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Economy of Egypt [ 1 ] Ekonomi Mesir [1]

Cairo skyline , as seen from the Cairo Tower Kairo langit , seperti yang terlihat dari Menara Kairo

Rank Pangkat 27th 27

Currency Mata uang Egyptian pound (EGP) Mesir pon (EGP)

Trade organisations Organisasi perdagangan

WTO WTO

Statistics Statistik

GDP PDB $500.9 billion (2010 est.) $ 500.900.000.000 (2010 est)

GDP growth Pertumbuhan PDB

1.8% (2010-2011 [ 2 ] ) 1,8% (2010-2011 [2] )

GDP per capita PDB per kapita

$6,200 ( PPP ) (2010 est.) $ 6.200 ( PPP ) (2010 est)

GDP by sector PDB menurut sektor

agriculture: 13.5%; industry: 37.9%; services: 48.6% (2010 est.) pertanian: 13,5%; industri: 37,9%; jasa: 48,6% (2010 est)

Inflation ( CPI ) Inflasi ( CPI )

12.8% (2010 est.) 12,8% (2010 est)

Population Populasi below poverty line bawah garis kemiskinan

20% (2005 est.) 20% (2005 est)

Gini index Gini index 34.4 (2001) 34.4 (2001) Labour force Angkatan Kerja

26.1 million (2010 est.) 26.100.000 (2010 est)

Labour force Angkatan Kerja by occupation menurut pekerjaan

Agriculture (32%), Industry (17%), Services (51%) (2001 est.) Pertanian (32%), Industri (17%), Jasa (51%) (2001 est)

Unemployment 9.7% (2010 est.) 9,7% (2010 est)

Pengangguran

Main industries Utama industri

Textiles , Food Processing, Tourism , Chemicals , Pharmaceuticals , Hydrocarbons , Construction, Cement , Metals, Light Manufactures Tekstil , Pengolahan Makanan, Pariwisata , Kimia , Farmasi , Hidrokarbon , Konstruksi, Semen , Logam, Light Manufaktur

Ease of Doing Business Rank Kemudahan Melakukan Peringkat Bisnis

94 94

External Eksternal

Exports Ekspor $25.34 billion ( 61st ; 2010 est.) $ 25340000000 ( 61 ; 2010 est)

Export goods Ekspor barang

Crude oil and Petroleum products, Cotton , Textiles , Metal Products, Chemicals , Agricultural goods Minyak mentah dan Minyak produk, Kapas , Tekstil , Produk Logam, Kimia , Pertanian barang

Main export partners Ekspor utama mitra

United States 7.95%, Italy 7.26%, Spain 6.78%, India 6.69%, Saudi Arabia 5.53%, Syria 5.3%, France 4.39%, South Korea 4.27% (2009) Amerika Serikat 7,95%, Italia 7,26%, Spanyol 6,78%, India 6,69%, Arab Saudi 5,53%, Suriah 5,3%, Perancis 4,39%, Korea Selatan 4,27% (2009)

Imports Impor $46.52 billion ( 47th ; 2010 est.) $ 46520000000 ( 47 ; 2010 est)

Import goods Mengimpor barang

Machinery and Equipment, Foodstuffs, Chemicals , Wood products, Fuels Mesin dan Peralatan, Bahan pangan, Kimia , Kayu produk, Bahan Bakar

Main import partners Utama impor mitra

United States 9.92%, China 9.63%, Germany 6.98%, Italy 6.88%, Turkey 4.94% (2009) Amerika Serikat 9,92%, Cina 9,63%, Jerman 6,98%, Italia 6,88%, Turki 4,94% (2009)

FDI stock FDI saham $72.41 billion (31 Dec 2010 est.) $ 72410000000 (31 Desember 2010 est)

Gross external debt Gross utang eksternal

$30.61 billion (31 Dec 2010 est.) $ 30610000000 (31 Des 2010 est)

Public finances Keuangan publik Public debt Publik utang

80.5% of GDP (2010 est.) 80,5% dari PDB (2010 est)

Revenues Pendapatan $46.82 billion (2010 est.) $ 46820000000 (2010 est)

Expenses Beban $64.19 billion (2010 est.) $ 64190000000 (2010 est)

Credit rating Rating kredit

BB- (Domestic) BB-(Domestik) BB- (Foreign) BB-(Asing) BB- (T&C Assessment) BB-(T & C Penilaian) ( Standard & Poor's ) [ 3 ] ( Standard & Poor ) [3]

Foreign reserves Asing cadangan

US$30.503 billion (March 2011) [ 4 ] US $ 30503000000 (Maret 2011) [4]

Main data source: CIA World Fact Book Utama sumber data: CIA World Fact Book

All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars Semua nilai, kecuali dinyatakan lain, dalam dolar AS

In north eastern Egypt , the Nile Delta is where most Egyptian economic activity takes place. Di utara timur Mesir , yang Delta Nil adalah tempat kegiatan ekonomi yang paling Mesir terjadi. In the last 30 years, the government has reformed the highly centralized economy it inherited from President Gamal Abdel Nasser . Dalam 30 tahun terakhir, pemerintah telah mereformasi sistem ekonomi yang sentralistik warisan dari Presiden Gamal Abdel Nasser .

During the 1990s, a series of International Monetary Fund arrangements, coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from Egypt's participation in the Gulf War coalition, helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance. Selama 1990, serangkaian Dana Moneter Internasional pengaturan, ditambah dengan penghapusan utang eksternal besar yang dihasilkan dari partisipasi Mesir dalam Perang Teluk koalisi, Mesir membantu meningkatkan kinerja makroekonomi.

Since the turn of the new millennium, the pace of structural reforms, including fiscal, monetary policies, privatization and new business legislations, helped Egypt to move towards a more market-oriented economy and prompted increased foreign investment. Sejak pergantian milenium baru, langkah reformasi struktural, termasuk fiskal, kebijakan moneter, privatisasi dan legislasi bisnis baru, membantu Mesir untuk bergerak ke arah yang lebih berorientasi ekonomi pasar dan mendorong peningkatan investasi asing. The reforms and policies have strengthened macroeconomic annual growth results which averaged 5% annually but the government largely failed to equitably share the wealth and the benefits of growth have failed to trickle down to improve economic conditions for the broader population, especially with the growing problem of unemployment and underemployment among youth under the age of 30 years. Reformasi dan kebijakan telah memperkuat hasil pertumbuhan makroekonomi tahunan yang rata-rata 5% per tahun tetapi pemerintah sebagian besar gagal untuk secara adil berbagi kekayaan dan manfaat dari pertumbuhan yang telah gagal untuk menetes ke bawah untuk memperbaiki kondisi ekonomi bagi penduduk yang lebih luas, terutama dengan masalah pertumbuhan pengangguran dan setengah pengangguran di kalangan pemuda di bawah usia 30 tahun.

A youth protest demanding more political freedoms, fighting corruption and delivering improved living standards forced President Mubarak to step down on February 11, 2011. Sebuah protes yang menuntut kebebasan lebih muda politik, memerangi korupsi dan memberikan standar hidup yang meningkat memaksa Presiden Mubarak untuk mundur pada tanggal 11 Februari 2011. In the Post-Mubarak Era the Egyptian economy faces a rocky road

to stabilize the economy after 18 days of protests which may cut economic growth in the Fiscal Year ending June 2011 to about 2%. Dalam Era Pasca-Mubarak perekonomian Mesir menghadapi jalan berbatu untuk menstabilkan perekonomian setelah 18 hari protes yang dapat mengurangi pertumbuhan ekonomi dalam Tahun Anggaran yang berakhir Juni 2011 untuk sekitar 2%.

Contents Isi

 [hide] 

1 Macroeconomic trend 1 Makroekonomi tren 2 Reform era 2 Reformasi zaman

o 2.1 External trade and remittances 2.1 Eksternal perdagangan dan pengiriman uang

o 2.2 Public finances 2.2 Publik keuangan o 2.3 External debt 2.3 Eksternal utang o 2.4 Opportunity cost of conflict 2,4 Peluang biaya konflik o 2.5 The financial sector 2.5 Sektor keuangan o 2.6 Monetary and exchange rate policy 2,6 kebijakan moneter dan nilai tukar

2.6.1 Monetary policy 2.6.1 Kebijakan Moneter 2.6.2 Exchange rate policy 2.6.2 Kurs kebijakan

3 Natural resources 3 Sumber daya alam o 3.1 Land, agriculture and crops 3.1 Tanah, pertanian dan tanaman

3.1.1 The Devil's Gardens 3.1.1 Setan Gardens o 3.2 Water resources 3.2 sumber daya air o 3.3 Mineral and energy resources 3.3 Mineral dan energi sumber daya

4 Main economic sectors 4 sektor ekonomi utama o 4.1 Agricultural sector 4.1 Pertanian sektor o 4.2 Industrial sector 4.2 Industri sektor

4.2.1 Automobiles manufacturing 4.2.1 Mobil manufaktur 4.2.2 Chemicals 4.2.2 Kimia 4.2.3 Consumer electronics and home appliances 4.2.3 Konsumen

elektronik dan peralatan rumah 4.2.4 Steel industries 4.2.4 Baja industri 4.2.5 Textiles and clothing 4.2.5 Tekstil dan pakaian

o 4.3 Construction and contracting sector 4.3 Konstruksi dan sektor kontraktor o 4.4 Services sector 4.4 Layanan sektor

4.4.1 Banking & insurance 4.4.1 Perbankan & Asuransi 4.4.2 Communications 4.4.2 Komunikasi 4.4.3 Transport 4.4.3 Transportasi 4.4.4 Tourism sector 4.4.4 Sektor pariwisata

5 Emerging sectors 5 Muncul sektor o 5.1 ICT sector 5.1 TIK sektor

6 Largest companies 6 Terbesar perusahaan 7 Investment 7 Investasi

o 7.1 Investment climate 7.1 Investasi iklim 8 Response to the global financial crisis 8 Respon terhadap krisis keuangan global 9 Poverty and income distribution 9 Kemiskinan dan distribusi pendapatan 10 Statistics 10 Statistik

11 Notes 11 Catatan 12 See also 12 Lihat juga 13 References 13 Referensi 14 External links 14 Pranala luar

[ edit ] Macroeconomic trend [ sunting ] tren Ekonomi Makro

Egypt has a stable economy in the Middle East and North Africa enjoying continuous growth, averaging 4%–5% in the past quarter-century. Mesir memiliki ekonomi yang stabil di Timur Tengah dan Afrika Utara menikmati pertumbuhan yang berkesinambungan, rata-rata 4% -5% pada seperempat abad. The economy embarked on various stages of development during which the public and private sectors played roles varying in relative importance: Perekonomian memulai berbagai tahap pembangunan selama mana sektor publik dan swasta memainkan peran yang bervariasi dalam kepentingan relatif:

Import substitution and nationalization , 1952–1966, during which the first program of industrialization in 1957 was established and led by the public sector in heavy industries such as iron and steel and chemical industries. Substitusi impor dan nasionalisasi, 1952-1966, di mana program pertama industrialisasi pada tahun 1957 didirikan dan dipimpin oleh sektor publik di industri berat seperti besi dan baja dan industri kimia. Nationalization reduced the relative importance of the private sector. Nasionalisasi mengurangi kepentingan relatif dari sektor swasta.

Inter-War , 1967–1973, adversely affected the performance of the economy and public sector role in import substitution. Perang antar-, 1967-1973, berdampak buruk terhadap kinerja ekonomi dan peran sektor publik di substitusi impor.

Openness Euphoria , 1974–1982 during which policies were introduced to encourage Arab and foreign investment through a series of incentives and liberalizing trade and payment; the economy expanded but this proved unsustainable and growth consequently scaled back. Keterbukaan Euphoria, 1974-1982 di mana kebijakan diperkenalkan untuk mendorong investasi Arab dan asing melalui serangkaian insentif dan liberalisasi perdagangan dan pembayaran; ekonomi diperluas, namun ini terbukti tidak berkelanjutan dan pertumbuhan akibatnya turunkan.

External Debt Crisis , 1982–1990, the external debt crisis and Paris Club re-scheduling and debt reduction. Utang eksternal Krisis, 1982-1990, krisis utang eksternal dan Paris Club penjadwalan ulang dan pengurangan utang.

Economic Reform , 1991–2007, reform policies were introduced to meet the terms of international institutions, lenders and donors, including wider incentives to the role of the private sector in all economic activities. Reformasi Ekonomi, 1991-2007, kebijakan reformasi diperkenalkan untuk memenuhi persyaratan lembaga-lembaga internasional, pemberi pinjaman dan donor, termasuk insentif yang lebih luas untuk peran sektor swasta dalam semua kegiatan ekonomi.

The World Food Crisis , 2008, soaring food prices, especially for grains, led to calls for the government to provide more immediate assistance to the population of more than 40% in the "poverty tunnel" and to strike a "new deal" on agriculture policy and reform. Krisis Pangan Dunia, 2008, melonjaknya harga pangan, terutama untuk biji-bijian, menyebabkan panggilan bagi pemerintah untuk memberikan bantuan lebih

cepat dengan populasi lebih dari 40% dalam "terowongan kemiskinan" dan untuk menyerang sebuah "kesepakatan baru" pada pertanian kebijakan dan reformasi.

The World Global Financial Crisis , 2008–present, Egypt to face the repercussions of the global financial crisis on the national economy. Krisis Keuangan Global Dunia, 2008-sekarang, Mesir untuk menghadapi dampak dari krisis keuangan global terhadap perekonomian nasional.

Economic Boom , Egypt now has a GDP of $500.9 Billion, and the growth rate has been rising exponentially ever since Boom ekonomi, Mesir sekarang memiliki PDB $ 500,9 milyar, dan tingkat pertumbuhan telah meningkat eksponensial sejak

[ edit ] Reform era [ sunting ] Era Reformasi

Under comprehensive economic reforms initiated in 1991, Egypt has relaxed many price controls , reduced subsidies, reduced inflation, cut taxes, and partially liberalized trade and investment . Manufacturing had become less dominated by the public sector , especially in heavy industries. Dalam reformasi ekonomi yang komprehensif dimulai pada tahun 1991, Mesir telah banyak santai kontrol harga , subsidi berkurang, inflasi berkurang, memotong pajak, dan perdagangan sebagian diliberalisasi dan investasi . Manufaktur telah menjadi kurang didominasi oleh sektor publik , terutama dalam industri berat. A process of public sector reform and privatization has begun to enhance opportunities for the private sector . Agriculture , mainly in private hands, has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production. Sebuah proses reformasi sektor publik dan privatisasi telah mulai untuk meningkatkan kesempatan bagi sektor swasta . Pertanian , terutama di tangan swasta, sebagian besar telah dideregulasi, dengan pengecualian kapas dan produksi gula. Construction, non-financial services, and domestic wholesale and retail trades are largely private. Konstruksi, jasa non-keuangan, dan perdagangan grosir dan eceran dalam negeri sebagian besar swasta. This has promoted a steady increase of GDP and the annual growth rate . Hal ini telah mempromosikan peningkatan yang stabil dari PDB tahunan dan tingkat pertumbuhan . The Government of Egypt tamed inflation bringing it down from double-digit to a single digit. Pemerintah Mesir inflasi dijinakkan membawanya turun dari dua digit ke single digit. Currently, GDP is rising smartly by 7% per annum due to successful diversification. Saat ini, PDB meningkat cerdas oleh 7% per tahun karena diversifikasi yang sukses.

Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) increased fourfold between 1981 and 2006, from US$ 1355 in 1981, to US$ 2525 in 1991, to US$ 3686 in 2001 and to an estimated US$ 4535 in 2006. Produk domestik bruto (PDB) per kapita berdasarkan paritas daya beli--(PPP) meningkat empat kali lipat antara tahun 1981 dan 2006, dari US $ 1355 pada tahun 1981, menjadi US $ 2.525 pada tahun 1991, menjadi US $ 3.686

pada tahun 2001 dan ke AS diperkirakan $ 4535 pada tahun 2006. Based on national currency, GDP per capita at constant 1999 prices increased from EGP 411 in 1981, to EGP 2098 in 1991, to EGP 5493 in 2001 and to EGP 8708 in 2006. Berdasarkan mata uang nasional, PDB per kapita harga konstan 1999 meningkat dari USD 411 pada tahun 1981, EGP 2098 pada tahun 1991, EGP 5493 pada tahun 2001 dan 8708 EGP pada tahun 2006. Based on the current US$ prices, GDP per capita increased from US$ 587 in 1981, to US$ 869 in 1991, to US$ 1461 in 2001 and to an estimated US$ 1518 (which translates to less than US$ 130 per month) in 2006. Berdasarkan US $ harga saat ini, PDB per kapita meningkat dari US $ 587 pada tahun 1981, menjadi US $ 869 pada tahun 1991, menjadi US $ 1.461 pada tahun 2001 dan sekitar US $ 1.518 (yang diterjemahkan menjadi kurang dari US $ 130 per bulan ) pada tahun 2006. According to the World Bank Country Classification, Egypt has been promoted from the low income category to lower middle income category. Menurut Bank Dunia Klasifikasi Negara, Mesir telah dipromosikan dari kategori berpenghasilan rendah untuk kategori berpenghasilan rendah menengah.

Mean wages were $2.45 per manhour in 2009. Upah rata-rata adalah $ 2,45 per manhour pada tahun 2009.

Indicator [ 5 ] Indikator [5] 1981 1981 1991 1991 2001 2001 2005 2005 2006 2006 GDP (PPP) per capita, (US$) PDB (PPP) per kapita, (US $)

1,354.81 1,354.81

2,524.99 2,524.99

3,685.98 3,685.98

4,316.59 4,316.59

4,534.82 4,534.82

GDP per capita at constant prices, (EGP) PDB per kapita

atas dasar harga konstan, (EGP)

3,121.85 3,121.85

4,075.47 4,075.47

5,138.36 5,138.36

5,519.09 5,519.09

5,692.24 5,692.24

GDP per capita at current prices, (EGP) PDB per kapita pada

harga sekarang, (EGP)

411.20 411.20

2,098.71 2,098.71

5,493.28 5,493.28

7,890.65 7,890.65

8,707.88 8,707.88

GDP per capita at current prices, (US$) PDB per kapita pada harga

sekarang, (US $)

587.42 587.42

869.30 869.30

1,460.98 1,460.98

1,315.75 1,315.75

1,517.85 1,517.85

The reform programme is a work in progress. Program reformasi adalah pekerjaan berlangsung. Noteworthy that the reform record has substantially improved since Nazif government came to power. Perlu diperhatikan bahwa catatan reformasi telah secara substansial meningkat sejak pemerintah berkuasa Nazif. Egypt has made substantial progress in developing its legal, tax and investment infrastructure. Mesir telah membuat kemajuan substansial dalam mengembangkan hukum, pajak dan investasi infrastruktur. (See Nawar 2006) Indeed, over the past five years, Egypt has passed, amended and admitted over 15 legislative pieces. (Lihat Nawar 2006) Memang, selama lima tahun terakhir, Mesir telah berlalu, diubah dan mengakui lebih dari 15 buah legislatif. The economy is expected to grow by about 4% to 6% in 2009/2010. Ekonomi diperkirakan tumbuh sekitar 4% sampai 6% pada 2009/2010.

Surging domestic inflationary pressures from both economic growth and elevated international food prices led the Central Bank of Egypt to increase the overnight lending and deposit rates in sequential moves since February 2008. Naiknya tekanan inflasi dalam negeri dari kedua pertumbuhan ekonomi dan peningkatan harga pangan internasional memimpin Bank Sentral Mesir untuk meningkatkan pinjaman semalam dan suku bunga deposito dalam gerakan berurutan sejak Februari 2008. The rates stood at 11.5% and 13.5%, respectively,

since 18 September 2008. Tingkat berdiri di 11,5% dan 13,5%, masing-masing, sejak 18 September 2008.

The rise of the World Global Financial Crisis led to a set of fiscal-monetary policy measures to face its repercussions on the national economy, including reducing the overnight lending and deposit rates by 1% on 12 February 2009. Munculnya Krisis Keuangan Global Dunia menyebabkan satu set fiskal-moneter langkah kebijakan untuk menghadapi dampak pada perekonomian nasional, termasuk mengurangi pinjaman semalam dan suku bunga deposito sebesar 1% pada 12 Februari 2009. The rates currently stand at 10.5% and 12.5%, respectively. [ 6 ] Tingkat saat ini berdiri di 10,5% dan 12,5%, masing-masing. [6]

Reform of energy and food subsidies, privatization of the state-owned Bank of Cairo , and inflation targeting are perhaps the most controversial economic issues in 2007/2008 and 2008/2009. Reformasi subsidi energi dan pangan, privatisasi BUMN Bank Kairo , dan penargetan inflasi mungkin adalah masalah ekonomi yang paling kontroversial tahun 2007/2008 dan 2008/2009.

[ edit ] External trade and remittances [ sunting ] perdagangan eksternal dan pengiriman uang

Egyptian exports in 2006 Mesir ekspor pada tahun 2006

Egypt's trade balance marked US$10.36 billion in FY2005 compared to US$7.5 billion. Neraca perdagangan Mesir ditandai US $ 10360000000 di tahun 2005 dibandingkan dengan US $ 7,5 miliar. Egypt's main exports consist of natural gas, and non-petroleum products such as ready-made clothes, cotton textiles, medical and petrochemical products, citrus fruits, rice and dried onion, and more recently cement, steel, and ceramics. Ekspor utama Mesir terdiri dari gas alam, dan non-minyak produk seperti pakaian jadi, tekstil katun, produk medis dan petrokimia, buah jeruk, padi dan bawang kering, dan baru-baru semen, baja, dan keramik. Egypt's main imports consist of pharmaceuticals and non-petroleum products such as wheat, maize, cars and car spare parts. Impor utama Mesir terdiri dari obat-obatan dan non-produk minyak bumi seperti gandum, jagung, mobil dan suku cadang mobil. The current account grew from 0.7% of GDP in FY2002 to 3.3% at FY2005. Transaksi berjalan meningkat dari 0,7% dari PDB pada FY2002 menjadi 3,3% pada tahun 2005. Egypt's Current Account made a surplus of US$4478 million in FY2005 compared to a deficit of US$158 million in FY2004. Rekening Koran Mesir membuat surplus US $ 4478000000 pada tahun 2005 dibandingkan dengan defisit US $ 158 juta pada FY2004.

Italy and the USA are the top export markets for Egyptian goods and services. Italia dan Amerika Serikat adalah pasar ekspor atas barang dan jasa Mesir. In the Arab world , Egypt has the largest non-oil GDP as of 2005. Di dunia Arab , Mesir telah non-minyak terbesar PDB pada 2005.

According to the International Organization for Migration , an estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through remittance inflows, circulation of human and social capital, as well as investment. Menurut Organisasi Internasional untuk Migrasi , yang diperkirakan 2,7 juta orang Mesir di luar negeri berkontribusi secara aktif untuk pembangunan negara mereka melalui remitansi arus masuk, sirkulasi modal manusia dan sosial, serta investasi. In 2009 Egypt was the biggest recipient of remittances in the Middle East ; an estimated US$ 7.8 bn was received in 2009, representing approximately 5 % of national GDP, with a decline of 10% from 2008, due mostly to the effect of the financial crisis. Pada tahun 2009 Mesir adalah penerima remitansi terbesar di Timur Tengah , sebuah US $ 7,8 miliar diperkirakan diterima pada tahun 2009, mewakili sekitar 5% dari PDB nasional, dengan penurunan 10% dari 2008, terutama karena efek dari keuangan krisis. According to data from Egypt's Central Bank, the United States was the top sending country of remittances (23%), followed by Kuwait (15%), the United Arab Emirates (14%) and Saudi Arabia (9%). [ 7 ] Menurut data dari Bank Sentral Mesir, Amerika Serikat adalah negara pengirim atas pengiriman uang (23%), diikuti oleh Kuwait (15%), yang Emirat Arab (14%) dan Arab Saudi (9%). [7]

[ edit ] Public finances [ sunting ] keuangan Publik

On the revenues side, total revenues of the government were EGP 89.1 billion in FY2002 and are projected to reach EGP184.7 bn in FY2008. Di sisi pendapatan, total pendapatan pemerintah itu EGP 89100000000 di FY2002 dan diproyeksikan untuk mencapai EGP184.7 miliar di FY2008. Much of the increase came from a rise in tax revenues, particularly personal income and corporate taxes which constituted the bulk of total domestic taxes, due to recent tax reforms. Banyak peningkatan berasal dari kenaikan penerimaan pajak, terutama pajak penghasilan pribadi dan perusahaan yang merupakan bagian terbesar dari pajak domestik total, karena reformasi pajak terakhir. This trend is likely to gradually widen the tax base in the forthcoming years. Tren ini kemungkinan untuk secara bertahap memperluas basis pajak pada tahun-tahun mendatang. Revenues, however, have remained more or less constant (about 21% ) as a percentage of the GDP over the past few years. Pendapatan, bagaimanapun, tetap lebih atau kurang konstan (sekitar 21%) sebagai persentase dari PDB selama beberapa tahun terakhir.

On the expenditures side, strong expenditure growth has remained a main feature of the budget. Di sisi pengeluaran, pertumbuhan pengeluaran yang kuat tetap menjadi fitur utama dari anggaran. This is mainly a result of continued strong expansion of (1) the public-sector wages driven by government pledges. Hal ini terutama akibat dari ekspansi yang kuat lanjutan dari (1) sektor publik-upah didorong oleh janji pemerintah. Wages and Compensations increased from EGP30.5 bn in FY2002 to EGP59.6 bn in FY2008; (2) high interest payments on the public debt stock. Upah dan Kompensasi meningkat dari EGP30.5 miliar di FY2002 untuk EGP59.6 miliar di FY2008, (2) pembayaran bunga yang tinggi pada saham utang publik. Interest payments rose from EGP21.8 bn in FY2002 to EGP52.0 bn in FY2008. Pembayaran bunga meningkat dari EGP21.8 miliar di FY2002 untuk EGP52.0 miliar di FY2008. Importantly, dramatic increase in domestic debt which is projected to be roughly 62% of GDP in FY2008 up from 58.4% in FY2002; and (3) the costs of food and energy subsidies, which rose from EGP18.0 bn in FY2002 to EGP64.5 bn in FY2008. Yang penting, peningkatan dramatis dalam utang dalam negeri yang diproyeksikan menjadi sekitar 62% dari PDB di FY2008 naik dari 58,4% di FY2002, dan (3) biaya subsidi pangan dan energi, yang naik dari EGP18.0 miliar di FY2002 untuk EGP64. 5 miliar di FY2008.

The overall deficit, after adjusting for net acquisition of financial assets, remains almost unchanged from the cash deficit. Defisit keseluruhan, setelah disesuaikan untuk akuisisi aset keuangan bersih, tetap hampir tidak berubah dari defisit kas. The budget's overall deficit of EGP 43.8 bn or -10.2% of GDP for FY2002 has become 49.2 bn in FY2007, so that is narrowed to -6.7% of GDP. Defisit anggaran keseluruhan dari EGP 43,8 miliar atau -10,2% dari PDB untuk FY2002 menjadi 49,2 miliar di FY2007, sehingga yang dipersempit ke -6,7% dari PDB. Deficit is financed largely by domestic borrowing and revenue from privatization sales, which became a standard accounting practice in budget Egypt. Defisit ini sebagian besar dibiayai oleh pinjaman dalam negeri dan pendapatan dari penjualan privatisasi, yang menjadi standar dalam praktek akuntansi anggaran Mesir. The government aims at more sales of assets in FY2008. Pemerintah bertujuan lebih banyak penjualan aset di FY2008.

Recently, the fiscal conduct of the government was under strong criticism and heated debate and discussions in the Egyptian Parliament. Baru-baru ini, pelaksanaan fiskal pemerintah berada di bawah kritik keras dan perdebatan sengit dan diskusi di Parlemen Mesir. In particular, reference was made to weak governance and management, loose implementation of tax collection procedures and penalties for offenders, and improper accounting of the overall system of basic subsidies and domestic debt, leading to domestic market disruptions,high inflation, increased inefficiencies and waste in the domestic economy. [ 8 ] Secara khusus, referensi dibuat untuk pemerintahan yang lemah dan manajemen, pelaksanaan longgar prosedur pengumpulan pajak dan hukuman bagi pelanggar, dan akuntansi yang tidak tepat dari sistem secara keseluruhan subsidi dasar dan utang dalam negeri, yang mengarah ke gangguan pasar domestik, inflasi tinggi, inefisiensi meningkat dan limbah dalam ekonomi domestik. [8]

Egypt's Summary of Budget Financing 2002–2010 Mesir Ringkasan Pembiayaan Anggaran 2002-2010

(Million of Egyptian Pounds and Fiscal years) (Juta Pounds Mesir dan tahun Fiskal) Item [ 9 ] Butir [9]

2002 2002

2003 2003

2004 2004

2005 2005

2006 2006

2007 2007

2008 2008

2009 2009

2010 2010

Revenues Pendapatan

78,318.3

78,318.3

89,146.0

89,146.0

101,878.7

101,878.7

110,864.0

110,864.0

151,266.0

151,266.0

172,153.0

172,153.0

184,729.0

184,729.0

275,700.0

275,700.0

224,986.0

224,986.0

... ... Taxes Pajak

50,801.3

50,801.3

55,736.4

55,736.4

67,157.6

67,157.6

75,759.0

75,759.0

97,779.0

97,779.0

108,609.0

108,609.0

120,075.0

120,075.0

166,500.0

166,500.0

145,544.0

145,544.0

... ... Grants Hibah

4,264.9 4,264.9

3,289.6 3,289.6

5049.6 5049.6

2,853.0 2,853.0

2,379.0 2,379.0

3,657.0 3,657.0

3,166.0 3,166.0

4,600.0 4,600.0

7,700.0 7,700.0

Expenditures Pengeluaran

115,541.9

115,541.9

127,319.6

127,319.6

145,987.9

145,987.9

161,611.0

161,611.0

207,811.0

207,811.0

212,104.0

212,104.0

241,552.0

241,552.0

340,370.4

340,370.4

319,137.0

319,137.0

... ... Wages and Compensations Upah dan Kompensasi

30,515.7

30,515.7

33,816.1

33,816.1

37,265.7

37,265.7

41,546.0

41,546.0

46,719.0

46,719.0

51,270.0

51,270.0

59,574.0

59,574.0

82,000.0

82,000.0

86,100.0 86,100.0

... ... Interest Bunga

21,751.7

21,751.7

25,851.2

25,851.2

30,703.9

30,703.9

32,780.0

32,780.0

36,815.0

36,815.0

50,448.0

50,448.0

51,979.0

51,979.0

52,900.0

52,900.0

71,066.0 71,066.0

... ... Subsidies and Social Benefits Subsidi dan Manfaat Sosial

18,050.9

18,050.9

20,649.2

20,649.2

24,751.7

24,751.7

29,706.0

29,706.0

68,897.0

68,897.0

51,844.0

51,844.0

64,465.0

64,465.0

133,600.0

133,600.0

73,400.0 73,400.0

Cash Deficit Defisit Kas

-37,223.

6 -37,223.

6

-38,173.

6 -38,173.

6

-44,109.

2 -44,109.

2

-50,747.

0 -50,747.

0

-56,545.

0 -56,545.

0

-39,951.

0 -39,951.

0

-56,823.

0 -56,823.

0

-64,670.

4 -64,670.

4

-94,151.0

-94,151.0

Net Acquisition of Financial Assets Bersih Akuisisi Aset Finansial

-1,261.9 -1,261.9

-5,586.3 -5,586.3

-1,951.2 -1,951.2

-896.0 -896.0

6,160.0 6,160.0

-9,209.0 -9,209.0

-1,946.0 -1,946.0

-2,674.0 -2,674.0

730.0 730.0

Overall Deficit Defisit keseluruhan

-38,485.

5 -38,485.

5

-43,759.

9 -43,759.

9

-46,060.

4 -46,060.

4

-51,643.

0 -51,643.

0

-50,385.

0 -50,385.

0

-49,160.

0 -49,160.

0

-58,769.

0 -58,769.

0

-67,344.

0 -67,344.

0

-93,421.0

-93,421.0

... ... Net Borrowing Meminjam Bersih

38,066.7

38,066.7

43,720.7

43,720.7

46,043.4

46,043.4

50,631.0

50,631.0

50,259.0

50,259.0

48,660.0

48,660.0

57,769.0

57,769.0

66,792.0

66,792.0

94,880.0 94,880.0

... ... Proceeds from Privatization Penerimaan dari Privatisasi

418.8 418.8

39.2 39.2

17 17 1012 1012

126.0 126.0

500 500 1000 1000

10,000 10,000

0 0

Deficit as % of GDP Defisit sebagai% dari PDB

-10.2% -10,2%

-10.5% -10,5%

-9.5% -9,5%

-9.6% -9,6%

-8.2% -8,2%

-6.7% -6,7%

-6.9% -6,9%

-6.4% -6,4%

-7.97% -7,97%

Treasury bonds and notes issued to the Central Bank of Egypt constitute the bulk of the government domestic debt. Obligasi treasury dan catatan yang dikeluarkan untuk Bank Sentral Mesir merupakan sebagian besar utang pemerintah dalam negeri. Since FY2001, net

government domestic debt (ie after excluding budget sector deposits) has been rising at a fluctuating but decreasing rate. Sejak tahun fiskal 2001, utang pemerintah dalam negeri bersih (tidak termasuk deposito yaitu setelah anggaran sektor) telah meningkat pada tingkat yang berfluktuasi tetapi menurun. In 2007, it reached 65.4% up from 54.3% of GDP in 2001. Pada tahun 2007, mencapai 65,4% naik dari 54,3% dari PDB pada tahun 2001.

Egypt's Summary of Domestic Government Debt 2001–2007 Mesir Ringkasan Utang Pemerintah 2001-2007 Domestik

(Billion of EGP and Fiscal years) (Miliar USD dan tahun Fiskal)

Item [ 10 ] Barang [10] 2001 2001

2002 2002

2003 2003

2004 2004

2005 2005

2006 2006

2007 2007

Government domestic debt (EGP bn) Pemerintah utang domestik (miliar EGP)

194.6 194.6

221.2 221.2

252.1 252.1

292.7 292.7

349.1 349.1

387.7 387.7

478.2 478.2

Government domestic debt (% GDP) Pemerintah utang domestik (% PDB)

54.3% 54,3%

58.4% 58,4%

60.4% 60,4%

60.3% 60,3%

64.8% 64,8%

62.8% 62,8%

65.4% 65,4%

[ edit ] External debt [ sunting ] utang eksternal

The gross external debt of Egypt, including the total public and private debt owed to non-residents repayable in foreign currency, goods, or services—based on the Ministry of Finance, the Central Bank of Egypt and The World Factbook —is estimated at US$29,898 million at the end of FY 2007. Kotor utang eksternal dari Mesir, termasuk utang publik dan swasta jumlah utang untuk non-penduduk dibayar dalam mata uang asing, barang, atau jasa berbasis pada Departemen Keuangan, Bank Sentral Mesir dan Dunia Factbook -diperkirakan sebesar US $ 29.898 juta pada akhir TA 2007.

Egypt's Summary of External Debt 2001–2007 Mesir Ringkasan 2001-2007 Utang Luar (Million of USD and fiscal years) (Juta USD dan tahun fiskal)

Item [ 10 ] Barang [10] 2001 2001

2002 2002

2003 2003

2004 2004

2005 2005

2006 2006

2007 2007

External Debt (USD m) Utang Eksternal (USD m)

18,613 18,613

17,488 17,488

25,925 25,925

26,812 26,812

28,949 28,949

29,593 29,593

29,898 29,898

External Debt (% GDP) Utang Eksternal (% PDB)

23.3% 23,3%

20.8% 20,8%

38.2% 38,2%

33.9% 33,9%

30.9% 30,9%

27.4% 27,4%

22.9% 22,9%

[ edit ] Opportunity cost of conflict [ sunting ] Biaya peluang konflik

A report [ 11 ] by Strategic Foresight Group has calculated the opportunity cost of conflict for Egypt since 1991 is almost $800 billion. Sebuah laporan [11] oleh Kelompok Strategis Foresight telah menghitung kesempatan biaya konflik untuk Mesir sejak tahun 1991 adalah hampir $ 800 miliar. In other words, had there been peace since 1991, an average Egyptian citizen would be earning over $3000 instead of $1700 he or she may earn next year. Dengan kata lain, seandainya ada perdamaian sejak 1991, seorang warga Mesir rata-rata akan mendapatkan penghasilan lebih dari $ 3000 bukan $ 1700 ia atau dia mungkin mendapatkan tahun depan.

[ edit ] The financial sector [ sunting ] Sektor keuangan

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[ edit ] Monetary and exchange rate policy [ sunting ] Moneter dan kebijakan nilai tukar

[ edit ] Monetary policy [ sunting ] Kebijakan moneter

There have been several favorable conditions that allowed the Central Bank of Egypt to accumulate net international reserves, which increased from US$ 20 billion in FY2005, to US$23 billion in FY2006, and to US$30 billion FY2007 contributing to growth in both reserve money and in broad money (M2). Ada kondisi yang menguntungkan beberapa yang memungkinkan Bank Sentral Mesir untuk mengakumulasi cadangan devisa bersih, yang meningkat dari US $ 20 miliar pada tahun 2005, menjadi US $ 23 miliar pada TA 2006, dan US $ 30 miliar FY2007 kontribusi terhadap pertumbuhan baik uang cadangan dan uang yang luas (M2).

Credit extended to the private sector in Egypt declined significantly reaching about EGP 5 billion in FY2005. Kredit kepada sektor swasta di Mesir menurun secara signifikan mencapai sekitar USD 5 miliar dalam tahun 2005. This credit crunch is due to the non-performing loans extended by the banks to business tycoons and top government officials. Ini krisis kredit ini disebabkan oleh kredit macet diperpanjang oleh bank untuk taipan bisnis dan pejabat pemerintah.

Lending criteria have been tightened following the passing of Money Laundry Law 80 in 2002 and Banking Law 88 in 2003. Kriteria pinjaman telah diperketat setelah melewati UU Pencucian Uang 80 pada tahun 2002 dan UU Perbankan 88 tahun 2003. Interest rates are no longer the dominant factor in banks' lending decisions. Suku bunga tidak lagi faktor dominan dalam keputusan pinjaman bank. In fact, both the inefficiency and absence of the role of the Central Bank of Egypt in qualitative and quantitative control as well as implementing banking procedures and standards was almost entirely responsible for the non-performing loans crisis. Pada kenyataannya, baik inefisiensi dan tidak adanya peran Bank Sentral Mesir dalam kontrol kualitatif dan kuantitatif serta prosedur dan standar perbankan menerapkan hampir sepenuhnya bertanggung jawab atas krisis kredit non-performing. Banks steadily reduced credit from its peak of about EGP 30 billion in FY1999 and alternatively invested in more liquid no-risk securities such as treasury bills and government bonds. Bank terus dikurangi kredit dari puncaknya sekitar USD 30 miliar di FY1999 dan alternatif berinvestasi di lebih cairan yang tidak berisiko sekuritas seperti tagihan treasury dan obligasi pemerintah. Improving private sector access to credit will critically depend on resolving the problem of non-performing loans with businesses and top government officials. Meningkatkan akses sektor swasta untuk kredit kritis akan tergantung pada menyelesaikan masalah non-performing loan dengan bisnis dan pejabat pemerintah atas.

The era of inflation targeting —ie maintaining inflation within a band—has perhaps begun in Egypt more recently. Era inflation targeting -yaitu mempertahankan inflasi dalam sebuah band-mungkin telah dimulai di Mesir baru-baru ini. Country experiences show that inflation targeting is a best-practice strategy for monetary policy. Pengalaman negara menunjukkan

bahwa penargetan inflasi adalah strategi terbaik-praktek untuk kebijakan moneter. While the monetary policy appears more responsive to inflationary pressures recently in Egypt, it is noted that there is no core inflation measure and the Central Bank of Egypt takes targeting decisions based on the inflation rate released by the CAPMAS consumer price index off-the-shelf. [ 12 ] Sementara kebijakan moneter tampil lebih responsif terhadap tekanan inflasi baru-baru ini di Mesir, telah dicatat bahwa tidak ada inflasi inti mengukur dan Bank Sentral Mesir mengambil keputusan berdasarkan penargetan tingkat inflasi yang dirilis oleh CAPMAS indeks harga konsumen off-rak- . [12]

100 EGP Obverse 100 EGP depan

Surging domestic inflationary pressures from both economic growth and elevated international food prices led the Central Bank of Egypt ( CBE ) to increase the overnight lending and deposit rates in sequential moves since 2008: it was raised by 0.25% on 10 February 2008, by 0.5% on 25 March 2008, by 0.5% on 8 May 2008, by 0.5% on 26 June 2008, by 0.5% on 7 August 2008 and most recently on 18 September 2008 for the sixth time in a year by 0.5% when it stood at 11.5% and 13.5%, respectively. Naiknya tekanan inflasi dalam negeri dari kedua pertumbuhan ekonomi dan peningkatan harga pangan internasional memimpin Bank Sentral Mesir ( CBE ) untuk meningkatkan pinjaman semalam dan suku bunga deposito dalam gerakan berurutan sejak tahun 2008: ia dibesarkan oleh 0,25% pada 10 Februari 2008, sebesar 0,5% pada 25 Maret 2008, sebesar 0,5% pada tanggal 8 Mei 2008, sebesar 0,5% pada 26 Juni 2008, sebesar 0,5% pada 7 Agustus 2008 dan yang terakhir pada tanggal 18 September 2008 untuk keenam kalinya dalam satu tahun sebesar 0,5% ketika berdiri di 11,5 % dan 13,5%, masing-masing. However, the rise of the World Global Financial Crisis led to a set of fiscal-monetary policy measures to face its repercussions on the national economy, including reducing the overnight lending and deposit rates by 1% on 12 February 2009. Namun, munculnya Krisis Keuangan Global Dunia menyebabkan satu set fiskal-moneter langkah kebijakan untuk menghadapi dampak pada perekonomian nasional, termasuk mengurangi pinjaman semalam dan suku bunga deposito sebesar 1% pada 12 Februari 2009. The rates currently stand at 10.5% and 12.5%, respectively. Tingkat saat ini berdiri di 10,5% dan 12,5%, masing-masing. The CBE is expected to further cut on interest rates over 2009, with seemingly little fear on Egyptian Pound depreciation resulting from decreased interest rates. The CBE diharapkan untuk lebih memotong suku bunga lebih dari 2009, dengan rasa takut yang tampaknya sedikit pada depresiasi Pound Mesir akibat suku bunga menurun.

[ edit ] Exchange rate policy [ sunting ] Efek kebijakan tingkat

The exchange rate has been linked to the US dollar since the 1950s. Nilai tukar telah dikaitkan dengan dolar AS sejak 1950-an. Several regimes were adopted including initially the conventional peg in the sixties, regular crawling peg in the seventies and the eighties and crawling bands in the nineties. Beberapa rezim awalnya diadopsi termasuk pasak konvensional di tahun enam puluhan, pasak merangkak biasa di tahun tujuh puluhan dan delapan puluhan dan band merangkak di tahun sembilan puluhan. Over that time period, there

were several exchange rate markets including black market, parallel market and the official market. Selama periode waktu itu, ada beberapa nilai tukar pasar termasuk pasar gelap, pasar paralel dan pasar resmi. With the turn of the new millennium, Egypt introduced a managed float regime and successfully unified the Pound exchange rate vis-à-vis foreign currencies. Dengan pergantian milenium baru, Mesir memperkenalkan rezim mengambang dikelola dan berhasil bersatu nilai tukar Pound vis-à-vis mata uang asing.

The transition to the unified exchange rate regime was completed in December 2004. Transisi ke rezim nilai tukar terpadu selesai pada Desember 2004. Shortly later, Egypt has notified the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that it has accepted the obligations of Article VIII, Section 2, 3, and 4 of the IMF Articles of Agreement, with effect from 2 January 2005. Tak lama kemudian, Mesir telah diberitahu Dana Moneter Internasional (IMF) yang telah menerima kewajiban Pasal VIII, Bagian 2, 3 dan 4 dari pasal-pasal Perjanjian IMF, dengan efek dari 2 Januari 2005. IMF members accepting the obligations of Article VIII undertake to refrain from imposing restrictions on the making of payments and transfers for current international transactions, or from engaging in discriminatory currency arrangements or multiple currency practices, except with IMF approval. Anggota IMF menerima kewajiban Pasal VIII berjanji untuk menahan diri dari menerapkan pembatasan pada pembuatan dan transfer pembayaran untuk transaksi internasional saat ini, atau dari terlibat dalam pengaturan mata uang diskriminatif atau beberapa praktek mata uang, kecuali dengan persetujuan IMF. By accepting the obligations of Article VIII, Egypt gives assurance to the international community that it will pursue economic policies that will not impose restrictions on the making of payments and transfers for current international transactions unnecessary, and will contribute to a multilateral payments system free of restrictions. Dengan menerima kewajiban Pasal VIII, Mesir memberikan jaminan kepada masyarakat internasional bahwa akan mengejar kebijakan ekonomi yang tidak akan memberlakukan pembatasan pada pembuatan dan transfer pembayaran untuk transaksi internasional saat ini yang tidak perlu, dan akan memberikan kontribusi ke sistem pembayaran multilateral bebas dari pembatasan .

In the fiscal year 2004 and over most of the fiscal year 2005, the pound depreciated against the US Dollar. Pada tahun fiskal 2004 dan selama sebagian besar tahun fiskal 2005, pound terdepresiasi terhadap US Dollar. Since the second half of the fiscal year 2006 until the end of the fiscal year 2007, the pound gradually appreciated to EGP 5.69 per USD. Sejak paruh kedua tahun fiskal 2006 sampai akhir tahun fiskal 2007, pound dihargai secara bertahap EGP 5,69 per USD. While it was likely to continue appreciating in the short-term, given the skyrocketing oil prices and the weakening US economy, the advent of the global Economic crisis of 2008 , and resulting behavior of foreign investors exiting from the stock market in Egypt increased the dollar exchange rate against the Egyptian pound, which rose by more than 4% since Lehman Brothers declared Bankruptcy . Sementara itu kemungkinan akan terus menghargai dalam jangka pendek, mengingat harga minyak meroket dan melemahnya ekonomi AS, munculnya global Krisis ekonomi tahun 2008 , dan perilaku yang dihasilkan

dari investor asing keluar dari pasar saham di Mesir meningkat dolar nilai tukar terhadap pound Mesir, yang naik lebih dari 4% sejak Lehman Brothers dinyatakan Kepailitan . As the demand pressure from exiting foreign investors eases, the dollar exchange rate against the Egyptian pound is expected to decline. Sebagai tekanan permintaan dari investor asing keluar memudahkan, pertukaran tingkat dolar terhadap pound Mesir diperkirakan menurun. It stands at EGP 5.55 per USD as of 4 November 2008. Ia berdiri di EGP 5,55 per USD sebagai dari 4 November 2008.

[ edit ] Natural resources [ sunting ] Sumber daya alam

[ edit ] Land, agriculture and crops [ sunting ] Tanah, pertanian dan tanaman

Warm weather and plentiful water permit several crops a year. Cuaca hangat dan air berlimpah memungkinkan beberapa tanaman setahun. Land is worked intensively and yields are high. Cotton , rice , wheat , corn , sugarcane , sugar beets , onions , and beans are the principal crops. Tanah adalah bekerja secara intensif dan hasil yang tinggi. Kapas , beras , gandum , jagung , tebu , bit gula , bawang , dan kacang-kacangan adalah tanaman utama. Increasingly, a few modern techniques are applied to producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export. Semakin, sebuah teknik modern diterapkan beberapa untuk memproduksi buah-buahan, sayuran dan bunga, selain kapas, untuk ekspor. Further improvement is possible. Perbaikan lebih lanjut adalah mungkin. The most common traditional farms occupy one acre (4,000 m²) each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile. Pertanian tradisional paling umum menempati salah satu acre (4.000 m²) masing-masing, biasanya di daerah kanal irigasi di sepanjang tepi Sungai Nil. Many small farmers also own cows, water buffalos , and chickens . Banyak petani kecil juga memiliki sapi, kerbau , dan ayam .

Several researchers questioned the domestic (and import) policies for dealing with the so-called the "wheat game" since the former Minister of Agriculture Youssef Wali was in office. Beberapa peneliti mempertanyakan (dan impor) kebijakan domestik untuk berurusan dengan apa yang disebut "permainan gandum" sejak mantan Menteri Pertanian Youssef Wali berada di kantor.

In 2006, areas planted with wheat in Egypt exceeded 400,000 acres (1,600 km 2 ) producing approximately 6 million metric tons . [ 13 ] The domestic supply price farmers receive in Egypt is EGP 1200 ( Pada tahun 2006, daerah yang ditanami gandum di Mesir melebihi 400.000 hektar (1.600 km 2) memproduksi sekitar 6 juta metrik ton . [13] Para petani menerima harga pasokan domestik di Mesir EGP 1200 ( US$ 211) per ton compared to approximately EGP 1940 ( US $ 211) per ton dibandingkan dengan sekitar EGP 1940 ( US$ 340) per ton for import from the USA, Egypt's main supplier of wheat and corn . US $ 340) per ton untuk impor dari Amerika Serikat, pemasok utama Mesir dari gandum dan jagung . Egypt is, in fact, the US's largest market for wheat and corn sales, accounting for US$1 billion annually and about 46% of Egypt's needs from imported wheat. Mesir, pada kenyataannya, pasar AS terbesar untuk gandum dan jagung penjualan, akuntansi untuk US $ 1 milyar per tahun dan sekitar 46% kebutuhan Mesir dari gandum impor. Other sources of imported wheat, include Kazakhstan, Canada, France, Syria, Argentina and Australia. Sumber-sumber lain gandum yang diimpor, termasuk Kazakhstan, Kanada, Perancis, Suriah, Argentina dan Australia. There are plans to increase the areas planted with wheat up to nearly 3 million acres (12,000 km²) by 2017 to narrow the gap between domestic food supply and demand. [ 14 ] Ada rencana

untuk meningkatkan daerah ditanami gandum hingga hampir 3 juta hektar (12.000 km ²) pada 2017 untuk mempersempit kesenjangan antara pasokan dan permintaan pangan domestik. [14]

Egypt's Production, Imports and Total Consumption of Wheat and corn (Maize) Mesir Produksi, Impor dan Konsumsi Total Gandum dan jagung (Jagung)

(thousand metric tons and fiscal years) (Ribu metrik ton dan tahun fiskal)

Item [ 15 ] Barang [15] 2002 2002

2003 2003

2004 2004

2005 2005

2006 2006

2007 2007

2008 2008

Wheat Gandum

Production Produksi 6,130 6,130

6,300 6,300

6,443 6,443

7,177 7,177

8184 8184

8,200 8,200

Imports Impor 6,944 6,944

6,327 6,327

7,295 7,295

8,150 8,150

7,700 7,700

7,000 7,000

Imports from US Impor dari AS

3,547 3,547

860 860 3,985 3,985

1,765 1,765

1,181 1,181

1,300 1,300

Total Consumption Total Konsumsi

12,750 12,750

12,800 12,800

13,300 13,300

14,200 14,200

14,800 14,800

15,600 15,600

Corn Jagung

Production Produksi 6,160 6,160

6,000 6,000

5,740 5,740

5,840 5,840

5,860 5,860

5,870 5,870

Imports Impor 4,905 4,905

4,848 4,848

3,743 3,743

5,398 5,398

4,300 4,300

4,800 4,800

Imports from US Impor dari AS

4,283 4,283

2,904 2,904

3,120 3,120

3,738 3,738

3,927 3,927

4,200 4,200

Total Consumption Total Konsumsi

11,200 11,200

10,900 10,900

9,200 9,200

11,300 11,300

10,300 10,300

10,600 10,600

The Western Desert accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. Para Gurun Barat menyumbang sekitar dua pertiga dari luas daratan negara itu. For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions. Untuk sebagian besar, itu adalah dataran berpasir yang besar ditandai dengan tujuh depresi besar. One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals. Salah satunya, Fayoum, sekitar 3.600 terhubung tahun yang lalu ke Sungai Nil oleh kanal-kanal. Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area. Hari ini, adalah daerah pertanian yang penting irigasi.

Practically all Egyptian agriculture takes place in some 25,000 km² (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Hampir semua pertanian Mesir berlangsung di beberapa km ² 25.000 (6 juta hektar) dari tanah yang subur di Lembah Nil dan Delta.

Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the controversial but ambitious Toshka project in Upper Egypt , but some other fertile lands in the Nile Valley and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion. Beberapa tanah gurun sedang dikembangkan untuk pertanian, termasuk kontroversial tapi ambisius Toshka proyek di Mesir Hulu , tetapi beberapa lahan subur lainnya di Lembah Nil dan Delta sedang hilang urbanisasi dan erosi. Larger modern farms are becoming more important in the desert. Pertanian modern yang lebih besar menjadi lebih penting di padang pasir.

The agriculture objectives on the desert lands are often questioned; the desert farm lands which were offered regularly at different levels and prices were restricted to a limited group

of elites selected very carefully, who later profiteered retailing the granted large desert farm land by pieces. Tujuan pertanian di tanah padang pasir sering dipertanyakan; lahan pertanian gurun yang ditawarkan secara teratur pada tingkat yang berbeda dan harga dibatasi untuk kelompok terbatas yang dipilih elit sangat hati-hati, yang kemudian profiteered ritel tanah pertanian gurun yang besar dengan potongan yang diberikan. This allegedly transforms the desert farms to tourist resorts, hits all government plans to develop and improve the conditions of the poor, and causes serious negative impact on agriculture and the overall national economy over time. Hal ini diduga mengubah peternakan padang gurun untuk resor wisata, hits semua rencana pemerintah untuk mengembangkan dan memperbaiki kondisi kaum miskin, dan menyebabkan dampak negatif yang serius pada sektor pertanian dan perekonomian nasional secara keseluruhan dari waktu ke waktu. One company, for example, bought over 70 hectare of large desert farm for a price as low as EGP 0.05 per square meter and now sells for EGP 300 per square meter. Satu perusahaan, misalnya, membeli lebih dari 70 hektar lahan gurun pasir yang luas dengan harga serendah USD 0,05 per meter persegi dan sekarang dijual seharga USD 300 per meter persegi. In numbers, 70 hectares bought for about US$6,000 in 2000 sells for over US$3.7 million in 2007. Dalam angka, 70 hektar dibeli sekitar US $ 6.000 pada tahun 2000 dijual seharga lebih dari US $ 3,7 juta pada 2007. Currently, no clear solution exists to deal with these activities. Saat ini, tidak ada solusi yang jelas untuk menangani kegiatan ini.

Agriculture biomass, including agricultural wastes and animal manure, produce approximately 30 million metric tons of dry material per year that could be massively and decisively used, inter alia , for generating bioenergy and improve the quality of life in rural Egypt. Pertanian biomassa, termasuk limbah pertanian dan kotoran hewan, menghasilkan sekitar 30 juta metrik ton bahan kering per tahun yang bisa digunakan besar-besaran dan tegas, antara lain, untuk menghasilkan bioenergi dan meningkatkan kualitas hidup di pedesaan Mesir. Unfortunately, this resource remain terribly underutilized. [ 16 ] Sayangnya, sumber ini tetap sangat kurang dimanfaatkan. [16]

Since early 2008, with the world food prices soaring, especially for grains, calls for striking a "new deal" on agriculture increased. Sejak awal tahun 2008, dengan harga dunia makanan melonjak, terutama untuk biji-bijian, panggilan untuk memukul "kesepakatan baru" pada pertanian meningkat. Indeed 2008 arguably marks the birth of a new national agriculture policy and reform. [ 17 ] Memang boleh dibilang 2008 menandai lahirnya sebuah kebijakan pertanian nasional yang baru dan reformasi. [17]

[ edit ] The Devil's Gardens [ sunting ] Gardens Setan

As mentioned above, the Western Desert accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. Seperti disebutkan di atas, Gurun Barat menyumbang sekitar dua pertiga dari luas daratan negara itu. This sizable part of Egypt has been facing severe unresolved challenge to agriculture reclamation and development posed by landmines planted by Germans during World War II. Ini bagian yang cukup besar dari Mesir telah menghadapi tantangan berat untuk pertanian belum terselesaikan reklamasi dan pembangunan yang ditimbulkan oleh ranjau ditanam oleh Jerman selama Perang Dunia II. In particular, the so-called devil's gardens , where landmines were laid during World War II by the troops led by Erwin Rommel , the German Field Marshal, to cover up his withdrawal from Egypt's Alamain, when Egypt was then occupied by Britain, so as to prevent pursuit by the British troops. Secara khusus, yang disebut kebun setan , di mana ranjau diletakkan selama Perang Dunia II oleh tentara yang dipimpin oleh Erwin Rommel , Marsekal Lapangan Jerman, untuk

menutupi pengunduran dirinya dari Alamain Mesir, ketika Mesir kemudian diduduki oleh Inggris, sehingga untuk mencegah pengejaran oleh pasukan Inggris. Egypt has 23 million landmines, accounting for 20% of the total number of landmines in the world. Mesir telah 23 juta ranjau darat, akuntansi untuk 20% dari jumlah ranjau darat di dunia.

The Devil's Gardens have stuck out like a sore thumb; unfortunately everyone in the government noticed but neglected them and failed to make a case for an international solution. Gardens Iblis telah terjebak keluar seperti sakit jempol, sayangnya semua orang di pemerintah melihat tapi mengabaikan mereka dan gagal untuk membuat suatu kasus untuk solusi internasional. Little or nothing has been done, a failure that ensured massive development loss and human tragedies for over half a century. [ 18 ] Sedikit atau tidak ada yang dilakukan, kegagalan yang menjamin hilangnya pembangunan besar-besaran dan tragedi manusia selama lebih dari setengah abad. [18]

[ edit ] Water resources [ sunting ] Air sumber daya

"Egypt", wrote the Greek historian Herodotus 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." "Mesir", tulis sejarawan Yunani Herodotus 25 abad yang lalu, "adalah karunia Nil." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive oasis. Sumber daya lahan tampaknya tak ada habisnya air dan tanah dilakukan oleh sungai besar dibuat di Lembah Nil dan Delta oasis dunia yang paling luas. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland. Tanpa Nil, Mesir akan sedikit lebih dari gurun gurun.

Nile river at Aswan Nil sungai di Aswan

The river carves a narrow, cultivated floodplain , never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward Cairo from Lake Nasser on the Sudanese border, behind the Aswan High Dam . Sungai mengukir, sempit dibudidayakan dataran banjir , tidak pernah lebih dari 20 kilometer lebar, karena perjalanan ke arah utara Kairo dari Danau Nasser di Sudan perbatasan, di belakang bendungan Aswan . Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers (160 mi) wide at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (99 mi) from south to north. Hanya utara Kairo, Sungai Nil menyebar ke apa yang pernah menjadi muara yang luas yang telah diisi oleh endapan sungai untuk membentuk sebuah delta yang subur sekitar 250 kilometer (160 mil) lebar di pangkal ke arah laut dan sekitar 160 kilometer (99 mil) dari selatan ke utara.

Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1960, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sebelum pembangunan bendungan di Sungai Nil, terutama Bendungan Aswan (dimulai pada tahun 1960, selesai pada 1970), kesuburan Lembah Nil didukung oleh aliran air dan lumpur yang diendapkan oleh banjir tahunan. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. Sedimen sekarang terhambat oleh bendungan Aswan dan disimpan di Danau Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. Penghentian tahunan, pemupukan alami dan meningkatnya salinitas tanah telah menjadi masalah dikelola akibat bendungan. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on thousands of square kilometers of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of millions of gigajoules of electricity at low cost. Manfaat tetap mengesankan: pertanian yang lebih intensif pada ribuan kilometer persegi tanah dimungkinkan oleh irigasi, pencegahan kerusakan banjir, dan generasi jutaan gigajoules listrik dengan biaya rendah.

[ edit ] Mineral and energy resources [ sunting ] Sumber daya mineral dan energi

Main article: Energy in Egypt Artikel utama: Energi di Mesir

Egypt's mineral and energy resources include petroleum , natural gas , phosphates , gold and iron ore . Mesir mineral dan sumber daya energi termasuk minyak bumi , gas alam , fosfat , emas dan bijih besi . Crude oil is found primarily in the Gulf of Suez and in the Western Desert. Minyak mentah ditemukan terutama di Teluk Suez dan di Gurun Barat. Natural gas is found mainly in the Nile Delta , off the Mediterranean shore, and in the Western Desert . Gas alam ditemukan terutama di Delta Nil , di lepas pantai Mediterania, dan di Gurun Barat . Oil and gas accounted for approximately 7% of GDP in fiscal year 2000/01. Minyak dan gas menyumbang sekitar 7% dari PDB pada tahun fiskal 2000/01.

Export of petroleum and related products amounted to $2.6 billion in the year 2000. Ekspor minyak bumi dan produk-produk terkait sebesar $ 2,6 miliar pada tahun 2000. In late 2001, Egypt's benchmark "Suez Blend" was about $16.73 per barrel ($105/m³), the lowest price since 1999. Pada akhir 2001, patokan Mesir "Suez Blend" adalah sekitar $ 16,73 per barel ($ 105 / m³), harga terendah sejak 1999.

Crude oil production has been in decline for several years since its peak level in 1993, from 941,000 bbl/d (149,600 m 3 /d) in 1993 to 873,000 bbl/d (138,800 m 3 /d) in 1997 and to 696,000 bbl/d (110,700 m 3 /d) in 2005. Minyak mentah produksi telah menurun selama beberapa tahun sejak tingkat puncak pada tahun 1993, dari 941.000 bbl / d (149.600 m 3 / d) pada tahun 1993 menjadi 873.000 bbl / d (138.800 m 3 / d) pada tahun 1997 dan 696.000 bbl / d (110.700 m 3 / d) pada tahun 2005. (See Figure). (Lihat Gambar). At the same time, the

domestic consumption of oil increased steadily (531,000 bbl/d (84,400 m 3 /d) and 525,000 bbl/d (83,500 m 3 /d) in 1997 and 2005 respectively), but in 2008, oil consumption reached to 697,000 bbl/d (110,800 m 3 /d). Pada saat yang sama, konsumsi domestik minyak terus meningkat (531,000 bbl / d (84.400 m 3 / d) dan 525.000 bbl / d (83.500 m 3 / d) pada tahun 1997 dan 2005 masing-masing), tetapi pada tahun 2008, konsumsi minyak mencapai untuk 697.000 bbl / d (110.800 m 3 / d). It is easy to see from the graph that a linear trend projects that domestic demand outpaced supply in (2008–2009), turning Egypt to a net importer of oil. Sangat mudah untuk melihat dari grafik bahwa tren linier proyek yang melebihi pasokan permintaan domestik di (2008-2009), mengubah Mesir untuk importir bersih minyak. To minimize this potential, the government of Egypt has been encouraging the exploration, production and domestic consumption of natural gas . Untuk meminimalkan potensi ini, pemerintah Mesir telah mendorong eksplorasi, produksi dan konsumsi domestik gas alam . Oil Production was 630 bbl/d (100 m 3 /d) in 2008, and natural gas output continued to increase and reached 48.3 billion cubic meters in 2008. [ 19 ] Produksi minyak 630 bbl / d (100 m 3 / d) pada tahun 2008, dan output gas alam terus meningkat dan mencapai 48300000000 meter kubik pada tahun 2008. [19]

Over the last 15 years, more than 180 petroleum exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than $27 billion in exploration companions. Selama 15 tahun terakhir, perjanjian minyak lebih dari 180 eksplorasi telah ditandatangani dan perusahaan-perusahaan minyak multinasional menghabiskan lebih dari $ 27 miliar pada sahabat eksplorasi. These activities led to the findings of about 18 crude oil fields and 16 natural gas fields in FY 2001. Kegiatan ini menyebabkan temuan dari sekitar 18 ladang minyak mentah dan 16 ladang gas alam di TA 2001. The total number of findings rose to 49 in FY 2005. Jumlah temuan naik menjadi 49 pada tahun fiskal 2005. As a result of these findings, crude oil reserves as of 2009 are estimated at 3.7 billion barrels (590,000,000 m 3 ), and proven natural gas reserves are 1.656 trillion cubic meters with a likely additional discoveries with more exploration campaigns. Sebagai hasil dari temuan ini, minyak mentah cadangan minyak pada 2009 diperkirakan mencapai 3,7 miliar barel (590.000.000 m 3), dan terbukti cadangan gas alam 1656000000000 meter kubik dengan penemuan tambahan mungkin dengan kampanye eksplorasi lebih. In August 2007, it was announced that signs of oil reserves in Kom Ombo basin, about 28 miles (45 km) north of Aswan, was found and a concession agreement was signed with Centorion Energy International for drilling. Pada bulan Agustus 2007, diumumkan bahwa tanda-tanda cadangan minyak di Kom Ombo baskom, sekitar 28 mil (45 km) sebelah utara Aswan, ditemukan dan perjanjian konsesi ditandatangani dengan Centorion Energi Internasional untuk pengeboran. The main natural gas producer in Egypt is the International Egyptian Oilfield Company (IEOC), a branch of Italian Eni . Produsen gas alam utama di Mesir adalah Perusahaan ladang minyak Internasional Mesir (Ieoc), sebuah cabang dari Italia Eni . Other companies like BP, BG, Texas-based Apache Corp. and Shell carry out activities of exploration and production by means of concessions granted for a period of generally ample time (often 20 years) and in different geographic zones of oil and gas deposits in the country. Perusahaan lain seperti BP, BG, Texas berbasis Apache Corp dan Shell melakukan kegiatan eksplorasi dan produksi dengan cara konsesi diberikan untuk jangka waktu yang cukup umum (sering 20 tahun) dan di zona geografis yang berbeda dari deposito minyak dan gas di negeri.

Gold mining is more recently a fast growing industry with vast untapped gold reserves in the Eastern Desert. Emas pertambangan baru-baru ini industri yang berkembang cepat dengan besar cadangan emas yang belum tersentuh di Gurun Timur. There is already a gold rush and gold production facilities are now reality from the Sukari Hills, located close to Marsa Alam

in the Eastern Desert. Sudah ada terburu-buru emas dan emas fasilitas produksi yang sekarang menjadi kenyataan dari Perbukitan Sukari, terletak dekat ke Marsa Alam di Gurun Timur. The concession of the mine was granted to Centamin Egypt , an Australian joint stock company, with a gold exploitation lease for a 160-square-kilometer area. Konsesi tambang diberikan kepada Centamin Mesir , sebuah perusahaan saham gabungan Australia, dengan sewa eksploitasi emas untuk area 160 kilometer persegi. Sami El-Raghy, Centamin Chairman, has repeatedly stated that he believes Egypt's yearly revenues from gold in the future will exceed the total revenues from the Suez Canal, tourism and the petroleum industry combined. [ 20 ] Sami El-Raghy, Centamin Ketua, telah berulang kali menyatakan bahwa ia percaya pendapatan tahunan dari emas Mesir di masa depan akan melebihi total pendapatan dari Terusan Suez, pariwisata dan industri minyak bumi digabungkan. [20]

Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. Kelebihan Mesir dari gas alam akan lebih dari memenuhi permintaan domestik selama bertahun-tahun yang akan datang. The Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources has established expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives and in 2009 about 38% of local gas production was exported. Para Menteri Sumber Daya Minyak dan Mineral telah menetapkan memperluas industri petrokimia Mesir dan meningkatkan ekspor gas alam sebagai tujuan paling signifikan yang strategis dan pada tahun 2009 sekitar 38% dari produksi gas lokal diekspor.

As of 2009, most Egyptian gas exports (approximately 70%) are delivered in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG) by ship to Europe and the United States. Pada 2009, ekspor gas yang paling Mesir (sekitar 70%) disampaikan dalam bentuk gas alam cair (LNG) dengan kapal ke Eropa dan Amerika Serikat. Egypt and Jordan agreed to construct the Arab Gas Pipeline from Al Arish to Aqaba to export natural gas to Jordan; with its completion in July 2003, Egypt began to export 1.1 billion cubic feet (31,000,000 m 3 ) of gas per year via pipeline as well. Mesir dan Yordania sepakat untuk membangun Pipa Gas Arab dari Al Arish ke Aqaba untuk mengekspor gas alam ke Yordania, dengan selesai pada bulan Juli 2003, Mesir mulai mengekspor 1,1 miliar kaki kubik (31.000.000 m 3) gas per tahun melalui pipa serta . Total investment in this project is about $220 million. Total investasi dalam proyek ini adalah sekitar $ 220 juta. In 2003, Egypt, Jordan and Syria reached an agreement to extend this pipeline to Syria, which paves the way for a future connection with Turkey, Lebanon and Cyprus by 2010. Pada tahun 2003, Mesir, Yordania dan Suriah mencapai kesepakatan untuk memperpanjang pipa ini ke Suriah, yang membuka jalan untuk koneksi masa depan dengan Turki, Lebanon dan Siprus pada tahun 2010. As of 2009, Egypt began to export to Syria 32.9 billion cubic feet (930,000,000 m 3 ) of gas per year, accounting for 20% of total consumption in Syria . [ 21 ] In addition, the East Mediterranean Gas (EMG), a joint company established in 2000 and owned by Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC) (68.4%), the private Israeli company Merhav (25%) as well as Ampal-American Israel Corp. (6.6%), has been granted the rights to export natural gas from Egypt to Israel and other locations in the region via underwater pipelines from Al 'Arish to Ashkelon which will provide Israel Electric Corporation (IEC) 170 million cubic feet (4.8 × 10 6 m 3 ) of gas per day. Pada 2009, Mesir mulai ekspor ke Suriah 32,9 miliar kaki kubik (930.000.000 m 3) gas per tahun, akuntansi untuk 20% dari total konsumsi di Suriah . [21] Selain itu, Gas Mediterania Timur (EMG), bersama perusahaan yang didirikan pada tahun 2000 dan dimiliki oleh Mesir Umum Petroleum Corporation (EGPC) (68,4%), perusahaan swasta Israel Merhav (25%) serta Ampal-Amerika Israel Corp (6,6%), telah diberikan hak untuk mengekspor alami gas dari Mesir ke Israel dan lokasi lainnya di wilayah melalui pipa bawah air dari Al Arish ' untuk Ashkelon yang akan memberikan Israel Electric Corporation (IEC) 170 juta kaki kubik (4,8 ×

10 6 m 3) gas per hari. Gas supply started experimentally in the second half of 2007. Pasokan gas mulai eksperimental pada paruh kedua tahun 2007. As of 2008, Egypt produces about 6.3 billion cubic feet (180 × 10 6 m 3 ), from which Israel imports of 170 million cubic feet (4.8 × 10 6 m 3 ) account for about 2.7 % of Egypt's total production of natural gas. Seperti tahun 2008, Mesir menghasilkan sekitar 6,3 miliar kaki kubik (180 × 10 6 m 3), dari mana Israel mengimpor dari 170 juta kaki kubik (4,8 × 10 6 m 3) account untuk sekitar 2,7% dari total produksi Mesir alam gas. According to a statement released on 24 March 2008, Merhav and Ampal's director, Nimrod Novik, said that the natural gas pipeline from Egypt to Israel can carry up to 9 billion cubic meters annually which sufficiently meet rising demand in Israel in the coming years. [ 22 ] According to a memorandum of understanding, the commitment of Egypt is 680 million cubic feet (19 × 10 6 m 3 ) contracted for 15 years at a price below $3 per million of British thermal unit , though this was renegotiated at a higher price in 2009 (to between $4 and $5 per million BTU), while the amounts of gas supplied were increased. Menurut sebuah pernyataan yang dirilis pada tanggal 24 Maret 2008, Merhav dan direktur Ampal itu, Nimrod Novik, mengatakan bahwa pipa gas alam dari Mesir ke Israel dapat membawa sampai 9 miliar meter kubik per tahun yang cukup memenuhi permintaan yang meningkat di Israel pada tahun-tahun mendatang. [ 22] Menurut nota kesepahaman, komitmen Mesir adalah 680 juta kaki kubik (19 × 10 6 m 3) dikontrak selama 15 tahun dengan harga di bawah $ 3 per juta British thermal unit , meskipun ini adalah dinegosiasi ulang pada yang lebih tinggi harga di 2009 (untuk antara $ 4 dan $ 5 per juta BTU), sedangkan jumlah gas yang diberikan meningkat. Exporting natural gas to Israel faces broad popular opposition in Egypt. [ 23 ] Nevertheless, agreements between Egypt and Israel allow for Israeli entities to purchase up to 7 billion cubic meters of Egyptian gas annually, making Israel one of Egypt's largest natural gas export markets. Mengekspor gas alam ke Israel menghadapi oposisi rakyat yang luas di Mesir. [23] Namun demikian, perjanjian antara Mesir dan Israel memungkinkan untuk entitas Israel untuk membeli sampai dengan 7 milyar meter kubik gas Mesir setiap tahunnya, menjadikan Israel salah satu pasar terbesar di Mesir ekspor gas alam. The decision to export of natural gas to Israel was passed in 1993 at the time when Dr. Hamdy Al-Bambi was Minister of Petroleum and when Mr. Amr Moussa was Minister of Foreign Affairs. Keputusan untuk ekspor gas alam ke Israel disahkan pada tahun 1993 pada saat Dr Hamdy Al-Bambi adalah Menteri Minyak dan ketika Mr Amr Moussa adalah Menteri Luar Negeri. The mandate to sign of the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to delegate to the Ministry of Petroleum represented by the Egyptian General Petroleum Company (EGPC) to contract with EMG Company was approved by the former Prime Minister Dr. Atef Ebeid in the Cabinet's meeting No. 68 on 5 July 2004 when he served as the acting "President of the Republic" when President Hosni Mubarak was receiving medical treatment in Germany. Mandat untuk menandatangani Nota Kesepahaman (MoU) untuk mendelegasikan kepada Departemen Minyak diwakili oleh Perusahaan Umum Mesir Minyak (EGPC) untuk kontrak dengan EMG Perusahaan telah disetujui oleh mantan Perdana Menteri Dr Atef Ebeid dalam rapat Kabinet Tidak ada 68 pada tanggal 5 Juli 2004 ketika ia menjabat sebagai "Presiden Republik" bertindak ketika Presiden. Hosni Mubarak menerima perawatan medis di Jerman.

A new report by Strategic Foresight Group on the Cost of Conflict in the Middle East [ 11 ] also details how in the event of peace an oil and gas pipeline from Port Said to Gaza to Lebanon would result in a transaction value for Egypt to the tune of $1–2 billion per year. Sebuah laporan baru oleh Kelompok Foresight Strategis pada Biaya Konflik di Timur Tengah [11] juga rincian bagaimana dalam hal perdamaian minyak dan pipa gas dari Port Said ke Gaza ke Lebanon akan menghasilkan nilai transaksi untuk Mesir untuk menyempurnakan dari $ 1-2 miliar per tahun.

With respect to nuclear energy, Egypt's President Hosni Mubarak on 29 October 2007, a few days before the Egyptian ruling party's annual conference, proudly gave the go-ahead for building several nuclear power plants . Sehubungan dengan energi nuklir, Presiden Mesir Hosni Mubarak pada tanggal 29 Oktober 2007, beberapa hari sebelum konferensi tahunan partai berkuasa Mesir, bangga memberi lampu hijau untuk membangun beberapa pembangkit listrik tenaga nuklir . Egypt's nuclear route is purely peaceful and fully transparent, but faces technical and financing obstacles. Rute nuklir Mesir adalah murni damai dan sepenuhnya transparan, namun menghadapi kendala teknis dan pembiayaan. Egypt is a member of the IAEA and has both signed and ratified the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT). Mesir adalah anggota IAEA dan memiliki kedua menandatangani dan meratifikasi Perjanjian Nonproliferasi Nuklir (NPT). Currently, a draft Law on Nuclear Energy is being reviewed by the IAEA and expected to be passed by the Egyptian Parliament. Saat ini, RUU tentang Energi Nuklir sedang ditinjau oleh IAEA dan diharapkan akan disahkan oleh Parlemen Mesir. Many other countries in the region, including Libya , Jordan , UAE , Morocco , and Saudi Arabia aspire to build nuclear power plants. Banyak negara lain di kawasan, termasuk Libya , Yordania , UEA , Maroko , dan Arab Saudi bercita-cita untuk membangun pembangkit listrik tenaga nuklir.

As of June 2009 it was reported that Cairo sources said Israelis will dig for oil in Sinai. [ 24 ] This report comes in the time in which the government is heavily criticized for exporting natural gas to Israel at an extremely low rate. [ 25 ] Sampai Juni 2009 dilaporkan bahwa Kairo sumber mengatakan Israel akan menggali minyak di Sinai. [24] Laporan ini datang dalam waktu di mana pemerintah dikecam keras untuk mengekspor gas alam ke Israel pada tingkat yang sangat rendah. [25]

[ edit ] Main economic sectors [ sunting ] sektor ekonomi utama

[ edit ] Agricultural sector [ sunting ] Sektor pertanian

During the 1970s, despite significant investment in land reclamation, agriculture lost its position as the rife economic sector. Selama tahun 1970-an, meskipun investasi yang signifikan dalam reklamasi tanah, pertanian kehilangan posisinya sebagai sektor ekonomi marak. Agricultural exports, which was 87% of all merchandise export value in 1960, fell to 35% in 1974 and to 11% by 2001. Ekspor pertanian, yang adalah 87% dari seluruh nilai ekspor barang pada tahun 1960, turun menjadi 35% pada tahun 1974 dan 11% pada tahun 2001. In 2000, agriculture accounted for 17% of Gross Domestic Production and 34% of total employment. Pada tahun 2000, pertanian menyumbang 17% dari Produksi Domestik Bruto dan 34% dari total lapangan kerja.

Cotton has been the staple crop, but it is no longer vital as an export. Kapas telah menjadi tanaman pangan, tetapi tidak lagi penting sebagai ekspor. Production in 1999 was 243,000 tons. Produksi pada tahun 1999 adalah 243.000 ton. Egypt is also a substantial producer of wheat , corn, sugarcane, fruit and vegetables, fodder, and rice; substantial quantities of wheat are also imported, especially from United States of America and Russia, despite increases in yield since 1970, and significant quantities of rice are exported. Citrus , dates, and grapes are the main fruits by acreage. Mesir juga merupakan produsen besar gandum , jagung, tebu buah, dan sayuran, pakan ternak, dan beras; jumlah besar gandum juga impor, terutama dari Amerika Serikat dan Rusia, meskipun peningkatan hasil sejak 1970, dan jumlah yang

signifikan beras diekspor. Jeruk , tanggal, dan anggur adalah buah utama dengan areal. Agricultural output in tons in 1999 included corn, 9,350,000; wheat, 6,347,000; rice, 5,816,000; potatoes, 1,900,000; and oranges, 1,525,000. Hasil pertanian di ton pada tahun 1999 termasuk jagung, 9.350.000, gandum, 6.347.000, beras, 5.816.000, kentang, 1.900.000, dan jeruk, 1.525.000. The government exercises a strong degree of control over agriculture, not only to ensure the best use of irrigation water but also to confine the planting of cotton in favor of food grains. Pemerintah latihan tingkat yang kuat kontrol atas pertanian, tidak hanya untuk memastikan penggunaan terbaik dari air irigasi, tetapi juga untuk membatasi penanaman kapas mendukung biji-bijian makanan. However, the government's ability to achieve this objective is limited by crop rotational constraints. Namun, kemampuan pemerintah untuk mencapai tujuan ini dibatasi oleh kendala tanaman rotasi.

Egyptian Strawberry exports stood for 52 million dollars in 2009 Mesir Strawberry ekspor berdiri untuk 52 juta dolar pada 2009

Egypt's fertile area totals about 3.3 million hectares (8.1 million acres), about one-quarter of which is land reclaimed from the desert. Daerah yang subur Mesir total sekitar 3,3 juta hektar (8,1 juta hektar), sekitar seperempat dari lahan yang direklamasi dari padang pasir. However, the reclaimed lands only add 7 percent to the total value of agricultural production. Namun, reklamasi tanah hanya menambah 7 persen terhadap nilai total produksi pertanian. Even though only 3 percent of the land is arable, it is extremely productive and can be cropped two or even three times annually. Meskipun hanya 3 persen dari lahan subur, hal ini sangat produktif dan dapat dipotong dua atau bahkan tiga kali setiap tahunnya. Most land is cropped at least twice a year, but agricultural productivity is limited by salinity, which afflicts an estimation of 35% of cultivated land, and drainage issues. Kebanyakan lahan dipotong setidaknya dua kali setahun, namun produktivitas pertanian dibatasi oleh salinitas, yang menimpa perkiraan 35% dari tanah pertanian, dan masalah drainase.

Irrigation plays a major role in a country the very livelihood of which depends upon a single river, the Nile . Irigasi memainkan peran utama dalam kehidupan suatu negara sangat tergantung pada mana sungai tunggal, Nil . Most ambitious of all the irrigation projects is that of the Aswan High Dam , completed in 1971. Paling ambisius dari semua proyek-proyek irigasi adalah bahwa dari bendungan Aswan , selesai pada 1971. A report published in March 1975 by the National Council for Production and Economic Affairs indicated that the dam had proved successful in controlling floodwaters and ensuring recurring water supply, but that water consumption had been more than needed and shall be controlled. Sebuah laporan yang diterbitkan Maret 1975 oleh Dewan Nasional untuk Urusan Ekonomi Produksi dan menunjukkan bahwa bendungan telah terbukti berhasil dalam mengendalikan banjir dan menjamin pasokan air berulang, tetapi bahwa konsumsi air ini telah lebih dari yang dibutuhkan dan harus dikendalikan. Some precious land was lost below the dam because the flow of Nile silt was stopped, and increased salinity remains a major problem. Beberapa tanah yang berharga hilang bawah bendungan karena aliran lumpur Nil dihentikan, dan

salinitas meningkat tetap merupakan masalah besar. Furthermore, five years of drought in the Ethiopia highlands—the source of the Nile River's water—caused the water level of Lake Nasser , the Aswan High Dam's reservoir, to drop to the lowest level in 1987. Selanjutnya, lima tahun kekeringan di Ethiopia dataran tinggi-sumber Sungai Nil itu air menyebabkan permukaan air Danau Nasser , reservoir bendungan Aswan, untuk turun ke level terendah pada tahun 1987. In 1996, however, the level of water behind the High Dam and in Lake Nasser reached the maximum level since the completion of the dam. Pada tahun 1996, bagaimanapun, tingkat air di belakang Bendungan Tinggi dan Danau Nasser mencapai tingkat maksimum sejak selesainya bendungan. Despite this unusual abundance of water supply, Egypt can only utilize 55.5 billion cu m (1.96 trillion cu ft) every year, according to the Nile Basin Agreement signed in 1959 between Egypt and Sudan . Meskipun ini biasa berlimpah pasokan air, Mesir hanya dapat memanfaatkan 55,5 miliar cu m (1960000000000 kaki kubik) setiap tahun, menurut Perjanjian Cekungan Nil ditandatangani pada tahun 1959 antara Mesir dan Sudan . Another magnificent project designed to address the water scarcity problem is the New Valley (the "second Nile"), aimed at development of the large artesian water supplies underlying the oases of the Western Desert . Proyek lain yang luar biasa yang dirancang untuk mengatasi masalah kelangkaan air adalah Lembah Baru (yang "Nil kedua"), yang bertujuan pada pengembangan air artesis besar pasokan mendasari oasis dari Gurun Barat .

The agrarian reform law of 1952 provided that no one might hold more than 190 feddans for farming and that each landholder must either farm the land himself or rent it under specified conditions. Hukum reformasi agraria tahun 1952 dengan ketentuan bahwa tidak ada yang bisa menyimpan lebih dari 190 Feddans untuk pertanian dan bahwa setiap pemilik lahan harus baik pertanian lahan sendiri atau sewa di bawah kondisi tertentu. Up to 95 additional feddans might be held if the owner had children, and additional land had to be sold to the government. Sampai dengan 95 Feddans tambahan mungkin akan diadakan jika pemilik memiliki anak-anak, dan tanah tambahan harus dijual kepada pemerintah. In 1961, the upper limit of landholding was reduced to 100 feddans, and no person was allowed to lease more than 50 feddans (1 feddan = 0.42 hectares). Pada tahun 1961, batas atas pemilikan tanah dikurangi menjadi 100 Feddans, dan tidak ada orang yang diizinkan untuk menyewa lebih dari 50 Feddans (1 feddan = 0,42 hektar). Compensation to the former owners was in bonds bearing a low rate of interest, redeemable within 40 years. Kompensasi kepada mantan pemilik obligasi bantalan tingkat bunga rendah, ditebus dalam 40 tahun. A law enacted in 1969 reduced landholdings by one person to 50 feddans. Sebuah hukum yang berlaku pada tahun 1969 kepemilikan tanah dikurangi dengan satu orang ke 50 Feddans. By the mid-1980s, 90% of all land titles were for holdings of less than five feddans, and about 300,000 families, or 8% of the rural population, had received land under the agrarian reform program. Pada pertengahan 1980-an, 90% dari semua judul lahan untuk kepemilikan kurang dari lima Feddans, dan sekitar 300.000 keluarga, atau 8% dari penduduk pedesaan, telah menerima tanah di bawah program reformasi agraria. According to a 1990 agricultural census, there were some three million small land holdings, almost 96% of which were under five feddans (2.1 hectares/5.2 acres). Menurut sensus tahun 1990 pertanian, ada sekitar tiga juta kepemilikan lahan kecil, hampir 96% dari yang di bawah lima Feddans (2,1 hectares/5.2 hektar). Since the late 1980s, many reforms attempting to deregulate agriculture by liberalizing input and output prices and by eliminating crop area controls have been initiated. Sejak akhir 1980-an, banyak reformasi berusaha untuk menderegulasi pertanian dengan masukan liberalisasi dan harga output dan dengan menghilangkan kontrol tanaman daerah telah dimulai. As a result, the gap between world and domestic prices for Egyptian agricultural commodities has been closed. Akibatnya, kesenjangan antara dunia dan harga domestik untuk komoditas pertanian Mesir telah ditutup.

[ edit ] Industrial sector [ sunting ] Sektor Industri

[ edit ] Automobiles manufacturing [ sunting ] manufaktur Mobil

El Nasr Automotive Manufacturing Company is Egypt 's state owned automobile company, founded in 1960 in Helwan , Egypt . El Nasr Manufacturing Company Otomotif adalah Mesir 'negara bagian mobil perusahaan yang dimiliki, didirikan pada tahun 1960 di Helwan , Mesir . Established in 1977, the company manufactures various vehicles under license from Daimler AG , Kia , Chrysler LLC , and Peugeot . Didirikan pada tahun 1977, perusahaan memproduksi berbagai kendaraan di bawah lisensi dari Daimler AG , Kia , Chrysler LLC , dan Peugeot . Their current lineup consists of the Jeep Cherokee ; the open-top, Wrangler-based Jeep AAV TJL ; the Kia Spectra ; the Peugeot 405 ; and the Peugeot 406 . Lineup mereka saat ini terdiri dari Jeep Cherokee , terbuka-atas, Wrangler berbasis Jeep AAV TJL , sedangkan Kia Spectra ; dengan Peugeot 405 , dan 406 Peugeot .

Other manufacturers such as AAV - Arab American Vehicles , the Ghabbour Group, WAMCO - the Watania Automotive Manufacturing Company, and MCV Egypt - Manufacturing Commercial Vehicles, produce automobiles in Egypt. Produsen lain seperti AAV - Kendaraan Arab Amerika , Kelompok Ghabbour, WAMCO - Perusahaan Manufaktur Otomotif Watania, dan MCV Mesir - Kendaraan Komersial Manufaktur, memproduksi mobil di Mesir. MCV Egypt was established in 1994 to represent Mercedes-Benz in the commercial vehicle sector in Egypt, producing a range of buses and trucks for domestic sale and for export throughout the Arab World , Africa, and Eastern Europe . MCV Mesir didirikan pada tahun 1994 untuk mewakili Mercedes-Benz di sektor kendaraan komersial di Mesir, memproduksi berbagai bus dan truk untuk penjualan domestik dan ekspor di seluruh Dunia Arab , Afrika, dan Eropa Timur . The manufacturing plant at Salheya employs over 1000 people. Pabrik manufaktur di Salheya mempekerjakan lebih dari 1000 orang. Also there is Russian AutoVAZ manufacturing 'Lada' Juga ada Rusia AutoVAZ manufaktur 'Lada'

[ edit ] Chemicals [ sunting ] Kimia

Abu Qir Fertilizers Company (AFC) is one of the largest producers of nitrogen fertilizers in Egypt and the Middle East. Abu Qir Pupuk Perusahaan (AFC) adalah salah satu produsen terbesar nitrogen pupuk di Mesir dan Timur Tengah. It produces about 50% of the Egyptian Nitrogen Fertilizers. The company and the 1st Ammonia Urea plant was established at 1976. It is located at Abu Qir bay, 20 kilometers East Of Alexandria , and there is Egypt Basic Industries Corporation (EBIC), one of the largest producers of greenfield ammonia plant.

[ edit ] Consumer electronics and home appliances

Olympic Group is the largest Egyptian group of companies operating mainly in the field of domestic appliances. The main products it manufactures are washing machines, refrigerators, electric water heaters and gas cookers. It also operates in the fields of IT and real estate.

Bahgat Group is a leading company in the fields of electronics and electrical home appliances, industries, constructions, internet service providing, and TV stations. The group is composed of the following companies : Egy Aircon, International Electronics Products, Electrical Home appliances, General Electronics and Trading, Goldi Trading, Goldi Servicing, Egy Medical, Egyptian Plastic Industry, Egy House, Egy Speakers, Egy Marble, Dreamland and Dream TV.

[ edit ] Steel industries

EZDK is the largest steel company in Egypt and the Middle East. Now a part of Ezz Industries, which consists of four steel plants in Alexandria, Sadat City, Suez and 10th of Ramadan City. In addition, it includes also Al-Jawhara (Gemma) Company for Ceramic and Porcelain tiles. EZDK is the largest independent producer of steel in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and is the market leader in Egypt. EZDK adalah produsen independen terbesar baja di Timur Tengah dan Afrika Utara (MENA) wilayah dan merupakan pemimpin pasar di Mesir. It is ranked at the 65th place in the world biggest steel producers as per the World Steel Institute with total production of 4.5 Million Tons per year representing about three quarters of Egypt total annual production (6 Million Tons). Ini adalah peringkat di tempat ke-65 dalam produsen baja terbesar dunia per World Steel Institute dengan total produksi 4,5 Juta Ton per tahun mewakili sekitar tiga perempat produksi tahunan total Mesir (6 Juta Ton).

[ edit ] Textiles and clothing [ sunting ] Tekstil dan pakaian

Textiles and clothing is one of the largest manufacturing and exporting processes in the country and a huge employment absorber. Egypt poses a high comparative advantage for a variety of TC products, which it has developed into a competitive advantage in major foreign markets. This industry contributes with one quarter of Egypt's non-oil export proceeds, with Cotton textiles comprising the bulk of Egypt's TC export basket. Industri ini memberikan kontribusi dengan seperempat dari non-minyak Mesir hasil ekspor, dengan tekstil kapas yang terdiri dari sebagian besar keranjang ekspor Mesir TC. The public sector accounts for 90% of cotton spinning, 60% of fabric production and 30% of apparel production in Egypt. Sektor publik untuk 90% dari pemintalan kapas, 60% dari produksi kain dan 30% dari produksi pakaian di Mesir. Misr Fine Spinning and Weaving is the largest enterprise of its kind in Africa and the Middle East. The private sector apparel industry is one of the most dynamic manufacturing processes in Egypt.

[ edit ] Construction and contracting sector

Night view of the Nile City Towers.Orascom Construction Industries headquarters is at the south tower (on the right). The Fairmont Hotel lies in-between the two towers

Orascom Construction Industries is a leading Egyptian EPC (engineering, procurement and construction) contractor, based in Cairo, Egypt and active in more than 20 countries. OCI was established in Egypt in 1950 and owned by Onsi Sawiris. OCI didirikan di Mesir pada tahun 1950 dan dimiliki oleh Onsi Sawiris. The company is the first multinational Egyptian

corporation, and is one of the core Orascom Group companies. Perusahaan ini adalah perusahaan multinasional Mesir pertama, dan merupakan salah satu inti Kelompok Orascom perusahaan. As a cement producer, OCI owned and operated cement plants in Egypt, Algeria, Turkey, Pakistan, northern Iraq and Spain, which had a combined annual production capacity of 21 million tonnes.

The Talaat Moustafa Group (TMG), one of the largest conglomerates in Egypt, was founded by the former Talaat Moustafa and is headed by his son, Tarek Talaat Moustafa.

[ edit ] Services sector

[ edit ] Banking & insurance

The banking sector has gone through many stages since the establishment of the first bank in 1856, followed by the emergence of private sector and joint venture banks during the period of the Open Door Policy in the 1970s. Moreover, the Egyptian banking sector has been undergoing reforms, privatization, and mergers and acquisitions from 1991 up to today.

The banking system comprises 57 state owned commercial banks. This includes 28 commercial banks, four of which are state-owned, 26 investment banks (11 joint venture banks and 15 branches of foreign banks), and three specialized banks. Although private and joint venture banks are growing, many remain relatively small with few branch networks. Meskipun bank-bank swasta dan usaha patungan tumbuh, masih banyak yang relatif kecil dengan beberapa jaringan cabang.

Egypt's banking system has undergone major reforms since the 1990s and today consumers are faced with a liberalized and modernized system which is supervised and regulated according to internationally accepted standards. Although the mortgage market is underdeveloped in Egypt and as yet foreigners cannot yet obtain a mortgage for a property in Egypt. In the near future, a new mortgage law will enable purchasers to take out property loans. This will open up the market considerably and create a storm of development and real estate activity in the near future.

[ edit ] Communications [ sunting ] Komunikasi

Main article: Communications in Egypt

Egypt has long been the cultural and informational centre of the Arab world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting centre.

The telecommunications liberalisation process started in 1998 and is still ongoing, but at a slow pace. Private sector companies operate in mobile telephony, and Internet access. Perusahaan swasta beroperasi di telepon mobile, dan akses Internet. There were 10 million fixed phone lines, 31 million mobile phones, and 8.1 million Internet users by the August, 2007.

[ edit ] Transport [ sunting ] Transportasi

Main article: Transport in Egypt

Cairo Metro in Egypt , the subway of Cairo

Transport in Egypt are centered in Cairo and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (3,000 mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. The badly maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles (34,000 km), covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases. Jaringan jalan buruk dipelihara telah berkembang pesat menjadi lebih dari 21.000 mil (34.000 km), yang mencakup Lembah Nil dan Delta Nil, Mediterania dan Laut Merah pantai, Sinai, dan oasis Barat.

In addition to overseas routes, Egypt Air provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub. Selain rute luar negeri, Mesir Udara menyediakan layanan udara yang dapat diandalkan dalam negeri untuk tujuan wisata utama dari hub Kairo tersebut. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transportation.

The Suez Canal is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The ministry of transportation, along with other governmental bodies are responsible for transportation in Egypt. Kementerian transportasi, bersama dengan badan-badan pemerintah lain bertanggung jawab untuk transportasi di Mesir. Major ports are Alexandria, Port Said, and Damietta on the Mediterranean, and Suez and Safaga on the Red Sea.

[ edit ] Tourism sector [ sunting ] Sektor pariwisata

Main article: Tourism in Egypt

The Egyptian tourism industry is one of the most important sectors in the economy, in terms of high employment and incoming foreign currency. Egypt is one of the best known touristic countries in the world. It has many constituents of tourism, mainly historical attractions especially in Cairo , Luxor and Aswan , but also beach and other sea activities. The government is always trying to promote foreign tourism since it is a major source of currency and investment. There are plans to get to 14 million visitors by 2011, by means of the improvement of touristic facilities and advertising of Egyptian tourism in international media, in order to maintain a steady demand for visiting Egypt.

[ edit ] Emerging sectors

[ edit ] ICT sector

The Egyptian information and communications technology sector has been growing significantly since it was separated from the transportation sector. Mesir informasi dan teknologi komunikasi telah berkembang sektor secara signifikan sejak dipisahkan dari sektor transportasi. The market for telecommunications market was officially deregulated since the beginning of 2006 according to the WTO agreement.

The government established ITIDA through Law 15 of the year 2004 as governmental entity. This agency aims at paving the way for the diffusion of the e-business services in Egypt capitalizing on different mandates of the authority as activating the Egyptian e-signature law and supporting an export-oriented IT sector in Egypt .

While the move could open the market for new entrants, add and improve the infrastructure for its network. and in general create a competitive market, the fixed line market is de facto monopolized by Telecom Egypt .

The cellular phone market was a duopoly with prices artificially high but witnessed in the past couple of years the traditional price war between the incumbents Mobinil and Vodafone . A 500 minutes outbound local and long distance calling plan currently costs approximately US$30 as compared to approximately US$ 90 in 2005. While the current price is not so expensive, it is still above the international price as plans never allow "unlimited night & weekend minutes."

A third GSM 3.5G license was awarded in April 2006 for US$3 billion to a consortium led by the UAE company Eitesalat (66%), Egypt Post (20%), the National Bank of Egypt (NBE) (10%), and the NBE's Commercial International Bank (4%), thus moving the market from duopoly to oligopoly .

On 24 September 2006, the National Telecommunication Regulatory Authority (NTRA) announced a license award to Egyptian-Arab private sector consortium of companies to extend a maritime cable for international traffic. Pada tanggal 24 September 2006, Otoritas Telekomunikasi Regulasi Nasional (NTRA) mengumumkan penghargaan lisensi untuk Mesir-Arab konsorsium perusahaan sektor swasta untuk memperpanjang kabel untuk lalu lintas maritim internasional. The US$120 million cable project will serve the Gulf region and south Europe. The construction of the cable should decrease the currently high international call costs and increase domestic demand on internet broadband services, in importantly increase exports of international telecommunication services of Egyptian companies, mostly in the Smart Village . Pembangunan kabel harus mengurangi biaya panggilan tinggi internasional saat ini dan meningkatkan permintaan domestik pada layanan broadband internet, penting meningkatkan ekspor jasa telekomunikasi internasional perusahaan Mesir, terutama di Desa Pintar .

It is expected that NTRA will award two licenses for international gateways using open technology and deploy WiMax technology enabling the delivery of last-mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to ADSL .

The main barrier to growth for Egypt's ICT sector remains its image of instability and very demanding employees. Quality people remain heavily overpaid, compared to the rest of the Middle East.

[ edit ] Largest companies [ sunting ] perusahaan Terbesar

Naguib Sawiris , the founder and largest share holder of Orascom Telecom Naguib Sawiris , pendiri dan pemegang saham terbesar dari Orascom Telecom Main article: List of companies of Egypt

In 2009, 3 Egyptian companies were listed in the Forbes Global 2000 list - an annual ranking of the top 2000 public companies in the world by Forbes magazine. Pada tahun 2009, 3 perusahaan Mesir yang terdaftar dalam daftar Forbes global 2000 - sebuah peringkat tahunan 2000 perusahaan atas masyarakat di dunia oleh majalah Forbes. These companies were: Perusahaan-perusahaan ini adalah:

World Rank

Peringkat Dunia

Company Perusahaan

Industry Industri

Revenue Pendapatan

(billion $) (Miliar $)

Profits Keuntungan

(billion $) (Miliar $)

Assets Aset

(billion $)

(Miliar $)

Market Value Nilai

Pasar (billion

$) (Miliar

$)

785 785 Orascom Construction Industries

Construction Konstruksi

2.42 2.42 11.83 11.83 17.21 17.21

4.16 4.16

846 846

Orascom Telecom Orascom Telecom

Telecommunications Services Layanan Telekomunikasi

4.83 4.83 2.08 2.08 11.42 11.42

3.15 3.15

1384 1384 Telecom Egypt

Telecommunications Services Layanan Telekomunikasi

1.80 1.80 0.43 0.43 6.19 6.19

4.51 4.51

Arab Contractors

Arab Kontraktor

[ edit ] Investment [ sunting ] Investasi

The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Egypt was valued at $79.672 billions in 2005 by the World Bank . [ 26 ]

[ edit ] Investment climate

The Egyptian equity market is one of the most developed in the region with more than 633 listed companies. Market capitalization on the exchange doubled in 2005 from USD 47.2 billion to USD 93.5 billion, with turnover surging from USD 1.16 billion in January 2005 to USD 6 billion in January 2006. [ 27 ]

Private equity has not been widely used in Egypt in the past as a source of funding for businesses. The government, however, has instituted a number of policy changes and reforms specifically intended to develop internal private equity funds and to attract private equity funding from international sources.

The major industries include textiles , hydrocarbon and chemical production , and generic pharmaceutical production. Unemployment is high at about 10.5%. [ 28 ] Pengangguran tinggi sekitar 10,5%. [28]

Until 2003, the Egyptian economy suffered from shortages in foreign currency and excessively elevated interest rates. A series of budget reforms were conducted in order to redress weaknesses in Egypt's economic environment and to boost private sector involvement and confidence in the economy.

Major fiscal reforms were introduced in 2005 in order to tackle the informal sector which according to estimates represents somewhere between 30% to 60% of GDP . Mayor fiskal reformasi diperkenalkan pada tahun 2005 dalam rangka untuk mengatasi sektor informal yang menurut perkiraan mewakili suatu tempat antara 30% sampai 60% dari PDB . Significant tax cuts for corporations were introduced for the first time in Egyptian history. The new Income tax Law No 91 for 2005 reduced the tax rate from 40% to 20%. Pajak Penghasilan UU baru Tak ada 91 tahun 2005 mengurangi tarif pajak dari 40% menjadi 20%. According to government figures, tax filing by individuals and corporations increased by 100%.

Many changes were made to cut trade tariffs. Among the legislators' goals were tackling the black market , reducing bureaucracy and pushing through trade liberalization measures. Amendments to Investment and Company law were introduced in order to attract foreign investors. For example, the number of days required for establishing a company was dramatically reduced.

Significant improvement to the domestic economic environment increased investors' confidence in Egypt. The Cairo & Alexandria Stock Exchange is considered among the best ten emerging markets in the world. The changes to the policy also attracted increased levels of foreign direct investment in Egypt. According to the UN Conference on Trade and

Development's World Investment Report, Egypt was ranked the second largest country in attracting foreign investment in Africa.

Given the large number of amendments to laws and regulations, Egypt has succeeded to a certain extent in conforming to international standards. Very recently the Cairo & Alexandria Stock Exchange (CASE) was welcomed with full membership into the World Federation of Exchanges (WFE)—the first Arab country to be invited.

Enforcement of these newly adopted regulatory frameworks remain, sometime problematic. Problems like corruption hamper economic development in Egypt. Many scandals involving bribery were reported during the past years. Banyak skandal yang melibatkan suap yang dilaporkan selama beberapa tahun terakhir. "In 2002 alone, as many as 48 high-ranking officials—including former cabinet ministers, provincial governors and MPs were convicted of influence peddling, profiteering and embezzlement. Maintaining good relations with politicians is sometimes a key to business success in Egypt. Based on the 2006 Corruption Perception Index developed by Transparency International (where the higher the ranking the greater the level of corruption), Egypt ranked 70 out of 163. On a scale from 0 to 10 (with 0 being highly corrupt), Egypt scored a 3.3 .

According to a study by the International Organization for Migration , 20% of Egyptian remittance-receiving households interviewed channelled the remittances towards various forms of investment, while the large majority (80%) was more concerned about utilizing remittances for meeting the daily needs of their families including spending on health care and education. Among the 20% of households that decided to invest, 39% invested in real estate, 22 % invested in small businesses employing fewer than five people and the smallest proportions of investors (6%) invested in medium private business employing no more than 20 people. According to Egypt's Human Development Report 2008, despite representing approximately 5 % of GDP, remittances provided the initial capital for only 1.4% of newly established small and medium enterprises in Egypt in 2003-2004. [ 7 ]

[ edit ] Response to the global financial crisis [ sunting ] Respon terhadap krisis keuangan global

The challenges of the global food crisis followed by challenges of the global financial crisis made room for more integrated policy reforms. Considering the massive economic measures that have been taken over the past 12 months or so, Egyptian economic policymakers score high based on the inside lag, ie the lapse of time between the moment that the shock began to affect the economy and the moment that economic (monetary and fiscal) policy as well as the regulatory policy are altered and put into effect in response to the shock to various markets: goods market (real GDP), the labor market (unemployment rate), money market (interest rate and inflation), and the financial (stock and bond) market. Mengingat langkah-langkah ekonomi besar-besaran yang telah diambil selama 12 bulan terakhir atau lebih, kebijakan ekonomi Mesir skor tinggi berdasarkan kelambanan dalam, yaitu selang waktu antara saat yang shock mulai mempengaruhi ekonomi dan saat itu ekonomi ( moneter dan fiskal) kebijakan serta kebijakan regulasi yang diubah dan diberlakukan sebagai respons terhadap kejutan untuk berbagai pasar: pasar barang (GDP riil), pasar tenaga kerja (tingkat pengangguran), uang pasar (suku bunga dan inflasi), dan keuangan (saham dan obligasi) pasar. Indeed, moderate financial panic occurred driven—at least partially—by the fear that

other investors are about to panic and sell. There were falls in stock and bond market prices, and rises in nominal interest rates.

Egypt has a population of about 83 million, with the population concentrated within a region 20 miles (32 km) on either side of the Nile River . Mesir memiliki populasi sekitar 83 juta, dengan populasi terkonsentrasi dalam wilayah 20 mil (32 km) di kedua sisi Sungai Nil . The majority of the population is employed in the services sector, followed by agriculture and industrial production. Approximately one-third of Egyptian labour is engaged directly in farming , and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products.

Unemployment rate increased from 10.3% in FY2004 to 11.2% in 2005. Tingkat pengangguran meningkat dari 10,3% di FY2004 menjadi 11,2% pada tahun 2005. The average rate of growth of employment in the publicly owned enterprises sector was -2% per year between FY1998 and FY2005 as a result of aggressive privatization program. On the other hand, private sector employment grew at an average rate of 3% over that period. Di sisi lain, pekerjaan sektor swasta tumbuh pada tingkat rata-rata 3% selama periode tersebut. In addition, the government sector employment grew by almost double the rate of the private sector over the same period.

In general, the average weekly wage in the private sector is, in many instances, higher than that of the public sector. In some other instances, eg whole sale and retail trades, the weekly wage is lower by half of that in the public sector.

As a result of the weakness role of the Ministry of Manpower and Trade Unions to create a balance between the rights of workers and the interests of owners of companies in the private sector, privatization has led to worsening employment problems and deterioration in their working environment and health, and many workers have recently resorted to strike and picketing. Sebagai akibat dari kelemahan peran Departemen Tenaga Kerja dan Serikat Dagang untuk menciptakan keseimbangan antara hak-hak pekerja dan kepentingan pemilik perusahaan di sektor swasta, privatisasi telah menyebabkan memburuknya masalah lapangan kerja dan penurunan lingkungan kerja mereka dan kesehatan, dan banyak pekerja baru-baru ini terpaksa mogok dan tindak pencegahan.

In an effort to quell discontent over rising food prices, Egypt offered government and public sector workers a pay rise of up to 30%, and urged the private sector to keep up with the pay rise. The offer came on the May day speech delivered by President Mubarak to the Egyptian General Federation of Trade Unions. Tawaran datang pada hari di bulan Mei pidato yang disampaikan oleh Presiden Mubarak kepada Federasi Umum Serikat Pekerja Mesir.

"We must go in dealing with the current global (food) crisis, on two basic tracks (1) we must strengthen the food security of our low-income people, (2) we must achieve a balance between wages and prices." President Mubarak said. Presiden Mubarak mengatakan.

The pay rise originally proposed in the government budget ranged between 15%–20%, but the decision to double it was given on heightened worries that widespread anger over prices could lead to a social explosion. The pay rise is initiated immediately, rather than waiting for the start of the new fiscal year on 1 July 2008 and is to be financed from real resources.

While the headline CPI inflation rate was 15.8% (17.6% in rural areas, 14.4% in urban areas) in March 2008, the overall food price inflation rate was 23.7% (26.9% in rural areas, 20.5%

in urban areas). Moreover, in April 2008 in urban areas, the headline CPI inflation rate reached 16.4% while food price inflation rate was 22.0%. Selain itu, pada bulan April 2008 di daerah perkotaan, tingkat inflasi IHK mencapai judul 16,4% sementara harga pangan tingkat inflasi 22,0%. This underlines the statement in Nawar (2008) that "the inflation rate as measured by the headline CPI does not concern the poor and low-income people, who are the majority of people in rural and urban Egypt, since they spend most of their income on food." Ini menggarisbawahi pernyataan dalam Nawar (2008) bahwa "tingkat inflasi yang diukur dengan judul CPI tidak menyangkut orang-orang miskin dan berpenghasilan rendah, yang mayoritas orang di pedesaan dan perkotaan Mesir, karena mereka menghabiskan sebagian besar pendapatan mereka pada makanan. " Approximately 55 million poor and low-income citizens, representing about 75% of the population, are currently enrolled in food ration cards.

In April 2009 it was reported that Egypt feared the return of 500,000 Egyptian laborers working in the Gulf states. [ 29 ]

[ edit ] Poverty and income distribution

According to the 2005 Household Income, Expenditure and Consumption Survey (HIECS), estimated per capita poverty lines vary across the regions. Data from a World Bank and Ministry of Economic Development poverty assessment based on comparisons between actual expenditures (and the cost of a consumption basket securing 2470 calories per day per person), shows that individual Egyptians who spent less than EGP 995 per year in 2005 are considered extreme poor, those who spent less than EGP 1423 per year are poor and those who spent less than EGP 1853 per year are near poor. Data dari Bank Dunia dan Departemen Pembangunan kemiskinan berdasarkan penilaian Ekonomi perbandingan antara pengeluaran aktual (dan biaya sebuah keranjang konsumsi mengamankan 2470 kalori per hari per orang), menunjukkan bahwa Mesir individu yang menghabiskan kurang dari USD 995 per tahun pada tahun 2005 dianggap miskin ekstrem, mereka yang menghabiskan waktu kurang dari USD 1423 per tahun yang miskin dan mereka yang menghabiskan waktu kurang dari USD 1853 per tahun mendekati miskin.

Overall about 44.4% of the Egyptian population are in the range of extreme poor to near poor: [ 30 ]

21% of the Egyptian population was near poor, meaning that about 14.6 million Egyptians can obtain their basic food requirements in addition to some basic services. 21% dari populasi Mesir itu mendekati miskin, yang berarti bahwa sekitar 14,6 juta orang Mesir dapat memperoleh kebutuhan dasar pangan mereka di samping beberapa layanan dasar.

19.6% of the Egyptian population was poor, meaning that about 13.6 million Egyptians (one out of every five) had consumption expenditure below the poverty line and could not therefore obtain their basic food and non-food needs. 19,6% dari penduduk Mesir adalah miskin, yang berarti bahwa sekitar 13,6 juta orang Mesir (satu dari setiap lima) memiliki pengeluaran konsumsi di bawah garis kemiskinan dan karena itu tidak bisa mendapatkan makanan dasar mereka dan kebutuhan non-makanan.

3.8% of the Egyptian population was extreme poor, meaning that about 2.6 million of the Egyptian poor could not obtain their basic food requirements even if they spent all their expenditure on food.

Poverty has a strong regional dimension in Egypt and concentrates in Upper Egypt region, both urban (18.6%) and rural( 39.1), while metropolitan areas are the least poor (5.7%). Kemiskinan memiliki dimensi regional yang kuat di Mesir dan konsentrat di wilayah Mesir Atas, baik perkotaan (18,6%) dan pedesaan (39,1), sementara daerah metropolitan adalah yang paling miskin (5,7%). The government is currently employing recently completed poverty map as tool for geographic targeting of public resources.

[ edit ] Statistics [ sunting ] Statistik

Basic Data Dasar data Fiscal Year Tahun Fiskal 1 July–31 June 1 Juli - 31 Juni

Currency Mata uang Egyptian pound (EGP) = 100 piasters Mesir pon (EGP) = 100 piaster

Land Area Luas Tanah 1 million km²

To be completed soon: Untuk dapat segera diselesaikan:

Economic Statistics Statistik Ekonomi

2001 2001

2002 2002

2003 2003

2004 2004

2005 2005

2006 2006

2007 2007

2008 2008

2009 2009

2010 2010

Nominal GNP (EGP bn) Nominal PDB (EGP miliar)

373.6 393.2 393.2

432.1 432.1

502.8 502.8

563.3 649.4 649.4

773.8 773.8

897.0

Nominal GDP (EGP bn) Nominal PDB (EGP miliar)

358.7 378.9 378.9

417.5 417.5

485.3 536.6 618 618 730 730 847 847

1008 1008

1181 1181

Real GDP Growth

3.5 3.5 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.1 4.1 4.1 5.0 5.0 6.9 6.9 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.2

5.2 5.2

Inflation Inflasi

2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 3.2 3.2 10.3 10.3

11.4 11.4

4.4 4.4 7.62 7.62

12 12

Current Account Balance (USD m) Saldo Rekening Giro (Rp m)

-33 614 614 1943 1943

3418 3418

2911 2911

1752 1752

2696 2696

Development Assistance (USD bn) Bantuan Pembangunan (USD miliar)

1.3 [ 31 ]

Population (m) Penduduk (m)

65.3 65.3

66.6 66.6

68.0 68.0

69.3 69.3

70.7 70.7

72.1 72.1

73.5 73.5

75.0 75.0

80.0 80.0

Labor Force 19.3 19.9 20.4 20.9 21.8 21.8 22.9 23.6

Angkatan kerja

19.3 19.9 20.4 20.9 21.8 21.8 22.9 * 23,6 *

Unemployment (%) Pengangguran (%)

9.2 9.2 10.2 10.2

11.0 11.0

10.3 10.3

11.2 11.2

10.3 10.3

Population below Poverty Line (%) Merchandise Imports (fob: USD m)

16441 16441

14637 14637

14821 14821

18286 24193 24193

30441 30441

37834 37834

Merchandise Exports (fob: USD m)

7078 7078

7121 7121

8205 8205

10453 10453

13833 13833

18455 18455

22018 22018

Net Foreign Direct Investment (FDI: USD m)

509.4 509.4

428.2 700.6 2107.2 2107.2

3901.6 3901.6

6111.4 6111.4

GDP Composition Komposisi PDB -- Agriculture - Pertanian

14 14 16 16 17 17 15 15 14 14 15 15

-- Industry [ 32 ] - Industri [32]

30 30 32 32 33 33 31 31 33 33 36 36

-- Services - Layanan

56 56 53 53 50 50 54 54 53 53 49 49

Subsidies (EGP m) Subsidi (EGP m)

18,050.9 18,050.9

20,649.2 20,649.2

24,751.7 24,751.7

29,706.0 29,706.0

68,897.0 68,897.0

51,844.0 51,844.0

64,465.0 64,465.0

Fiscal Balance, (-) Deficit (% of GDP)

-10.2% -10,2%

-10.5% -10,5%

-9.5% -9,5%

-9.6% -9,6%

-8.2% -8,2%

-6.7% -6,7%

-6.9% -6,9%

Electricity Generation (GW·h)

18.5 18.5

19.7 19.7

21.3 21.3

Per Pound USD Exchange Rate Per Pound Nilai Tukar USD

4.49 4.49

4.50 4.50

6.15 6.15

6.13 6.13

5.73 5.73

5.71 5.71

5.54 5.54

5.30 [

33 ]

IMF Voting 0.45%

Power

[ 34 ] 0,45% [34]

[ edit ] Notes [ sunting ] Catatan

1. ̂ CIA World Fact Book - Egypt's Economy ^ CIA World Fact Book - Ekonomi Mesir

2.3. ̂ "Sovereigns rating list" . ^ "Penguasa daftar rating" . Standard & Poor's .

http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39 . Standard & Poor. http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39 . Retrieved 26 May 2011 . Diakses 26 Mei 2011.

4. ̂ "International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity - EGYPT" . ^ "Internasional Cadangan dan Likuiditas Valuta Asing - MESIR" . International Monetary Fund. Dana Moneter Internasional. 9 May 2011 . http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/ir/IRProcessWeb/data/egy/eng/curegy.htm . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . Diakses 31 Mei 2011.

5. ̂ Source: IMF WEO Online database ^ Sumber: IMF WEO Database online 6. ̂ Central Bank of Egypt, MPC Press Releases 7.8. ̂ These remarks on fiscal conduct and corruption were made in a recent report

presented by the head of the Central Agency of Auditing, Gawdat El-Malat, and discussed by the Egyptian Parliament on January 14–15, 2008.

9. ̂ Source:, Ministry of Finance and Figures for 2008 and 2009 are budget estimates ^ Sumber: Departemen Keuangan dan Angka untuk 2008 dan 2009 adalah perkiraan anggaran

10. ^ a b Source:, Ministry of Finance and Central Bank of Egypt, as analyzed in Nawar, Abdel-Hameed (2008) "Anti-Inflation Policy Array in Egypt available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1115642 "

11. ^ a b http://www.strategicforesight.com/Cost%20of%20Conflict%20-%206%20pager.pdf ^ a b http://www.strategicforesight.com/Cost% 20dan% 20Conflict% 20 -% 206% 20pager.pdf

12. ̂ Nawar, Abdel-Hameed (2008) "PPI and Measuring Inflation in Business Transactions in Egypt", Cairo University, manuscript, March. ^ Nawar, Abdel-Hameed (2008) "PPI dan Inflasi Pengukuran dalam Transaksi Bisnis di Mesir", Universitas Kairo, manuskrip, Maret. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=

13. ̂ Sowing the right seeds Al-Ahram Weekly , August 6, 2009 ^ Menabur benih kanan Al-Ahram Weekly, 6 Agustus 2009

14. ̂ EGYPT CLONES A NILE EGYPT CLONES A NILE , Source: US News & World Report, 05/19/97, Vol. ^ MESIR klon Sebuah NILE MESIR klon Sebuah NILE, Sumber: US News & World Report, 05/19/97, Vol. 122 Issue 19, p33, 3p.

15. ̂ Source: USDA , Foreign Agricultural Service 16. ̂ It is noteworthy that this point is emphasized in the context of the production of

natural gas from biogas in Nawar, Abdel-Hameed (2005). ^ Perlu dicatat bahwa titik ini ditekankan dalam konteks produksi gas alam dari biogas di Nawar, Abdel-Hameed (2005). "The Emerging Landscape of the Natural Gas in Egypt". "Bentangan Emerging Gas Alam di Mesir". Cairo University, manuscript. Natural gas can be

mainly produced with crude oil from the same reservoir, ie associated, or from a natural gas reservoir, ie non-associated. Gas alam dapat terutama diproduksi dengan minyak mentah dari reservoir yang sama, yaitu yang terkait, atau dari reservoir gas alam, yaitu non-terkait.

17. ̂ Using what we have Al-Ahram Weekly ,29 October 2008 18. ̂ In addition to constraining agriculture development, over the past 25 years, about

8000 people were victimized by landmines, including 3,200 dead and 5,000 injured, according to local and international statistics. ^ Selain menghambat pengembangan pertanian, selama 25 tahun terakhir, sekitar 8000 orang menjadi korban ranjau darat, termasuk 3.200 tewas dan 5.000 terluka, menurut statistik lokal dan internasional.

19. ̂ CIA Factbook, Egyptian Economy 20. ̂ See http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=7689 ^ Lihat

http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=7689 21. ̂ See http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Syria/NaturalGas.html ^ Lihat

http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Syria/NaturalGas.html 22. ̂ BRIEF: Merhav exec insists gas pipeline is sufficient: "The pipeline was designed,

built, and tested by the top companies in their fields." ^ SINGKAT: Merhav exec menegaskan pipa gas sudah cukup: ". pipa ini dirancang, dibangun, dan diuji oleh perusahaan terkemuka di bidang mereka" Lior Baron. Lior Baron. McClatchy - Tribune Business News. McClatchy - Tribune Bisnis Berita. Washington: 24 March 2008. Washington: 24 Maret 2008.

23. ̂ Nawar, Abdel-Hameed (2005). "The Emerging Landscape of the Natural Gas in Egypt". "Bentangan Emerging Gas Alam di Mesir". Cairo University, manuscript.

24. ̂ Cairo sources said Israelis will dig for oil in Sinai 25. ̂ The gas conundrum Al-Ahram Weekly, 26 November 2008 ^ Teka-teki Gas Al-

Ahram Weekly, 26 November 2008 26. ̂ Data - Finance ^ data - Keuangan 27. ̂ http://www.thomaswhite.com/explore-the-world/postcard/2010/privatization-in-

egypt.aspx 28. ̂ Private Equity in Pakistan, Israel, and Egypt , by Sethi, Arjun Nov 2007. 29. ̂ Egypt fears return of 500,000 workers from Gulf ^ Mesir kekhawatiran kembalinya

500.000 pekerja dari Teluk 30. ̂ Nawar, Abdel-Hameed (2007) "From Marina to Kom-Ombo: A Note on Poverty in

Egypt", Cairo University, manuscript, August 31. ̂ World Bank Country Data Profile. ^ Bank Dunia data Profil. 32. ̂ Includes energy, mining, and manufacturing. 33. ̂ Current figure for exchange rate as of 19 July 2008. ^ saat ini angka untuk nilai

tukar pada 19 Juli 2008. 34. ̂ As of 16 June 2006. ^ Seperti dari 16 Juni 2006. See IMF (2006) "IMF in Focus",

A Supplement to the IMF Survey, Vol. Lihat IMF (2006) "IMF in Focus", Sebuah Tambahan Survei IMF, Vol. 35, August, 2006, p. 15. 15.