PRESENTED TO: MADAM SAIRA IJAZ PRESENTED BY: LARAIB (15061701-005) M.PHIL SEMESTER 1ST

12 january,2016

EEFECTIVE CLASSROOM STRATEGIES

Contents 1. Cognitive Psychology: Models of Learning

2. Discovery, Guided Discovery and Expository Methods of Teaching

3. Behavior Modification: Social and Academic Learning

4. Reinforcement5. Modeling6. Shaping Techniques

Cognitive Psychology: Models of Learning

What is cognitive psychology? Cognitive psychology is the study of

perception, attention, memory, language, and thinking in humans...how we know about the world.

...the scientific study of the human mind and information processing

Related to other fields - linguistics, computer science, philosophy, development, etc.

What is Learning? A change in behavior as a result of experience or

practice. The acquisition of knowledge. Knowledge gained through study. To gain knowledge of, or skill in, something through

study, teaching, instruction or experience. The process of gaining knowledge. A process by which behavior is changed, shaped or

controlled. The individual process of constructing understanding

based on experience from a wide range of sources.

Learning Model Learning model is defined as a systematic procedure in

organizing learning experiences to achieve learning objectives. Can also mean an approach that is used in learning activities.

Learning models are patterns of interactions and activities to ensure any learning you create is effective. Using a learning model when developing rapid e-learning allows you to accelerate your writing and development by giving you a repeatable structure to follow. It can also accelerate the learner’s experience as it gives them a repeated structure.

Learning models are good for inexperienced designers to follow and provide a consistent approach if you have a number of designers on one large project

Types of Learning Models

A. Learning Model Based on Theory1. Social Interaction Model (Allen and Rayn1969)

2. Information Processing Model3. Personal Model4. Behavior Modification Model (Behavioral)5. Contextual Learning Model

B. Quantum Learning ModelQuantum model of teaching is the learning model used in the presentation of the study design that are strung together into a package that is multisensory, multi intelligence, and is compatible with the brain, including specific instructions to create an effective learning environment, curriculum design, deliver content and facilitate the learning process

C. PAIKEM Learning ModelAccording Tarmizi (2009) learning is an acronym for Active,

Innovative, Creative, Effective and Fun.

D. Learning Model Lesson StudyDirector General for Quality Improvement of Teachers

and Education Personnel (PMPTK) suggested that Lesson Study is a professional educator development through collective assessment and continuous learning.

E. Active Learning ModelActive learning is a term that underlies some of the learning model that focuses on the responsibility of the student learning process.

Action Learning Model The Action Learning Model was first

introduced by Professor Reginald Revans in 1980, who was a noted physicist and the first known Industrial Management Professor.

Reginald Revans also described the Revans Formula as L= P+Q, where:

L is learning P is programming and Q is questioning (closed, open, objective, and

relative)

Discovery, Guided Discovery and Expository Methods of Teaching

Discovery Method A method in which thoughts are synthesized to perceive something that

the individual has not known before. the learner gets directly involved in learning.

learning is a result of the learners own internalized, insights, reflection and experiences

Inductive : an exploratory method of logic where one arrives at a

fact, principle, truth or generalization. : Formulating conclusion, a definition, a rule, a principle or a formula based on knowledge of examples and details Studying: observing, comparing many instances or cases in several instances to discover the common element and form generalization.

What is the Guided Discovery?

A renowned cognitive psychologist at Harvard University named Jerome Bruner promoted the approach on the basis that students are more likely to remember concepts and principles when they discover them on their own.

Guided Discovery is an inquiry-based learning technique in which students investigate, question, and respond to issues in a constructive manner.

Students solve problems using their own experiences and prior knowledge to building knowledge in a very natural way.

When to use the Guided Discovery Method

Guided discovery problems may be used at the start of a new concept or content area, thus allowing students to build upon their prior knowledge of the subject before a new reading or lecture.

They may also be used at the end of a unit to allow students to apply what they have learned in a real-world situation.

Expository or Deductive Method Expository or Deductive Method : a telling

method where facts, concepts, principles and generalizations, are stated presented, defined, interpreted by the teacher and followed by the application of testing of three concepts, principles, generalizations in new examples generated by the student.

Deductive Teaching : process of teaching that starts with a rule or general statement that is applied to specific cases/examples

Behavior Modification: Social and Academic Learning

Behavior Modification

Behavior Modification is a therapeutic technique based on the work of B.F. Skinner, a famous psychologist who is known as the "Father of Behaviorism." Skinner developed a theory of operant conditioning, which states that all behavior is governed by reinforcing and punishing stimuli. Behavior modification uses a scheduled approach that rewards desired behavior and "punishes" undesirable behavior. This technique continues to be used in therapy and is used in many psychological settings.

Behavior Modification Systematic application of learning

principles to change people’s actions and feelings Involves a series of well-defined steps to

change behavior. The success of each step is carefully evaluated

to find the best solution for a given situation. Modeling, classical conditioning, operant

conditioning

The History of Behavior Modification

The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911 .

His article "Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning" makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior. " Through early research in the 1940s and the 1950s, the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research group.

The experimental tradition in clinical psychology used it to refer to psycho-therapeutic techniques derived from empirical research.

It has since come to refer mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former).

Behavior Modification and Social Learning

Social learning which is informal learning of the individual, plays a vital role towards Behavior Modification.

Norms and Values of the society are directions towards desired Behavior/ Behavior Modification.

Every individual is born in a social group in a family. As a member of a family, he has to learn certain

language, ways of dealing with siblings, parents and other members of the group.

As he grow up, he has to acquire certain modes of behavior and social attitudes as approved by the society. All these amounts to Behavior Modification.

Behavior Modification and Academic Learning Leaning is a very comprehensive term. Learning does not mean

only the acquisition of knowledge or skills.It includes acquiring of attitudes, values, likes, dislikes and many other habits.

A number of psychologists have defined leaning as change or modification of behavior.

Thus leaning is the process by which an organism, as a result of its interaction with a situation, acquires a new mode of behavior, which tends to persist and affect the general behavioral pattern of the organism to some degree.

Munn says “ Learning is more or less permanent, incremental modification of behavior which results from activity, special training or observation.

Thorpe defines learning as that “process which manifests itself by adoptive changes in individual’s behavior as a result of experience.

Behavior Modification and Academic Learning All learning is modification of behavior, but all

modification of behavior is not learning. We may conclude by saying that ‘ learning is limited to those changes in behavior which are a result of maintaining or temporary physiological or psychological states of the organism.

Modification of behavior may take place in desirable direction or in the undesirable direction. For example children learn good habits as well as bad habits. Teachers and parents must always encourage children to learn desirable behavior patterns.

Learning stands for relatively permanent change or modification of behavior. The temporary changes in behavior do not constitute learning.

Five Ways of BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

1. Identify the Root Cause of the Problem 2. Focus on a Proper Reinforcer 3. Apply the Reinforcer Early 4. Be Consistent in Your Application 5. Adjust the Reinforcer to Adapt to New Goals

and Behavior

Behavioral Principles in the Classroom

Guidelines on the use of Rewards - Deci Give Rewards to Inform Rewards Should Not Be Used to Manipulate Reward for Academic Performance Reward Incentives Should Be Inconspicuous Bribes Weaken Intrinsic Motivation

REINFORCEMENT

HISTORY OF REINFORCEMENT

The term reinforcement was introduced by Pavlov in 1903.

The concept of reinforcement means getting the work completed by giving some incentives or rewards to the certain person.

REINFORCEMENT MEANING The term reinforcement means to strengthen, and is

used in psychology to refer to anything stimulus which strengthens, encouraging the designated behavior, or increases the probability of a specific response.

For example, if you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will result in a treat. This treat is reinforcing because he likes it and will result in him sitting when instructed to do so.

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment Reinforcement Extinction

Positive Reinforcement

Giving a positive response when an individual shows positive and required behavior. Think of it as adding something in order to increase a response. The most common types of positive reinforcement or praise and rewards.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative condition in order to strengthen a behavior.

It is a more effective tool for motivating employee behavior and students.

Negative reinforcement encourages students and employees to perform better so they can have an unpleasant condition removed from their work environment.

Punishment refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a behavior.

Punishment involves either presenting or taking away a stimulus in order to weaken a behavior.

Extinction: Process of eliminating any type of reinforcement causing any undesirable behavior

Punishment Reinforcement:

Modeling

Follow the Leader: The behavior of others increases the chances that we will do the same thing Clapping, looking out the window,

copying the styles and verbal expressions of our peers

Modeling

Modeling is an instructional strategy in which the teacher

demonstrates a new concept or approach to learning and students

learn by observing.

An engaging teaching strategy, able to reach the learning needs of most

students. As a technique, teacher modeling involves breaking down a

task into specific tasks, and demonstrating each task multiple times in

front of the class and the students observe and repeat this activity.

According to social theorist Albert Bandura

“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.”

How is Modeling done by the teacher

The teacher provides a structure to guidestudents by: Describing the skill or strategy Clearly describing features of the strategy or steps in

performing the skill Breaking the skill into learnable parts

Describing/modeling using a variety of techniques. Engaging students in learning through showing

enthusiasm, keeping a steady pace, asking good questions, and checking for student understanding

Types of Modeling

Disposition modelingIn disposition modeling, teachers and students convey personal values or ways of thinking.

Task and performance modeling Task modeling occurs when the teacher demonstrates

a task students will be expected to do on their own. Modeling as a scaffolding technique

When using modeling as a scaffolding technique, teachers must consider students’ position in the learning process.

Meta-cognitive modeling

Meta-cognitive modeling demonstrates how to think in lessons that focus on interpreting information and data, analyzing statements, and making conclusions about what has been learned.

Student-centered modeling

In student-centered modeling, teachers engage students who have mastered specific concepts or learning outcomes in the task of modeling for their peers.

Types of Modeling

Multiple Learning Modes

The teacher modeling strategy engages students who are :

Visual learners- see the teacher perform the task in front of

the class.

Auditory learners- hear the teacher describe each step.

Tactile learners- write notes about the process the teacher

uses

Kinesthetic learners- benefit by seeing the steps to

perform the lesson, allowing them to repeat the steps in their

Shaping Techniques

WHAT IS SHAPING?

Shaping is a procedure used to establish a behavior that is not presently performed by an individual

It was introduced by B.F. Skinner. Shaping assists in "discrimination", which is the

ability to tell the difference between stimuli that are and are not reinforced, and in "generalization", which is the application of a response learned in one situation to a different but similar situation.

There are four aspects of behavior that are particularly subject to shaping:

1. Topography -- spatial configuration or form of a particular response or the specific movement involved. Examples: printing a word and writing a word, the movements of a variety of sports, speech, etc.

2. Amount -- the frequency of a behavior (the number of times it occurs in a given time) or its duration (the length of time that a response lasts)

3. Latency -- reaction time4. Intensity -- the force of a response

What two principles are involved in shaping?

1. reinforcement and 2. extinctionWhen is Shaping Used? To develop new topographies of a

behavior To develop new dimensions of a behavior To restore old behaviors that are not

occurring Accidentally to develop problem

behaviors

Examples of Shaping Language development Getting a rat to press a lever Animal training Rehabilitation (O’Neill &

Gardner, 1983)

Using Shaping 1. Define the target behavior

- Final behavior should be stated in way that all the relevant characteristic of behavior ( topography, amount, latency and intensity2. Is shaping the preferred procedure?

- Use instructions/modeling/prompting if possible3. Identify the starting behavior

- The person must already exhibit the behavior- Choose a behavior you can build on to achieve the target behavior

4. Choose the shaping steps - Each step is a closer approximation to the target behavior

- Steps are not too bi- No specific guidelines for identifying the ideal step size.

Using Shaping 5. Choose the reinforcer

- Must function as a reinforcer for the individual- Consider the effects of satiation during shaping (use conditioned reinforcers)

6. Reinforce each successive approximation- Reinforce first approximation until it occurs a number of times

- Stop reinforcing first approximation and reinforce next approximation until it occurs a number of times

- Continue until the target behavior occurs7. Move at the proper pace

- Do not move to soon- Proceed in sufficiently small steps- Return to earlier approximation if you lose a behavior because you moving too fast.- It is also important not to progress too slowly

Example