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ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
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EFFECTIVE POLICY FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION
FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF
MANGROVES IN GHANA
CONSULTANCY REPORT FOR
ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable
Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
Consultant: Mercy A. A. Derkyi (Mrs)
September, 2007
ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In Ghana, mangrove forests are important ecosystems found along coastal areas and serve as
sources of livelihood for local communities, act as windbreaks and help to mitigate the impact
of coastal storm surges. They are also essential for plant and animal life and serve as breeding
grounds for many aquatic fauna. However, increase in human population, food production,
industrial and urban development and lack of management and policy strategies for mangroves
have resulted in their over-exploitation, pollution and conversion to other land uses leading to
dwindling of the mangrove resource base.
In November 2006, the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) approved a one-
year pre-project proposal on „Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and
Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems in Ghana‟. The Faculty of Renewable Natural
Resources (FRNR) is the lead executing institution with Forestry Research Institute of Ghana
(FORIG) and the Forestry Commission (FC) as the collaborators.
This pre-project seeks to address issues concerning access, ownership rights and tenure,
impact of existing policies and legislation on mangroves for purposes of providing baseline
information for the development of community-based policies and strategies for sustainable
mangrove ecosystem management, utilization and conservation. Against this background, a
study was commissioned on the theme „effective policy formulation and implementation for
sustainable management and utilization of mangroves in Ghana‟.
The main approach used for the collection of data was through desk study, expert interviews
as well as field survey. The field survey covered 15 communities fringing the Amansure River
in the Nzema East District of the Western Region and Ama Emissa River in the Mfantseman
District of the Central Region.
The study shows that stakeholders have been involved in the formulation and implementation
of forest policies with a higher level of stakeholder participation in the processes leading to the
1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy than that of 1948. However, mangrove forests did not feature
in these forest policies and it appears there are no specific policies on mangroves in Ghana,
except what can be deduced from related wetland conservation documents such as the revised
national wetlands conservation strategy and action plan, prepared by the Ministry of Lands,
Forestry and Mines (MLFM, 2007). The traditional means of conserving natural resources
have also not been effective for mangrove management, principally due to the wrong notion
that mangroves are “waste lands” and their perceived relatively low value. There appears to be
limited understanding of the values and functions of mangrove and wetland ecosystems in
Ghana. As a result, mangrove forests are often regarded as degraded and worthless areas that
need to be utilized for productive uses. However, the intrinsic value of the mangrove
ecosystem is enormous and is only recognized when large investments have to be poured into
constructing coastal protection structures when the mangrove vegetation is gone.
There are no documented or active strategies and structures for mangrove management at the
community level, nevertheless the communities were able to propose key strategies for
ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
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effective management of the mangrove ecosystem. Key stakeholders to ensure successful
management of the resources were also identified.
It was realized that a well planned intertwines of institutional needs, accurate scientific
information and active community involvement in policy planning and implementation will be
central to any scheme for protecting mangroves and preventing excessive exploitation and
abuse of the resource.
In view of the key findings, recommendations such as public awareness and education,
formulation of mangrove policy and strategies, national inventory to ascertain the actual size
of mangroves and creation of database of mangrove information have been made for effective
management of mangrove ecosystems in Ghana.
ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study gathered information through desk study, expert interviews as well as field survey
on effective policy formulation and implementation for sustainable management and
utilization of mangroves in Ghana.
The study has been successful through the support of a number of individual, institutions and
communities.
I am especially grateful to the ITTO for providing the financial support towards this pre-
project and to the FRNR team in Ghana who made it possible for me to execute this
assignment.
I am also indebted to the communities fringing Amansure River (Eikwe, Azuleloanu, Ampain,
Old Bakanta, New Bakanta, Sanzule, Kristan, Ala Bokazo, Aloakpoke,) and Ama Emissa
River (Narkwa, Asaafa, Edumafa, Suprudu, Emissano, Kuntu) in the Western and Central
Regions of Ghana respectively for their time and contributions. To the District Assemblies,
Assemblymen and chiefs within the study communities I say thank you for the numerous
supports provided.
Regarding expert interviews, officials from the following institutions are very much
appreciated:
Wildlife Manager, Dangbe-East District,
Wetlands Conservation issues in the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission,
Project Coordinator,
Project Coordinator Amanzure Conservation Integrated Development ( ACID) and;
Some staff of Resource Management Support Centre (RMSC) and Tropenbos
international –Ghana.
I also wish to acknowledge the inputs of all those who proof read this report. Finally, I thank
all those who contributed in diverse ways towards the beginning and completion of this study.
ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
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TABLE OF CONTENT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. IV
TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................................................ V
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURE AND BOX ......................................................................................... VII
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................... VIII
SECTION 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR) .......................................................................................................... 3 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF REPORT ............................................................................................................. 3 1.5 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 4
SECTION 2: STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT IN FOREST POLICY FORMULATION
AND IMPLEMENTATION IN GHANA ............................................................................................. 5
2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF GHANA’S FOREST POLICY AND
STAKEHOLDERS INFLUENCE IN ITS FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION. .......... 6
2.2.1. THE 1948 FOREST POLICY .............................................................................................................. 7 2.2.2 THE FOREST AND WILDLIFE POLICY, 1994. .................................................................................... 8 AIMS OF THE POLICY .............................................................................................................................. 9 POLICY OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................... 9 2.3 CRITIQUE OF STAKEHOLDERS’ PARTICIPATION IN FOREST POLICY FORMULATION AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 11 2.3.1 STAKEHOLDERS‟ PARTICIPATION IN THE 1948 FOREST POLICY.................................................... 11 2.3.2 STAKEHOLDERS‟ PARTICIPATION IN THE 1994 FOREST AND WILDLIFE ........................................ 12
SECTION THREE: EXISTING POLICIES, LEGISLATION AND STRATEGIC PLANS ON
WETLANDS/MANGROVES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON MANGROVE CONSERVATION IN
GHANA ................................................................................................................................................. 13
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 13 3.2 INITIATIVES TOWARD WETLANDS AND MANGROVE MANAGEMENT .......................................... 13 3.2.1 STATE-LED INITIATIVES ................................................................................................................. 14 3.2.2 OTHER MANGROVE RESTORATION INITIATIVES ........................................................................... 15
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Ecosystems in Ghana
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3.3 RELEVANT AGENCIES (PLAYERS) FOR COASTAL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ........... 17 3.4 EXISTING POLICIES AND LEGISLATIONS ON WETLANDS ............................................................. 18 3.5 CRITIQUE OF EXISTING POLICIES, LEGISLATIONS AND MANAGEMENT PLANS ON WETLANDS .. 19 3.5.2 LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSERVATION, EDUCATION AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION ................. 20 3.5.3 WEAKNESSES OF THE LEGISLATIONS AND IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES ................................... 21
SECTION FOUR: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LACK OF APPROPRIATE NATIONAL
POLICY ON MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS .................................................................................... 22
4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 22 4.2 EXTENT OF MANGROVE COVER AND ITS PERCEIVED LOW VALUE ............................................ 22 4.3 CONVENTIONAL VIEW OF MANGROVES ........................................................................................ 23
SECTION FIVE: POLICY STRATEGIES TO PROTECT MANGROVE FOREST RIGHTS
AND PREVENTION OF ABUSE OF TRADITIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL PROCEDURES
WHICH MAKE MANGROVES AN OPEN ACCESS. .................................................................... 24
5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 24 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS ................................................................................................................... 24 5.3 SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION ............................................................................................................. 25 5.4 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT .......................................................................................................... 26
SECTION SIX: COMMUNITY LEVEL STRATEGIES FOR EQUITY IN MANGROVE
MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION ............................................................................................ 27
6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 27
SECTION 7: KEY FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ......................... 32
7.1 KEY FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................. 32 7.2 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................... 33 7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 34
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 36
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Ecosystems in Ghana
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LIST OF TABLES, FIGURE AND BOX
Box 1: Factors which guided the Formulation of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy………10
Fig 1: An example of mangrove action plan developed using simple questions by the
communities‟ representative during a pre-validation workshop in Nzema East
District…………………………………………………………………………………...…………….28
Table 1 Interventions for wetland and mangrove resource degradation…………...……....…16
Table 2: Wetland related projects and management plans in Ghana…………………….…...16
Table 3: Agencies supporting protection of coastal ecosystems…………………………..…17
Table 4: Wetland related policies legislations in Ghana…………………………………..….18
Table 5: Nzema East District: Conservation Strategies using Simple questions (4W &…..…29
Table 6: Mfantseman District: Conservation Strategies using Simple questions (4W &H)…….30
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Ecosystems in Ghana
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACID Amansure Conservation Integrated Development
CAW Centre for African Wetlands
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FC Forestry Commission
FC Forestry Commission
FoE Friends of the Earth
FORIG Forestry Research Institute of Ghana
FSD Forest Services Division
GIS Global Information system
GPS Global Positioning System
GWS Ghana Wildlife Society
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
MLF Ministry of Lands and Forestry
MLFM Ministry of Lands, Forestry and Mines
NEAP National Environmental Action Plan
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NWS National Wetlands Committee
RMSC Resource Management Support Centre
RSSI Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery
TOR Terms of Reference
WD Wildlife Division
ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
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SECTION 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
Ghana is a West African country with a land area of 23.95 million hectares and a population of
about 20.9 million people (UN 2003), about 66% of which are rural. Its population growth rate
is about 2.6% (UNDP Ghana-Country Profile). Ghana‟s greatest strength lies in her natural
resources and about 50% of the economically active population works in the agricultural and
forestry sectors.
In Ghana, mangrove forests are important ecosystems found along coastal areas and serve as
sources of livelihood for local communities, act as windbreaks and help to mitigate the impact
of coastal storm surges. They are also essential for plant and animal life and serve as breeding
grounds for many aquatic fauna. However, increase in human population, food production,
industrial and urban development and lack of management and policy strategies for mangroves
have resulted in their over-exploitation, pollution and conversion to other land uses leading to
dwindling of the mangrove resource base.
Poverty and environmental degradation are often characterized as being part of a vicious
cycle. Poverty is believed to have stimulated increased non-sustainable practices for local
resources such as mangroves and wetlands (World Bank, 2007). In Ghana, the degradation of
the coastal environment is linked to the persistence of poverty and the pervasiveness of
income disparities in much of the coastal areas.
In the face of the unprecedented natural resources degradation and depletion at both global and
national levels, Ghana has ratified many conventions. At the international level, the country
ratified for example, the Ramsar Convention which focuses on the conservation of wetlands of
international importance, since 1988. A major obligation under the Convention is the
implementation of the principle of „wise use‟ of the wetlands resources. The conventions have
inspired many relevant policies and legislations on natural resources in the country within the
context of sustainable development. These policies include; National Environment Policy,
National Wetland Policy, Tourism Development Policy, 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy and
National Wetlands Conservation Strategy and Action Plan among others. The main thrust and
focus of the policies and legislations are on the protection, management and development of
the natural resources.
At the national level, environmental degradation of the coastal areas was identified as a key
issue in the country‟s Environmental Action Plan and in 1995, with the assistance of the
World Bank the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) initiative was commenced
aimed at identifying economic, social and environmental interventions and projects in the
coastal zone. Within the context of coastal environment, the government and also non-
governmental agencies have shown commitment towards the protection and management of
the natural resources as indicated by the drafting of the coastal zone management indicative
plan, integrated coastal zone plan, coastal zone profile of Ghana and initiated projects.
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Wetlands form part of the coastal zone natural resources endowment and the policies and
legislations on this ecosystem have impacts on mangrove resources, which form part of the
mosaic of wetland vegetation. The mangrove catchments are mostly found in the tidal river
estuaries and lagoons along the coast. They form narrow vegetation in these areas and broken
in places by the topography. They offer important environmental services and meet socio-
economic needs of the fringe communities.
As an integral part of the natural resource endowment of the country, their conservation and
protection are needed to sustain them and to ensure their continuous delivering of important
socio-economic and environmental services. As a result, the country has evolved many
important environmental strategies and policies to ensure the sustainability of these natural
resources.
1.1 Background of Pre-project.
The sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove
ecosystems in Ghana, is a pre-project being carried out by the Government of Ghana and
funded by International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) for a period of a year.
The project seeks to address issues related to access, ownership rights and tenure and to
provide baseline information to develop community-based policies and strategies to ensure
sustainability of the mangrove ecosystems in the country. The project aims at gathering
sufficient information on the degradation of mangrove forests on the livelihood and economy
of local communities for the planning, formulation and implementation of project(s) to
manage mangrove resources in Ghana on sustainable basis. It will therefore address the
following issues:
The influence of current forest and land policies on mangroves.
Distribution, degree of exploitation and the extent of degradation of mangrove
resources.
Land tenure systems in mangrove communities.
Social infrastructure, social and economic profiles of the people living close to
mangroves.
Issues on mangrove management and utilization which are not clear.
The developmental objective of this pre-project is to ensure the sustainable management and
utilization of Ghana‟s mangrove forest resources. The specific objective is to provide
sufficient baseline information on the extent, contribution of mangrove resources, policy and
other governance strategies to aid in preparing a project for the sustainable community
management, utilization and conservation of mangroves in Ghana. In addition, the pre-project
seeks to develop the skills and abilities of local communities to be involved in the project
proposal planning and formulation.
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Ecosystems in Ghana
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1.2 Terms of Reference (ToR)
Against this background, the Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources (FRNR) and its
collaborating institutions (FORIG and FC) with funding from ITTO commissioned a
consultant to conduct an exploratory study on the theme „effective policy formulation and
implementation for sustainable management and utilization of mangroves in Ghana‟ with the
following terms of reference.
Review literature on stakeholder involvement in forest policy formulation and
implementation in Ghana.
Review existing policies, legislation and strategic plans on wetlands/mangroves and
their impacts on mangrove conservation in Ghana.
Identify factors influencing the lack of appropriate national policy on mangrove
ecosystem.
Recommend policy strategies to protect mangrove forest rights and prevention of
abuse of traditional and institutional procedures which make mangroves an open
access.
Recommend community level strategies for equity in mangrove management and
utilization
Present a report to cover the above.
1.4 Organization of Report
The first section of the report is the introduction, which focuses on the background
information, objective, terms of reference as well as the methodology and approach of the
study. The study findings are described in the rest of the sections. Section two is a literature
review on stakeholder involvement in forest policy formulation and implementation in Ghana.
The existing policies, legislation and strategic plans on wetlands/mangroves and their impacts
on mangrove conservation in Ghana are covered under section three. Factors influencing the
lack of appropriate national policy on mangrove ecosystem as well as policy strategies to
protect mangrove forest rights and prevention of abuse are discussed under sections four and
five respectively. Section six is devoted to community level strategies for equity in mangrove
management and utilization. The last section consists of summary of findings, conclusions and
recommendations.
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Ecosystems in Ghana
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1.5 Methodology
The main approach used for the collection of data was through desk study, expert interviews
as well as field survey. For the desk study, relevant mangrove literature was gathered from the
internet. In addition the following principal documents relating to forest policies, wetlands and
mangroves studies in Ghana were reviewed.
The two forest and wildlife policies of Ghana
Falling into Place. Policy that works for forests and people series no. 4. International
Institute for Environment and Development, London.
The 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana
Wetlands Management in Ghana, Friends of the Earth (FoE)
Preliminary Inventory Assessment of Mangroves in Ghana Report, ITTO-Pre-project
(unpublished)
Survey of land and forest tenure systems affecting mangrove conservation and
management in Ghana. Report, ITTO-Pre-project (unpublished)
Policy that works for forests and people –Real prospects for governance and
livelihoods
Regarding expert interviews, officials from the following institutions were actively involved:
Wildlife Manager, Dangbe-East District,
Wetlands Conservation issues in the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission,
Project Coordinator,
Project Coordinator Amanzure Conservation Integrated Development ( ACID) and;
Some staff of Resource Management Support Centre (RMSC) and Tropenbos
International-Ghana were actively involved in this study.
The field study was carried out in two mangrove rich districts in Ghana namely; the Nzema
East and Mfantseman Districts in the Western and Central Regions of Ghana respectively (see
Annex for map of the study area). A total of 15 communities were involved in the study. The
approaches used for the field survey to gather relevant data included community durbar using
structured checklist and pre-validation workshops.
The data analysis has been made essentially using content analysis. The information gathered
from literature and the field surveys were primarily the views and opinions of people, hence
they were not subjected to rigorous statistical analysis.
ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove
Ecosystems in Ghana
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SECTION 2: STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT IN FOREST POLICY
FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION IN GHANA
2.1 Introduction
In their study on forest policies, Kotey et al., (1998) described policy as involving content and
process and both are deemed equally important; the process by which a policy is developed is
as important as the substance (content) of the policy. Policy processes include the elements of
policy making, policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation and policy review. Policy is
also more than just official pronouncement. It includes what people are actually committed to
and what they try to do.
Forest policies attempt to provide a framework of objectives, strategies and programmes
regarding:
• Aims - what benefits are to be aimed at from the forest resources and how to integrate or
choose between different objectives, time scales and stakeholders
• Roles - what are the main policy tasks involved in formulation, implementation, monitoring,
evaluating and revision of policy?
• Means - which methodologies can achieve the aims and manage conflicts between
stakeholders?
• Actors - what institutions and stakeholders will play the identified roles - farmers, forest
dwellers, fringe communities, landholding authorities, local government, voluntary
organizations, timber industry and central government; who exercises what rights, who bears
what responsibilities and how would they be held accountable? What linkages, supporting
legislation, financial arrangements and other forms of support are required?
Kotey et al., (1998) noted that forest policy is a product of its time, of prevailing conditions
and of the results of past action. The forest resource changes in quantity and quality;
perceptions of value change; actors change and with those changes, the goods and services
obtained by society will change and the strategies for their attainment will change. There are
many contextual factors which need to be weighed up in thinking about forest policy-making
and implementation. Issues may arise, and activities may be carried out, at local (even
household), national or international levels.
A review by Trevallion (1994) cited in Anderson (Undated), commissioned by the
Government of Ghana, examined how integrated policy had been designed and implemented
within the national development plans. Trevallion (1994) identified the need to integrate
economic, social, environmental and political concerns into development planning and policy.
In a similar vein, Kotey et al., (1998) observed that policy decisions may be influenced by
economic, social, political, environmental and ecological factors. Important contextual factors
involve not only the present and the immediate future, but also the past and the long-term
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future. Ghana‟s current Forest and Wildlife policy has metamorphosed from previous policies
that have been shaped over the years by the same economic, social, political, environmental
and ecological factors indicated earlier. One cannot elaborate on Ghana‟s forestry without
touching on stakeholders. The nation‟s forest policies have really been shaped and built with
active support of stakeholders, who have diverse interests. These interests have both positive
and negative implications. This section of the report focuses on historical development of
Ghana‟s forest policy and stakeholders influence in its formulation and implementation.
Analysis of the findings centered on stakeholders‟ level of involvement and contributions to
the formulation and implementation of the policies
2.2 Historical developments of Ghana’s forest policy and stakeholders influence in its
formulation and implementation.
Ghana‟s history of forest management dates as far back as 1874 when the British Colonial
Office began to develop a universal forest conservation policy to avert a perceived worldwide
threat to the economic base of colonial rule from deforestation (Smith, 1996 cited in Kotey et
al, 1998). In 1909, there was the establishment of the Forestry Department (FD), to spearhead
the reservation effort and regulate the emerging timber industry. Forest reserves were
established between 1920 and 1935. The local people and more importantly chiefs were
viewed as clients by the government. The FD‟s role was thus to provide professional advice to
the forest owners. In part, the forester‟s task was to ensure that the owners benefited from the
forest reservation. In fact, forest management in Ghana started on a note of collaboration
between traditional leaders (representing the local people) and the government (represented by
the FD).
In 1927, Native Authorities Ordinance No. 18 of 1927 (Cap 111) established a system of local
government which revolved around a paramount chief and his traditional council of elders,
referred to as “native authority”. These authorities had the power to constitute forest reserves
under their by-laws. In that same year, Forest Ordinance, 1927 (Cap. 157) vested in central
government the power to constitute reserves on all lands. This ordinance gave the Forestry
Department (FD) the power to compulsorily constitute any selected reserve which was not
constituted by a Native Authority. When it became apparent that the administration of forest
reserves by the Native Authority was poorly done, the ordinance permitted the FD to take
over. Notwithstanding this take over, the ownership of the land in the reserves did not change
since the FD directly administered those reserves on behalf of the owners (Agyenim-Boateng
et al, 2002).
Since this time, there have been two formal government forest policy statements in the
country: one formulated in 1946 and approved by the Governor in Council in 1948; and the
second announced in 1994 as the Forest and Wildlife Policy (Kotey et al, 1998). The call for a
formal forest policy was precipitated by factors such as increased local demands for forest
products, post war national demands for reconstruction in Europe, improved access to the
hinterland, timber exploitation and the relentless expansion of cocoa frontiers.
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2.2.1. The 1948 Forest Policy
The first formal forest policy approved in 1948, usually referred to as the 1948 Forest Policy,
provided conservation and protection of the forest environment, management of the permanent
forest estate and the ultimate liquidation of the off-reserve forest. The 1948 policy had
pronounced effects on the forests and the people. It sought to capture the developing paradigm
in forest management and the accumulated colonial experience in forest management. The
policy has eight clauses. Its main thrust was on maintaining the protective purposes of the
reserves, and the concept of productive potential and value on the basis of a sustained timber
yield was introduced. From there, the preoccupation with developing scientific systems of
management to increase the timber productivity of the forest was, but, a short step (Kotey et
al, 1998).
The main objectives of the 1948 Forest Policy were:
• Conservation and protection of the forest environment i.e. protection of major water
catchment areas, maintenance of a micro-climate for production of major agricultural crops
• Management of the permanent forest estate on a sustained yield basis
• Promotion of research in all aspects of scientific forestry
Emphasis was thus on protection and management of the reserves, with the implicit
expectation that all forest outside the permanent forest reserves would, ultimately, be
converted to agricultural land. CFMU (1999) cited in Agyenim-Boateng et al, (2002)
remarked that emphasis was shifted from protective functions of forests to the promotion of
timber and its values. The elements of collaboration were seemingly neglected in the policy, as
the development of local administration became difficult; even though the forest policy under
clause 4 encouraged the development of native administration forestry and the education of
native authorities and the people to a better understanding of forest functions and value.
After independence, the interest of the state took precedence over the owners of the forests.
Though the customary rights of the people were recognized and elaborated in Management
Plans for the various reserves, little attention was paid to how the people could access those
rights. Several other legislations – such as the Forest Ordinance (1927), Trees and Timber
Ordinance (1950), Concessions Act (1962), Forest Protection Decree (1974) amended by the
Forest Protection (Amendment) Law (1986) – denied local communities and villagers any
meaningful rights within reserves in spite of the fact that the reserves may be subject to
“Admitted rights” and to be managed “for the benefit of the owner or owners”. Local
communities and villagers were therefore generally prevented from engaging in any act within
the reserve without the prior written authority of the Forestry Department. These actions
included the following: felling, uprooting, tapping or injuring any tree or timber; making a
farm or erecting a building; obstructing any river, stream, canal or creek; hunting or shooting
any game or wildlife; fishing, poisoning water or setting traps or snares; or collecting,
processing, conveying or removing any forest produce. The penalty upon conviction of any of
these offences was a fine or imprisonment. Local communities and inhabitants therefore saw
the reserves as usurpation of their rights and benefits, and an expropriation of their land and
forests.
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Since the adoption of the forest policy, the wood industry grew steadily up to the 1970s, but
like other sectors of the economy, it declined drastically until the introduction of the Economic
Recovery Programme in 1983. About that time, the country suffered from the severe effects
of a prolonged drought, followed by devastating wildfires, which forcibly awakened the entire
population to the environmental consequences of deforestation. During the past decade, the
government attempted to stimulate wood processing and exports through a range of initiatives
which, hindered by inadequate institutional capability, yielded varied results
(www.fcghana.com).
The Game and Wildlife conservation also commenced in the early years of the 20th
century,
the Department of Game and Wildlife was formed in 1965. Wildlife reserves and
conservation policy was published in 1974. Rooted in the general culture and traditions of the
country, this policy recognized the economic importance of wildlife resources to the
livelihood of people, the role of protected areas in meeting the demand for bush meat and the
importance of engaging local communities in protected area development. However, certain
shortcomings became evident in particular, the need to obtain the acceptance of local
communities directly affected by conservation measures and to modify the emphasis placed on
preservation of useful animals. Unfortunately, services in the sub-sector also declined along
with the worsened conditions of the national economy.
Over time, there was general dissatisfaction with the 1948 forest policy especially between
1980 and 1990. With increasing demand for forest land for agricultural purposes due to
population pressure, advances in science and technology, growing ecological importance of
the forest in terms of genetic biodiversity and wildlife, institutional changes, and the
increasing need for popular participation in resource management, the underlying justification
for the earlier policy no longer appeared applicable. It became obvious that most of the
provisions in the old policy could not adequately deal with the totality of the emerging issues.
Consequently, the government introduced remedial measures to strengthen forestry sector
institutions and to reform policies.
The need for a revision of the 1948 Forest Policy was heightened by the outcome of studies
made by the World Bank preparatory missions for the Forest Resource Management Project
(FRMP). The mission noted that the policy was inadequate for dealing with the problems of a
dwindling forest resource, inadequate revenue and weak institutions in the closing decades of
the century. Their concerns also led to the revision process being taken out of the hands of the
Forestry Department, initially into a secretariat in the Ministry of Lands and Natural
Resources as it then was, and later to the Forestry Commission.
2.2.2 The Forest and Wildlife Policy, 1994.
In 1994, the second and present formal policy called 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy came
into force. The policy presents specific principles on rights of local access to basic natural
resources, local democracy, participatory management and protection of forest and wildlife
resources. Also notable is a total shift from the 1948 policy‟s expectation of progressive
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utilization without replacement of unreserved forest resources to one of “sustainable
management of unreserved forests” (Kotey, et al, 1998).
Aims of the policy
The Forest and Wildlife Policy of Ghana aims at conservation and sustainable development of
the nation's forest and wildlife resources for maintenance of environmental quality and
perpetual flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society (MLF, 1996).
Policy objectives Specifically, the objectives of the policy are to:
1. manage and enhance Ghana's permanent estate of forest and wildlife resource for
preservation of vital soil and water resources, conservation of biological diversity and the
environment and sustainable production of domestic and commercial produce;
2. promote the development of viable and efficient forest-based industries, particularly in
secondary and tertiary processing, so as to fully utilize timber and other products from
forests and wildlife resources and satisfy domestic and international demand for
competitively-priced quality products;
3. promote public awareness and involvement of rural people in forestry and wildlife
conservation so as to maintain life-sustaining systems, preserve scenic areas, enhance the
potential of recreation, tourism and income-generating opportunities;
4. promote research-based and technology-led forestry and wildlife management, utilization
and development to ensure resource sustainability, socio-economic growth and
environmental stability;
5. develop effective capability at national, regional and district levels for sustainable
management of forest and wildlife resources.
Guiding Principles of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy
The guiding principles for this policy are based on both national convictions and international
guidelines and conventions. From the national standpoint, such principles are embodied in the
Constitution of the Fourth Republic, the Environment policies of the new parliamentary
government, the Environmental Action Plan, as well as agreements emanating from existing
projects, particularly the Forest Resource Management Project and its various studies. Ghana
has also endorsed certain international principles including those contained in the Guidelines
for Tropical Forest Management published by the International Tropical Timber Organization,
the Rio Declaration and Forest Principles, the African Convention on Wildlife Conservation,
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and others.
Factors which guided the Formulation of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy
In enunciation the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy governing the country's forest and wildlife
resources, the Government of Ghana recognized and confirmed the values presented in Box 1.
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Box 1: Factors which guided the Formulation of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife
Policy
1. The rights of people to have access to natural resources for maintaining a basic standard of
living and their concomitant responsibility to ensure the sustainable use of such resources;
2. the forest and wildlife resources as part of an integrated land use policy, because of their
contribution to the economy in maintaining vital ecology and life-sustaining processes and
conserving pools of genetic material for scientific, cultural and educational advancement;
3. The success of sustainable resource management is directly related to continued political
support at the highest levels, as well as provision of strong incentives to encourage responsible
use, e.g. long-term concessions, equitable access, appropriate fees;
4. The need for economic and development incentives to stimulate private enterprise and
encourage respect for regulations, thus offsetting real and perceived costs imposed by loss of
access or restriction on use;
5. The importance of national accounting for the costs of resource depletion and impact on the
environment;
6. The need to incorporate traditional methods of resource management in national strategies
where appropriate;
7. The need for support by appropriate legislation in harmony with laws concerning related sectors
and for policy revision in the light of changing circumstances and updated information;
8. A share of financial benefits from resource utilization should be retained to fund the
maintenance of resource production capacity and the benefit of local communities;
9. Forest and wildlife fees and taxes are considered as incentives to encourage more rational and
less wasteful utilization and should be revised according to market forces, and particularly to
increase production of value-added wood products for export;
10. The timber industry should be transformed from a high volume, low value business to a low
volume, high value trade based on sustainable forest management;
11. The maintenance of economic reforms which recognize the private sector as the engine of
growth;
12. The need to improve the state of the environment;
13. The importance of appropriate and efficient land use and security of land tenure for sustainable
development of forest and wildlife resources;
14. The need to encourage competitive industries based on local raw materials and to pay close
attention to international trade;
15. The need to develop a decentralized participatory democracy by involving local people in
matters concerned with their welfare;
16. The urgent need for addressing unemployment and supporting the role of women in
development.
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2.3 Critique of Stakeholders’ Participation in Forest Policy Formulation and its
Implications
Stakeholders in natural resource management are individuals, groups or organizations that
have a significant interest in a resource or its management (Petheram et al, 2002). Myers and
Bass (2004) consider entities that have certain rights or interests in a system, as a result of
their knowledge and valuable skills in the functioning of such systems as part of the
stakeholder group. Petheram et al (2002) categorized stakeholders into three levels namely:
Primary stakeholders-those that are ultimately affected either positively (beneficiaries)
or negatively.
Secondary stakeholders: those with an intermediary role and who can influence the
outcome.
External stakeholders: people and groups not formally involved, but who may impact
on or be impacted on.
However, in their analyses of forest policies, Myers and Bass (2004) categorized stakeholders
into two namely:
Forest stakeholders – these are individuals or groups with objectives and
legitimate interest in the goods or services of a specific forest environment or
forest resources such as forest fringe communities, forestry officials, timber
companies, environmentalists, politicians, forest workers and national citizens
among others.
Policy stakeholders – these devise policies which profoundly influences forests.
They barely have any real stake in forestry issues; nevertheless they form a
significant sub-set of forest stakeholders.
2.3.1 Stakeholders‟ Participation in the 1948 Forest Policy
The need for a new forest policy in 1994 was an indication that the 1948 policy was not
producing the required results. A major reason that has been constantly cited for the 46 years
of forest policy implementation (with reference to the 1948 forest policy) with no clear
headway to success is the exclusion of local communities in the formulation and
implementation of the policy. Tuffour (1996) observed that the lack of provisions for peoples‟
participation was one of the major defects of the 1948 Forest Policy. Other writers have stated
that policy implementation has not been very successful due to lack of wider participation of,
and commitment from rural communities at the formulation stage (Asare, 2000; Kotey et al.,
1998). Even though the Forestry Department (representing government) occasionally
collaborated with Traditional Heads and Traditional Authorities, the extent of participation
was not satisfactory to the local people, most of whom, depended on the resource for their
livelihood. Local communities were literally relegated to the background in the formulation
and implementation of the policy and the priceless skills and indigenous knowledge they
possessed were not tapped into.
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The result was that the 1948 policy, which had good intentions, was not working. In most
cases, members of fringe communities overly exploited the resources of the off-reserve forests
for sustenance, collaborated with illegal operation of reserved forests and/or withheld their
needed efforts when they were needed most in times of wildfire outbreak and illegal
operations. The policy only became a generalized statement of intent, or as described by
Marfo (2002), a policy of bones without meat.
2.3.2 Stakeholders‟ Participation in the 1994 Forest and Wildlife
In the elocution of a new policy in 1994, the government of Ghana acknowledged the rights of
people to have access to natural resources for maintaining a basic standard of living and the
need to develop a decentralized participatory democracy by involving local people in its
implementation. The global call for the recognition of people‟s rights and the promotion of
participation formed an important influencing pressure of the policy. Tuffour (1996) and
Kotey et al. (1998) have lengthily elaborated the evolution of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife
Policy. Consultative symposium was held leading to the drafting of the first draft of the policy,
which was subsequently distributed to key stakeholders for local and international response
and comments. Final draft of proposals was subjected to another national symposium for
further deliberations. A series of meetings and informal consultations were later held for
additional inputs.
Tuffour (1996) noted that great efforts were made to reach out to diverse interest groups for
their reactions to the initial policy paper and there were wide discussion of draft policy among
traditional chiefs. He added that various interest groups at the grassroots, including Traditional
Chiefs and District Assemblies, participated fully at the national symposia. However, Kotey et
al. (1998) holds a contrary view stating that the traditional rulers ∕ landowners were under-
represented in the second symposium, adding that only one of them attended. However, it is
understood that more than one was invited to the seminar.
The prospects of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy meeting its target are higher because of
the increased stakeholders‟ participation and collaboration as a pivotal aspect of the policy
implementation. Significant inroads are already being made in efforts aimed at institutional
restructuring, research programmes and projects such as wildfire management, etc. An
important motivation for stakeholder commitment has been identified as equitable distribution
of forest benefits to stakeholders including rural communities. In acknowledging the rights of
local people to have access to the resources, the government has set on course the theoretical
framework for a successful policy implementation.
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SECTION THREE: EXISTING POLICIES, LEGISLATION AND STRATEGIC
PLANS ON WETLANDS/MANGROVES AND THEIR IMPACTS
ON MANGROVE CONSERVATION IN GHANA
3.1 Introduction
Ghana‟s forests are found in two main zones - the savannah woodlands in the north, and the
tropical high forest in the south. Tropical high forest zone covers about a third of Ghana‟s land
area. The Forestry Development Master Plan (FDMP), prepared to give a sound basis for the
attainment of the aims of the Forest and Wildlife Policy and its successful implementation
does not exclusively cater for mangroves as it does to other plant resources. The FDMP makes
provisions for timber species, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and plants that serve the
wood energy needs of the country; found in the 266 forest reserves and off-reserve areas in the
high forest zone. Hall and Swaine (1981) describe seven (7) main forest types making up the
high forest zone found in southern Ghana. Surely, mangroves and other coastal plants are not
included in the over 2,100 plant species found in the high forest zone; 23 of which are
endemic (Hall and Swaine, 1981).
Three ratings – Scarlet, Red and Pink – are made for species based on their depletion levels in
the FDMP. In spite of the ever-depletion population trends of mangroves that have been
identified by some studies, mangroves are not included in any of the three (3) ratings for the
depletion levels of the 64 timber species provided in the Forestry Development Master Plan.
One characteristic of the rated timber species is their economic value (MLF, 1996).
Some coastal wetlands included in Ghana‟s wildlife estate appears to be limited only to the
five (5) Ramsar sites – now six (6) according to MLFM (2007) – that we have in the country.
This precludes all wetlands and their resources not yet established as Ramsar sites, including
mangroves. In effect, the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy does not make provisions for the
needs of mangroves; any apparent provision can only be inferred from statements. This section
focuses on a review of state-driven and other restoration initiatives in terms of policies,
legislations and plans towards mangrove management in Ghana.
3.2 Initiatives toward Wetlands and Mangrove Management
In Ghana, the degradation of the coastal environment is linked to the persistence of poverty
and the pervasiveness of income disparities in much of the coastal zone. This has stimulated
increased non-sustainable practices for local resources such as mangroves and wetlands
(World Bank, 1998). The cost of such coastal environmental degradation (including all types)
is estimated at US $54 billion (MES, 2002). The degradation of the coastal environment is
very pronounced and easily catches the attention of government agencies, traditional
authorities and environmental NGOs consequently some modest attempts at restoration and
sustainable management of this environment have been made.
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The initiatives towards wetlands and mangrove management can be grouped into two broad
categories namely: state-led initiatives and other restoration initiatives.
3.2.1 State-led Initiatives
Since Ghana‟s ratification of the Ramsar Convention in 1988, there have been some attempts
to manage wetlands in general and restore mangroves in areas where they have been degraded
at Ramsar sites. The Government of Ghana now recognizes the importance of mangroves, and
other wetland resources as habitat for fishes and wildlife, the maintenance of the water table,
mitigation of flood conditions and water purification; and the socio-economic roles they play
in providing poles for construction, fuel-wood, timber for furniture and craft work (MLFM,
2007).
There have been some strategies to ensure the judicious use of the nation‟s land and all its
natural resources, including mangroves. In June 1999, the then Ministry of Lands and Forestry
launched the National Land Policy which recognizes wetlands as environmental conservation
areas and precludes the following practices:
physical draining of wetland water;
draining of streams and water courses feeding the wetlands;
human settlements and their related infrastructural developments in wetlands;
disposal of solid waste and effluents in wetlands;
mining in wetlands
The policy also seeks to promote the use of wetlands for farming, grazing, fishing, timber
production and salt-winning, provided that such uses also serve to conserve the ecosystem,
biodiversity and sustainable productivity of the wetlands.
The Government of Ghana, through the implementation of the Global Environment Facility
funded the Coastal Wetlands Management Project from 1993 to 1999; carried out public
education and awareness-creation programmes to enlighten the general public on the values,
benefits and functions of wetlands and the need for their conservation and sustainable use. To
integrate wetlands issues into national land-use planning and decision-making, the then
Ministry of Lands and Forestry, in consultation with key stakeholders, prepared a document –
Managing Ghana’s Wetlands: A National Wetlands Conservation Strategy in 1999 to promote
participation of the local communities and other stakeholders in the sound management and
sustainable utilization of Ghana‟s wetlands and their resources.
The strategy was developed to provide opportunity for a more detailed expression of relevant
actions for effective implementation. Six years on (1999-2006), the strategy has been revised,
in the light of new and emerging challenges, new government policy directions, lessons learnt
and experiences gained over the period (MLFM, 2007).
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3.2.2 Other Mangrove Restoration Initiatives
1. Between 1993 and 1999, the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission implemented
an ecological restoration programme in the Songor Ramsar Site. In the Songor Ramsar
site, there was a threat to mangroves emanating from the alternative uses to which
mangroves were put and conversion of mangrove areas to other land uses, such as rice and
sugarcane farming. The project sought to restore degraded mangrove areas in collaboration
with landowners and the entire communities of Obane and Kwalakpoyom, all in the
Dangbe-East district of Greater Accra Region. The initiative was successful and the once
degraded areas were restored to a natural ecosystem, capable of supporting other life
forms. Communities have left the restored mangroves intact, without unduly exploiting
them. The success can be attributed to the support landowners gave in releasing land for
the restoration and the collaborative roles played by the communities (Agyemang, Pers.
Comm. 2007).
2. This initiative was replicated at Tekpekope community in the same area, with funding
from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) between 2000 and 2001
with similar success.
3. Between 2003 and 2005, with funding from Global Environment Facility, attempts were
made at restoring degraded mangroves in four (4) communities, viz; Agbevue, Mutukunya,
Agbeve and Alikakekope, all in the Dangbe-East. The project acquired mangrove seeds
and other materials such as Wellington boots and knifes for communities to replant. The
project also provided alternative livelihood schemes to farmers whose activities were
massively degrading mangrove resources. These opted for other livelihood options such as
basketry and bee-keeping. Another success story was developing the areas into ecotourism
sites. It was observed that intact mangrove stands were habitats of some monkey species;
thus, the area was protected and developed into ecotourism in collaboration with the
communities.
4. Two others were earlier initiated with support from the Ramsar Small Grants. One was a
project dubbed „Rehabilitation and Community Management of Mangroves and Coastal
Wetlands in the Lower Volta Delta‟ implemented in 1996-1998 by Green Earth
Organization (GEO) in collaboration with eight communities in the Lower Volta Delta
area. The aim of the project was to support the rehabilitation and community management
of mangroves and coastal wetlands in the Lower Volta Delta (Ramsar site). Degraded
coastal wetlands were restored and managed by planting mangroves, fruit trees and
woodlots, and the local communities were involved in the protection and wise use of these
resources for the conservation of biodiversity and provision forest products.
5. Another project was dubbed „The Regeneration, Sustainable Use and Management of
Mangrove in the Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar Site‟ implemented in 1995. The project
was also based in a Ramsar site which has become degraded due to mangrove over-
harvesting, with subsequent negative impacts on fishing resources and turtles‟ breeding
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grounds. There were two main components: awareness creation and capacity building
among local communities to enable mangrove restoration and sustainable use, and creation
of alternative income-generating activities. Mangrove plantations and woodlots were also
established and alternative livelihoods such as the rearing of goat, crab, fish and
grasscutter were introduced.
In addressing coastal degradation, interventions have been identified for five priority areas1
including wetlands and mangrove degradation. These interventions according to MLF (2007)
include; direct investments; economic or regulatory incentives; initiatives for increasing
knowledge and awareness of decision-makers or resource users, with a view to improving the
management of coastal resources; and institutional or policy reforms to correct existing
distortions or market failures that exacerbate environmental problems. Tables 1 and 2 below
show intervention category and projects on wetland and mangrove resources in the country.
This indicates government and other stakeholders‟ commitment to dealing with the
degradation of wetlands and mangrove resources in the country
Table 1 Interventions for wetland and mangrove resource degradation
Intervention Category Wetland and Mangrove Area
Direct Investment Mangrove Planting and sensitivity mapping, protected
area acquisition (H)
Incentives Regulatory reforms, biodiversity strategy, watershed
management Plans
Education Initiatives Awareness and curriculum development
Institutional Reforms Biodiversity research, NGO support for monitoring and
traditional regulations
Source: MLF, 2007
Table 2: Wetland related Projects and Management Plans in Ghana
Related Projects and Activities Plans/Management Plans
1. Protected Wetlands Ecosystems
2. Public education on sound coastal and
marine environmental practices
3. Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem
4. Ghana Environmental Resource
1. National Wetlands Conservation Strategy and
Action Plan
2. Coastal Zone Management Indicative Plan
3. National Action Plan
4. Draft Integrated Coastal Zone Plan
1 The five priority areas are; Domestic sanitation, fisheries degradation, wetland and mangrove degradation,
industrial water pollution and erosion (World Bank, 1998).
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Management Projects in Coastal Wetlands
Management
5. Lower Volta Project, Ghana Coastal
Wetlands Management Project
6. Amansuri Conservation and Integrated
Development Project
7. Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM) initiative
8. Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Strategy for Ghana
9. Development of university course on
coastal zone management
10. Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem
11. The Korle Lagoon rehabilitation project
12. Chemu lagoon restoration project
5. Environmental Action Plan
6. Forestry Development Master Plan
Source: MLF, 1996
In the context of degradation of wetlands and associated vegetation and the recognition of
their importance, the government has drafted Ghana‟s Wetlands Conservation Strategy. The
purpose of this policy is to mainstream wetlands management, within the context of
environmental policies and management, into the day-to-day activities of Government,
organizations, traditional authorities, communities and individuals in accordance with the
guiding principles of Integrated Water Resources Management.
3.3 Relevant Agencies (Players) for Coastal Conservation and Management
There are governmental and non-governmental institutions identifiable with wetlands and
coastal environment protection and management. They play different roles in terms of
conservation and management of the coastal environment. Table 3 shows the different
agencies involved in the protection and management of coastal areas.
Table 3: Agencies Supporting Protection of Coastal Ecosystems
Governmental Institutions Non-governmental Institutions
1. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
2. Ministry of Environment, Science and
Technology,
1. Green Earth
2. Wildlife Society
3. Friends of the Earth
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3. Ministry of Tourism and Diaspora Relations
4. Ministry of Ports and Harbours
5. District Assemblies
6. Ministry of Food and Agriculture
7. Hydrological Services Department
8. Ghana Tourist Board
9. Water Commission
10. Wildlife Division of Forestry Commission
11. Fisheries Commission
12. Ministry of Lands and Forestry
13. Ministry of Local Government and Rural
Dev.
14. Ministry of Energy
15. Universities and Research Institutions etc..
3. Resource and Environmental
Development Organization
````(REDO)
5. Recerca e Cooperazione
6. Centre for African Wetlands
7. Traditional Authorities
Source: Amlalo, 2007
Generally, the responsibilities of these institutions have been in the form of protection,
rehabilitation, education and development of policies as well as enforcement of regulations
and laws. They also form the major stakeholders in the mangrove resources management and
protection arena.
3.4 Existing Policies and Legislations on Wetlands
Ghana has ratified many conventions and these have inspired the development of relevant
policies and legislations in the context of sustainable development. It is acknowledged that,
these national policies and legislation that affect wetlands and their usage are failing to address
adequately the problem of wetlands in their entirety; however, they provide a starting point for
the formulation of appropriate laws (MLF, 2007). Table 4 shows policies and legislations
affecting wetlands and impacting specifically on mangrove resources in the country.
Table 4 Wetland-related Policies and Legislations in Ghana
Policies Legislations (/regulations)
1. National Environment Policy
2. National Wetland Policy
3. Tourism Development Policy
4. Wildlife Conservation Policy
5. 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy
6. National Wetlands Conservation
Strategy and Action Plan
7. The National Land Policy (1999),
8. The Ghana Water Policy (draft, 2002)
1. Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) Regulation,
(1999)
2. Wild Animals Preservation Act 1964 (Act 235)
3. Fisheries Act 2002, Act 625
4. Fisheries Law, 1991 (PNDC 256)
5. EPA Act, 1994 (Act 490)
6. Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462)
7. Wildlife Conservation Regulations 1971(LI740)
8. Beaches Obstruction Ordinance Cap 240 (1897),
9. The Town and Country Planning Ordinance CAP
84 (1945),
10. The Volta River Development Act 46 (1961),
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11. The Fisheries Decree (1972),
12.The Decentralisation Policy and Local
Government Act 462 (1993)
13. The National Environment Policy (1994)
14. The Water Resources Commission Act, 522
(1996),
15. Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999 L.I
(1652)
Source: MLF, 1996
The main orientation of the policies, legislations and projects is towards the protection,
rehabilitation, education and awareness creation, management and development of the
wetlands and coastal environments, which include mangrove resources.
3.5 Critique of existing policies, legislations and management plans on wetlands
A review of the relevant policies and legislations of the country indicates the major strategies
that have been targeted to achieve sustainable development of the coastal environmental
resources are biodiversity conservation, rehabilitation, education and public participation. The
review also identifies legislation weaknesses and non-enforcement of rules and regulations
associated with institutional weaknesses as major factors leading to environmental degradation
and depletion of natural resources.
3.5.1 Conservation and Sustainable Development of Mangrove Resources
The 1994 Forest and Wild Policy emphasizes the conservation and sustainable development of
natural resources in the country for the maintenance of environmental quality and perpetual
flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society‟ (MLF, 1994). This emphasis recognizes
the ecological and economic importance of the natural resources. It is estimated that the cost
of environmental degradation to the country is US $54 billion (MES, 2002).
The 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy and the National Biodiversity Strategy make provisions
for sustainable management of unreserved forests, rehabilitation, and protection through
enforcement of regulations. These have stimulated many relevant projects and activities (see
Table 2 above). Generally the environmental and natural resource policies have had some
positive impacts on mangroves in the country as indicated by the various attempts made
through a number of development projects for saving the mangroves. For example, the Korle
Lagoon rehabilitation project and the proposed Chemu lagoon restoration project (MLF,
1999).
There is also the Forest Plantations Development Fund which aims at developing alternative
sources of fuel-wood to reduce pressure on the natural forests. This has potentially good
implications for the improvement of the mangrove ecosystems in the country as financial
support for rehabilitation can be readily available.
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The policies also reiterate exploring the potential of the natural environment for tourism
(MLF, 1994). This has long-term conservation implications as tourism provides alternative
source of economic gains for the communities whose livelihoods depends on the mangroves,
reducing unsustainable practices and threats to the mangrove ecosystems.
The legislations could have positive impacts on mangrove conservation in terms of the many
prohibitions, sanctions and deterring implications associated with them. The general problem
has always been with the enforcement and weaknesses of the agencies responsible (MLF,
2007).
3.5.2 Local Community Conservation, Education and Public Participation
The policies promote strategies for including unreserved forests under sustainable forest
management regimes and encourage local community initiatives in protecting resources for
traditional purposes. They support the reservation of such lands to enable their legal
protection, management and sustainable development. The policies also promote public
awareness and local people‟s participation in resource conservation so as to maintain them as
life-sustaining systems (MLF, 1994, MLF, 1996 and MES, 2002).
These provisions have enhanced conservation of mangrove resources. Typically, Wildlife
Division has been instrumental in ensuring conservation of mangroves. A typical reference is
the Lower Volta Mangrove Project executed between 1996 and 1998. Also, under the
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project, wetland and mangrove degradation were
identified as one of the problems in the coastal areas of Ghana (World Bank, 1998).
Consequentially, the intervention identified for this problem included initiative to increase
knowledge and awareness among policymakers and resource users to improve mangrove
management. The government is committed to using different means of communication to
educate the public and to raise awareness on the importance of wetlands, and to solicit
commitment for the conservation and wise use of these ecosystems, which the mangroves
form an integral part (MES, 2002).
The interventions also call for NGO support in the monitoring of these resources. Green Earth,
Friends of the Earth, Ghana Wildlife Society, Resource and Environmental Development
Organization (REDO)2, Recerca e Cooperazione and Centre for African Wetlands have been
instrumental in organizing and assisting various local coastal communities to conserve
mangroves. Many of these mangrove ecosystems have been rehabilitated and protected in
consultation with the communities to preserve cultural, ecological and economic uses. For
example, under the Coastal Wetlands Management Project, the Wildlife Division collaborated
with Green Earth Organization and local communities to carry out rehabilitation activities in
the Ramsar Sites including replanting of degraded mangrove areas within the Songor Ramsar
Site. Ricerca e Cooperazione has also been involved in wetlands rehabilitation in the Western
Region of Ghana (MLF, 1999).
2 REDO with the financial assistance of IUCN-The Netherlands Committee, assisted the people of Winneba to
conserve their mangrove ecosystem. Also, Green Earth assisted people of ADA area.
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3.5.3 Weaknesses of the Legislations and Implementing Agencies
There are many legislations and institutions relevant to the protection and management of the
marine or coastal environment and resources. However, none is specific on mangrove
resources, making them weak in terms of the protection of mangroves. The weakness may also
arise from their conflicting, obsolete, deficient and non-enforceable nature (MSE, 1996).
However, the existence of these various formal institutions are starting points for curbing
overexploitation of mangroves and ensuring sustainable management. There are also informal
institutions which affect mangrove conservation however many of them are weak because of
strong market and economic forces and other religious belief systems different from the
traditional ones. Moreover, there are many agencies (see Table 3), responsible for the
enforcement of these legislations. However, the enforcement has not been effective as
indicated by the annual deforestation of 22,000 ha and many cases of river and water pollution
and poor sanitation. These have also affected the mangrove ecosystems which form part of the
degraded coastal resources in the country. Other constraints to the effectiveness of these
agencies are low capacities and capabilities as well as lack of coordination, collaboration and
networking between the policy-making and implementing agencies (MSE, 2002).
The lack policy on mangroves has to an extent resulted in limited attention and protection of
mangroves in the country, as a result of which mangrove resources in the country are being
exploited indiscriminately.
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SECTION FOUR: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LACK OF APPROPRIATE
NATIONAL POLICY ON MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS
4.1 Introduction
In countries such as Brazil and Indonesia where there are policies on mangrove management,
conservation and utilization, similar economic, social, political, environmental and ecological
factors; influence the formulation of those policies.
Taking Indonesia for example, it is reasoned that the current existing policy on mangroves has
been driven mainly by economic, social, environmental and ecological factors. Soegiarto
(2000) reports that mangrove ecosystem in Indonesia originally covering an area of 4.25
million hectares has now reduced to only about 2.5 million hectares. Factors accounting for
this include human pressure on mangrove resources. Soegiarto (2000) explained that for
centuries the Indonesian people have utilized mangroves for firewood, charcoal, tannin dyes,
timbers, construction of boat, etc. These traditional uses of mangrove resources go hand in
hand with larger scale exploitation using higher capital investment and technologies, such as
charcoal production, paper-mills and chipboards. In recent years, efforts in converting
mangrove land into other uses, such as fish-or shrimp-ponds, industrial and human settlement
sites, are ever increasing in many areas. This phenomenon has a detrimental effect on the rich
biological diversity of the Indonesian mangroves containing 189 species of plant species,
including 80 species of trees, 24 species of lianas, 41 species of ground covering plants, 41
species of epiphytes and 3 species of parasites; not to mention the habitat service mangrove
ecosystems provide for fishes, birds, insects, mammals, reptiles, molluscs, and crustaceans.
Continuous degradation of the mangrove resources will deprive the nation of many other
mangrove functions such as coastal stabilization and erosion prevention, and the foreign
exchange mangroves yield for the country when products are exported.
The Indonesian Government‟s intervention by way of developing mangrove policy is in order
to retain all the benefits currently accruing from the mangrove ecosystem. Strategies mooted
for managing mangroves include the establishment of coastal greenbelt, mangrove
conservation areas, national parks, reforestation programmes as well as integrated research. In
many other countries, such considerations influence mangrove policy formulation and
implementation.
Reasons for lack of a specific policy on sustainable management of mangrove forests in Ghana
may be one or more of the factors integrated into the following points:
4.2 Extent of Mangrove Cover and its Perceived Low Value
Mangrove coverage in Ghana is estimated at only 10,000 hectares (FAO, 1995) along the
coastal zone. This pales in comparison with other natural resources in the country such as the
high forest and wildlife estates. In 1992, IUCN estimated that there was about 15,000 km2, of
“intact closed forest” remaining in Ghana, covering about 7% of the country‟s land area (total
230,020 km2) (IUCN, 1992). The forest resources of Ghana are divided into two broad
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ecological zones; the moist tropical high forests of southern Ghana and the savannah
woodlands of northern Ghana. The high forest zone alone covers about seven main forest
types found in southern Ghana. About 20-25 per cent of land in the “high forest zone” is under
reservation. The area permanently protected is 1.77 million hectares, of which 1.634 million
hectares is under the management and control of the Forestry Department, and 136,000
hectares under the Wildlife Department (Kotey et al., 1998).
Over 2,100 plant species have been found in the high forest zone, 23 of them endemic (Hall
and Swaine, 1981). In total 730 tree species have been recorded from the closed forests
(Hawthorne, 1989). The fauna of the forest zone includes over 200 species of mammals, many
of which are rare or endangered, including the bongo, (Tragelaphus euryceros), Ogilby‟s
duiker (Cephalophus ogilbyi), Golden cat (Felis aurata), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), forest
elephant (Loxodonta Africana) cyclotis and the pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis)
(Mensah - Ntiamoa, 1989 cited in Kotey et al., 1998). The high forest zone also supports 74
species of bats, 37 species of rodents, variety of reptiles and over 200 species of birds (IUCN,
1992).
A lot of Ghana‟s foreign exchange emanates from these forest and wildlife resources. There
are many other socio-economic, ecological and environmental functions that these resources
play. Therefore, Government has been very proactive in formulating and implementing
various policies concerning the utilization, conservation and management of these resources as
an earlier section on history of Ghana‟s forest policies shows. Research toward sustaining
these resources has equally been very extensive. Three major institutions, the Forest Services
Division, Wildlife Division and the Timber Industry Development Divisions, have been
established to manage Ghana‟s forest and wildlife resources.
Similar arrangements exist for the management of other natural resources such as water,
managed by the Water Resources Commission and having a national policy regulating its use.
Nevertheless, mangroves in Ghana have not benefited from such policies and rigorous
attention and importance due to their perceived relatively low value, emanating partly from the
extent of their coverage.
4.3 Conventional View of Mangroves
In many coastal areas of Ghana, mangroves and wetlands in general are virtually considered as
waste lands or areas that only serve for breeding mosquitoes. As such, wetlands are often
dredged to facilitate drainage of the water, reclaimed for other uses, or simply considered as
dumping grounds for all types of refuse. Wetland resources, such as fish, reeds, mangroves
and thatch materials have been harvested without any attempt to regulate their exploitation.
Traditional rulers seem to show interest in mangroves and other wetland resources only when
they are known to be of some cultural significance such as sacred groves. Other existing
authorities such as the District Assemblies have not had a different view of mangroves other
than what is conventionally held. This view has apparently influenced the attitude of state
agencies towards mangrove forests.
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SECTION FIVE: POLICY STRATEGIES TO PROTECT MANGROVE FOREST
RIGHTS AND PREVENTION OF ABUSE OF TRADITIONAL
AND INSTITUTIONAL PROCEDURES WHICH MAKE
MANGROVES AN OPEN ACCESS.
5.1 Introduction
The diverse uses and benefits of mangroves and the high contribution they make to the
sustenance of local communities necessitate the need to devise policy strategies to protect
them. The use of the resource should be consistent with the global demand for resource
conservation for future generations and at the same time provide optimum benefits to all
segments of society. It is also important to maintain the ability of the resource to continually
provide the priceless ecological benefits it provides especially because the resource is
normally seen as a common property.
The World Bank (2005) has presented the reasons and the need for wetlands management and
not specifically for mangroves. Nevertheless, since mangroves are treated as wetland
resources, the issues are applicable here too. The needs shall be presented in three (3) sections
of institutional, scientific information and community involvement, none outweighing the
other in terms of importance.
5.2 Institutional Needs
Wetlands (also mangroves) conservation is a cross-sector activity that involves several
government departments and various stakeholders. These institutions independently plan and
execute their wetlands programs at various locations in the country. No effective coordination
amongst the various bodies or institutions currently exists. Over the years, the protection and
conservation of wetland resources has involved a number of activities including data
collection, monitoring, standard setting and execution of projects and programmes by some
government and non- governmental organizations and institutions.
Generally, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) coordinates the activities of all bodies
concerned with environmental matters and serves as a channel of communication with the
government. The Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission (WD) is the national
administrative authority for wetlands conservation programmes and manages the six coastal
Ramsar sites in collaboration with local communities. The District Assemblies (DAs) hold
administrative power at the local level and are responsible for mobilizing communities for
development projects including environmental conservation. In addition, the Ghana Wildlife
Society (GWS), the Centre for African Wetlands (CAW) and the National Wetlands
Committee (NWC) are also involved in wetlands research and conservation. The coordination
of these institutions is fundamental to effective wetlands conservation in Ghana. However, in
practice, coordination has been difficult, and has often been unable to enforce or integrate
legal provisions for wetlands protection into development decisions at the local level.
Currently, several sector policies encourage both exploitation and conservation of wetlands,
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depending on the stakeholder involved: This is largely because no single overarching national
policy on wetland conservation takes into account all wetlands users, which would help to
coordinate and realign the many parties involved.
In order to implement the wetland management policies, the government must provide the
requisite programme funding. As envisaged in the National Wetlands Conservation Strategy, it
is recommended that a National Wetlands Trust is established to finance these operations-the
Wildlife Division needs boats and vehicles for its patrol officers, mangroves need to be
replanted along the lagoons, fishing gear compensation will be needed. Without an adequate
funding-source, these policies will not move forward (World Bank, 2005).
5.3 Scientific Information
To effectively manage and regulate wetlands in Ghana, the Wildlife Division of the Forestry
Commission and the District Assemblies need accurate data on the coastal wetlands. Without a
reliable information source, proper analysis cannot be conducted and the effects of various
policies will remain ambiguous. Thus, the Division needs to develop a wetland database that
includes inventories of identified wetland sites, their locations and boundaries, biodiversity
characteristics and socio-economic conditions. In addition, relevant education materials need
to be designed and produced for use by the formal and informal sectors, taking note of the
needs of illiterate local communities and other wetland users. Provision for regular
information on values, status and threats to wetland resources will foster effective education
and public awareness. The databases could be obtained, managed and disseminated using
Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery (RSSI), Global Positioning System (GPS) and
Geographical Information System (GIS). The public awareness and education should be
handled by NGOs, the Ministries of Education, Communication, Environment and Science,
Mines, Lands and Forestry, Local Government and Rural Development as well as the Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Universities, in collaboration with local
communities.
Once reliable data has been obtained, the criteria for determining the importance of wetland
resources can be accurately assessed based on the value of their biological diversity, the direct
benefits to local residents, indirect benefits to local residents which are of national and
international interests, direct benefits to the rural poor and their importance to cultural
heritage. A well established national wetland inventory should be in place to cater for the
needs of the identified local, national and international stakeholders. The existing database on
wetlands inventory (the size, location, flora, fauna, utilization and threats) needs to be
continuously updated. This could be done by the Forestry Commission, the District
Assemblies, and scientists from the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and the
Universities, with the collaboration of local communities. It is recommended that all the sites
in Ghana which qualify, according to this data, as internationally important wetlands, become
established as RAMSAR sites.
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5.4 Community Involvement
In tandem with national regulations, local communities should undertake alternative economic
activities and policies to reduce exploitative pressures on the wetlands. Such activities include
beekeeping, aquaculture, poultry, carpentry, masonry, and other vocational skills. It is
recommended that communities, and especially youth, be empowered to pursue these
alternative economic activities by providing technical assistance and vocational training,
compensation for starting new activities and provision of funds to purchase equipment, feed
and seed. The Fisheries and Forestry Commissions, Ministry of Local Government through
the' District Assemblies, the private sector and commercial banks should liaise with local
communities to make these alternative livelihoods strategies viable. The Ministry of Fisheries,
Ministry of Women and Children Affairs and the Ministry of Local Government (through the
District Assemblies) should also work together to establish polices and programmes that
would enable women to participate and contribute to the sustainable management of wetlands.
Because most wetlands, including RAMSAR sites, have not been formally acquired by the
government, land ownership and allocation rights continue to cause disputes. These wetlands,
which are controlled by traditional authorities in most local communities, have been
increasingly encroached upon, particularly near urban centers. In accordance with the current
government decentralization policy, the coastal District Assemblies should enact by-laws that
would provide the necessary legal support for traditional authorities to effectively manage
these resources.
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SECTION SIX: COMMUNITY LEVEL STRATEGIES FOR EQUITY IN
MANGROVE MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION
6.1 Introduction
In order to maintain the integrity of the mangrove ecosystem and preserve it for sustained
benefits to current and future generations, management and utilization strategies of the
mangrove were dispassionately discussed during the field visits to the study communities. The
importance of conservation in natural resource management cannot be overemphasized, and
generally consensus on the need to conserve the mangrove resources was unilateral. This was
against the backdrop that a significant proportion of the working force in all the communities
depended on the mangrove for subsistence and or livelihood.
Data on local people‟s involvement in the planning and formulation of relevant policies and
strategies for effective management of mangroves were gathered in all the study communities
during the focus group discussions and community durbars. This information was synthesized
together and presented to the community representatives during the pre-validation for a
consensus to be taken on the involvement of each stakeholder for the successful management
of the mangrove resources.
The approach adopted during the discussions was centered on the 4W and 1H formula which
exploits the importance, level, time, participants and method of undertaking each conservation
strategy. The questions: why, where, when, who and how were asked in formulating suitable
conservation strategies in a participatory manner as depicted in Figure 1. The discussions
produced significant strategies among the communities from the two study districts.
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Conservation strategy: Action plan on formulation of rules and regulation to govern
mangrove management
WHY
Protect existing mangroves
Control indiscriminate cutting
Future benefit WHERE
- National level
-District Assembly level
- Community level (chief)
WHAT
To formulate rules and
regulations on mangrove management
WHEN - Immediate
- After awareness creation on the
importance of mangroves
HOW
Stakeholder consultation
Public lectures to seek opinions WHO
-District Assembly
- Chief and elders
- Ghana Wildlife Society
-Unit Committee & Assembly
-NGOs,
-government research institutions
Fig 1: An example of mangrove action plan developed using simple questions by the communities
representative during a pre-validation workshop in Nzema East District. [Source: Field survey-2007]
3
2
1
6
5
4
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Table 5: Nzema East District: Conservation Strategies using Simple questions (4W &H)
What Why Where When Who How To Establish
livelihood
enterprises
Lessen the
pressure on
the mangrove
Provide work
especially for
the youth.
To reduce
rural –urban
drift
To reduce
poverty
For people living at the
fringes of the
Amansure River
(mangrove fringe
communities)
Near future when there is
external support from the
government or any donor
agency
NGOs /Donors
Government
/District
Assembly
Community
support in kind
There should be
livelihood needs
assessment
Formation of
livelihood groups
To Create
awareness
and
education
Currently
inadequate
information on
the importance
of mangrove
Sensitize
community
members to
ensure
effective
management.
At the community level Immediate after
the workshop
Community
members who
participated in
the pre-
validation
workshop and
training
Community
durbar
Education
through the
Local radio
stations within
the community
To
formulate
rules and
regulation to
govern
mangrove
management
Protect existing
mangroves
Control
indiscriminate
cutting
Future benefit
National level
District
Assembly level
Community
level (chief
palace
Immediate
After
awareness
creation on the
importance of
mangroves
District Assembly
Chief and elders
Ghana Wildlife
Society
Unit Committee&
Assembly
NGOs
government
research institutions
Stakeholder
consultation
Public lectures to
seek opinions
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Table 6: Mfantseman District: Conservation strategies using Simple questions (4W &H) WHAT WHY WHERE WHEN WHO HOW
TO CREATE
AWARENESS AND
EDUCATE ON THE
IMPORTANCE AND
BENEFITS OF
MANGROVES
-PROTECT THE
REMAINING
MANGROVE
RESOURCES
-INVOLVE THE
PEOPLE IN THE
MANAGEMENT AND
CONSERVATION
-TRANSFER
KNOWLEDGE OF
MANGROVE
BENEFITS
-COMMUNITY
LEVEL (CHIEF
PALACE)
-DISTRICT
ASSEMBLY LEVEL
-NATIONAL LEVEL
-AFTER EFFECTIVE
COLLABORATION
WITH RELEVANT
STAKEHOLDERS
-DURING THE DRY
SEASON
AFTER TRAINING
THE TREE
GROWERS.
-COMMUNITY
MEMBERS -UNIT
COMMITTEE&
ASSEMBLYMAN
-TRADITIONAL
AUTHORITY
-YOUTH GROUPS
- FSD
-NCCE
- NGOS
-STAKEHOLDER
CONSULTATION
-PUBLIC LECTURES
TO SEEK OPINIONS
-FOCUS GROUP
MEETINGS
TO PLANT AND
MANAGE TREES FOR
WOODLOTS AND
OTHER MANGROVE
RESOURCES
TO PROTECT THE
LAND FROM
SAND/SALT WINING
AND THE SEA
INFLUX.
TO ENSURE
CONTINUOUS FLOW
OF BENEFITS TO
USERS.
TO PROTECT THE
WATER BODIES
FROM DRYING UP.
TO REPLENISH LOST
MANGROVE
RESOURCES (AND
INCREASE
BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY).
COMMUNITY LEVEL
DISTRICT LEVEL
NATIONAL LEVEL
IMMEDIATELY
(AFTER THE PRE-
VALIDATION
MEETING)
AFTER
CONSULTATION
WITH CHIEFS AND
ELDERS, AS WELL AS
OTHER
STAKEHOLDERS.
LOCAL
GOVERNMENT
AGENCIES
(DISTRICT
ASSEMBLY AND
UNIT COMMITTEES)
RELIGIOUS GROUPS
NGOS (E.G. PLAN
GHANA LTD,
WORLD VISION)
FOREST SERVICES
DIVISION
ACQUIRE PLANTING
MATERIALS FROM
THE APPROPRIATE
SOURCES (FSD) FOR
PLANTING
THROUGH
COMMUNAL LABOUR
EMPLOY FEW
PROFESSIONAL
PEOPLE TO PLANT
PERIODIC WEED
CONTROL BY
RESPONSIBLE
STAKEHOLDERS
ESTABLISH
COMMITTEES TO
MONITOR GROWTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
OF MANGROVE.
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TO ESTABLISH
LIVELIHOOD
ENTERPRISES
LESSEN THE
PRESSURE ON THE
MANGROVE
PROVIDE WORK
ESPECIALLY FOR
THE YOUTH.
TO REDUCE RURAL –
URBAN DRIFT
TO REDUCE
POVERTY
FOR PEOPLE LIVING
AT THE FRINGES OF
THE AMA EMISSA
RIVER (MANGROVE
FRINGE
COMMUNITIES)
NEAR FUTURE WHEN
THERE IS EXTERNAL
SUPPORT FROM THE
GOVERNMENT OR
ANY DONOR AGENCY
NGOS /DONORS
GOVERNMENT
/DISTRICT
ASSEMBLY
COMMUNITY
SUPPORT IN KIND
THERE SHOULD BE
LIVELIHOOD NEEDS
ASSESSMENT
FORMATION OF
LIVELIHOOD GROUP
TO FORMULATE
AND ENFORCE BYE-
LAWS TO GOVERN
THE MANGROVE
ECOSYSTEM
-VERY IMPORTANT
TO SUPPORT ANY
ACTIVITIES BEING IT
EDUCATIONAL,
PLANTING OR
LIVELIHOOD
VENTURES
COMMUNITY LEVEL AFTER
CONSULTATION
WITH CHIEFS AND
ELDERS, AS WELL AS
OTHER
STAKEHOLDERS.
- MEMBERS WHO
PARTICIPATED IN
THE PRE-
VALIDATION
WORKSHOP AND
FOCUS GROUP
DISCUSSIONS,.
-MEETING WITH THE
CHIEF AND ELDERS
AS WELL AS
OPINION LEADERS
Sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove ecosystems project in Ghana
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SECTION 7: KEY FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
The study reviewed literature on effective policy formulation and implementation for
sustainable management and utilization of mangroves in Ghana. Furthermore, focus group
discussions and pre-validation workshops were held with the communities in the two study
districts namely Nzema East and Mfantseman Districts of Ghana. The purpose of this section
is to provide a summary of the major findings of the study, recommendations as well as
conclusion of the study.
7.1 Key Findings
The major findings of the study are as follows:
A critical review of Ghana‟s Forest policies shows that stakeholders have been
involved in the formulation and implementation of the policies with the level of
stakeholders‟ participation in the processes leading to the 1994 Forest and Wildlife
Policy being an improvement over that of 1948. Implementation strategies spelt out in
the 1994 Forest and Wildlife is more of a participatory management and collaboration
rather that a solitary attempt by any one government institution. This confirms the
statement by Marfo (2002) that the efforts being made to harness stakeholder
collaboration to pursue forest policies is a positive development in the context of
modern development thinking and consistent with the spirit of global forest policy
dialogue initiatives.
There are many players who generally have responsibilities in the form of protection,
rehabilitation, education and development of mangroves and also mandated to
enforce relevant regulations and laws. They also form the major stakeholders for
influencing decisions and policies on the mangrove resources. However, they have
weaknesses in enforcing the legislations because of weak capacities and capabilities.
These weaknesses are indicated by the high level of degradation of mangrove
resources in the country.
There are several relevant policies and legislations which focus on some major
strategies such as conservation, rehabilitation, prohibition/restriction, education,
public, participation, sustainable development of the coastal resources (including
mangroves) as means of curbing the loss of coastal biodiversity. However, these are
Sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove ecosystems project in Ghana
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also weak and in some cases non-enforceable. The weaknesses in the system have led
to degradation and depletion of the mangrove resources but create a wake-up call for
stakeholders to act quickly to strengthen the protection of the resources. The number
of community-based wetland conservation projects already executed along the coast
is a reflection of stakeholders concern and commitment in reversing the level of
degradation of mangroves in the country.
The evidence of consciously and carefully planned policies and legislations on
mangroves do not abound, probably indicating that not much has been done in these
areas. There are no specific policies on mangroves in Ghana, except what can be
deduced from related wetland conservation documents such as the revised national
wetlands conservation strategy and action plan, prepared by the Ministry of Lands
and Forestry (MLFM, 2007). Thus, strategies and plans mooted for wetlands
management in the document are reckoned also for mangroves. The other mangrove
restoration initiatives presented under section 3.2.2 may not be conclusive but it is a
good ground prior to future attempts at formulating and implementing specific
policies on mangrove.
Even though existing mangroves provide valuable ecological, environmental and
social functions, there are no policies on mangroves in Ghana, except what could be
inferred from wetland policies. Traditional means of conserving resources have also
not been useful for mangroves especially because of the conventional view of
mangroves as “waste lands and their perceived relatively low value.
A well planned intertwines of institutional needs, scientific information and
committed community involvement in policy formulation and implementation will be
a requirement for any scheme for protecting mangroves and preventing excessive
exploitation and abuse of the resource.
At present there are no well developed strategies and institutional structures for
managing mangrove forests at the community level, nevertheless the communities
were able to propose key strategies for effective management of the mangrove
ecosystem. Key stakeholders to ensure successful management of the resources were
also identified.
7.2 Conclusion
There appears to be limited understanding of the values and functions of mangrove and
wetland ecosystems in Ghana. As a result, mangrove forests are often regarded as degraded
and worthless areas that need to be utilized for productive uses. However, the intrinsic value
of the mangrove ecosystem is enormous and is only recognized when large investments have
to be poured into constructing coastal protection structures that attempt to play the natural
functions of mangrove forests.
Sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove ecosystems project in Ghana
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The current Wildlife and Protected Areas Policy emphasizes wildlife resources, with little
regard for mangroves and wetlands as a whole. This policy seeks to establish and maintain the
sustainability of the marine and other protected areas, with the eventual aim of protecting a
minimum of 10% of Ghana‟s land surface and managing all protected areas according to
detailed management plans. The 1994 Forests and Wildlife Policy rather cover only those
wetlands designated as Ramsar sites. Its intention is to ensure that viable populations of all
indigenous wildlife species, including passage migrants, are adequately conserved and that
rare, endangered species of high conservation interest are especially protected. The wetlands
conservation strategy and action plan developed by the Ministry of Lands, Forestry and
Ministry seems to be implemented only in wetlands designated as Ramsar sites; at least no
mangrove restoration initiative implemented outside Ramsar sites is known. Having such a
skewed policy document rather endangers wetlands in non-Ramsar sites creating the
impression than they are of little significance to the state and the people.
7.3 Recommendations
Public Awareness and Education
An important cause of the gradual depletion of the mangrove resources in the study area is the
inadequate understanding of the importance of mangroves. There is therefore the need for
awareness and education programmes that will inform the public about mangroves, their
extrinsic and intrinsic values as well as Government plans in relation to management of these
resources.
Formulation of mangrove policy and strategies
The proper management of any natural resources for that matter mangrove resource needs a
policy framework that will ensure a systematic and holistic approach to the sustainable
utilization, management and conservation. The current forest and wildlife policy does not
consider mangrove forest management as a priority area. There is therefore an urgent call on
all stakeholders ranging from policy makers to resource owners to find a common platform
that will facilitate a workable policy and strategy guidelines for mangrove management in
Ghana. The FRNR team with financial support from Government of Ghana and ITTO could
serve as an independent body to facilitate the formulation of mangrove policy and strategies
for Ghana.
Sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove ecosystems project in Ghana
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Detailed inventory to ascertain the actual size of mangroves in Ghana.
In reviewing the literature, it was realized that one of the factors influencing the lack of
national policy on mangrove in Ghana may be extent of mangrove cover and its perceived low
value as compared to forest resources. Even though the pre-project did a preliminary inventory
of mangrove in some parts of the country, the actual extent of mangrove cover and its size
could only be well determined through a national inventory. Knowing the true coverage in
terms of size and quality of the resource will enable Ghanaians really appreciate the
importance of mangrove as a valuable natural resource worthy of sustainable management to
improve the economy and the environment just like other forest types.
Documentation and creation of data base of mangrove information of Ghana.
For sustainable management of mangrove resources there is the need to document projects,
activities and studies being carried out in Ghana. This will aid easy access to information
during research as well as implementation of developmental projects in order to avoid
repetition of certain activities. Proper documentation will also improve initiatives as well as
exchange lessons with others.
Sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove ecosystems project in Ghana
36
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MES, 2002. National Biodiversity Strategy for Ghana. Ministry of Lands and Forestry,
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MDA. 2007. Mfantseman District Profile
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