kerala in South India, considered to be first built by Agasthya Muni, where he sat in

meditation. Here Siva-Parvathy’s idols are worshiped in the same temple. One half of the

temple is dedicated to Lord Siva and the other half behind Siva is dedicated to Goddess

Parvati.

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Chengannur Shiva Temple Valmiki at Dwaraka Tirumala, Andhra Pradesh

Sage Valmiki who wrote the Sanskrit version of Valmiki Ramayana in poetic form was a

robber named Ratnakar as per Uttara Kanda. Then there is a mythical story about his

salvation by Narada and he becomes the sage. The whole narrative appears to looks like the

defamation effort by mainstream Brahmins to isolate someone for separating from

established tradition. We should not be surprised if Valmiki was of non-Vedic origin. His

depiction is created below in Andhra Pradesh. As per K. d. Abhanyka who wrote an article on

Valmiki, summarizes his observation as follows:

“Valmiki may not have been a Brahmin like Vasishtha. He was not a Raja (king) like

Viswamitra. He was possibly born as an Adivasi (the first aborigines of India). There are

people who say that he was a Bhil, and those who say that he was a Kirata. To the followers

of the Valmiki religion, he is the Eternal God himself. The Uttarakanda of the Ramayana

refers to him as Brahmarshi, Bhargava son of Bhriggu and gives his name as “Praceta” and in

some places says that he is the son of Varuna.”

REFERENCES:

1. R. Ghirshman, The Ziggurat of The “Choga-Zanbil”, Scientific American, vol. 204, pp. 69-76,

1961

2. The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State by D.

T. Potts, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-56496-4

3. Commentary to Gen. 11:1–9; by Abraham Ibn Ezra, M.D. Cassuto, Mi-No'aḥ ad Avraham

37

(19593), 154–69;

4. The Book of Genesis (ICC, 1930), 223–31; J. Skinner

5. Elamites:

http://www.iranchamber.com/religions/articles/elamite_religion.php#sthash.aj3QEhSC.dpuf

6. http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/toi_srilanka.htm “Shiva Temples in Elam-SriLanka.”

7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Shiva_temples_in_India “Shiva Temples in India”.

8. http://www.hattuscha.de/English/liongate.htm Hattusa

9. Potts 2004 FS Mortensen Kurangun relief - Academia.edu Kurugan relief in Iran.

10. The Arjan Tomb-crossroads between Elamite and the Persian empires, by Javier Alvarez-

Gutenberg Archive.

11. "Agastya Legend and the Indus Civilization" by Iravatham Mahadevan

12. http://ancientindians.wordpress.com/ramayanam/valmiki-adikavi/ by K.D. Abhayanka

13. Elamites: Ancient script http://www.ancientscripts.com/elamite.html

14. A History of ancient near East by Marc Van De Mieroop, Blackwell publishing.

15. The Cambridge ancient history: Early history of Middle east, Cambridge Press.

16. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and near East by Michel Roaf.

17. www.harrapa.com, Harrapan artifacts.

18. http://ranajitpal.com/- “A new Non-Jonesian history of the world” by Dr. Ranjit Pal.

19. Horseplay in Harappa by Steve Farmer http://www.frontline.in/fl1720/17200040.htm

20. Connection and complexities, new approach to complexities of south Asian archeology

http://www.frontline.in/fl1720/17200040.htm