Egyptian Metalworking

Shire Egyptology

EgyptianMetalvvorkingand ToolsBernd Scheel

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Cover illustrationMetalworkers polishing a stand for a table of offerings (left) and hammershymg a vessel (right) Depicted above are a brazier and the smith s tools a

blowpipe and a pair of tongsFrom the tomb of the Vizier Rekhmire at Thebes Ei~hteenth Dynasty

(Photograph by Bernd Scheel) L

British librarv Catalouuinu in Publication Data SeheCI Bernd

Egyptian metalworking and toolsI Egypt Metalworking ancient period

I Titleh~4 Ol)O()2

ISBN 0-747fgt-OOO 1-4

Published bySHIRE PUBLICATIONS LTD

Cromwell House Church Street Princes RisboroughAylesbury Bucks HP17 9AJ UK

Series Editor Barbara Adams

Copyright Bernd Scheel 19R9

All rights reserved No pnrt of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form or by any means electronic or mechanicalincluding photocopy recording or any Informatlon storage

and retrieval system without pe nnrssion In wntingfrom the publishers

ISBN 0 747i 0001 4

First published 19i9

Printed in Great Britain byC 1 Thomas amp Sons (Havcrfordwest) Ltd

Press Buildings Mertins Bridge Havcrfordwcst Dyfcd SA61 IXF

3

ContentsLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 4

CHRONOLOGY SI INTRODUCTION 7

2 MINING AND SMELTING 11MELTING CASTING AND PLATE PRODUCTION 21

4 FUNERARY EQUIPMENT AND OTHER ITEMS 34S TOOLS AND THEIR USES 47

h THE SOCIAL STATUS AND ORGANISATION OFMETALWORKERS )lt)

7 GLOSSARY 61~ MUSEUMS 62

lt) FURTHER READING 64INDEX 67

AcknowledgementsI would like to thank Mrs Barbara Adams Editor of the Shire Egyptologyseries and Mr John Rotheroe of Shire Publications for their help and myteacher Professor Dr Hartwig Altenrnuller of Hamburg University for aidinginvestigations into Egyptian craftsmanship I would also like to thank ProfessorDr Rainer Stadclmann of the German Institute of Archaeology in Cairo forallowing me to publish new material from the metalworking site at the temple ofKing Seti I at Thebes 11r Gunter Heindl and Mrs Nicole Alcxanian of theUniversity of Heidelberg helped to evaluate the excavation results and MrsKatharina Neumann of Frankfurt University analysed the excavated charcoalAcknowledgement is made to Dr Rosemarie Drenkhahn of Kestner-MuseumHanover Dr Renate Germer of Hamburg University and Albrecht GermerProfessor Dr Silvio Curto of the Egyptian Museum Turin Dr Sylvia Schoske ofthe Staatliche Sammlung Agyptischer Kunst in Munich and Dr Joachim SKarig of Agyptisches Museum Berlin SMPK who provided photographs andpermission for publication other photographs and drawings are by the authorFinally I would like to express my gratitude to my very understanding wifeUrsel for all her support and help in my work The outline dynastic chronologyis based on that of Dr William J Murnane and acknowledgement is made to himand Penguin Books for its use here

4

List of illustrationsI Map or carly ltcttlcmcnt and metallurgical ~iIClt jwge 62 Mcltcrv and a ltmill1 in a Fourth Dvnavt v Gizn mn-uuba pug(3 Map 01 ancien Egyplian mining di~lrietlt jJage 104 Map showing a gold-bearing region in the ca~~crn desert of 1~1ypl Jagc J]5 Delivery of gold to temple and palace ucnsuncs flage JJ6 Goldworkcr- at work Jage 137 lsi- kneeling on the hicroulvphic igll (0] gold )((lil 58 Bowl furnace HIRC 69 Shan turn ace jJage 6 1

10 Ritual of the opening 0[ the m~H1Lh )(IgcII Trausport oj copper lead and till Jagt J)12 Weighing of gold in the shape 01 lill1 J213 Mcltiuu of ructnl tomb or Mcrcruka Joge14 MeltillQ of metal tomb or Pcpiunkh 2315 Egypti~l1l mcltcr with hhlpipc wg(16 Mcltinu or metal lomb of Puvcmrc Wgl 2~17 Meltcr divh bellows page 25middot _18 Mchinu and ea-tin metal tomb 01 Rc kluuirc Jge h19 Ancicut rnctnlworkiuu site aL luncrurv temple or King ScLi L Thebe jwgl H)20 l ixcavutcd hearths o( Ioundrv ill the tunerary tcrnplc 01 Scti I floge ()

21 Hearth for metal mcltiug I(~e 2722 Tuycrcs or clay nozvlcs Irom bellows Jage J823 I Icnrth with sm1I1 ea~lIng mould page 2V24 Clting mould j)ogc 29 25 Pouring out molten rnctal tomb oj Pcpinnkh Ioge 302(J Pouring out molten mctnl tomb or Mcrcruka poge 30 27 Metalworkers workvhop melting and hummcnup out of metal Jolte 328 Tools of a blacksmith or rnctnlbcutcr 3129 Black smith or mctalbcatcr aL work oge30 Annealing a metal object page 331 Smith at a brazier page JJ32 Annealing in lt1 fireplace fanned by dish hcllows page 3233 Gold bcatcrv tools )(ge 3334 Production of a Iihation vessel page 3535 Hand-basin and ewer set page 3536 Production of a hand-basin page 3(37 Smith working at a wooden anvil i()

38 Bronze flask and ring stand pogl39 Polishing an oflcring stand jmJc 3740 Bronze censer hallllie )(IRe 3841 Scti I ccnsing and libating in front of Soknt wge 3842 Vessel polishing page 3943 Outline drawer and engraver at work Wlge 3944 Engraver at work )([e j945 Statuette of the crocodile god Sobek jJage +J46 Mirror with handle in shape of nude woman pOKe n47 Statuette of Isis with l lorus on her lap poge +348 Bronze rams head finial Iog ~3

49 Drilling of precious stones jJoKe 4550 Ml1luflcture of a collar j)oge 4551 Different types ofuxc-bladc page +ll52 Wooclcuttcr tomb or Ncfcr and Kahny JoKe 4853 Different types of adze-blade jmJc 4954 Carpenter working with an adze page 5055 Carpenter Vorking with a saw page 51 _56 Carpenters cunmg out ornaments page J J57 Wood sculptors at work Jge 5258 Drilling wood and stone Jage 5259 Manufacture or sandals and leather ltn-aps page 5+(10 Box with medical instrumcnt- J)oge 5561 Razor and hnir-curlct oge 5762 Map of ancient Egypt jJaKe 66

Predynastic

Protodynastic

Early Dynastic

Old Kingdom

First IntermediatePeriod

Middle Kingdom

Second IntermediatePeriod

New Kingdom

Third IntermediatePeriod

Late Period

Graeco-RomanPeriod

Chronology5500 - 3050 BC

5500 - 4000Lower EgyptUpper Egypt4000 - 3500Lower EgyptUpper Egypt3500 - 3300Lower EgyptUpper Egypt3500 - 3050Lower Egypt3300 - 3150Upper Egypt

3200 - 3050 B(

3050 - 2hl3 BC

261J - 21kl BC

21kl - 2040 BC

2040 - 17k2 BC

17k2-1570 BC

1570 - 1070 BC

1070 - 713 BC

713 - 332 BC

332 Be - D 3l)5

5

FIVUI11 A MerirndaBa~Ilrian

Omari Arnruiun (Naqudu I)

Ornari BEarly (incan (Naquda II)

Late Gcrzcan (Nlqada II)

Naqad II (Llle Gc rzcan)

Dvnastic- I - II

Dynasties III - VI

Dynasties VI I - XI( I)

Dynasties XI(2) - XII

Dynasties XIII - XVII

Dynasties XVIII - XX

Dynasties XXI - XXIV

Dvnastics XXV - XXXI

Ptolcrnics and ROl11anEmperors

6 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools 7

Tepe Hissur

1Introduction

The development of metallurgyThe exact chronology and geography of the earliest practice of

metallurgy are still matters for discussion between archaeologistsand technologists The early centres of mining and metal processshying can be identified (figure I) but details of their growth andtheir influence on other regions remain unknown

The development of trades and crafts is closely connected withsocial evolution with the process of settlement the transitionfrom food-collecting to food-producing economics and the domesshytication of animals and plants These changes made possibleproduction of surplus food for those who were specially talentedat crafts or metalworking

In the Near East the process of settlement may have begun asearly as 10000 Be In the ninth and eighth millennia BC farmingcommunities arose at Tepe Ganj Dareh and Tepe Asiab in theZagros Mountains in south-western Iran Early farming commushynities were also founded in the Levant and in southern Anatolia

The earliest indications of metallurgy in the Near East havebeen found in Anatolia and Iran Native copper was used for themanufacture of jewellery in Anatolia as early as 6500 BC CayonuTepesi and Catal Huyuk arc well known sites where pieces ofmetalwork have been found Smelted copper has been found inthose areas as well as in Iran The early metallurgical sites in Iranare Tepe Sialk where the metal artefacts date to approximately5500 to 5000 BC Tal i-Iblis with artefacts from about 5000 to4500 BC and Tepe Hissar with metalwork of about 3500 Be

Ideal conditions for the process of settlement and the developshyment of farming were found in the major river valleys of westernAsia Extensive irrigation systems there made possible the proshyduction of enough food to support not only the agriculturalistsbut also non-food-producing specialists like craftsmen priestsartists and administrators The growth of the early urban civilisshyations in the Nile valley the Tigris-Euphrates valley and theIndus valley was characterised by intensive food productiontechnological and industrial development (including metal proshycessing) and external trade as well as the invention of writingThe earliest of these three civilisations was the Sumerian in theTigris-Euphrates valley of Mesopotamia where extensive citieslike Ur Uruk and Nippur arose in the course of the fourth

bull

Tepe Asrubbullbull Tepe Siolk

M e s op o ia Tepe Gonj DorehNlppur

Uruk ~Ur

l Early settlement and metallurgical sites in the Near East

o

8 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools III roduction 9

millennium Be The craftsmen especially the Sumerian smithsshowed remarkable skills As well as neolithic techniques likehammering bending cutting grinding and polishing the Sumshyerian smiths mastered annealing smelting melting and castingmetals It is possible that the early technological developments inMesopotamia took place under the influence of Anatolian andIranian immigrants the Tigris and the Euphrates rise in Anatoliaand very early Iranian settlements in the Zagros Mountainsborder the area east of Mesopotamia There is however no firmarchaeological evidence for this belief Nevertheless trade in rawmaterials or metal products and contacts with itinerant smithsfrom Anatolia and Iran could have been the decisive factor in theindependent development of a Mesopotamian metal-processingindustry

Early EgyptEvolutionary stages similar to those seen in Mesopotamia may

be observed in early Egypt Archaeological research in the Nilevalley indicates that the process of neolithic settlement took placein the course of the sixth millennium BC as demonstrated byartefacts bones and different kinds of grain found during excavashytions at the sites of Merimda in the south-west Delta Tasa inUpper Egypt and those in the Fayum basin Another well knownneolithic settlement is Badari which is south of modern Asyut inMiddle Egypt Although excavations at Badari revealed the veryfirst Egyptian metal artefacts metalworking was not common inthis phase of neolithic Egypt and the metal objects found atBadari have to be recognised as isolated occurrences of copperbeads used as burial objects

Metal processing became more common during the chalcoshylithic Naqada I-III cultures (named after the Upper Egyptian siteat which they were first identified and classified into relativelydated phases of settlement from about 4000 to 3000 Be) Naqadais situated about 27 km (17 miles) north of modern Luxor TheNaqada I culture (c 4000-3500 BC) exhibits a well developedpottery manufacture and also a stone vase industry in which metaltools were used but no evidence of metal production has beendiscovered In the following Naqada II and III phases (about 3500to 3050 Be) foreign influence caused a turning point in thedevelopment of early Egypt The Naqada II culture spread overthe entire Nile valley from north of Hierakonpolis into the DeltaLong-distance trade and possibly contact with immigrants broughtnew technologies and materials into Predynastic Egypt Pottery

2 Melters with blowpipes work around I charcoal fireplace a smith hammers out a plate(After Dunham and Simpson Giza Mastabas I The Mastubu 01 Queen Meresankh IIIHosron 1974 figure 5)

and stone vessels were imported from Mesopotamia and it isreasonable to suppose that the growth of Prcdynastic Egyptianmetallurgy was influenced by Mesopotamian technologies asmetal processing had a longer tradition in the Tigris-Euphratesvalley

However little is known about the techniques applied themanufacturing processes used and the working condition~ of theearly metalworkers in the Nile valley Our knowlege ot m~tal-lurgy in this early period is based on the scientific analySIS otartefacts which indicates that copper casting was practised asearly as the late Naqada II and Naqada III periods of about 3300to 3000 Be Copper tools and weapons were manufacturedsimply by open-mould casting Melting casting and smeltingmetals from ores required a sophisticated pottery industry whichwould then have served as a basis for acquiring the technique ofproducing high temperatures using charcoal and developingsmelting furnaces and melting crucibles

From the beginning of the Dynastic Period in Egypt in about3050 BC metal-processing technigue~were continuously developshyed and refined With the centralisation of the Egyptian adrninisshytration and the formation of a cultural centre at the royal capitalvarious professions and trades were established Although Egyptwas neither the earliest nor the most important metallurgy centreat that time the first pictorial and inscriptional sources relating tothe metalworkers craft come from Egyptian mastaba tombs atthe beginning of the Old Kingdom The first scenes of metalshyworking were found in Giza on the walls of the tomb of Queen

Buhen

Sornna- HJILl

GoldNative gold was processed into small items of jewellery as early

as the Predynastic Period During the Old Kingdom Egyptianminers supported by the local nomadic population startedmining for gold in the eastern desert Ancient Egyptian recordsprovide details of the principal mines The Gold of the Desertfrom Koptos was mined at several sites ncar Wadi Hammarnat Wadi Abbed Wadi el-Fawakhir and Wadi Sid An ancientEgyptian sketch map of this area exists showing the gold-miningdistrict The hieratic captions describe the location of a goldmine with paths leading to the Red Sea the miners quarters thegold-bearing mountain areas and gold-washing stations (figure 4)This sketch map drawn on a papyrus dates from the NewKingdom and is regarded as the first map in history

From the beginning of the Middle Kingdom the gold depositsof northern Nubia were exploited Egyptian records tell of theGold of Wawat which was mined near Wadi Allaqi Wadi elshyHudi and between Buhen and Semna The Egyptian influence onNubia developed quickly during the New Kingdom and anothergold-mining district was opened up south of the gold mines ofWawat Egyptian records mention the Gold of Kush which wasmined in the area of Napata and Abu Hamed In Egypt the puremetal was extracted both from alluvial gold found in surfacedeposits and from sub-surface quartz gold

There are no ancient Egyptian descriptions of the way in whichthe pure metal was extracted from the quartz ores but a reportwritten by the Greek traveller Agatharchides of Cnidus wholived in the second century BC describes the working conditions

1I

2Mining and smelting

In ancient Egypt metals were mined in several areas by open-castIS well as by underground mining (figure 3) Gold and copperwere the first ones processed by the early Egyptian metalworkersLater in the development of Egyptian metallurgy clcctrum silver iron tin bronze lead and platinum were also worked Inaddition traces of nickel zinc arsenic antimony and cobalt havebeen detected in small amounts in metal artefacts Metals werealso imported by trade or as a tribute from neighbouring countshyries especially gold and copper of which great quantities wereused

-Abu Hamed

NUBIA

Egyptian Metalworking and Tools

Me~es~~kh III the wife of King Khaefre (figure 2)Similar depl~tIOns ~f metalworkers and their craft are found in

the tombs ot officials In all periods of Egyptian history Pictorialinscriptional and archaeological sources including the metalartefacts themselves together serve as the basis for our investigashytion into Egyptian metalworking

O

3 Distribution map of ancientEgyptian mining districts lt00---i~-------J_---~-----l

~ The delivery of old in the form of rings small hags or gold dltsl and ingots to(1I1ple and palace trclsuries (Alter Davies The Tomb 0 Rckh-Mi-Rc III ThebesN(middotw York 1041 plates 11- lj)

behind the miners and young boys then had to gather up theblocks to take them out into the open Outside the entranceworkers over thirty years of age crushed the gold-bearing blocksill mortars into small pieces the size of apea Wcgtmen and ol~er

men ground the small pieces to powder With gnndmg mills (Millslor grinding quartz ore have been found m W~dl el-Hudi andWadi Hammamat) After grinding the pulvensed quartz waswashed on a sloping surface where the heavy gold dust remainedh Goldworkers producing precious objects for daily usc and funcral equipment (AlterI iavicraquo The Tomh 0 Two Sculptors III TheJis New York I(j2gt plutc II)


and techniques applied in an Egyptian gold mine of the PtolemaicPeriod From Agatharchides observations it seems that manyworkers commanded by overseers had to work very hard underpainful conditions Criminals and prisoners of war were condemnshyed to the gold mines as well as unjustly accused innocent peoplebecause there was a great demand for profit-making eheaplabour The captives were bound in chains and had no chance ofescape from the desert mining district The guards were made upof foreign soldiers who could not understand the language of thecaptured workers so no one was able to make friendly contactwith his keepers or to corrupt the soldiers The captives had towork day and night without respite

As this report dates from the Ptolemaic Period there is noevidence that working conditions were the same in the earlierperiods of Pharaonic Egypt However with regard to Agatharshychides account of the methods of extraction employed therewould have been no major changes from the processes of goldshymining developed earlier in Egyptian history Agatharchidessays that the gold-bearing rock face was first burnt to crumble itThen the strongest workers broke the quartz rock with hammersIn this way tunnels and shafts were cut through the mine Insidethe dark passages the captives had to carry oil lamps bound ontheir foreheads The cut blocks were thrown on the ground

4 The first map in history showing a gold-mining district (Musco Egiziraquo Turin 11-7111-00 1060)

14 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools Mining and smelting 15

while the other matter the gangue was washed away As anenormous amount of water was needed it seems likely that thegold-bearing siliceous dust was sometimes carried to the banks ofthe Nile for washing and then refining

From the beginning of the Ptolemaic Period the gold dust wasrefined by melting it together with a special mixture of lead tinsalt and barley bran as is explained by Agathar-chidcs The puremetal extracted was carried to the treasuries of the temples andpalaces in the shape of rings ingots nuggets or small bags of golddust (figure 5) The treasury administrators supplied the preciousmetal to metalworkers goldsmiths and jewellers who manufacturshyed gold objects for daily use as well as for ritual purposes andfunerary equipment (figure 6)

Gods goddesses and the king himself had special relationshipswith gold The sun god Re was honoured as Gold of StarsHorus was called Child of Gold or Falcon of Gold and theking as the personification of Horus or the falcon on earth wasnamed Mountain of Gold Isis the mother of Horus and hersister Nephthys are often shown on royal sarcophagi from theNew Kingdom kneeling or standing on the hieroglyphic sign forgold they are protecting the deceased pharaoh (figure 7)

CopperCopper was another very important metal It was the most

common metal for everyday use in ancient Egypt and was madeinto vessels tools and weapons Because of its natural content ofarsenic Egyptian copper was particularly hard Copper ores likemalachite azurite chrysocolla and copper pyrites were minedand smelted in the eastern desert and in Sinai The invention orintroduction of the smelting process also marked the beginning ofthe metal period in ancient Egypt because mass-production ofmetal objects became possible In the eastern desert copper oreswere exploited east of Beni Suef in the Wadi Araba north-westof Berenike and east of Quban In Sinai highly productive coppermines have been excavated at Timna near Eilat Copper was alsoimported from Cyprus and the Near East It is difficult to sayexactly when copper began to be mined in Sinai and in the othermining districts but it is certain that mining was practised inTimna from the mid Eighteenth Dynasty

After the mining district had been prospected by experiencedmineralogists the miners cut out the copper-bearing mineralsThe crude ore was crushed into small pieces milled and winnowedto separate the associated minerals from the metal-bearing are

7 The goddess Isis kneeling on the hieroglyphic sign tor gold depicted on I sarcophagusIrom the tomb or King Amcnophis II in the Valley or the Kings

The ground ore was smelted in furnaces of different kinds Thesimplest and probably the oldest type was a primitive bowlfurnace dug into the ground (figure 8) In the course of thesmelting process a mixture of crushed malachite and charcoal thecharge was roasted and reduced to small prills of rich copper areembedded in a copper slag The prills were extracted by crushingthe slag and then melted together to form copper ingots

In Ramesside times sophisticated shaft furnaces were usedwhich enabled higher temperatures of about 1200 C (2200 F) tohe reached (figure 9) The brick-built furnaces were loam-linedand fitted with a tap hole the heat was intensified by blasts frombellows In the course of the smelting process the copper dropletssank to the furnace bottom forming an ingot At the end of theprocess the lighter slag above the smelted metal could be tappedinto a slag pit through the tap hole in the furnace wall Afterwardsthe copper ingot was removed from the bottom of the furnace

ElectrumAnother metal known as early as the Predynastic Period was

electrum which was found as a native alloy of gold and silver Inearly times it was used only for the manufacture of valuable


8 Early bowl furnace for primitive smelting

loam

slag wrthcopper prills

the contrary it has been proved from ancient Egyptian recordsthat silver was imported from Mesopotamia Crete and CyprusA lead-silver mine worked from about 3000 BC was discoveredon Siphnos an island of the Cyclades Metalworkers used silverfor the manufacture of jewellery vessels offering stands coffinssarcophagi musical instruments scarabs statues mirrors andother valuable items

According to Agatharchides silver was extracted from crudegold by cementation or cupellation in the course of the goldshyrefining process Silver was called white metal by the Egyptiansand it was believed that the bones of the gods were of silver andtheir flesh of gold

9 Sophisticated shul] furnace for the smelling of mctnl from its orcs

SilverAlthough silver was also used in Egypt as early as the Naqada

II period in Predynastic times there is no evidence that theEgyptians themselves mined silver anywhere in the country On

IronIron was another metal of mythical character According to

legend the skeleton of Seth the god of wind and storms lord ofthe desert and enemy of Osiris and Horus was of iron Iron wascalled the metal of heaven because for a long time the Egyptiansknew only meteoric iron which has a high nickel contentBecause of its supposedly divine origin meteoric iron was used inparticular for the production of protective amulets and magicmodel tools which were needed for the ritual called the openingof the mouth a ceremony which was necessary to prepare themummy of the deceased for life after death (figure 10) In theEighteenth Dynasty telluric iron was imported from the Peloshyponnese and from the Near East especially from the Mitanni andHittite Anatolia and probably from Cyprus Egypt itself has someremarkable iron ore deposits but there is no evidence that thesedeposits were ever worked before the Late or Graeco-Romanperiods

There is haematite in Sinai and in the Wadi Dib while theWadi Araba in the eastern desert contains ferruginous limestoneThere is limonite in the Wadi Marwat and the Wadi HaIfacontains banks of oolitic ironstone Exhausted iron mines werediscovered in the Wadi Harnrnamat but there is no evidence thatthese were exploited in Pharaonic times Egyptian magnetitedeposits in the eastern desert between Aswan and Shellal weremined and smelted after the sixth century Be

The earliest indications of iron smelting in Egypt were found inthe Delta region Excavations at the site of Naucratis andDefenna revealed a large quantity of iron slag and some ore Thesite of Naucratis can be dated to about 580 Be Iron toolsmanufactured from telluric iron appeared in 650 BC during the

tap hole

loam

charge

bellow

mud br rr ks

smelted metal

jewellery because of its rarity Electrum was mainly importedfrom Nubia and the land of Punt and up to the New Kingdom itwas also manufactured artificially by alloying gold and silver inappropriate proportions Apart from the manufacture of jewelshylery electrum was also used for the production of funeraryequipment like vessels statues offering stands and the finger andtoe sheaths of royal mummies The walls and doors of templeswere covered with electrum plates as were the pyramidal tops ofobelisks


toThe ritual of the opening of the mouth from the tomb or Inherkhau (number 359) inDcir cl-Medina 01 the Nineteenth Dynasty The ceremony is carried out by the hawk-godin front 01 the mummy 01 the deceased with the use or a ceremonial adze

Saite Period Excavations at Meroe which is situated on the Nilein the Sudan ab~ut 200 km (125 miles) north-east of Khartoumconftrmed that iron smelting from pulverised haematite tookplace from the third century BC to the Roman Period

TinThe occurrence of tin in Egypt is a question much debated

a~ongst archaeologists and technologists Egyptian tin depositsexist III the eastern desert near Quseir el-Qadim and in Nubianear the Fifth Cataract but there are no signs that the cassiteritedeposits were ever mined in Dynastic Egypt Tin had to beImpo~ted Our present knowledge indicates that tin could havebee~ Importe by intermediate trade with Crete and Cyprus fromSpain and Britain especially from Devon and Cornwall Meso-

potarnia probably obtained tin from south-east Asia tin occurs inMalaysia Indonesia and Thailand Long-distance trade fromsuch areas might have brought tin via the Indus civilisation toEgypt though this trade cannot be proved For a long time it wasbelieved that tin was mined in the Caucasus Iran and Anatoliaand delivered to Egypt but it is now known that there are no tindeposits in these areas During the first century AD Egypt eventook an intermediate part in the tin trade and exported tin toSomalia and India

Tin was mainly used for the production of tin bronze whichwas known by the Twelfth Dynasty At that time there could havebeen no imports of pure tin reaching Egypt but imports ofalready alloyed tin bronze came from Syria where rich tradingcentres like Mari Alalakh Aleppo Ras Shamra and Byblosnourished The exact date when the Egyptians started their ownlin bronze production is unknown but Egyptian metalworkersprobably began to alloy copper with tin early in the NewKingdom

A scene from the tomb of the Vizier Rekhmire at Thebesshows the delivery of different kinds of metals needed for thecasting of a bronze door for the temple of Karnak (figure 11)I Iieroglyphic inscriptions report the bringing of Asiatic metalOne man bears a big copper ox-hide ingot while his two fellows

11 Three workers carry copper in the shape of an ox-hide ingot and baskets containingsmall rounded ingots of lead and tin An overseer supervises the porters (After DaviesThe Tomh 0 Rekh-Mt-Re at Thebes New York 1943 plate 53)


transport baskets filled with small ingots probably of tin andlead Tin bronze was used for the production of mirrors vesselstools weapons and for the casting of statues

LeadIn addition to copper and iron lead was also smelted from i~s

ores in Egypt Galena was mined in the eastern desert at Ouseircl-Oadirn and certain other deposits near the Red Sea we~e

exploited Lead was known in Egypt as early as the PredynasticPeriod Throughout Egyptian history galena was used as an eyeshypaint (kohl) Small figures n~t sinkers and iewellery weremanufactured in lead from the time of the Old KIngdom In theNew Kingdom there was an increasing need for lead which wastherefore imported from Syria and Cyprus Frm abo1t the endof the New Kingdom lead was commonly used for alloYII~geadedtin bronze The addition of lead to bronze increases the fluidity 01the alloy and lowers its melting point so that the casting of largeor very detailed objects becomes easier

All the metals described were used by Egyptian smiths orgoldsmiths who became increasingly important in society duringthe course of Egyptian civilisation

3Melting casting and plate

productionher the local or imported crude metal had ~een delivered to thestorehouses of temples and palaces it was ~elghed and registeredhy the Egyptian temple or palace administration Before aquantity of metal was dispensed from the storehouses t themetalworkers for further processing the metal had to be weighedigain to control the stock of met~ls and t~) prevent em~ezzlem~ntStorehouse officials arc shownysIng a paIr of scales ~hlle a sCrI~e

makes a note of the result (figure 12) The weighing scenes mIgyptian tombs often depict the pos~s of the baanc~s crowned byI he head of the goddess Maat bearing an ostrich feather Maat1he daughter of the sun god Rc was among other things asymbol of truth and justice she ensured a correct and exact resultIII weighing

The ~wall paintings reliefs and hieroglyphic in~criptions inIgyptian private tombs do not aways specify the kind of metalwhich is being worked by the smiths or metalworkers ~oweverseveral inscriptions do name the type of raw m~terIal or It cal beidentified by its colour or shape The techniques O meltIngcasting and plate production which are important baSIC requireshymerits for further precise working are comparable for thedifferent metals

Melting the metal The first job which had to be done by the metalworkers In the

temple or palace work~hop~ was the melting ofthe crude J1etalIgyptian pictorial and inscriptional source~ depict the meltmg ofcopper gold silver tin bronze or leaded trn bronze I~ Old andMiddle Kingdom times the melting of copper or arsenic copperlor the production of vessels and ools fo~ dally use was verycommon In the course of the MIddle Kmgdom and m laterperiods tin bronze and leaded tin bronze were u~ed Silver andgold served throughout Egyptian history as the baSIC ma~enals forobjects of royal use or for funerary and temple equipment

The metal had to be melted because large ingots or othershapes of crude metal which ~ere custmary in the trade ha~ to1Jc refined or alloyed for castmg or split up mto smaller portionslor further treatment by the smiths Melting is depicted in nearlyevery wall painting or relief showing Egyptian metalworking so

22 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools Melting casting and plate production 23

12 The weighing of gold in the shape of rings A scribe makes I note of the result while hiscolleague operates the balance (After Davies The Tombs ojMenkheperrasollh Amell-mose and Another London 1133 plate 11)

technological innovations from the Old Kingdom to the PtolemaicPeriod can be traced by studying metalworking scenes andinscriptions in Egyptian tombs

The metal was melted in one or more crucibles depending onthe amount required In the Sixth Dynasty tomb of the VizierMereruka at Saqqara six metalworkers are depicted sitting around

13 A fireplace containing two crucibles sidc by side is fanned by six melters usingblowpipes As written in hieroglyphics one of the meltcrs right of the crucibles says to hisworkmatesDIts a new crucible come to its side comrade Above the scene are shownfinished metal vessels (After Duell The Mastabo oj Mercruka Chicago 1138 plate 30)

14 Three mcltcr- at work The crucible leans a~ainst a low wall The hieroglyphicinscription includes the order to blast air into tiie fireplace (After Blackman TheRack-Tomhs 01 Mer V London 1153 plate 17)

a hearth or fireplace containing two crucibles side by side In thelomb of the Vizier Pepiankh at Meir also of the Sixth Dynastyonly one crucible is shown leaning against a low wall probablybuilt of mud bricks with three metalworkers sitting in front of thehearth (figure 14)

The hearths were charcoal-fired charcoal was burnt extensivelyin the eastern desert and the Sinai Temperatures of about 1000 C( 1800 F) or even more could be achieved if the embers of thecharcoal fire were aroused with suitable tools In earlier timesfans of foliage might have been employed to provide a draughtIn the Old and Middle Kingdoms Egyptian metalworkers ormclters used blowpipes consisting of reeds with clay tips Withblowpipes a strong blast of air could be directed precisely on toIhe glowing charcoal below the bottom of the crucible (figure 15)There is evidence that Middle Kingdom metalworkers used skinbellows as mentioned in a text written on a coffin although skinbellows probably manufactured from the skin of a goat or ajlttZelle have not been found in Egyptian depictions

Much more effective than fans blowpipes or skin bellows werepot drum or dish bellows The earliest known depiction of dishbellows is in a melting scene on a relief inside the EighteenthI )ynasty tomb of the priest Puyemre the Second Prophet of the


15 Egyptian molter with his blowshypipe

god Amun in Thebes (figure 16) In this scene a metalworkerwith a blowpipe in his left hand and a stick in his right handsupervises the melting process and prep3res the molten metal forcasting while his colleague operates a pair of dish bellows Thedishes were of pottery wood or stone fitted with skin or leathercoverings A reed or pipe connected the dish of the bellows withclay nozzles or tuyeres leading into the fire (figure 17) When thecovering was pulled up the dish was filled with air when it waspressed down air was blown through the reed and tuyeres into thefireplace The introduction of dish bellows was crucial to enablethe large quantities of metal used for the casting of large metalobjects to be melted as shown on a wall painting in the tomb ofthe Vizier Rekhmire at Thebes In that foundry four hearths firedby charcoal are fanned by several dish bellows to melt a large

16 Two metalworkers using adish bellows and blowpipe aremelting metal (After DaviesThe Tomb of Puyemre at Thebesl New York 1922 plate 28)

---------------------__-----

dish with coverirq

I char coal

~fl reed tuyer e I~===I===========b

n A typical dish bcllows used hy ancient Egyptian metiers

18 The melting and casting of metal (After Davies The Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Re at ThebesNew York 1943 plate 52)

quantity of metal probably leaded tin bronze for the casting ofthe leaves of a door intended for the Great Temple of Amun inKarnak (figure 18)

Although private tombs show many scenes of ancient foundriesno metalworking site of this kind had been unearthed in the Nilevalley until in the spring of 1985 Professor Dr Rainer Stadelmannof the German Institute of Archaeology in Cairo discovered anancient Egyptian foundry at the funerary temple of King Seti I inthe Theban necropolis (figure 19) The metalworking site can bedated by pottery to the Ptolemaic Period a time when thefunerary temple had already lost its function of maintaining thecult of the deceased king Four mud-brick structures of differentlengths each built of two parallel brick settings were excavated(figure 20) These served as hearths for the crucibles (figure 21)the smaller hearths were 14 metres (5 feet) in length and the twolarger ones 7 metres (23 feet) A small hearth had room for one

1 One 01 the two smaller hearths Irorn the metalwork inn site at the luncrrry temple ofking Seti I at Thebes

CastingA small limestone casting mould was found in situ beside one of

the small hearths at the excavated site and another one wasexcavated unstratified (figures 23 and 24) These moulds were notused for producing objects by open-mould casting but to split themolten metal into smaller portions for further treatment by thesmiths who manufactured plates and sheet metal from the small

27Melting casting and plate production

crucible a larger one was built to hold about five cruciblesIt was possible therefore either to mass-produce many objects

or to cast large ones at this site For the melting process the gapbetween the low parallel brick constructions was filled withcharcoal Analysis of pieces of charcoal found in situ inside thehearths show that acacia wood was used to produce charcoal InI he Nile valley the plentiful acacia wood was in very common uselor shipbuilding as building timber and for the production ofcoffins doors and chariots The charcoal analysed containedAcacia nilotica and probably Acacia raddiana or Acacia seyalThe hearths held the blowing charcoal together under the crushycibles Many crucible sherds broken tuyeres and the nozzles ofdish bellows were found at the site (figure 22)

29

24 (Below) Castingmould excavated unshystratified at the metalshyworkinu site nt thefunerary temple ofKing Scti J at Thebes

23 (Left) One of thesmaller hearths with acasting mould foundin situ at the metalshyworkins site at thefunerary temple ofKing Scti J at Thebes

Melting casting and plate production

22 Some broken tuycrcs or day nozzles Irom thc metalworking site at the Iuncrarv templeor Scri J at Thebes

portions Moulds of this kind are shown on paintings and reliefsin private tombs as early as the Old Kingdom as illustrated by ascene in the tomb of the Vizier Pepiankh at Meir where a metalshyworker is pouring the molten metal into a mould (figure 25) Toprotect his hands the worker used stones or blocks of wood tohold the very hot crucible Sometimes while the metal was beingpoured another worker tried to hold back any contamination inthe crucible (figure 26)

Plate productionAfter being melted refined and divided into portions the

cooled metal was passed to the smiths or blacksmiths for plate orsheet production as is shown in the Fifth Dynasty tomb of theboundary official Wepemnefret in Giza (figure 27) Egyptianblacksmiths used very simple tools The metal was beaten on ananvil made of stone (probably of basalt diorite or granite) whichwas placed on a wooden block to absorb the hammering Themetalworkers beat the plates with simple hammer stones withouta shaft (figure 28) Two kinds of hammer stones were in use onewith a flat face and the other with a rounded one A flat hammerstone was needed for smoothing the metal while a rounded onewas used for chasing Smoothing and chasing hammer stones are

II

Id

~----------------------------------- -


7 Four mclu-rs uc mcltin] mctal a worker is pouring the molten metal into 1 mould1110 smiths arc hammering OUII plate (Aller l Iassan Excavations (II Gia II Cairo 1)((LIre 2IY)

29 A blacksmith hammers out aplate on an anvil using a roundedhammer stone (After Davies TheTomb of Rekh-Mi-Re at ThebesNew York lY43 plate 55)

smoothing hammer stone

------------ s tone anvIi

-----------d woo en anvil blockr-=~r-r~-----------

cha)lng hammer stone

raquogt

s The Egyptian blackths or metal beaters

IlHds a stone anvil set 011 a laquolen block and hammer

r on c s for chasing and othing metal

10 smith anneals a metal object 1 charcoal fireplace while lusIIIiue fans the fire with a

11II pipe (After Newberry Belli111 London 1894 plate 14)

25 (Left) A metalworker pours molshyten metal into an open mould Acshycording to the hieroglyphics his colshyleague is ordered to cool thc metalin the mould he probably douses itwith water (After Blackman TheRock-Tomhs of Meir V LondonlY53 plate 17)

26 A metalworker pours moltenmetal into an opcn mould while hiscolleague tries to hold back anycont am inar ion in the crucible(After Ducl l The Masaha o]Mereruka Chicago IY38 plate 30)

depicted in private tombs from Old Kingdom times to thePtolemaic Period A wall painting from the tomb of the VizierRekhmire shows the process of chasing (figure 29) With his lefthand a blacksmith holds a plate on an anvil while his right handenergetically beats the metal with the rounded chasing hammerstone

Egyptian metalworkers had mastered the technique for annealshying as early as the Predynastic Period In the course of the chasingprocess the beaten piece of metal became hard and brittle andfurther treatment of the cold metal could cause it to crack Thepiece had therefore to be heated or annealed which caused arearrangement of the crystalline structure of the metal and madeit ductile again While in the Old and Middle Kingdoms annealingtook place in a fireplace on the floor of the workshop (figure 30)New Kingdom metalworkers made themselves much more comshyfortable In the tomb of the Vizier Rekhmire a wall paintingshows a smith sitting on a stool in front of a brazier (figure 31) Toanneal his piece of metal he holds it with tongs in the glowingcharcoal of the brazier The fire is fanned by a blowpipe If large


or thick objects had to be annealed it might be necessary to usethe more effective dish bellows for blowing air into the glowingcharcoal as shown on wall paintings in the Eighteenth Dynastytomb of the Vizier Hepu at Thebes (figure 32)

Gold leafThe wall painting in the tomb of Rekhmire depicts beside the

brazier the tools used for the production of gold leaf (figure 31)On a stone block layers of thin gold plates and gold beaters skinsare ready for the beating of gold leaf (figure 33) The gold beatersalso used hammer stones to beat the foil which became thinner inthe course of the manufacturing process Silver and clectrum alsowere worked to foil or the thinnest leaf thickness Objects of a

31 (LeI) A smith works at a brazier to anneal a metal object (After Davies The Tomb ofRekh-Mi-Re at Thebes New York 1943 plate 55)

32 (Right) A smith anneals a metal object in a fireplace which is fanned by dish bellows(After Davies Scenes from Some Theban Tombs Private Tombs at Thebes IV Oxford1963 plate 8)

less rare material were often gilded or silver-plated Gold silverand electrum foils or leaves could be used to cover woodenfurniture statues coffins and models of daily life manufacturedfor funerary equipment Stone vessels the walls and doors oftemples and objects of base metal were covered with preciousmetal by wrapping the foil round the edge of the object or by

inserting the edges of the foil into grooves cut in the surface of theunderlying material In New Kingdom times or even earlierEgyptian metallurgists mastered advanced techniques of goldrefining in order to produce very pure gold free of impuritieswhich would be beaten out to the thinnest gold leaf

The thinner gold leaf could be stuck to surfaces with anadhesive For the decoration of wooden or stone objects withgold leaf a ground of gypsum plaster or a similar material wasoften applied first to the material before the gold leaf was stuck toit It seems probable that metalworkers only produced the goldleaf while the gilding was done by the workers in wood stone orwax who manufactured the objects to be gilded

As described in an Egyptian papyrus of the Roman Periodmetal-gilders of that time knew the chemical process of fireshygilding with gold amalgam Gold amalgam was applied to thebase-metal object to be gilded In the course of the fire-gildingprocess the mercury content of the gold amalgam vaporised andthe gold remained on the surface of the metal objects Asmercury fumes are extremely toxic fire-gilders or those living inthe neighbourbood of a gilding workshop were always in dangerof mercury poisoning

stone hammeri-gt

layers of thin gold plates

- and goldbeaters skins

-- stone block

II Instruments for boating gold leal

34 Funerary equipment and other items 35

charcoal fireplaces or braziers The workpieces to be solderedwere held together by tongs

HammeringBowls basins and the bodies of ewers and vases were hammershy

d on special anvils probably made of wood On a relief in thejfth Dynasty tomb of the two overseers of the palace manicurists

Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep at Saqqara a metalworker isxhown hammering out a sheet of metal to form a hand-basin on a

4Funerary equipment

and other items

After the plates had been beaten out to workable sheet-metal bythe blacksmiths the whitesmiths (the finishers) received thematerial for further treatment Whitesmiths goldsmiths silvershysmiths and coppersmiths of the temple and palace workshopsproduced funerary equipment and elaborate objects for daily usePrecious and rare metals such as gold silver and electrum wereneeded mainly for the production of vessels and other itemsintended for use in the royal palace in temples or as funeraryequipment for royal noble or specially honoured persons Themost common metals or alloys for vessels or other items of dailyuse were copper arsenic copper tin bronze and leaded tinbronze From Early Dynastic times to the Graeco-Roman Periodthere was a great demand for bowls ewers vases and other kindsof vessels

The first depiction of the manufacture of a libation vesselappears on a relief in the Fourth Dynasty tomb of the VizierNebernakhet the son of Queen Meresankh III and King Khaefre at Giza (figure 34) Hand-basins and ewers produced by coppershysmiths were very common nearly every museum with a collectionof ancient Egyptian art houses a set of these vessels (figure 35)

SolderingThe spouts of libation vessels or ewers as well as the specially

formed feet necks and handles of vessels were made separatelyand had to be attached to the body of the vessel by rivetingclamping or soldering Examination of the artefacts shows thatEgyptian smiths applied hard soldering with metal alloys joinedabove 427 C (800 F) Our present knowledge indicates that thetechnique of soldering was known in Egypt by the FourthDynasty though Sumerian smiths practised hard soldering muchearlier Thus there is evidence of Sumerian influence on thedevelopment of soldering in the Old Kingdom From the TwelfthDynasty different mixtures of gold silver and copper were usedto produce solders of different colours and melting pointsNatron a naturally occurring salt may have been used as fluxLead-tin solders joined below 427 C (800 F) were known from thePtolemaic Period The process of soldering was carried out in

II (Right) A whitcsrnith produces a IibashyII 1 vessel from sheet metal Above the(I1C a finished vcssel is shown (AfterI psius Denkmacler aus Acgyplcn lindvcthopicn Ill Abt I Berlin [942-5 pla tcI )

1lt (Below) Hand-basin and ewer made ofI per dating from the Old Kingdom1lsin height 125 ern (49 inches) ewerIight 168 em (66 inches) (Kcxtncr-Mushylaquoum Hanover 1929618)

36 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools Funerary equipment and other items 37

36 (Left) A whitesmith producing a hand-basin The hieroglyphic inscription meanshammering at the bottom (After Moussa and Altcnmullcr Das Grab des Nianchrhnumand Chnumhotep Mainz 1977 plate 63)

37 (Right) A smith using a hammer stone with a flat face smooths a vessel on a specialwooden anvil (After Davies The Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Re at Thebes New York 1943 plate55)

wooden anvil consisting of two posts bound together (figure 36)As in the production of plate (chapter 3) the metalworkers usedhammer stones with rounded sides for chasing and flat ones forsmoothing In New Kingdom tombs another kind of anvil forvessel production is depicted consisting of a stout role supporteddiagonally by a kind of wooden trestle as shown In the tomb ofthe Vizier Rekhmire (figure 37)

In the course of chasing the metal object had to be heated orannealed to improve its ductility Vessels which were hammeredfrom a single sheet of metal had to be annealed repeatedly Smallflasks hammered from a single sheet of copper or bronze restrngin a ring stand (figure 38) were very commop from the end o theMiddle Kingdom to the Graeco-Roman penod For these objectsrequiring craftsmanship the smiths must have used tools muchmore sophisticated than coarse hammer stones but cxamples ofspecial metalworkers hammers have not been found or depicted

PolishingAfter the sheet metal had been hammered out and formed into

objects these were polished A wall drawi~g trom the tO~1b of theVizier Rekhmire shows a metalworker polishing an offenng stand

38 (Left) A small bronze flask and ringstand of the Late Period Flask height94 em (76 inches) (Kestner-MuseumHanover 1935200743)

39 (Below) A metalworker polishes anoffering stand (After Davies The Tombof Rekh-Mr-Rc ill Thebes New York1943 plate 55)

(figure 39) On the left behind him are his anvil and finishedmetal objects two bowls and a censer with a duck-head handle(lnsers were used as part of the ritual during religious ceremoniesuul cast bronze handles of censers terminating in a falcon headwere very common (figure 40) Censers libation vessels andlaquotfcring stands of precious metals were made for the offeringlit uals involved in the worship of the gods such rituals are shownIlling performed by the king in the decor~tionofroyal tombs andtmples (figure 41) The process ofpohshmg deplcte 111 theto~b11 the Vizier Rekhmire is predated by a hieroglyphic mscnption1111 a relief in the causeway leading to the Fifth Dynasty pyramid(Ii King Unas at Saqqara (figure 42)

I-or polishing the Egyptian metalworkers used special stones


to smooth uneven patches on metal objects Agate which wasprobably used for polishing stones can be found at several placesin Egypt and is still used today for polishing by goldsmiths inEgypt and elsewhere Metal surfaces may also have been finishedusing abrasives like emery or sand The gleaming surfaces on thepieces were obtained by a final burnishing with small balls made

43 A scribe or outlinedrawer marking a vesshysel ~ an engraver is enshygraving the uracus of asphinx (After DaviesThe Totlh of TwoSculptors ([I ThebesNew York 1925 plateII)

42 Two metalworkers polishing vessels as written in hieroglyphics above the scene(After l Iassan Excavations at Saqqara IlJ37-llJ3W 1117170les du service tics antiquites delEgyptc 3H (llJ3H) plate lJ6)

44 An engraver is engraving a large metalvase With his left hand he wields a chiselwith his right hand the engravers hammerstone (After Davies The Tomb of Rekh-MishyRe at Thebes New York 1943 plate 55)

40 (Above) Castbronze handle of acenser terminating ina falcon head LatePeriod Length 333em (13 inches) (Kesshytucr-Muscum Hanshyover 2557)

41 (Right) Seti I eensshying and lihating infront of Sokar reliefon a wall of Sctis temshyple at Abydos Thehandle of the censerterminates in 1 falconhead (Authorsphotograph )


of leather felt or other textiles

EngravingVery precious vessels were often provided with inseriptions or

decorations A scribe or outline drawer sketched the hieroglyphictext or the ornament for the engravers or specially skilledmetalwrkers This process i~ depicted in the Eighteenth Dynastytomb of the head sculptor of the King Nebarnun and his fellowsculptor lpuky at Thebes (figure 43) The engraver worked outthe outline drawing using a hammer stone and chisels of differentsizes as shown in this tomb or in that of Rekhmire (figure 44)Apart from chasing with hammer and chisels thus marking~ith0lt a cutting edge Egyptian engravers also mastered engravshyIng WIth gravers a method of cutting inscriptions or pictures onmetal with a chisel-pointed flint tool

CastingOther important metallurgical processes included different

forms of casting The first stage was the casting of copper orarseruc copper in Simple open moulds Egyptian founders cut thedesired shape in stone or formed it in clay However thisprimitive kind of mould which was known in Early Dynastictimes was usually ~tilisedonly for siople tools or weapons Amuch more sophisticated form of castmg was developed in thecourse o~ ~he Old Kingdom the use of two-part moulds Unlikethe primttrve open moulds two-part moulds of clay or stone likesteatite or serpentine allowed both faces of the object to befashioned

Sumerian founders practised casting a little earlier than theirEgyptian counterparts Open-mould two-part mould and evenlost-wac casting were mastered by Sumerian metalworkers byapproximately 3500-3200 Be Lost-wax casting often referred toas eire perdue made possible the manufacture of very detailedand complex shapes In Egypt there is evidence for lost-waxcasting in the Old Kingdom and in Middle Kingdom times lostshywax casting was well developed as is evidenced by items ofjewellery practical objects and statuettes designed for religiouspurposes (figure 45)

The technique of lost-wax casting required skilled artistspotters and metalworkers First an artist perhaps a sculptorproduced in beeswax a model of the object to be cast (In earlyties beeswax was available from wild bees but by the OldKingdom apiculture was practised in Egypt) The beeswax model

45 The crocodile ~od Sobek Manutucturccl hy lost-wax casting using an alloy 01 copperand lead the stalucue was inlaid with ch-etrum Lcnuth 224 em (SS inches) (StaallieheSarnmluug iigyptiseher Kunst Munich AS WSO) bull

was then coated with clay probably by a potter The compositestructure was heated in a charcoal fireplace to harden the clay andto melt the wax so that a clay mould remained retaining everydetail of the former wax model For casting the founder pouredthe molten metal into the clay mould After cooling the claymould was broken and the cast object could be cleaned andpolished For casting jewellery amulets or other valuable itemsgold silver and electrum were used in this way

The earliest castings were made in copper or arsenic copperalloys but from the Twelfth Dynasty tin bronze came intoincreasing usc In New Kingdom times there was an increasingdemand for luxury goods particularly for those associated withpersonal grooming Razors scissors tweezer-razors hair-curlersand mirrors were produced in great numbers The handles ofmirrors in particular were made by lost-wax casting in the shapeof nude young women (figure 46) Both the disc of the mirror andthe handle were usually made of bronze The disc and handlewere cast separately and normally riveted together The disc waspolished or plated with a reflecting metal like silver

From the Late Period to Graeco-Roman times mass-productionof figures of deities by lost-wax casting became very commonThe small bronze statuettes served as expressions of personaldevotion and were often donated to temples as votive offerings(figure 47) The growth of temples led to mass-production intemple workshops where vessels offering stands and other itemsfor ritual use were produced (figure 48)

To cast larger objects by the lost-wax method using a beeswaxmodel meant the waste of a large amount of useful wax (Waxwas a remedy in ancient Egyptian medicine for internal use fordressing wounds and for other special purposes) To fill the large


mould completely with bronze also meant a waste of this expenshysive material Therefore the founders started to practise themetallurgical innovation of core casting which might also havebeen introduced to Egyptian metalworkers by contacts withSumerian smiths Considerably less wax and metal were neededfor core casting A core of clay or sand was covered by a layer ofmalleable wax shaped to form the mould of the object to be castThe model consisting of the core and the formed wax layer wascoated with clay In order to secure it in position throughout thelater casting process the core had to be stabilised by pins or wirefixed to the outer cover of clay The wax was melted away leavingin the kiln the hardened clay mould with the fixed core Forcasting the piece only the gap between the outer clay mould andthe inner core had to be filled with bronze or other molten metal

46 Bronze mirror withhandle in the shape of anude woman Th ehandle was produced byl o s t -w a x casting(Agyptisches MuseumBerlin SMPK 13IR7)

47 (Left) Isis with Horus on her lap Made of bronze by lost-wax casting probably LatePeriod Height 156 em (61 Inches) (Kestner-Museum Hanover 2502)

48 (Right) Bronze rams head finial probably to be attached to a staff or piece of templeIurniturc Madc by lost-wax casting and engraved Height 10 em (39 inches) (KestnershyMuseum Hanover 1935200579)

After cooling the mould was broken and as far as possible thecore was removed from the cast object Core casting was verycommon in the manufacture of larger objects during the NewKingdom and reached its peak in the Late Period

Wirework and jewelleryThe metalworkers produced wires of gold silver or bronze for

particular purposes Plain wire appeared in the First Dynasty andwas used for the construction and repair of furniture or forfastening building ornaments like wall tiles of blue or greenfaience in temples or palaces The most famous are the rivetedtile walls inside the underground rooms of the Third Dynasty step

44

49 Jewellers drilling precious stones to make beads (After Davies The Rock Tombs ofDeir el Gcbrawi I London 1J02 plate 14)

50 Two jewellers looking at a finished collar The hieroglyphic inscription reads Knottingof the collar (After Moussa and Altcnrnuller Das Grab des Nianchchnum IIl1d

Chnumhotep Mainz 1977 plate 64)

45

and jewellers used wires of precious metal for the decoration ofvaluable objects or for the manufacture of pieces of jewellerysuch as anklets aprons armlets belts collars chains necklacesand pectorals (figure 50) Although the much more specialisedskills of the goldsmiths silversmiths and jewellers will not bediscussed in depth here some of their techniques need to bementioned because metalworkers producing ordinary vessels and

Funerary equipment and other itemsEgyptian Metalworking and Tools

pyramid complex of King Djoser at Saqqara Hand-made wire could be produced by different methods The

sImplest most c~mmon and probably the oldest method was byhammenng An ingot was hammered out to sheet metal whichwas cut into thin strips These strips were hammered out md cutagam Hammered wires show variations in diameter along thelength a faceted surface and a solid but non-circular crossshysection The faceted surface could be eliminated by rolling thewire between two flat pieces of hard wood This process ofhammenng could be used onlv for the manufacture of relativelythick wires ~

Another techniq ue of wire productiOI~ ~hich is attested to byNew Kingdom artefacts IS the block-twisting method An ingotwas h~mm~red out to produce a rod of the required thickness forthe wl~e 1 ~e rod which had a square section was twisted aboutIts major aXIS to form a solid wire with a screw thread of variablepitch In the course of this twisting process the wire had to beanne~led repeatedly ~o preser~e its ductility The spiralling couldbe eliminated by rolling the wire between two flat pieces of hardwood as menti~ned above for the final stage of the hammeringprocess The wire could be made thinner by further twistingstretching and rolling

In a~ditio~ to hammering and block-twisting strip-drawingand stnp-twistmg were probably mastered by Egyptian wireshymakers ~or the manufacture of wire by strip-drawing a strip of~etal foil was drawn through a number of holes of differentdiameters so that the strip curled in upon itself forming a hollowtube The St~IP could have been drawn through holes drilledth~ough precious stones Egyptian craftsmen had mastered thednllms f st~nes i~ Predynastic times and the first depictions ofthe drilling of precious stones date from the Old Kingdom (figure49)

For strip-twisting the wire-maker had to cut a strip of metal foiland wrap It around an existing wire (which was removed after thisprocess t The helix as ~hen tighte~ed and stretched out by handIn the fmal stage of wife production by this method the wirecould be drawn through holes of different diameters

Another method of making wires is known from the NineteenthDynasty Granles of met~l were soldered together to form abeaded wire which was straightened by rolling it between two flatpieces of wood Wires were produced by gldsmiths and silversmiths by specshyialised metalworkers or by Jewellers Goldsmiths silversmiths


other items also made use of these techniques occasionallyFiligree was delicate ornamental wirework in which ornaments

were formed by bending all kinds of wire to form a delicatetracery The shaped pieces of wire were soldered togetherFiligree was used for jewellery or could be fixed by soldering toother decorative items

Cloisonne was another ornamental process in which sectionswere formed by bending round thin strips of metal Placed onedge and soldered to base plates they formed cells or cloisonswhich were filled with coloured inlays

Repousse work facilitated the manufacture of raised reliefsRepousse may be regarded as the complementary process tochasing taking place on the back of the metal sheet instead of itsface The sheet was fastened to a soft base so that the back of themetal object could be worked with suitable tools made of bonehardwood stone or metal

Egyptian jewellers were skilled in many other decorative andornamental techniques Their colleagues the metalworkers andsmiths restricted themselves to the skills described above formsof gilding silver-plating and alloying of precious metals

5Tools and their uses

Apart from the manufacture of temple palace and funeraryequipment the skills of Egyptian metalworkers wee al~o veryimportant in other fields of activity Craftsmen like I0merscarpenters shipwrights wood sculptors or carvers stonemaso~squarry workers stone sculptors leather-workers and textileworkers needed the tools produced by metalworkers Not (nlycraftsmen were dependent on metal tools - barbers marucunstsdoctors agricultural w(Hkcrs bl~tchers and m~l1Y others usedmetal tools and other Items designed tor particular purposes

Axes adzes and saws The axe was one of the most important tools for Egyptlan

craftsmen engaged in woodworking From the late PredynasticPeriod to Graeco-Rornan times different types of blade werefitted to the Egyptian axe (figure 51) ~rhe first flat blades weremade of native copper or copper with a natural content ofarsenic The equal-faced blades were shaped and hardened byhammering especially at the edges At the begmmng of theDynastic Period or even earlier copper blaes wer~ produced byopen-mould casting The edges of the relatively thick and heavyblades then produced also had to be s~aped an~ ~ardened byhammering From the Twelfth Dynasty Imports of tm br~nze ledto the casting of bronze blades From the Late Period oroccasionally earlier iron blades were used The earliest forms ofmetal blades were very similar to stone axes Metal axes from t~e

beginning of the Dynastic Period o not have any ~peClalattachments for handles and their cuttmg edge has a semicircularoutline Another type of blade without attachments from theearly Dynastic Period is a tapered form resemblmg a trapezlUm

In the Sixth Dynasty axe blades were produ~ed With lugs attheir sides which enabled the axe to be more firmly and easilyastened t~ the handle The laterally projecting lugs were fittedinto a grooved wooden handle To fasten the blade parallel to thehandle a wet leather lashing was wound and oven around thehandle lugs When it dried the leather la~hmg tlgh~ened byshrinking Semicircular axes with lugs lasted into the EIg~teenthDynasty if only for ceremonial purposes From New Kmgdmtimes axes with trapeziform blades and strongly marked SIdeattachments became common

48 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools Tools and their uses 49

d

9

c

f

b

e

a

53 Different types of adze-blade a Narrow thin adze-blade of Predynastic Egypt lengthfLO ern b Early Dynastic adze-blade length 174 em c Third Dynasty adze-blade wlthamarked notch in the upper end length 210 em d Fourth or Fifth Dynasty adze-bladewith a clearly formed head length 190 em e Twelfth Dynasty adze-blade showl~g adegradation in the head length 184 em f Eighteenth Dynasty adze~blade Without headlength IN2 em g Adze-blade 01 the Third Intermediate Period With SIde protrusionslength 160 em (After Petne Tools and Weapons London 1917 plates 16 17)

51 Different types ofblade in Egyptian axes aOld Kingdom axe-bladewith sel~ieirClllar shupc length 96 em b OldKingdom axc-hladc rcshysClnllling a trapeziumlength 120 em c SixthDynasty axe-blade withlugs length 4N emd New Kingdomtrapeziform rxc-hladc length 104 em (11telPctric 100 lindWelljJols London 1)17plates 2 1 4)

b

d

a

c

Several other blade forms are known from Egypt but thosementioner] above are the most important To cut down trees thewoodcut~ers axe had a long handle and was wielded with bothhands (figure 52) Carpenters and shipwrights needed axes forrough work such as the splitting of logs There is no evidence that

52 Woodcutter at work Theblade of his axe is semicircular(After Moussa and AltcnmiilshyIeI The Tomb of Nefer and Kashyhay Mainz 1971 plate 22b)

51

55 A carpenter sawing planks A thick plankis lashed to a post which serves as a kind ofvice (After Moussa and Alten-muller TheTomb of Neier and Ka-hay Mainz 1971plate 20)

teeth of the saw blades were directed towards the craftsman sothat Egyptian saws had to be drawn backwards Logs or th~ckplanks were often lashed to a post struck IOta the ground whichserved as a kind of vice (figure 55) Large saws for board orveneer production were worked ~ith bot~ hands while smallersaws for precision work were Wielded wlth one hand

Other important tools for woodworking were chisels a~dengravers produced by open-mould or two-part mould c~stmg mthe metal workshops Chisels and engravers of several sizes a~dkinds were needed by woodworkers to carve decoration and forother special purposes (figure 56)

The blades of all these tools were formed by hammenng and 10

56 Two carpenters or engravers cutting outornaments (After Davies The Tomb ojTv-o Sculptorraquo at Thebes New York 1925plate 11)

_JL-__~-~L-J-----

Tools and their usesEgyptian Metalworking and Tools

Egyptian jomcrs carpenters or shipwrights ever used hatchetswith blades fastened parallel to the handles Instead they workedwith a similar tool the adze The adze blade was fastened acrossthe top of a short wooden handle with leather thongs FromPredynastic times to the Graeco-Rornan Period several forms ofadze-blade with parallel sides are known Long narrow copperblades with parallel sides have been found from PrcdynasticEgypt Early Dynastic blades became broader at the lower endand slightly concave at the sides From the Second Dynasty a typeof blade with a rounded upper end developed From the ThirdDynasty blades with a marked notch in the upper end were usedThis type developed much further in the Fourth and FifthDynasties to a clearly formed head In the Twelfth Dynastybronze blades were used as well as copper ones and in theEighteenth Dynasty blades without a head became common Inthe Third Intermediate Period a new type was introduced whichhad side protrusions or lugs for the leather lashing The adzewas needed for many kinds of woodworking such as planingshown in a wall painting from the tomb of Ncbarnun and Ipuky(figure 54)

The metal saw was already known at the beginning of the FirstDynasty Saws of different types and sizes with or withoutwooden handles were used throughout Egyptian history for theproduction of boards planks and veneers The saw blades weremade of copper or sometimes from the Twelfth Dynasty ofbronze Saw blades were hammered out by metalworkers The

50

54 A carpenter working with an adze (AfterDavies The Tomb or Tllo Sculptors at Thebes

_L-- ------_~_1_New York 1lt)25 plate II)


57 Two wood sculptors working at a stalue Their tools arc an adze a chisel I1d a mallet(After Wild traquo TOllhcau de n Cairo LJ1LJ plate In)

a58 Drilling of wood and stone a A carpenter using a bow-drill b A stoncworker using adrill with a special crank to hollow out a stone vessel (After Davies The Tomb of RekhshyMi-Re at Thebes New York 1942 plate 52 and Wild Le Tombeau de Ti Cairo 1939plate 173)

the course of manufacturing they all had to be annealed Thecutting edges were sharpened using a kind of whetstone

Egyptian wood sculptors used nearly the same tools as theircolleagues the carpenters joiners and shipwrights (figure 57) theadze the chisel with a sharp cutting edge and the mallet weretheir specific tools

Stoneworkers toolsEgyptian quarrymen stone cutters stonemasons and stone

sculptors were using large copper saws for stonecutting by OldKingdom times Metal wedges were used for splitting blocks ofstone Bronze wedges dating to the Saite Period (Twenty-sixthDynasty) and others made of iron dating from the Late Period areknown from the sites of Tell Defenna and Naucratis in the Deltaand from the mortuary temple of the Pharaoh Ramesses II inThebes While woodworkers used sharpened chisels fixed to awooden handle stoneworkers usually used relatively blunt chiselswithout special handles to carve all kinds of stone

DrillsFor the drilling of holes or hollows stoneworkers and woodshy

workers used special drills Metal drills were in use by OldKingdom times The so-called bow-drill used in woodworkingwas constructed using a wooden shaft the drill stock with a stoneor more effectively a metal bit at the lower shaft end Theupper end of the shaft was covered with a rounded drill-cap(figure 58) With his left hand on the drill-cap the craftsman heldthe drill stock in position and applied the necessary pressure tothe shaft With his right hand the worker wielded the bow thestring of which caused the drill stock to rotate The metal bitswere produced by hammering or casting small quantities ofcopper bronze or even iron

Stoneworkers used another kind of drill with a crank upon thedrill-cap Instead of the drill-cap heavy stones could be used toapply the required pressure to the wooden shaft Stone vesselswere hollowed out by using drills fitted with stone and metal bitsor with special tubular bits made of copper (figure 58) Afterdrilling with the tubular copper bits cylindrical stone coresremained inside the vessels which could then easily be chiselledout The use of these metal bits saved a great deal of time andenergy

With these metal tools stone and wood sculptors made statuesand statuettes of deities for ritual use in temples and produced

---------~

54 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools

statues of tomb owners and their families for the later cult of thedead Carpenters used metal tools for the production of furnitureeveryday objects and funerary equipment Chairs stools tablesheadrests scales sticks combs hairpins boxes spoons dishescoffins and shrines were made of wood

Leather-working toolsAnother group of craftsmen who needed metal tools were

leather-workers Tanners and saddlers worked with metal hideshyscrapers leather-cutting knives awls and needles As theseactivities are depicted in the wall paintings and reliefs of privatetombs from the Old Kingdom to the Late Period the manufactureof sandals and leather straps would seem to have been veryimportant to the tomb owners (figure 59)

The leather-cutting knife consisted of a blade and a woodenhandle The copper or bronze blade usually had a wide splayedconvex edge and was inserted into a rounded handle From theNew Kingdom knives with a T-shaped and broader blade are alsoknown

Saddlers cut out straps of different lengths which were used tocover wooden stools for the lashings of tools like axes and adzesand for chariot equipment including harnesses and whips Forsandal-making square pieces of leather were formed into soles bymeans of the leather-cutting knife The sales were pierced by awlsso that the thongs could pass through The leather-workers metaltools were also used to produce leather ropes writing materialsquivers kilts tents and many other useful items

Tools and their uses

QQ

55

60 A box with medicalinstruments of the RomanPeriod as depicted on awall of the Grneco-Rornantemple of Korn Ombo

59 Leather-workers (a) making sandals and (b) making leather straps (After DaviesThe Tomb of Rekh-Mi-Re at Thebes New York 1943 plate 53)

Dressmaking toolsEgyptian dressmakers and textile workers possessed only a few

metal tools Needles pins and cutting-out tools for linen wereknown Cutting-out knives are often found in the burials ofwomen the earliest examples can be dated to the First DynastyNeedles and pins made of copper have been found from Preshydynastic times Textile workers bronze tools are known from theMiddle Kingdom and later Scissors worked by separate fingerswere not used before the first century AD but shears which aresimilar tools were known a little earlier probably in Ptolemaictimes

56 Egyptian Metalworking and Tools1

Tools and their uses 57

hairiness were a sign of slovenliness for the ancient Egyptians sopeople who attached importance to personal hygiene shaved theirfaces necks armpits limbs chest and pubic regions Metalrazors are known from the late Predynastic Period Several typeswere in use from the earliest times to the Graeco-Roman PeriodThe well developed razors of the New Kingdom consisted of twoparts (figure 61) a large thin blade with a convex cutting edge towhich was fixed a handle at right angles from the point formed bythe tapered sides of the blade Handles of wood metal or othersuitable materials were used Razors produced for royal use or asburial objects were made of gold

There were many varieties of hair-curlers or tweezer-razors Ingeneral they consisted of two parts a small knife and a speciallyformed handle Both parts were held together by a central pinand could be opened like scissors and clamped together as a hairshycurler The earliest examples of these toilet implements date fromthe end of the Old Kingdom but the most beautiful and mostversatile ones are from the New Kingdom (figure 61) Tweezers

Agricultural tools Egyptian agricultural workers used only a limited range of

metal tools Cast bronze hoes were used from the New Kingdomand sickles with edges made of steel are known from RomanEgypt For a long time however ag~iculturalworkers used theirtraditional wood tools up to New Kingdom times and even laterwooden sickles were still equipped with serrated flint blades InGracco-Rornan Egypt metal implements became much morecommon New metal tools were imported from Greece and theRoman Empire and Egyptian metalworkers also copied them

Medical instrumentsAs part of a wall decoration in the Gracco-Rornan temple of

Kom Ombo there is a unique picture of a tall box placed on astand Inside the box a doctors instruments of the RomanPeriod arc depicted and include metal instruments for surgerydentistry gynaecology and general medicine (figure 60) as wellas shears surgical knives and saws different kinds of probes andspatulas small hooks and forceps

Other metal implementsSimple implements such as the blades of knives could have

been produced by hammering out a suitable metal plate Morecomplicated objects such as specially formed spatulas would havehad to be cast with a two-part mould or even by the lost-waxmethod

A large variety of metal knives wasysed throughout the historyof ancient Egypt from Early Dynastic to Graeco-Rornan timesThe blades were hammered out from copper plates or made ofbronze Knives were used as weapons and as tools especially bybutchers

The earliest evidence for the use of tongs appears in metalshyworking scenes in the New Kingdom tomb of the Vizier Rekhmire(figure 31) or possibly earlier in the Middle Kingdom tomb of thenomarch Khety of the Twelfth Dynasty (figure 30) These liftingtongs were used to hold metal objects in position for annealing ina fireplace Tongs with special forms of jaw to hold objects or welldeveloped surgical forceps like those depicted in Kom Ombowere not known before the Roman Period

For personal hygiene or beauty treatment metalworkers manushyfactured remarkable implements in copper or bronze Razorstweezers and special toilet implements such as tweezer-razors orhair-curlers were in great demand Shaggy beards and overall

a

b

61 lrnplcmcnts for personal hygieneand beauty a New Kingdom razorlength 60 em b New Kingdomhair-curler length 72 em (rtcrPetrie Tools 1111 WCIlml London1)17 platcs 60 61)

58Egyptian Metalworking and Tools

~ere made Yith both blunt and sharp ends for different functions~eezer~ with blunt ends could hav~ been used for pulling out

~r~l~ ~~1~1 ~ge ~~cof~d type were suitable for extracting thorns es e irst examples of copper tweezers date from

thfetlhl1ldMFIrdsdtIDyn~styBronze tweezers appeared at the beginningo e I e Kingdom There w~re many other types of metal tools and only the mostImpfrtant ave been mentioned here Weapons and their use inwar arc have not be~n discussed because the productio~ ofwte~podns vas not earned out by metalworkers but by specially

rame al mourers

59

6The social status and organisation

of metalworkers

With priests officials or civil servants agricultural workers andsoldiers craftsmen formed one of the major occupational groupsin ancient Egypt

The single trades such as the leather-workers woodworkersstoneworkers potters or metalworkers were strictly organisedInspectors supervised the work of a small group of craftsmenbelonging to a special trade and the inspectors received theirinstructions from an overseer The overseers of the differenttrades belonging to a large workshop were directed by anoverseer of the workshop Overseers or other persons of highrank are depicted on wall paintings or reliefs in private tombswearing a long tunic with an underskirt (figure 12) Overseersshown at work are usually distinguished from other craftsmen bythe overseers mace in their hands (figure 11)

A workshop could be attached to a temple to a royal palace tothe private household of a kings son or to the household of a highofficial or a nomarch There were also royal craftsmen who didnot belong to the state-owned palace workshop but were part ofthe private household of the king As a special honour the kingcould delegate his own or the palace craftsmen to work forprivate individuals for a specified time The craftsmen of palaceand temple workshops could also be released for labour in privatehouseholds

There were no independent craftsmen with their own workshyshops and raw materials in ancient Egypt craftsmen were alldependent on their employers who kept and allocated the rawmaterials Egyptian officials and civil servants were set in authorshyity over the craftsmen For this reason the officials and especiallythe well educated Egyptian scribes displayed a self-confidentstatus consciousness as is illustrated by the instructions of afather named Khety to his son Pepi dating from the early TwelfthDynasty Khety wants his son to become an official he tells himto work hard at school otherwise he will not be able to becomean official and will have to work hard as a craftsman all his lifeKhety tries to convince Pepi that a craftsmans trade has enorshymous disadvantages compared to the pleasant occupation of anofficial He tells his son about the different trades and says of

metalworkers that he never saw a goldsmith on importantbusiness In contrast the metalworker was seen at the smeltingfurnace and because of his work his hands were wrinkled likecrocodile skin and he stank worse than scraps of fish AlthoughKhetys opinion is probably an exaggeration it does indicate thehard conditions endured by ancient Egyptian metcdworkers

As metalworking was mainly heavy labour only men practisedthc trade They worked collectively in a team of skilled andunskilled workers In the workshops unskilled workers wereemployed for work not requiring a specialised knowledge ofmetallurgy fanning fires by means of blowpipes or bellowspouring out the molten metal into open moulds for cooling orcleaning and polishing vessels

The skilled workers included blacksmiths whitcsrniths goldshysmiths silversmiths engravers and gilders In contrast with theunskilled workers who mainly had to show stamina and physicalstrength the skilled metalworkers were knowledgeable aboutmetallurgical processes such as chasing annealing or castingmetal Amongst the skilled metalworkers the inspectors andoverseers had a higher social status than their colleagues withoutany titles

The ancient Egyptians also made a distinction between metalshyworkers who were attached to the royal palace or to a templeworkshop and those who worked in the private household of ahigh official or a nomarch Naturally the kino or the palaceadministration had the right (and the resources) to choose thebest craftsmen in the country so metalworkers of the palaceworkshop enjoyed a higher rank than their colleagues uttachcd toa temple or officials workshop Royal or palace craftsmenreceived better wages than those in private households

Egyptian metalworkers had a special relationship with theMemphite god Sokar while as their creator Ptah of Memphiswas responsible for all craftsmen and was worshipped as theirpatron deity It was believed that Sakar helped and protectedmetalworkers in carrying out their profession Sometimes Sokarwas asked for beer by the melters who had to work at theoppressively hot fire Beer was important in ancient Egypt andwas used as payment for workers and labourers Depending ontheir rank and social status Egyptian metalworkers were providedwith all the goods necessary to sustain life As well as beer theyreceived grain bread cakes meat salt vegetables dates sandalsand clothing

60Egyptian Metalworking and Tools 61

7Glossary

Amalgam an alloy containng mercur~ bonate Its vivid blue re a baSIC copper car

AZUrite copper 0 k I ith the emerald-green malachite Itcolour contrasts St~1 mg y WI IC CO Cu(OHhusually accompanies The fo~mu a IS - t the ~orlds tin is

Cassite~ite a mineral f~o~~ ~hlch ~lfsS~s~ally brown or blackobtained also known ashltns ~~estreak is white Composed ofoccasionally yellow or w I e e

tin dioxide formula Sn02 b a metal fromCe mentation metallurgical process for 0 tam1l1g

tmiddotlte metal

Imiddot t by a more ac IV solution thrc)Ugh dlsf

P ahcemenj d ore loaded into a smeltingCharge the mixture 0 c arcoa an

furnace or blue-green copper silicateChrysocolla copper ore a greenThe formula IS Cu SI03 + ag cious metals

Cupellation metallurgical process for separatmg pre

from basemetlaIsd ore a lead sulphide The mineral and itsGalena a major ea I PbSstreak are lead-grey Thl e ff~r~l~Ur ~on-m~talliferous or non-Gangue assoCiate mmera SOd

valuable metalliferous ti g of ferric oxide t t on ore consls 111 Haematite most Imporl a~ dl~ d-b own streak The formula ISwith steel-grey crysta s an a re r

F201

id f nd mainly as earthyLimonite a natural hydrated fern~1OXI i~ cOo~our (yellow ochre)

or porous masses brown to ye ow 0 H 0The streak is yello~-brown The to~m~h~I~ine~al ~ith

Magnetite important Iron o~e a ~a~h ~o~nula is Fe304 ormetallic lustre The streak IS blac e

FeFe204 ore a basic copper carbonateMalachite bnght green copper

The formula is CUCOf3CuI(sOg~J a naturally occurring ironPyrites also known as 00

disulphide The formula IS FeS2

Italy Musco Archeologico VIa Colonna 96 Floren~e Museo Egizio Palazzo dell Accademia delle Scicnze VIa Acca-

dernia delle Scienze 6 Turin

Germany East Agyptischcs Museum and Papyrus-sammlung Staatliche Museen

zu Berlin Bodcstrassc 1-3 102 Berlin Karl-Marx-Universitdt Sektion Afrika- lind Nah ost-wissenshy

schajten Bereich Agyptologic und Agyptischcs MuseumSchillcrst russc 6 701 Leipzig

Germany West Agvptisches Museum Staatliche Mu~een Preussischer Kulturbe-

sitz Schlossstrasse 70 1000 Berlin 19Kestner-Museum Trammplatz 3 3000 Hanover 1 Roemer-Pelizaeus-Museum Am Steine 1-2 3200 Hildesheirn

NiedersachsenStaatliche Sammlung Agyptischer Kunst Meiserstrasse 10 8000

Munich 2

63

Netherlands Rijiksmuseum van Oudheden Rapenburg 282311 EW Leiden

United States of AmericaBrooklyn Museum 188 Eastern Parkway Brooklyn New York

NY 11238Metropolitan Museum of Art 5th Avenue at 82nd Street New

York NY 10028Museum o] Fine Arts Huntington Avenue Boston Massachu-

setts 02115University of Chicago Cri~ntal Institute Museum 1155 East 58th

Street Chicago Illinois 60637Yale University Art Gallery 1111 Chapel Street New Haven

Connecticut 06520

FranceMusee du Louvre Palais du Louvre 75003 Paris

Museums

Ij

AustriaKUllsthistorisches Museum Agyptisch-Orientalische Sammlung

Burgring 5 1010 Vienna

BelgiumMusees Royaux dArt et dHistoire Avenue J F Kennedy 1040

Brussels

8Museums

Nearly eyery museum with an Egyptology collection exhibitsmetal objects or tools Only the most important museums arethereforenamed below Intending visitors are advised to ascertainthe openmg times before making a special journey

United KingdomAshmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology Beaumont Street

Oxford OXI 2PH Telephone 0865 278000Bolton Museum and Art Gallery Le Mans Crescent Bolton

Lancashire BLl 1SE Telephone 020422311 extension 2191Bntsh Museum Great Russell Street London WClB 3DG

1 elephone 01-636 1555 or 1558Fitzwilliam Museum Trumpington Street Cambridge CB2 IRB

Telephone 0223 332900Manchester Museum The University of Manchester Oxford

Rad Manchester M13 9PL Telephone 061-275 2634Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology University College

London Gower Street London WC1E 6BT Telephone 01shy387 7050 extension 2884

Royal Museum of Scotland Chambers Street Edinburgh EH1UF Telephone 031-225 7534

62

CanadaRoyal Ontario Museum 100 Queens Park Toronto Ontario

M5C 2C6

DenmarkNy Carlsberg Glyptotek Dantes Plads 1550 Copenhagen V

EgyptEgyptian Antiquities Museum Tahrir Square Cairo

64 Further reading 65

9Further reading

Aldred C Jewels of the Pharaohs Egyptian Jewellery of theDynastic Period Thames and Hudson London 1971

Baines J and Malek J Atlas of Ancient Egypt PhaidonOxford 1980

Chappaz J -L La Purification de 10r Bulletin de la Societed Egyptologie de Geneve 4 (1980) 19-24

Cowell M The Composition of Egyptian Copper-based Metalshywork in R A David (editor) Science in Egyptology Manshychester University Press Manchester 1986

Davey C J Crucibles in the Petrie Collection and HieroglyphicIdeograms for Metal Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71(1985) 142-8

Dayton J Minerals Metals Glazing and Man or Who I-msSesostris Harrap London 1978

Drenkhahn B Die Handwerker und ihre Tiitigkeiten im AltenAgypten Agyptologische Abhandlungen 31 HarrassowitzWiesbaden 1976

Forbes R J Metallurgy in Antiquity A Notebook for Archaeolshyogists and Technologists Brill Leiden 1950

Forbes R J Studies in Ancient Technology volumes VI-IXBrill Leiden 1966 1971 and 1972

Harris J R Lexicographical Studies in Ancient Egyptian Minshyerals Veroffentlichung 54 Deutsche Akademie der Wissenshyschaften zu Berlin Institutfur Orientforschung Berlin 1961

Heick W Die Beziehungen A gyp tens zu Vorderasien im 3 u 2Jahrtausend v Chr Agyptologisehe Abhandlungen 5 Harrasshysowitz Wiesbaden 1962

Hunt L B The Long History of Lost Wax Casting Over FiveThousand Years of Art and Craftsmanship Gold Bulletin 132 (1980) 63-79

James T G H Gold Technology in Ancient Egypt Mastery ofMetal Working Methods Gold Bulletin 5 2 (1972) 38-42

Kense F J Traditional African Iron Working African Occasionshyal Papers University of Calgary Press Calgary 1983

Leclant J Le Fer dans lEgypte ancienne Ie Soudan etlAfrique Annales de IEst publiees par la [aculte des lettres de

I Universite de Nancy Mernoire 16 (1956) 83-91Lucas A Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries J R Harris

(editor) Arnold London fourth edition 1962

Maddin R Early Iron Metallurgy in the Near East Transactionso] the Iron and Steel Institut~ of Japan 15 (1975) 59-68

Moesta H Erze und Metalle ihre Kulturgeschichte tm Experishyment Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 198

Muhly J D Timna and King Solomon Bibliotheca Orientalis41 3 and 4 (1984) 275-92

Nibbi A Ancient Egyptian Pot Bellow~ and the 0xhlde IngotShape Discussion in Egyptology Pubhcatl~)(~S Oxtord 1987

Notton J H F Ancient Egyptian Gold Refining A Reproducshytion of Early Techniques Gold Bulletin 7 ~ (1974) 50-6

Petrie W M Flinders Tools and Weapons British School ofArchaeology in Egypt University CollcgevLondon 1917

Pctruso K M Early Weights and Welghmg in Egypt and theIndus Valley Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts 79 (1981)44-51

Scheel B Studien zum Metallhandwerk im Alten Agypten IHandlungen und Bcischriftcn in den Bildprogrammen derGraber des Alten Reiches Studien zur Altiigyptischen Kultur12 (1985) 117-77

Scheel B Studien zum Metallhandwerk rrn Alten Agypten IIHandlungen und Beischriften in den Bildprogramme~ derGraber des Mittleren Reiches Studien zur AltiigyptischenKultur 13 (1986) 181-205

Scheel B Studien zum Metallhandwerk irn Alten Agypten IIIHandlungen und Beischriften in den Bldp~~grammen derGraber des Neuen Reiches und der Spatzeit Studien zurAltdgyptischen Kultur 14 (1987) 247-64

Tylecote R F The Origin of Iron Smelting III Africa WestAfrican Journal of Archaeology 5 (1975) 1-9

Vercoutter J The Gold of Kush Two Gold-washing Stations atFaras East Kush Journal of the Sudan Antiquities Service 7(1959) 120-53

Weinstein J A Fifth Dynasty Reference to Annealing Journalof the American Research Center ir~ Egypt 11 (1974) 23-5

Whitehouse D and R Archaeological Atlas of the WorldThames and Hudson London 1975

62 Map of ancient Egypt showing the sites mentioned in the text

67

I

Ioge II 1111Ihas in italic refer to illustrationsAbu lIamed Iii II Electrum 11 15-10323441 -IIAdministration I) 14 21 60 Engraver 39 40 51 60Adze IX 47 50 50 52-4 Engraving 39 40 43Agate 3X Euphrates 6 XAgatharehides PI Cnidus 11-12 14 17 Fans 22 2JAlltilltikh 19 Fayum XAleppo 19 Filigree 40Alloy 1520344141 Fireplace 922-323-40-15 middotll 511Alloying 19-21 46 Forceps 511Amenophis II 15 Foundrv 24-5 ()Amun 24-5 Funerary equipment ts 1middot1 II 1Anatolia I1-X 17 19 34 54Annealing X 30-1 36 44 53 56 60 Gilding 32-3 46Antimonv II Giza 9 9 2X 34Anvil 2X 11 3536 16-7 Gold 1I 13 14-11121 1 111 IArsenic II 14 20 34 40-1 47 57Aswan 17 Gold beaters sk II1S iAsvut K Gold leaf 32-3 IiAwl 54 Goldsmith 13 1411 II IC II 1111Axe 47 4ii -IS 54 Greece 56Badlri 6 x Grinding X l1Bellows 15-16 23-5 27 32 60 Hammering K I) 2S 11 II II II IIBending X 46 50-I 53 511Beni S~lcr 14 Hammer stones c 11 I I If ii il

Bcrcnikc 14 40Blacksmith 2X 30-1 34 110 Hoes 56Blowpipe 9 22-4 24 30-1 60 Hooks 563owl furnace 15 16 Horus 14 17 middot1Brazier 30 32 35 India 19Bronze see Tin bronze Indonesia II)

Buhcn 10 II Indus civilisation 11I3yblos 19 Indus vallev 7CastingX-9 j9-21 24252527 2940- Ingots 3 ~14-1~ 11 111 II

34751535060 Inspector 59 1gt1I(atal lIiiyuk 6 7 Iran 6 7-0 IIICaucasus 19 Iron II 17-IS 111 I

(ayijnii Tcpcsi 6 7 Irrigation SySlllflS Charcoal 9 9 1521-52730-23541 Isis 14-15 4Chasing 2X 10-1 111 40 46 60 Jewellers 14 middot11 IIIChiSlls

c

N 40 iI 52 53 Karnak 1925Cire pcrduc 40 Khacfre 10 middot1Clamping 14 57 Khartoum 10Cloisonne work 411 Knives 54-7CobJit II Kom Omho _)~ IICopper7- ) 1114 IlJ-21 34-5 40 41 Koptos 11

-II 47 50 53-6 50 Kush 11Crete 17-10 Lead II 14 1lt) II IICrucible 9 2222 n 23 24 25 27-X 30 Leaded tin hronlaquo II ICurlers 41 Sfgt 57 57 Levant 67Cutting ii 40 44 51 54 Limestone 17 ICyprus 14 17-IX 20 Lost wax catin III If II I I

Dclcnnah 17 53 Maat 21 Djoscr 44 Malavsia II)

Onlls -15 52 51 Mari~ 19Eilat 14 Mcir n 2S

Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68

Melting S f 14-1521-425 27-S _141Mercury 13Mcrirnda 6 SMcree ISMesopotamia 6 7-0 17 I)Meteoric iron 17Miner II 13-14Mining 7 10 11-12 14 17 2(1--1Mitanni 17Napata 10 IINaqadlaquo 6 S 16Narron _4Naueratis 17 53Nccdlclaquo 54-5Nephthys 14Nickel II 17Nippur 6 7Nomads IINubia II 16 ISOpening of the mouth 17 18Ornamenting 46Osiris 17 ~

Overseer 12 II) 50-60Pcloponncsc 17Platinum IIPolishing S _6-S 31) 41 60Prospecting 14Ptah 60Punt 16Quinn 14Ouscir cl-Oadim IS 20Ramcsscs II 53Ras Shamra 19Razors 41 5()-7 57Re 14 21Red Sea I IRcducinu 15Refining 14 17 21 2S 33Rcpoussc work 46Riveting 34 4 I 43Roasting 15Roman ~Empire 56Salt 14 14Saqqara 22 35 37 31) 44Saw 47 50- I 53 56Scissors 41 55 57Scmna 10 IISeth 17Seti I 25 2(l-1) 38Settlement 6 7 SShalt furnace 15 16Shears 55-6SheJJal 17Sickles 56Silver II 15-172132344143Sinai 14 17 23Slag 15 17


Smelting S-0 II 14-15 to 17-IS 20Smelting furnace 9 15 ()()Smiths ~ I) 20-1 27-S 10-1 14 YJ 36

42 46Smoothing 2S 31 16 36 3S 50Sohek 41SOKar 38 60Soldering 14-5 44 46Somdia10Spain ISSpatulas 51lSteel 56Surncrims 7 S 34 40 42Svria 10-20111 i-Iblis (l 7TaSi XTemple equipment 47Tcpc Asiab IJ 7Tepe Gun] Darch ( 7Tepe l lisxu ( 7Tepe Sidk ( 7ThaillIld 10Thcbcx 13 1024-52628-1)3231)40

50 52 53-4Tigris () KTigris-Euphrates vallcv 6 7-0Timna 14Tin II 14 IS-10 1920Tin bronze II 1020-11441-34347

50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40

46-7485153-65STrade 7-0 I I IS 10 5)-60Tuycrc 24 24 25 27 2STweezers 41 56-SUnas 37Ur 6 7Uruk 6 7Wadi Ahbcd 10 IIWadi AJJaqi 10 IIWadi Arabi 14 17Wadi Dih 17Wadi cl-Fawakhir 10 I IWadi e1-Hudi 10 II nWadi Haifa 17Wadi Hammamat 10 IIWadi Murwat 17Wadi Sid 10 IIWawat IIWeapons 0 14 20 40 8 56 5SWeighing 21 22Whitesmith 34-5 36 ()oWire 42-6Zagros Mountains 6 7-SZinc II

Egyptian Metalworking and ToolsThis book gives a comprehensive description of Egyptian metalwork from the earliest

times to the Late Period The development of metallurgy in prehistoric Egypt correspondswith the evolution of civilisation in the Nile valley The story of metallurgy is told by thesmiths themselves as they are shown in numerous pictures and named in varioushieroglyphic inscriptions and the text discusses the mining of copper gold and othermetals the process of smelting the smiths tools and methods of melting and casting crudemetal It considers the manufacturing process of plates vessels and tools the use of metalobjects as funerary equipment and the use of metal tools in stoneworking woodworkingleatherworking and other trades The most important sources of the history of metallurgy inDynastic Egypt are the reliefs and paintings in private tombs of the Old Middle and NewKingdoms Hieroglyphic inscriptions explain a number of manufacturing scenes A specialchapter comments on the working conditions of miners and smiths their social status andliving conditions

About the authorBernd Scheel studied Egyptology prehistory and ethnology at the University of

Hamburg In Germany he has worked for various urban excavations investigating thehistorical sources of medieval Lubeck and the Hansa Since 1979 he has worked severaltimes in Egypt Since receiving a master of arts degree from the University of Hamburg in1984 he has been employed by the German Research Association on archaeological andepigraphic research on the tomb of Queen Tausert in the Valley of the Kings In 1985 hebecame a scientific co-worker in the Oriental Faculty of the Department of Egyptology at theArchaeological Institute of the University of Hamburg Bernd Scheel has published articleson various topics including the presentation of metalwork and metalworkers in the tombsof the Old and Middle Kingdoms in Egypt and the special problems of craftsmen andcraftsmanship in ancient Egypt

Introduction13

Mining and Smelting13

Melting Casting and Plate Production13

Funerary Equipment and Other Items13

Tools and Their Uses13

The Social Status and Organization of Metalworkers13

Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13

2

Cover illustrationMetalworkers polishing a stand for a table of offerings (left) and hammershymg a vessel (right) Depicted above are a brazier and the smith s tools a

blowpipe and a pair of tongsFrom the tomb of the Vizier Rekhmire at Thebes Ei~hteenth Dynasty

(Photograph by Bernd Scheel) L

British librarv Catalouuinu in Publication Data SeheCI Bernd

Egyptian metalworking and toolsI Egypt Metalworking ancient period

I Titleh~4 Ol)O()2

ISBN 0-747fgt-OOO 1-4

Published bySHIRE PUBLICATIONS LTD

Cromwell House Church Street Princes RisboroughAylesbury Bucks HP17 9AJ UK

Series Editor Barbara Adams

Copyright Bernd Scheel 19R9

All rights reserved No pnrt of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form or by any means electronic or mechanicalincluding photocopy recording or any Informatlon storage

and retrieval system without pe nnrssion In wntingfrom the publishers

ISBN 0 747i 0001 4

First published 19i9

Printed in Great Britain byC 1 Thomas amp Sons (Havcrfordwest) Ltd

Press Buildings Mertins Bridge Havcrfordwcst Dyfcd SA61 IXF

3

ContentsLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 4

CHRONOLOGY SI INTRODUCTION 7

2 MINING AND SMELTING 11MELTING CASTING AND PLATE PRODUCTION 21

4 FUNERARY EQUIPMENT AND OTHER ITEMS 34S TOOLS AND THEIR USES 47

h THE SOCIAL STATUS AND ORGANISATION OFMETALWORKERS )lt)

7 GLOSSARY 61~ MUSEUMS 62

lt) FURTHER READING 64INDEX 67

AcknowledgementsI would like to thank Mrs Barbara Adams Editor of the Shire Egyptologyseries and Mr John Rotheroe of Shire Publications for their help and myteacher Professor Dr Hartwig Altenrnuller of Hamburg University for aidinginvestigations into Egyptian craftsmanship I would also like to thank ProfessorDr Rainer Stadclmann of the German Institute of Archaeology in Cairo forallowing me to publish new material from the metalworking site at the temple ofKing Seti I at Thebes 11r Gunter Heindl and Mrs Nicole Alcxanian of theUniversity of Heidelberg helped to evaluate the excavation results and MrsKatharina Neumann of Frankfurt University analysed the excavated charcoalAcknowledgement is made to Dr Rosemarie Drenkhahn of Kestner-MuseumHanover Dr Renate Germer of Hamburg University and Albrecht GermerProfessor Dr Silvio Curto of the Egyptian Museum Turin Dr Sylvia Schoske ofthe Staatliche Sammlung Agyptischer Kunst in Munich and Dr Joachim SKarig of Agyptisches Museum Berlin SMPK who provided photographs andpermission for publication other photographs and drawings are by the authorFinally I would like to express my gratitude to my very understanding wifeUrsel for all her support and help in my work The outline dynastic chronologyis based on that of Dr William J Murnane and acknowledgement is made to himand Penguin Books for its use here

4






Predynastic

Protodynastic

Early Dynastic

Old Kingdom


Middle Kingdom


New Kingdom


Late Period

Graeco-RomanPeriod



3200 - 3050 B(

3050 - 2hl3 BC

261J - 21kl BC

21kl - 2040 BC

2040 - 17k2 BC

17k2-1570 BC

1570 - 1070 BC

1070 - 713 BC

713 - 332 BC

332 Be - D 3l)5

5






Dvnastic- I - II

Dynasties III - VI









Tepe Hissur

1Introduction







bull



Uruk ~Ur


o










Buhen

Sornna- HJILl





1I



-Abu Hamed

NUBIA




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loam











tap hole

loam

charge

bellow

mud br rr ks

smelted metal





































---------------------__-----

dish with coverirq

I char coal












29








II

Id

~----------------------------------- -








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



b

d

a

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51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13

4






Predynastic

Protodynastic

Early Dynastic

Old Kingdom


Middle Kingdom


New Kingdom


Late Period

Graeco-RomanPeriod



3200 - 3050 B(

3050 - 2hl3 BC

261J - 21kl BC

21kl - 2040 BC

2040 - 17k2 BC

17k2-1570 BC

1570 - 1070 BC

1070 - 713 BC

713 - 332 BC

332 Be - D 3l)5

5






Dvnastic- I - II

Dynasties III - VI









Tepe Hissur

1Introduction







bull



Uruk ~Ur


o










Buhen

Sornna- HJILl





1I



-Abu Hamed

NUBIA




O























loam











tap hole

loam

charge

bellow

mud br rr ks

smelted metal





































---------------------__-----

dish with coverirq

I char coal












29








II

Id

~----------------------------------- -








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



b

d

a

c



51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13


Tepe Hissur

1Introduction







bull



Uruk ~Ur


o










Buhen

Sornna- HJILl





1I



-Abu Hamed

NUBIA




O























loam











tap hole

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---------------------__-----

dish with coverirq

I char coal












29








II

Id

~----------------------------------- -








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



b

d

a

c



51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13










Buhen

Sornna- HJILl





1I



-Abu Hamed

NUBIA




O























loam











tap hole

loam

charge

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mud br rr ks

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---------------------__-----

dish with coverirq

I char coal












29








II

Id

~----------------------------------- -








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



b

d

a

c



51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13






















loam











tap hole

loam

charge

bellow

mud br rr ks

smelted metal





































---------------------__-----

dish with coverirq

I char coal












29








II

Id

~----------------------------------- -








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

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d

a

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51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13




































---------------------__-----

dish with coverirq

I char coal












29








II

Id

~----------------------------------- -








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



b

d

a

c



51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13







29








II

Id

~----------------------------------- -








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

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44




45






















d

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50














---------~








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55


















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7Glossary





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F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

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Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13








raquogt




















stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

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55


















a

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7Glossary





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F201















Munich 2

63







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Museums

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Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13











stone hammeri-gt



-- stone block







4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



b

d

a

c



51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13






4Funerary equipment

and other items














































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



b

d

a

c



51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







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Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13








































44




45






















d

9

c

f

b

e

a



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d

a

c



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_JL-__~-~L-J-----




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55


















a

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59


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7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







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Museums

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Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13














d

9

c

f

b

e

a



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d

a

c



51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




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55


















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59


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7Glossary





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63







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Museums

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Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13

51






_JL-__~-~L-J-----




50














---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13












---------~








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

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Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13








QQ

55


















a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13














a

b






rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13





rame al mourers

59


of metalworkers











7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13







7Glossary





tmiddotlte metal







F201















Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13









Munich 2

63







Connecticut 06520


Museums

Ij




Brussels

8Museums










62


M5C 2C6




9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13


9Further reading

































67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13


67

I






c





Index

SINAI

-Kom Ombo

-Aswan

o

NUBIA

o

LOWEREGYPT

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13

68







50 53-7Tongs 30 35 56Tools 0141720-123_ 2S 11-2 1(1 40






Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13





Introduction13






Glossary13

Museums13

Further Reading13

Index13

Egyptian Metalworking

Documents

Transcript of Egyptian Metalworking