Effective leadership, communication and supervision

Lecture Series onEffective Leadership, Communication and Supervision in

Workplace

Compiled byChanakya P. Rijal, PhD in Leadership

Nepal College of ManagementIn Affiliation with

Kathmandu University, School of ManagementLalitpur, Nepal[Spring, 2015]

Instruction for academic reference:Rijal, C. P. (2015). Effective leadership, communication and supervision in workplace. Lecture Series. Kathmandu: Author.

1Leadership, communication and supervision

The Contents

1. Leadership: Meaning and importance, leading as a managerial process, styles of leadership

2. Communication: Basic concepts and functions of communication; Interpersonal Communication [methods, making interpersonal communication more effective]; Organizational Communication [types, directions and networks]

3. Supervision: Concepts, importance, types, processes and methods, providing with effective supervision.


• Are leaders born?

• Can leadership be learnt?

• What are the determinants of effective leaders and leadership?

• Are leaders different from managers?

• What is the role of leadership in transformation?

Leadership: Learning AgendaLeadership: Learning Agenda

Leadership, communication and supervision 3

Your mission…is to win our wars…you are

the ones who are trained to fight. Yours is the

profession of arms, the will to win, the sure

knowledge that in war there is no substitute

for victory; That if you lose, the nation will be

destroyed.…General of the US Army

Douglas Macarthur


The most precious commodity with

which the army deals is the individual

soldier who is the heart and soul of our

combat forces.

General J. Lawton Collins,VII Corps Commander, World War II


• The act of leading• One of the key management process functions.• Process of influencing people to do something that

they might otherwise not do.• Refers to ‘Getting It Done’.• An art which defies precise definitions.• The action through which one or more persons are

influenced or guided to behave the way they are expected to.

• Cannot occur without the consent of followers.

Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership


• Leadership ranges from the smallest decision, such as where to eat lunch, to the decisions that affect the directions of nations.

• Attainment of agreement upon goals or purposes is important, but the group or organization is an important part of the leadership process.

• Once individuals turn as successful leaders, they are more likely to accept or seek more challenging opportunities

Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership


Leadership

Influencing people by providing the purpose,

direction, and motivation while operating to

accomplish the mission and improving the

organization.


Influencing• Getting people to do what you want them to

do.

• The example you set is just as important as the words you speak.

• Through your words and example, you must communicate purpose, direction, and motivation.


• Persuades people with a reason to something.

• You must earn their trust: they must know from experience that you care about them and would not ask them to do something particularly dangerous or affective unless there is a good reason, and unless the task is essential to mission accomplishment.

Purpose


• Communicate the way you want the mission be accomplished.

• Prioritize tasks.• Assign responsibility and communicate;

delegate authority when necessary. • Make sure your people understand the

standard.• Listen, and correct the limitations that

oppose your direction.

Direction


• People want direction. They want to be given challenging tasks, training in how to accomplish them, and the resources necessary to do them well. Then they want to be left alone to do the job.


• Motivation gives subordinates the will to do

everything they can to accomplish a mission.

• To motivate your people, give them goals that

challenge them.

• Get to know your people and their capabilities.

• Give them as much responsibility as they can.

Motivation


• When they succeed, praise them.

• When they fall short, give them credit for what they

have done and coach or counsel how to do better

next time.

• Make sure that the example you set is as important

as what you say and how well you manage the

work.

Motivation


• Actions taken to influence others serve to accomplish operating actions

• Take take those actions that help accomplish the stated goals.

• All leaders execute operating actions, which become more complex as they assume positions of increasing responsibility.

Operating


• Leaders should strive for improving everything that is entrusted to them, their people, facilities, equipment, training, and all resources.

Improving


Means Ends

Efficiency Effectiveness

Goals

Low High

wastage attainment

Leadership Vs. Efficiency and Effectiveness


1. Planning1. Define goals2. Establish strategy3. Develop tactics/subplans

3. Leading1. Direct the people2. Motivate the people3. Resolve the conflicts

2. OrganizingDetermine:1. What to be done2. How to be done3. Who is to do

4. ControllingMotivate activitiesto ensure that theyare accomplishedas planned.

Achieving theorganization’sstated purpose

Leadership as One of the Management Functions


LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT PROCESS

The processes aimed at the achievement of the organization’s stated objectives.

The French industrialist Henri Fayol wrote that all managers perform FIVE management activities; planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling.

In the 1950s, two professors at UCLA recognized FIVE terms planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling as the framework of management.

Now condensed to FOUR; Planning, organizing, leading and controlling.


21

Formality of Leadership• Individuals who occupy organizational offices or

positions which have power as part of the position.

• Individuals who have power with an organization because other personal charisma or other characteristics but do not hold an official position of power.

Manager CharacteristicsAdministersA copyMaintainsFocuses on systems and structuresRelies on controlsShort-range viewAsks how and whenEye on the bottom lineImitatesAccepts the status quoClassic good soldierDoes things right

Manager Vs. LeaderManager Vs. Leader

Leader CharacteristicsInnovatesAn originalDevelopsFocuses on peopleInspires trustLong-range perspectiveAsks what and whyEye on the horizonOriginatesChallenges the status quoOwn personDoes the right things

Warren G. Bennis, Managing the dream: leadership in 21st century, journal of

Organizational Change Management, vol. 2, No. 1, 1989, p. 7 Leadership, communication and supervision 22

PersonalGoal Setting

Elements of Self-Leadership

ConstructiveThought Patterns

DesigningNatural Rewards

Self-Monitoring

Self-Reinforcement


• Weber has defined THREE types of leadership legitimacies:

• Traditional Legitimacy,

• Charismatic Legitimacy, and

• Bureaucratic Legitimacy

Legitimacy - what makes you a leader!


• Legitimacy to control is handed down from the

past

• Based on most traditional forms of customs

• Obedience based on loyalty to traditions

• Leadership decisions can be arbitrary

• Leadership authority is limited by the displeasure

of the subjects, and failure to follow traditions

Examples: Kingdoms of China, Egypt, family schools

Pros: Leadership is clearly defined

Cons: Possible irrationalism, easily corrupted

Traditional Legitimacy


� Based on Inspiration: Vision and projection

� Legitimacy occurs after leader proves him/herself

Examples: Jesus Christ, Hitler, Ghandi

Pros: The leader is not restricted by tradition and

technical knowledge

Cons: Power can be abused, and people can be

mislead into following

Charismatic Legitimacy


� Power is given based on skills, knowledge, and experience.

� Obedience is based on rank which is completed for and earned.

� Structured hierarchy prevails.Examples: Headteacher, Army General, Catholic

ChurchPros: Rational, technically efficient, and favours

levelling of social classesCons: Breeds impersonality and contempt, and stunts

enthusiasm.

Bureaucratic Legitimacy


� Accountability and responsiveness to be the

central aspects.

� External environmental forces likely to create

unexpected pressure.

� Management rigidity to be the strongest enemy

of leadership.

� Nations more likely to go for international jobs.

� Leadership to be applied in every sector.

Future of LeadershipFuture of Leadership


� To set standards and accountabilities for operational outcomes produced at all levels.

� Measure the outcomes to confirm that they have positive relationship with the improvements made.

� Initiate changes for systems improvement to facilitate long term system’s transformation.

� Communicate the problems, prospects, and necessary changes with the external forces, and seek their continued support.

� Create and maintain international partnerships.� Enhance overall team effectiveness

Roles of Current LeadershipRoles of Current Leadership


• Systems thinking

• Organizational designing

• Stewardship: share vision

and purpose

• Creating creative tensions

• Teaching for development

Other Important Roles of LeadersOther Important Roles of Leaders


• Do all people want to lead?

• Is it the part of universality of leadership to pay high for the managers from the developed countries?

• Is leadership not dominated by situation?

• Does legacy of leadership have its final definition?

Leadership DilemmasLeadership Dilemmas


• The change or legacy of a good leader will last longer after the leader has left the role.

• Role model unconsciously important role in writing leadership schools

• A school, once it is created, provides a platform to play for all and forever.

• Bad aspects are dominated and ignored.

Leadership EffectsLeadership Effects


2. Leadership in Perspectives2. Leadership in Perspectives• Slater (1995) has defined leadership from four

major perspectives:

– Structural-Functionalist Perspective

–Political-Conflict Perspective

–Constructivist Perspective

–Critical Humanist Perspective


Structural Functionalist PerspectiveStructural Functionalist Perspective• This is a dominant perspective of leadership.

• It sees leadership as a set of measurable behavior or skills.

• Includes all functional activities covering planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of the resources for their best utilization to make the institutional operations more cost effective.


Political-Conflict PerspectivePolitical-Conflict Perspective• This perspective contrasts with the structural-

functionalist perspective because it does not see leadership as a set of behavior and skills, rather it sees it as power relationship with the subordinates.

• 'Structure of domination' is the essence of this perspective.

• This perspective can be seen as the relationship between the manager and other members.


Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective• This perspective also tends to see leadership as the

leader behaviors and skills.

• It emphasizes that the majority of the behavior and skills become dominated by one or two major behaviors that lead the functioning of other behaviors and skills.

• As its symbolic aspect, this perspective tends to convey the meaning that the underlying dynamic social laws construct the structure of the society.


Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective• This perspective disagrees that the social structure

or the social science, and administration are value free.

• Creating and imparting values for life is the essence of this perspective of leadership.

• Since institutions are for providing products or services with value for life, this perspective is instrumental in better understanding the philosophy of leadership.


• This perspective deals with the human relations at the workplace.

• Creating motivating jobs, providing guidance, love and care, and offering a vision for the team, one may be able to establish personally as a leader.

• The indicators of the humanist perspective of leadership are the personality traits, and leader member relations.

Critical Humanist PerspectiveCritical Humanist Perspective


Perspectives of LeadershipPerspectives of Leadership• To summarize from the various leadership

perspectives, it may be concluded that leader behavior has to be measured in terms of -

– leader's relationship of power position,

– leader’s behavior and skills to add values to the society, and

– leader’s personality traits to figurehead the work teams.


Issues Governing LeadershipIssues Governing Leadership� Political-legal issuesPolitical-legal issues

� Economic issuesEconomic issues

� Socio-cultural issuesSocio-cultural issues

� Technological issuesTechnological issues

� International issuesInternational issues


Selected Leadership Theories

Trait Theories

Behavioral Approaches

Contingency Approaches

Neocharismatic Approaches


Theoretical Considerations in LeadershipTheoretical Considerations in LeadershipTrait Theories focus on learning about specific personality traits and attributes of the leaders that separate them from non-leaders.

Behavioral Approaches specialize on studying the impact of particular leadership behavior on his/her success of leading.

Contingency Approaches try to visualize the influence of context or contingency factors that influence leader’s approach to leading in different situations.

Neocharismatic Approaches reveal a number of newer approaches to leadership practices.


Trait Theory• The theories that sought personality, social,

physical, or intellectual traits that differentiated leaders from nonleaders

• The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders to keep them distinct from others

• For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the prime minister of UK, was recognized for her leadership in terms of her confidence, iron-willed, determined, and decisive.


• A research study was conducted in the 1930s to study the attributes that differentiate the leaders from nonleaders.

• A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80 leadership traits, though the study was not aimed to identify the leadership traits

• Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them were common to all cases, which included personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.

Trait Theory


• Earliest approach to study leadership• Used to identify great persons from masses• Based on the assumption of -

certain traits = success/effectiveness• The logic of leadership traits is as basic as

height, as complex as intelligence

Trait Theory


How Leaders Differ from Nonleaders?

• According to Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991), leaders can be distinguished from nonleaders on the basis of SIX attributes or traits:

• Drive• Desire to lead• Honesty and integrity• Self-confidence• Intelligence• Job-relevant knowledge


Important Traits of Effective Leaders

• Personality• Persuasive• Persistence• Patience• Probity• Praise giving• Positive orientation

People BasedPeople Based PossiblePossible PracticalPractical ProgressiveProgressive PreparedPrepared Power-buildingPower-building

13 Ps


Personality Factors for Effective LeadershipCapacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status

Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic position

Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity

Verbal facility

Athletic accomplishment

Initiative Cooperation

Originality Personality adjustment

Persistence Adaptability

Judgment Aggressiveness Humor

Self-confidence

Desire to excel


Criticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership� The belief that personality traits determine the rate of

success of a leader could easily be challenged because practically it is very hard to distinguish leaders from non-leaders based on personality traits

� There exists a very thin relationship between traits and leader’s success

� Some traits are achieved by birth� Personality traits without motivation are worthless for

success� It does not look like a theory� “Traits Plus Motivation Equals Leadership”


Behavioral Approaches to Leadership

• Pattern of actions used by different individuals determines leadership potential

• Examples– Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire– Michigan Studies: Employee centered

versus task centered


Three Approaches to Behavioral Studies

1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles

2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions

3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid


1. Studies Based on Leadership StylesLewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest

contributors of leadership study in a scientific manner.

The authors specialized in leadership styles while conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s at the University of Iowa.

The suggested leadership styles include: • Autocratic• Democratic• Laissez-Faire


When Quantity of work is important

When Quality of work is important

When Satisfaction with work is important

Which is the Best Style?

Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire

Most Least

Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire

Best Worst

Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic

Most Least


Tannenbaum and Schmidt - Continuum of Leadership Behavior

Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire

Use of Authority by the Manager

Area of Freedom for Subordinates

Boss- CenteredLeadership

Subordinate- Centered Leadership


Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:

1.Forces in the Leader

2.Forces in the Subordinate Group

3.Forces in the Situation

Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum


2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions

Key Contributions

a. Ohio State University Studies

b. Michigan State University Studies


Ohio State University Studies

Two Dimensions• Initiating structure: The extent to which a

leader is likely to define and structure his/her role and roles of subordinates in the search for goal attainment

• Consideration: The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’ ideas, and regard of their feelings


Initiating Structure– Is task oriented– Directs subordinate work activities toward goal

attainment– Typically give instructions, spend time planning,

and emphasize deadlines– Provide explicit schedules of work activities

Consideration– Is mindful of subordinates– Establishes mutual trust– Provides open communication– Develops teamwork


Two Dimensions • Employee Oriented: The leadership dimension in

which the leader emphasizes interpersonal relations; relationship oriented.

• Production Oriented: The leadership dimension in which the leader emphasizes on technical or task aspect of the job; result oriented.

Michigan State University Studies

Similar to Ohio StudiesSimilar to Ohio Studies


Studies Based on Leadership Grid

• Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view of leadership

• The authors proposed a managerial grid showing the key managerial styles of ‘concern for people’ and ‘concern for production’

• The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles


The Managerial Grid

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Concern for People

Con

cern

for

Tas

k

(1,9)(1,9)

(9,1)(9,1)

(9,9)(9,9)

(5,5)(5,5)

(1,1)(1,1)


Figure 13.4 B: The Managerial Grid

High

High

Low

Low

Concern for Production

Co

nce

rn f

or

Peo

ple

1,9Country Club ManagementThoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a com-fortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.

1,1 Impoverished ManagementExertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustainorganization membership.

9,9Team ManagementWork accomplishment is from committed people; interdependencethrough a “common stake” inorganization purpose leads torelationships of trust and respect.

5,5Middle-of-the-Road Management

Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.

Authority-Compliance 9, 1Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree.


Leadership Styles

Likert’s System Four

System I—Exploitive Autocratic

System II—Benevolent Autocratic

System III—Consultative

System IV—Participative Group


Contingency Theories of Leadership

• Leader traits and/or leader behaviors are important aspects but must be taken in context.

That is, the situation matters.


Selected Studies on Contingency Approaches

• Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life Cycle) Theory

• House’s Path-Goal Theory


LPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER

• Low LPC Score: task-oriented leader

• High LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader

• According to Fiedler, a person is one or the other - it is a fixed personality trait


FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

A person’s LPC score correlates with:

• Task structure

• Leader/Member relations

• Leader position power

in terms of group effectiveness


Three Elements of Leadership Situations

Leader-member relations: refers to group atmosphere and members’ attitude toward and acceptance of the leader

Task structure: refers to the extent to which tasks performed by the group are defined, involve specific procedures, and have clear, explicit goals

Position power: is the extent to which the leader has formal authority over subordinates


Task-Oriented (low LPC)

Leader is best when situation either favorable or unfavorable

Employee-Oriented (high LPC)

Leader is best when situation is moderately favorable


POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY

1.Train leaders in needed style

(Fiedler says no)

2.Match the leader with the job

(Fiedler says this is a good start)

3.Engineer the job to fit the manger

(Fiedler says this is the best approach)


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory

A contingency approach to leadership that links the leader’s behavioral style with the task readiness (maturity) of subordinates.

Also known as ‘life cycle’ theory.


Situational Leadership

• No single best way to lead• Focus on maturity or readiness of followers

– Ability and willingness• Adjust emphasis on task and relationship

behaviors according to the readiness of followers to perform their tasks


Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model

• Based on– Style of leadership

• Giving direction (task behaviour)• Giving motivational support (relationship behaviour)

– “Readiness” of followers to perform a task• Ability• Willingness


Situational Leadership

• Telling: low readiness, untrained and inexperienced employees

• Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but inexperienced employees

• Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but unwilling, employees skeptical

• Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and willing to take responsibility


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership

Model Defines Relationship

Between Maturity and

Four Leadership

Styles

HighHigh

relationshiprelationship

Low taskLow task

High taskHigh task

HighHigh


LowLow


Low taskLow task

High taskHigh task

LowLow


M1M1

M2M2M3M3

M4M4

Parti

cipat

ing

Del

egat

ing Telling

Selling

HighHigh

LowLow HighHighTask BehaviorTask Behavior

Rel

atio

nshi

p B

ehav

ior

Rel

atio

nshi

p B

ehav

ior

Style of Style of LeaderLeader

ImmatureImmatureMaturityMaturity

AbilityAbility

WillingnessWillingness

M1M1M2M2M3M3M4M4HighHigh ModerateModerate LowLow

This person is able(has the necessaryknowledge and skill)

This person is willing(has the necessary confidence and commitment)

Maturity of Followers

Psychological maturity

Job maturity

A great dealA great deal44

Quite a bitQuite a bit33

SomeSome22

LittleLittle11

UsuallyUsually44

OftenOften33

On occasionOn occasion22

SeldomSeldom11


HOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIPHOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation

A leader should emphasize either path clarification or adjust rewards depending on the factors affecting a person’s motivation

Theory assumes people can change their leadership styles to fit the situation


Situational ContingenciesThree Important Situational Contingencies

in Path-Goal Theory

The personal characteristics of group members

The work environment The situation


Path-goal Theory• Rooted in Expectancy Theory• Leader behaviors

– Directive– Supportive– Achievement-oriented– Participative


Path-Goal Model of Leadership

Follower CharacteristicsFollower Characteristics1.1. Locus of controlLocus of control2.2. AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism3.3. AbilityAbility

OutcomesOutcomes1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction2.2. PerformancePerformance3.3. Acceptance of the leaderAcceptance of the leader

FollowersFollowers1.1. PerceptionsPerceptions2.2. MotivationMotivation

Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors1.1. TasksTasks2.2. Formal authority systemFormal authority system3.3. Work groupWork group

Leader Behavior StylesLeader Behavior Styles1.1. DirectiveDirective2.2. SupportiveSupportive3.3. ParticipativeParticipative4.4. Achievement-orientedAchievement-oriented


Change Leadership• Transactional Leader: Provides direction for

subordinates to achieve set objectives (typical “good manager” using position power and some personal power).

• Transformational Leader: Special ability to create innovation & change (charismatic leader within an organization – high on position & personal power).


Effects of Change Leadership

Transactional Leadership

Current state ofexpectedsubordinateeffort

Normalexpectedsubordinateperformance

TransformationalLeadership

Heightenedmotivationto attaindesignedoutcome(extra effort)

Subordinateperformancebeyondnormalexpectations


Transformational Leadership Transformational

Leadership• Idealized Influence• Inspiration• Intellectual stimulation• Individualized

consideration

Transformational Leadership

• Idealized Influence• Inspiration• Intellectual stimulation• Individualized

consideration


• Contingent reward• Management by

exception (active or passive)

• Laissez faire


• Contingent reward• Management by

exception (active or passive)

• Laissez faire

Performance beyond expectations

Performance beyond expectations

Agreed uponperformance

Agreed uponperformance

Broadening and elevating followergoals

Leader/follower exchange


Characteristics of Transactional LeadershipCharacteristics of Transactional Leadership

• Establishes goals and objectives• Designs work flow and delegates task assignments• Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort• Rewards performance and recognizes

accomplishments• Searches for deviations from standards and takes

corrective actions


Characteristics of Transformational LeadershipCharacteristics of Transformational Leadership

• Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of mission, gains respect and trust, instills pride.

• Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, and treats each person individually, coaches.

• Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning, encourages rationality, uses careful problem solving.

• Inspirational: Communicates high performance expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills essential purposes.


Participative Management Democratic approach of management Employees have autonomy in making and

implementing decisions Leader invites wider participation of the

subordinates in making and selling decisions Exists high degree of delegation of authority Managers listen and value the subordinate

suggestions High degree of customer focus exists A move into TQM process climate


Management by Objectives (MBO) A management system in which specific performance

goals are jointly determined by employees and their managers, progress toward accomplishing those goals is periodically reviewed, rewards are allocated on the basis of the progress in accomplishing the goals.

Goal achievement is the key of MBO. Management approach is driven by the nature of

performance objectives and goals. MBO consists of four elements -- i. goal specificity, ii.

participative decision making, iii. an explicit time period, and iv. performance feedback.


Management by Walking Around (MBWA) A term used to describe when a manager is out in

the work area, interacting directly with employees, and exchanging information about what’s going on.

MBWA is a management control process which follows THREE steps:

Measuring actual performance, Comparing actual performance with the standard

performance, and Taking managerial actions for further

improvement


Management by Exception An alternative approach of management when the

other conventional laws management do not work Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,

transformational, and transactional leadership approaches

Examples: Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement

does not work Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work

Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things


Learning Organization An organization with exceptional work culture. The most open type of organization. An organizational system in which fear of

ignorance and inability is eliminated through relevant training and development.

People learn through open interactions. Managers value subordinate problems and their

suggestions. Creativity creeps eternally in all members . A move towards TQM process climate.


Key Findings from Leadership Theories• Transformational leaders inspire higher

performance than do transactional leaders.• Effective leaders must be concerned about

accomplishing the task and relationships.• Effective leaders know when to tell, sell, participate,

or delegate.• Effective leaders understand mission and strategy,

know how to implement change, motivate employees to high performance, and operate effectively.

• Effective leaders lead by example and are honest and fair. They inspire confidence.


Reasons for Derailment of Top ManagementRank the following in order of importance. Choose 1 for the reason you feel is most important, 2 for next most important, etc.

a)Betrayal of Trust—failure to meet commitments

b)Cold, aloof, arrogant

c)Overdependence on one’s boss or mentor

d)Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating

e)Over-managing: unable to delegate or build a team

f) Unable to think broadly or strategically - too much attention to detail and minor technical problems

g)Unable to adapt to a boss with a different style

h)Unable to select and develop an effective staff

i) Overly ambitious—plays politics, pushes too hard to get ahead

j) Failure to handle specific performance problems - failure to handle problems then not admit the problem, try to cover up or shift blame

Source: “What Makes a Top Executive” by McCall and Lombardo, Source: “What Makes a Top Executive” by McCall and Lombardo, Psychology TodayPsychology Today, February 1983, February 1983Leadership, communication and supervision 91

Section 2: CommunicationSection 2: Communication


A two-way traffic of exchange of A two-way traffic of exchange of information between at least two information between at least two

partiesparties

Context could be interpersonal, Context could be interpersonal, organizational, or social.organizational, or social.


The Communication Process Model

Communication Process

The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference and understanding of meaning.


The Communication ProcessThe Communication Process

Channel: The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the receiver.

Types of Channels– Formal Channels

• Are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of members.

– Informal Channels• Used to transmit personal or social messages in the

organization. These informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices.


Elements of the Communication Process• The sender

• Encoding

• The message

• The channel

• Decoding

• The receiver

• Noise

• FeedbackLeadership, communication and supervision 96

Functions of Communication

Communication Functions

1. Control member behavior.

2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.

3. Provide a release for emotional expression.

4. Provide information needed to make decisions.

Communication Functions

1. Control member behavior.

2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.

3. Provide a release for emotional expression.

4. Provide information needed to make decisions.

Communication

The transference and the understanding of meaning.


Information Richness of Communication ChannelsInformation Richness of Communication Channels

Low channel richness High channel richness

Routine Nonroutine


Directions of Communication

Upward

Downward

Lateral


Interpersonal CommunicationInterpersonal CommunicationOral CommunicationOral Communication– Advantages: Speed and feedback.– Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.

Written CommunicationWritten Communication– Advantages: Tangible and verifiable.– Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback.

Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal Communication– Advantages: Supports other communications and

provides observable expression of emotions and feelings.

– Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or gestures can influence receiver’s interpretation of message. Leadership, communication and supervision 100

Three Common Formal Small-Group NetworksThree Common Formal Small-Group Networks


Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria

NETWORKS

Criteria Chain Wheel All Channel

Speed Moderate Fast Fast

Accuracy High High Moderate

Emergence of a leader Moderate High None

Member satisfaction Moderate Low High


Grapevine• Grapevine Characteristics– Informal, not controlled by management.

– Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal communications.

– Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it.

– Results from:• Desire for information about important situations

• Ambiguous conditions

• Conditions that cause anxiety


Computer-Aided Communication1. Social media based communication

2. Virtual network-based communication

3. Communicating other ICT media and technologies


Computer-Aided Communication (cont’d)

• Intranet

– A private organization-wide information network.

• Extranet

– An information network connecting employees with external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.

• Videoconferencing

– An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits face-to-face virtual meetings via video links.


Emoticons in communication

Electronic mail needn’t be emotion free. Over the

years, a set of symbols (emoticons) has evolved that e-

mail users have developed for expressing emotions.

For instance, the use of all caps (i.e., THIS PROJECT

NEEDS YOUR IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!) is the

e-mail equivalent of shouting. The following

highlights some emoticons:


Barriers to Effective Communication

Filtering

A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver.

Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.

Information Overload

A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing capacity.


Barriers to Effective Communication (contd.)

Emotions

How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted.

Language

Words have different meanings to different people.

Communication Apprehension

Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both.


Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

• Men talk to:

– Emphasize status, power, and independence.

– Complain that women talk on and on.

– Offer solutions.

– To boast about their accomplishments.

• Women talk to:

– Establish connection and intimacy.

– Criticize men for not listening.

– Speak of problems to promote closeness.

– Express regret and restore balance to a conversation.


“Politically Correct” Communication• Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals.• In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive

to kown how words might offend others.– Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly – Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired,

and senior.• Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes it

harder to communicate accurately.– Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.– Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome,

postconsumer waste materials, educational equity, and people of gender.


Cross-Cultural CommunicationCross-Cultural Communication

Cultural BarriersCultural Barriers

– Semantics

– Word connotations

– Tone differences

– Differences among perceptions

Cultural GuideCultural Guide

– Assume differences until similarity is proven.

– Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation.

– Practice empathy.

– Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis.


Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in Different Countries


Additional Works on Organizational Additional Works on Organizational CommunicationCommunication

1. Perform a depth review of different works on organizational communication, its challenges, situations of effective organizational communication, its process and best practices.

2. Also provide with illustrative discussions on a few examples of organizational communication.


Section 3: SupervisionSection 3: Supervision

1. Meaning of supervision

2. Importance of supervision

3. Types of supervision

4. Processes and methods of supervision

5. Providing with effective supervision


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• Supervision may be referred to as executing the responsibility of sustaining worker morale, helping the workers with job-related discouragements and discontents, and giving workers a sense of:–worth as professionals,–belonging to the agency, and– security in their performance.

• Introduce new workers to the organization and help them find their place in it.

• Act as a liaison person between various agencies sharing policy and solving problems in terms of such things as client referral.

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What do supervisors do?• They translate the policies and objectives of the

institution into specific work duties and timelines.• They also select the jobs to be completed.• Assign the right workers with right job.• Determine the timelines when the jobs will be

completed.• Review the works in progress and track the level of

compliance of defined standards.• Perform employee job evaluation.

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Continued…• Educate workers on the goals and objectives of

the institution.• Assure that employees behave in a manner they

are expected to.• Resolve conflict: – between workers;– Between the agency and workers;– Between units within the agency;

The supervisor is the bridge between higher levels of administration and the worker.

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There is linkage between leadership and supervision, but how?

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Empowerment-oriented leaders

• In empowerment-oriented practice, it is important that the executive director establish a vision for the organization.

• The executive director must create an organizational culture in which staff members and volunteers are client-oriented and are committed to a set of values that supports power-sharing.

• The executive director must have the ability to inspire and motivate paid as well as unpaid workers. In addition, they must be able to facilitate group-oriented decision-making processes.

1. Autocratic or authoritarian supervision: A centralized managerial approach in supervision whereby the supervisor maintains the absolute power to maintain employee discipline and obedience. May be suitable for task-driven performance by less skilled workers; brick-lay system.

2. Laissez-Faire or free-rein supervision: Widely known as independent supervision as there exists maximum decision-making freedom to the workers or subordinates. May be suitable for highly skilled workforce loving for gaining satisfaction from performance attainment through self-regulation.

1. Autocratic or authoritarian supervision: A centralized managerial approach in supervision whereby the supervisor maintains the absolute power to maintain employee discipline and obedience. May be suitable for task-driven performance by less skilled workers; brick-lay system.

2. Laissez-Faire or free-rein supervision: Widely known as independent supervision as there exists maximum decision-making freedom to the workers or subordinates. May be suitable for highly skilled workforce loving for gaining satisfaction from performance attainment through self-regulation.

3/19/2015 120Team BMW

Types of Supervision

3. Democratic supervision: A participatory approach in which the supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and discussion with the subordinates. Suitable in team-based working environments.

4. Bureaucratic supervision: Such a type of supervision takes place as part of system defined rules, regulations and working procedures. Supervision takes place as a defined job duty of the supervisor and also the reporting responsibility of the subordinate.

3. Democratic supervision: A participatory approach in which the supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and discussion with the subordinates. Suitable in team-based working environments.

4. Bureaucratic supervision: Such a type of supervision takes place as part of system defined rules, regulations and working procedures. Supervision takes place as a defined job duty of the supervisor and also the reporting responsibility of the subordinate.

3/19/2015 121Team BMW

Types of Supervision

Let’s think of a few examples and best practices on --

1. Direct vs. non-direct

2. Routine vs. non-routine

3. Observational methods

4. Interviews

5. Technology supported supervision

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Selected methods of supervisionSelected methods of supervision

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Reasons of people turning in to leadersReasons of people turning in to leaders

1.Prestige and status

2.Increased salaries

3.A Desire to be a change agent

4.Increased opportunity for creativity

5.Increased capacity to give

6.A desire to control people

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A good leader and supervisor…1. Fosters trust;2. Builds people rather than tears them down;3. Is supportive;4. Is consistent;5. Is caring;6. Uses time wisely;7. Is persistent to their goals;8. Is willing to compromise;9. Allows as much freedom is possible;10. Is creative.

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Pre-requisites of quality supervisionPre-requisites of quality supervision1. Clear and specific employee objectives in place.

2. Understanding of employee needs and motivation.

3. Leadership and managerial willingness to facilitate the step-by-step progression of employees.

4. Organizational culture conducive to accept the workforce diversity including differences in viewing the role of working, differences in motivation, differences in interest and differences in cultural perspectives.

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Emerging practices of supervision today

• Narrative assessments by supervisors using previously established criteria; mostly in development organizations.

• Management by objective systems in which the supervisor determines whether the employee has accomplished a predetermined set of objectives.

• Rating scales and checklists that require the supervisor to make an assessment of the worker’s level of performance on a standardized scale; Norvic Hospital has a system of keeping performance supervision logbook on daily basis.

• Comparison of an individual worker’s performance to those of other workers. For example, workers could be compared in terms of the number of successfully closed cases or the number of clients served on average; Number of accounts created by medical sales representatives.

• Multirater Assessment Systems in which more that one evaluator directly assesses the worker’s skill or performance level.

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Supervision as a tool for developing competency and measuring it

• Many organizations and professional associations are now evaluating performance by developing lists of specific skills or competencies that professionally trained workers should possess.

• Efforts have also been made to create tools or systems of measurement to determine if workers in certain job categories have actually acquired these skills or if they need additional training

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Worker empowerment through effective supervisionWorker empowerment through effective supervision• According to Shera and Page (1995) a critical aspect of

empowerment-oriented organization is that the supervisors promote positive relationships and images through the development of positive language, help staff focus on client strengths, and model appropriate behaviors and values to staff” (p. 4).

• Peer consultation for staff members who need assistance with workplace issues may also be an effective means to provide support and consequently increase a sense of personal empowerment and autonomy (Shera, & Page, 1995).

• In a study of management practices in empowerment-oriented organizations, Gutierrez et al. (1995) found that the use of peer supervision techniques helped build relationships and support, with a sense of shared philosophy and psychological safety among the staff members.

• Employees can be organized into teams or support groups can be established to facilitate peer consultation and information exchange.

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Mentoring: A Key to Effective SupervisionMentoring: A Key to Effective Supervision• Mentoring may be referred to as an effective method used to

provide peer support and involvement. • Mentoring has been proved to be an effective method of orienting

new employees to the workplace and helping them to develop appropriate workplace skills (Dreher, & Ash, 1990; Hardina, & Shaw, 2001).

• Kaminski et al. (2000) have studied the use of mentors to train workers to act as workplace advocates and leaders. They found that the best mentors repeatedly praised student performance, gave trainees new tasks that involved greater levels of responsibility, and encouraged them to develop their own goals and tactics for producing results.

• An additional benefit of the mentoring process is that mentors can help marginalized employees (say, people of gender and color) navigate difficulties in workplace culture that could limit their ability to secure promotions or become administrators (Burke, & McKeen, 1990; Ragins, Townsend, & Mattis, 1998).

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Additional Issues to be coveredAdditional Issues to be covered

1. Major tools and techniques of supervision.2. Issues and challenges concerning supervision.3. Benefits of effective supervision.4. Identification of organizational best practices in

supervision.5. Supervision and compliance in organizations

[Hint: Needs thorough review of a few books and working papers]

Effective leadership, communication and supervision

Education

Transcript of Effective leadership, communication and supervision