Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength …...2017/06/01 · in percentage C 3 S 40 50 25...

Environmental Technology & Science Journal

Vol. 8 No. 1 June 2017

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Effect of Pozzolana on the Compressive Strength of

Concrete in Chemically Aggressive Environment 1Aka, A., 2Musa, A. A., 3Kaase, E.T. and 4Tukur, A. 1 Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 2, 3 and 4 Department of Building, Waziri Umaru Federal Polytechnic, Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State.

Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Concrete deteriorates considerably when exposed to aggressive chemicals such as sulphates and acids.

Incorporation of pozzolana to concrete can ameliorate its effectiveness in these chemicals but this has to be

experimentally established. This paper therefore investigates the effect of pozzolana; (rice husk ash (RHA),

powdered burnt brick (PBB) and saw dust ash (SDA)) on the compressive strength of concrete in chemically

aggressive environment. This was achieved by partially replacing concrete with 10 percent (%) of each

pozzolana to produce three different concrete samples. Samples of 100% concrete were equally produced to

serve as the control. The quantities of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate used for the production of

the specimens were obtained through absolute volume method of calculation. A mix ratio of 1: 2: 4 with water-

cement (w/c) ratio of 0.65 was adopted for the various specimen. 150x150x150mm twenty-seven (27) concrete

cubes were produced for each pozzolana and the control specimen. The specimens were cured for 28 days in

ordinary water after which they were equally and completely immersed in chemical solution of 5% H2SO4, 10%

MgSO4 and ordinary water for another 28 and 56 days. The specimens in ordinary water were used as the

control during the chemical test. The percentage reduction in strengths of RHA, PBB, SDA and the control

specimens in 10% MgSO4 at 56 days were observed to be 2.09%, 3.26%, 23.03% and 10.06% respectively. In

5% H2SO4, the percentage reductions in strengths of RHA, PBB, SDA and the control at 56 days were also

observed to be 25.13%, 21.27%, 52.19% and 33.61% respectively. The results show that RHA and PBB

concrete exhibit better strength than SDA and the control specimen in MgSO4 solution. All the specimens tested

in H2SO4 performed poorly at 56 days. The study concludes that RHA and PBB concrete are highly resistant to

MgSO4 and can be recommended as sulphate resistant additive in concrete production.

Keywords: Aggressive environment, Concrete, Compressive strength, Pozzolanana.

Introduction Concrete, a heterogeneous material is being

debilitated when exposed to certain

conditions. Among these conditions is

aggressive chemicals (Collepardi, 2003;

Dehwah, 2007). Aggressive chemicals are

substances such as sea-water/soil rich in

sulphates, nitrates, chlorides and carbonates

that are deleterious to any material in its

vicinity (Ogwu, 2001). Sadiq et al. (2001)

and Neville and Brooks (2002) affirmed

that the degree of the damage constitute by

these chemicals depends mainly on the

permeability of the concrete. This implies

that once concrete is sufficiently permeable

that water could percolate through its

thickness, calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH) 2)

will be leached out (Sadiq et al., 2001;

Neville and Brooks, 2002). The extensive

leaching of Ca (OH) 2 increases porosity

and consequently, concrete becomes feeble

in strength and liable to attack (Ogwu,

2001). According to Shetty (2005),

magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) is the main

salt that constitutes maximum damage in

concrete, and a characteristics whitish

appearance is the indication of its attack.

Neville and Brooks (2002) observed that

calcium aluminate (C3A) in porous concrete

is more prone to sulphates attack, and the

susceptibility of the attack can therefore, be

reduced through the application of cement

that is low in C3A. Alternatively, Feret

(1992) and Smeaton (2002) proposed for

the adoption of a Pozzolana.

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Aka, Musa, Kaase, Tukur Effect Of Pozzolanas On The Compressive Strength Of Concretes In Chemically Aggressive Environment

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Pozzolana is defined as siliceous materials

which in itself possesses little or no

cementitious properties but in finely divided

form and in the presence of moisture,

chemically reacts with Ca (OH)2 at ordinary

temperature to form a compound possessing

cementitious properties (Neville and

Brooks, 2002). Zelie et al. (2001)

accentuated that pozzolana can be

incorporated as active addition or

substitution to concrete due to its capacity

for reacting with lime. It is essential to

know that this lime principally originates

during the hydration of Portland cement

(Smeaton, 2002). Zelie et al. (2001) are of

the view that the result of this reaction

(pozzolanic reaction) leads to the formation

of cementitious compounds (tricalcium

silicate (C3S)). Zelie et al. (2001) further

declared that this C3S modifies the

properties of cement and the resulting

concrete.

Generally, researches have been conducted

by different researchers to explicate the

effectiveness of pozzolana as partial

replacement of cement in concrete

production (Kamang and Datok, 2001;

Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002; Sa’ad et al.,

2007; Dahiru and Zubairu, 2008; Garba and

Tahir, 2008). However, the reviewed

literature shows that limited studies exists

on the concrete that exhibits higher

performance when exposed to aggressive

environments. Premised to this gap in the

literature, this research examined the effect

of three different pozzolana (RHA, PBB

and SDA) on the compressive strength of

concrete in chemically aggressive

environment. Hence, the pozzolana (RHA,

BBP and SDA) that produces the highest

compressive strength concrete in ordinary

water and chemical solutions of MgSO4 and

H2SO4 were established at 28 and 56 days

curing periods.

Reviewed Literature Chemical Composition of Portland

cement

Based on the reviewed literature, Table 1

shows the chemical composition of Portland

cement.

Table 1: Chemical Composition of Portland

cement

Normal Rapid

Hardening

Low

Heat

(a)

Composition

in percentage

Lime 63.1 64.5 60

Silica 20.6 20.7 22.5

Alumina 6.3 5.2 5.2

Iron Oxide 3.6 2.9 4.6

(b) Compound

in percentage

C3S 40 50 25

C2S 30 21 35

C3A 11 9 6

C2A 12 9 14

Source: Holland (2005); Kosmatka et al. (2002)

Chemical Composition of Common

Pozzolana

From the reviewed literature, Table 2 and

Table 3 also indicates the chemical

composition of common pozzolana such as

RHA and Dutch Fly Ash .

Table 2: Chemical Composition of RHA

Constituent % Composition

Fe2O3

SiO2

CaO

Al2O3

MgO

L.O.I

0.95

67.30

1.36

4.90

1.81

17.78

Source: Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006)




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Table 3: Chemical Composition of Dutch Fly Ash

Fly ash sample

(%m/m)

Average values

(%m/m)

CUR No. 12

SiO2

Al2O

Fe2O

Na2O

K2O

CaO

MgO

TiO2

P2O5

SO3

C

49.6

26.1

6.8

0.46

1.96

2.7

1.68

1.05

0.55

0.72

5.7

-

-

-

-

-

< 5.0

< 4.0

-

-

< 2.5

< 5.0

Source: Balkema (1992)

Materials and Methods Materials

The materials that were used for this study

includes: Powdered Burnt Bricks (PBB),

Rice Husk Ash (RHA), Saw Dust Ash

(SDA), Fine Aggregate (Sand), Coarse

Aggregate (Gravel), Ordinary Portland

Cement (OPC) (Dangote Brand),

concentrated solutions of H2SO4 / MgSO4

and tap water. The PBB was obtained from

broken burnt bricks which were sourced

from Funtua Bricks Producing Industry

Funtua, Katsina State. Pieces of the broken

bricks were subjected to manual crushing

using pestle and mortar in the laboratory to

form powdering particles. The powder was

then sieved using electric vibrating table

shaker. Only powdered particles that passed

through the 75-micron standard BS sieve

(No. 200) were collected and used for the

research. The Rice Husk used was obtained

from Samaru Rice Milling Factory, Zaria. It

was burnt into ashes through the electric

furnace in Industrial Design Centre, Zaria.

Rice Husk was converted into ashes at

control temperature of 650 °C for six hours

(Dahiru and Zubairu, 2008). The ash

obtained was then ground in grinding

machine and sieved with the use of the

same micrometer sieve that was used for the

PBB. Also, the saw dust used for the study

was obtained from local furniture making

beside Samaru market in Zaria. It was sun-

dried and then converted into ashes at

control temperature of 650 °C for six hours

(Elinwa and Mahmood, 2002). The ash

obtained (SDA) was then grounded in

grinding machine and sieved using the same

sieve as above.

Further, the coarse aggregate used was

crushed granite stones obtained from a

single quarry site along Sokoto-Zaria road,

opposite School of Aviation Technology

Zaria. The aggregate was sieved using

standard sieves and the one obtained

between 10 and 20mm sieves were used for

the production of the test samples. The fine

aggregate (sand) used was naturally,

occurring clean sharp river sand. It was

sieved using standard BS 4.75mm sieve size

to remove impurities and only those that

passed through the sieve was used for the

samples production. The magnesium

sulphate (MgSO4) and sulphuric acid

(H2SO4) used for the research were obtained

from Chemistry Laboratory of Ahmadu

Bello University, Zaria. They were prepared

into different percentage (%) concentrations

through the method of chemical water

addition (H2SO4,) and chemical water

dissolution (MgSO4). Thus, 5% H2SO4, 5%

MgSO4 and 10% MgSO4 ware prepared and

used for the research. These were done in

accordance to ASTM C 1012

recommendation. ASTM C 1012

recommends minimum of 5% and

maximum of 10% Sulphate solution to carry

out sulphate attack on concrete. Ordinary

tap water good for drinking was adopted

throughout the design mix. The chemical

analysis tests that was conducted on RHA,

PBB and SDA to determine their percentage

composition of iron oxide (Fe2O2), silicon

oxide (SiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO),

aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and Loss on

Ignition (LOI) was conducted in energy

research center, Zaria. The tests were done

in accordance to ASTM C 168-94

recommendations.



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Physical Properties of Materials

The specific gravity of the various samples

of PBB, RHA and SDA were determined in

the laboratory in accordance to the

requirement of ASTM C 127-93 (1993).

The uncompacted bulk density of each

pozzolana and fine aggregate were

determined by the method recommended by

BS 812: Part 2 (1990). The moisture content

test of samples of RHA, PBB and SDA

were also determined in accordance to BS

1377: Part 2 (1990).

Specimens Production and Compressive

Strength Test

The concrete cubes produced for this study

includes OPC/RHA, OPC/PBB, OPC/SDA

and 100% OPC. The 100% OPC cube

served as the control. 0.65 water / cement

(w/c) ratio was adopted for all the

specimens produced. The w/c ratios were

obtained from the results of the trial mix

design that was first conducted before the

start of the actual mix. Absolute volume

method of calculation was used to

determine the quantities of the materials

used for the research. Physical properties

such as workability, setting time and

soundness of the mix were determined in

accordance with ASTM C 143-78, ASTM C

451-89 and BS 4550: 1992 respectively. It

is essential to know that twenty seven (27)

samples of 150x 150 x150mm concrete

cubes were produced for each pozzolana as

well as the control. Curing of the concrete

cubes was done by complete immersion in

ordinary water for 28 days. At 28 days

curing periods, three concrete cubes were

removed from each pozzolana and the

control. The cubes were allowed to dry in

open air for 6 hours and thereafter,

subjected to compressive strength test. The

remaining concrete cubes were

subsequently allowed to dry and then

transferred (completely immersed) into

chemical solutions of 5% MgSO4, 10%

MgSO4 and 5% H2SO4 for another 28 and

56 days. Samples of RHA, PBB, SDA and

control were equally immersed in ordinary

water at the start of the chemical test which

served as the basis of the comparison. The

specimens in chemicals were covered with

polythene leather to prevent air interruption

that could affect the concentration of the

chemicals (ASTM C 1012). At 28 days

immersion, three concrete cubes were

removed from each chemical and ordinary

water. The cubes were also allowed to dry

in open air for 6 hours and thereafter,

subjected to strength test in aggressive

chemicals. This was also repeated at 56

days. The percentage reduction in strengths

of the specimens in water/various chemicals

were determined at each immersion period

(28 and 56 days) and compared. These

served as the main findings, conclusion and

recommendations of the study.

Results and Discussion

The Results of the Physical Properties of

Materials

The results of the physical property test

conducted on the pozzolana (RHA, PBB

and SDA) and the sand used for the

research are shown in Table 4. From the

results, PBB gives the highest specific

gravity of 2.54 while SDA gives the lowest

value of 2.13. The value obtained on PBB

complied with BS 12:1991 which specified

its range to be minimum of 2.20 and

maximum of 2.80.The specific gravity of

RHA and SDA are within the range of 1.9

to 2.4 recommended for pulverized fuel ash

(Neville, 1996) and also similar to the

values reported by Oyetola and Abdullahi

(2006) and Dashan and kamang (1999) on

Acha Husk Ash (AHA) and RHA which

was 2.13 for RHA and 2.12 for AHA. The

specific gravity of the three materials are

less than the specific gravity of Ordinary

Portland Cement of 3.15 (Neville, 1996).

This means that the three materials are

lightweight constituents. The difference in




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the specific gravity of the three materials

(RHA, PBB, and SDA) may be due to the

dissimilarity in their biological origin. This

may also be the reason to the disparity in

the materials weight. Based on this findings,

it can be concluded that SDA is the lightest

in weight among the three materials

followed by RHA. This consent with the

findings of Sa’ad (2005) on different PBB

samples.

Further, the compacted bulk density of

RHA, PBB and SDA were found to be 670

kg/m3, 1117kg/m3 and 660 kg/m3

respectively. The values obtained in RHA

and SDA are close to the one reported by

Oyetola and Abdullahi (2006), Nensok et

al. (2012) and Aka et al. (2015). While the

value obtained on PBB is also close to 1115

k/m3 reported by Taylor (1991) and Aka et

al. (2012). It was notable that the bulk

density of RHA, PBB and SDA are less

than that of OPC (1440kg/m3) (Neville,

1996). This further confirmed that the three

materials are actually lightweight materials.

The compacted bulk density of sand used

for the research was found to be very close

to the range speculated by Jackson and Dhir

(1998), which ranges from 1650 Kg/m3 to

1850kg/m3 specifically for all sandy soils

before excavation. Table 4: Physical Properties of RHA, PBB, SDA

and Sand S/No Properties Sample type and description

RHA PBB SDA Sand

1 Specific

Gravity

2.15 2.54 2.13 2.65

2 Compacted

Bulk

Density

(kg/m3)

670 1117 660 1600

3 Un-

compacted

Bulk

Density

(kg/m3)

540 980 530 1490

4 Moisture

Content

(%)

1.01 1.01 1.01

The Results of Chemical Analysis

The chemical analyses of RHA, PBB and

SDA are presented in Tables 5, 6 and 7

respectively. The percentage total content of

Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)

and Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) on RHA,

PBB and SDA were found to be 76.16%,

75.8% and 61.14% respectively. Both

values on RHA and PBB are greater than

the minimum of 70% specified in ASTM C

618-94 while that of SDA is less. ASTM C

618 - 94 stipulates that the percentage total

content of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 in any

pozzolana should not be less than 70%. The

Loss on Ignition (L.O.I) obtained was 4.52

for RHA, 0.78 for PBB and 12.5 for SDA.

The value obtained on RHA and PBB are

less than the 12% maximum required for

pozzolana (ASTM C 618 -94, 1994) while

that of SDA is slightly higher. This means

that SDA contain more un-burnt carbon that

might have reduced its pozzolanic activities

(Oyetola and Abdullahi, 2006).

The Results of Workability Test

The results of the workability test shown in

Table 8 on each specimen sample indicate

that the slumps for 100% OPC and that of

10% replacement of each pozzolana were

within the range of 6-10 mm. These indicate

low workability (ASTM C 143-78). Also,

the result of the compacting factor test on

all the pastes ranges from 0.72 to 0.74

which also indicates low workability

(Shetty, 2005).The compacting factor test

on all the pastes is closed to the range of

0.85-0.92 recommended by Shetty (2005)

for roads and slabs concrete. It was

observed from the tests results that mixes

containing 10% replacement of RHA and

SDA have lower slump than that of PBB

and 100% OPC. According to Kamang

(1999), this may be due to the high un-burnt

carbon content in RHA and SDA pastes that

made the two materials to absorb more

water than PBB and 100% OPC pastes.



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Table 5: Chemical Analysis of RHA

Constituent SiO2 Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO L.O.I

% composition 69.5 2.16 4.50 1.50 4.52

Table 6: Chemical Analysis of PBB


% composition 60.50 5.30 10.00 1.70 0.78

Table 7: Chemical Analysis of SDA


% composition 46.5 2.14 12.5 9.25 12.5

Table 8: Workability of the Pastes

S/No Paste

Sample

W/c

Ratio

Degree of workability

Slump(mm) Compacting

factor

1 100%OPC 0.65 10 0.74

2 RHA/OPC 0.65 6 0.72

3 PBB/OPC 0.65 8 0.73

4 SDA/OPC 0.65 6 0.72

The Results of Setting Time Test

The result of the setting time test for each

pozzolana and 100% OPC pastes are

presented in Table 9. From the results, it

can be observed that SDA paste has the

highest initial and final setting time while

100% OPC has the least. This could be due

to the higher heat of hydration evolved by

100% OPC paste over SDA, RHA and PBB

pastes. Literature shows that the reaction

between cement and water is exothermic

which can lead to the liberation of heat to

the surrounding, evaporation of moisture

and consequent stiffened of the pastes

(Neville, 1996). Therefore, as OPC is being

replaced with pozzolana, the rate of reaction

may be reduced and the quantity of heat

liberated into the surrounding also reduced.

Hence, the late stiffening of the pastes. It is

expected that with the introduction of

pozzolana to cement paste, the lower the

heat liberated hence, the longer the

hydration period as well as the setting time

period (Neville, 1996).The difference in

initial and final setting times of each

pozzolan paste might be due to difference in

particles found in each pozzolana. The

initial and final setting time of all the pastes

tested were within the range recommended

for OPC paste. That is, minimum of 45

minutes for initial setting and a maximum

of 10 hours for final setting (BS 4550,

1992).

The Results of the Soundness Test

The results obtained on soundness tests

carried out on each sample of pozzolana and

100% OPC paste are presented in Table 10.

It was observed that RHA and PBB have

lower expansion as compared to SDA and

100% OPC cubes. The results of all the

samples tested complied with BS 812 part

121:1989 recommendation.




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Table 9: Setting Time (Minutes)

S/No Sample

paste

Initial

setting

time(minutes)

Final

setting

time (minutes)

1 100%OPC 90 190

2 RHA/OPC 150 240

3 SDA/OPC 180 290

4 PBB/OPC 130 270

Table 10: Soundness (mm)

S/No Specimen

sample

Initial

pointers

reading

before

boiling (mm)

Final

pointers

reading

after

boiling (mm)

Expansion

(mm)

1 100% OPC 3 3.5 0.5

2 RHA 3 3.2 0.2

3 PBB 3 3.2 0.2

4 SDA 3 3.5 0.5

The Results of Density and Compressive

Strength Tests

(A) In ordinary water

BS 8110 (1995) recommends that the

strengths of lightweight structural concrete

should range from 20-40 N/mm2 at 28 days

curing periods. From the study conducted,

all the concrete mixes attained the minimum

compressive strength at 28 days (Table 11)

exception of SDA/OPC cubes that was

observed to have compressive strength of

18.05 N/mm2.

(B) In chemical solutions of MgSO4

From the results that is presented in Table

12 and 13, it can be observed that there is

no substantial difference in the densities of

the specimens in water at 28 and 56

hydration periods. This might mean that

specimens in ordinary water were

adequately compacted during mixing

(Neville and Brooks, 2202). Neville and

Brooks (2002) accentuated that when

concrete is adequately compacted, excessive

water that can lead to density increase will

not be able to penetration into the capillary

pores of the specimens. Also, the densities

of all the specimens in ordinary water at 28

and 56 days are within the range

recommended for normal weight concrete

which is between 2355 to 2560 kg/m3

(Everett, 1990).

In 5% MgSO4 solution, the percentage

strength reduction of 100% OPC and PBB

in this chemical at 28 days were observed to

be lower than the percentage strength

reduction of RHA and SDA. However, as

hydration progressed (56 days) the

percentage strength reduction of RHA was

observed to be lower than the percentage

strength reduction of 100% OPC, PBB and

SDA. Also, the densities of the various

specimens in this chemical were observed

to be higher than their densities in ordinary

water. In 10% MgSO4, the percentage

strength reduction of 100% OPC and PBB

at 28 days were also observed to be lower

than the percentage strength reduction of

RHA and SDA. Conversely, at 56 days, the

percentage strength reduction of RHA was

observed to be lower than the percentage

strength reduction of 100% OPC, PBB and

SDA. Also, the densities of all the

specimens in this chemical solution were

observed to be higher than their densities in

ordinary water at 56 days.



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Table 11: Average Initial Compressive Strengths of Specimen Cubes in Water at 28 Days Before

Chemical Test.

S/No Specimen Sample W/C

Ratio

Average Density

(kg/m3)

Average

Compressive

Strength(N/mm2)

1 100% OPC 0.60 2439.50 24.70

2 RHA/OPC 0.65 2380.45 21.10

3 PBB/OPC 0.65 2400. 00 22.70

4 SDA/OPC 0.65 2390.00 18.05

Table 12: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 5% MgSO4

Specimens Compressive strengths (N/mm2)

Water 5% MgSO4

(Control) 28 Days

Average density (Kg/m3)

Water 5% MgSO4

(Control) 28 Days

Percentage

strength

reduction (%)

100% OPC 28.80 28.55 2449.38 2439.51 0.87

OPC/RHA 24.30 23.50 2380.45 2390.00 3.29

OPC/PBB 26.30 25.60 2409.88 2400.00 2.67

OPC/SDA 20.10 19.00 2370.78 2380.45 5.47

56 Days 56 Days

100% OPC 31.60 30.52 2488.89 2479.01 3.42

OPC/RHA 28.25 28.00 2390.00 2409.88 0.88

OPC/PBB 28.20 27.84 2419.75 2419.75 1.28

OPC/SDA 22.80 20.25 2400.00 2409.88 11.18

Table 13: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 10% MgSO4


Water 10% MgSO4

(Control) 28 Days


Water 10% MgSO4

(Control) 28 Days

Percentage

strength

reduction (%)

100% OPC 28.80 27.55 2449.38 2459.26 4.34

OPC/RHA 24.30 22.30 2380.45 2400.00 8.23

OPC/PBB 26.30 24.30 2409.88 2400.00 7.60

OPC/SDA 20.10 17.40 2370.78 2409.88 13.43

56 Days 56 Days

100% OPC 31.60 28.42 2488.89 2479.01 10.06

OPC/RHA 28.25 27.66 2390.00 2409.88 2.09

OPC/PBB 28.20 27.28 2419.75 2429.63 3.26

OPC/SDA 22.80 17.55 2400.00 2429.63 23.03

Hence, increase in density of a specimen in

MgSO4 solution may mean that the

specimen was not well compacted or being

permeable to chemical denser than water

and as a result, being penetrated by MgSO4.

This adds to the densities of the specimen

due to crystal (gypsum (CaSO4)) deposition

on the pores of the sample. Hence, the

highest increase in densities specimen may

mean the least resistant to sulphate attack

(Neville and Brooks, 2002; Shetty, 2005).

(C) In chemical solution of H2SO4

Table 14 shows the densities and

compressive straights of specimens in 5%

H2SO4 at 28 and 56 days. High strengths

reduction was observed in all the specimens

tested in 5% H2SO4 at 56 days. Severe

reduction in densities were also observed in

all the specimens at 28 and 56 days.

Reduction in density of a specimen in

H2SO4 may mean that H2SO4 was too

corrosive which led to loss of mortar on the

specimen and the consequent reduction in




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Table 14: Average 28 and 56 Days Compressive Strengths of Specimens in 5% H2SO4


Water 5% H2SO4

(Control)

28 Days


Water 5% H2SO4

(Control)

28 Days

Percentage

strength

reduction (%)

100% OPC 28.80 22.67 2449.38 2350.61 21.28

OPC/RHA 24.30 20.00 2380.45 2360.49 17.70

OPC/PBB 26.30 22.05 2409.88 2370.37 16.16

OPC/SDA 20.10 12.78 2370.78 2360.49 36.42

56 Days 56 Days

100% OPC 31.60 20.98 2488.89 2350.61 33.61

OPC/RHA 28.25 21.15 2390.00 2370.37 25.13

OPC/PBB 28.20 22.20 2419.75 2360.49 21.27

OPC/SDA 22.80 10.90 2400.00 2360.49 52.19

density of the specimen. Hence, the least

reduction in density specimen in H2SO4

may mean the highest resistant to attack by

the corrosive media (H2SO4) (Neville and

Brooks, 2002; Shetty, 2005) .

Conclusions

Based on the outcomes of chemical tests

conducted on RHA, PBB, SDA and 100%

OPC concretes, it can be concluded that:

• RHA concrete has higher strength

than PBB and SDA in ordinary water

and chemical solution of

MgSO4 specifically at 56 days curing

period;

• PBB concrete exhibits higher

strength than SDA concrete in ordinary

water and chemical

solution of MgSO4;

• RHA and PBB can be adopted as

sulphate resistant additive in concrete

production, and

• OPC/RHA, OPC/ PBB and

OPC/SDA concretes perform poorly in

5% H2SO4.

It can be also be said that the density of

OPC/RHA, OPC/ PBB and OPC/SDA

concretes increase drastically when exposed

to 10% MgSO4 but decrease in 5% H2SO4

at 56 days. The aforementioned concretes

are also liable to cracking and warping in

10% MgSO4 / 5% H2SO4 at 28 days.

Further, this study also shows that the

cracking conditions of concretes exposed to

H2SO4 is more severe than that of 10%

MgSO4.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the

following recommendations were made:

• RHA and PBB are recommended for

production of sulphates resisting

concretes;

• Effects of other sulphates different

from MgSO4 should be carried out on

RHA and PBB concretes

so as to further examine their

performance in sulphates environment.

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(2015): Effect of Rice Husk Ash on

the Compressive Strength of

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Review on Delayed Ettringite

Attack on Concrete, Cement and

Concrete Composites, 25, 401-407

Dehwah, H.A.F. (2007). Effect of Sulfate

Concentration and Associated

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Deterioration and Morphological

Changes in Cement Hydrates,

Construction and Building

Materials, 21, 29-39

Dahiru, D. and Zubairu, I.K. (2008). An

assessment of properties of concrete

made with Rice Husk Ash as partial

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Elinwa, A.U. and Mahmood, Y.A. (2002).

Ash from Timber Waste as cement

Replacement Materials, Cement and

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222.

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Pozzolana on the Strength of Lime

Natural Pozzolan cement Pasts.

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1189-1195.

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Comparative Sulphate Resistance of

Pozzolanic Cement Mortal, Journal

of Engineering and Technology

(JET) 3(1), 75-81.

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Association and United States

Department of Transportation.

Federal Highway Administration

Technical Report FHWA-IF-05-016.

Available at: www.slicafume.org/

pdf/silicafume-users-manual

(retrieved October 31, 2014), pp. 2-8

Kosmatka, S., Kerkhoff, B. and Panerese,

W. (2002): Design and Control of

Concrete Mixtures (14th edition).

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effects of chemicals on the


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http://www.slicafume.org/%20pdf/silicafume-users-manual




properties of OPC/PFA Concrete,

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Technology and Management, 4, 12-

19.

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Concrete. , London, UK: Longman

Group Ltd. Pp. 62-67.

Neville, A.M. and Brooks, J.J. (2002).

Concrete Technology, (2nd Edition).

Delhi, India: Person Education Ltd,.,

Pp. 8-15, 18-34.

Nensok, M.H., Aka, A. and Adamu, N.

(2012): Impact of Relative Humidity

and Air Temperature on the

Mechanical Properties of Rice Husk

Ash (RHA) Blended Cement

Concrete. International Journal of

Scientific Innovations, 4(1), pp 16-

19.

Ogwu, A.A. (2001). The Effect of

Aggressive Chemicals on the

Strength of Concrete. Lagos: Fore

Sight Press Limited. Pp. 9-12.

Oyetota, E.B. and Abdullahi, M. (2006).The

use of Rice Husk Ash in Low Cost

Sand Crete Block Production,

Nigeria Journal of Construction

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(NJCTM ), 6 (1) pp 6-9.

Smeaton, A.R. (2002): Improving the

Environmental Performance of

Pozzolana in Concrete. Concrete

Industry Alliance Report. Available

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reports (retrieved Sept. 12, 2005), pp

1-14.

Sa’ad, M.M. (2005). Comparative

Pozzolanic Activity of Selected

Burnt Bricks. Unpublished M.Sc.

Thesis. Department of Building

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Sa’ad, M.M., Garba M.M. and Okoli O. G.

(2007) Comparative Strength of

Pozzolana- Portland cement mortar;

Nigerian Journal of Construction,

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2(2),86-91.

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(2001): Strength Evaluation of

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Environment. Nigerian Journal of

construction, Technology and

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Environment.

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Zelie, J., Russie, D., Vera, D., and

Krestulovie, R. (2001): Reactivity of

various pozzolanic materials. Cement

and Concrete Research, 30(1), pp. 16-

55.




12

Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change

Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria 1 Odegbenro F.J. and 2 Ojoye S. 1Centre for Human Settlements and Urban Development (CHSUD), Federal University of Technology, Minna. 2Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology, Minna.

Abstract Climate change represents a significant environmental, social and economic threat and is now firmly recognized

by the majority of the world’s governments and scientists as an issue of extreme concern for the planet. The

study examines the public perception of climate change on both local and global scales by residents of Minna,

Niger State. Both Primary and secondary data were used for the analysis. The primary data for the study was

collected by the administration of a structured questionnaire and conduction of group discussions while the

secondary data was sourced from written materials on climate change. The results revealed that 85.6% of the

public were aware of the change in climate using change rainfall and temperature pattern as indicators. The

respondents noticed that there are changes in the amount of rainfall received and increase in average daily

temperature while14.4% were completely unaware of climate change issues. The study thereby recommended

among others that information and communication technology be used to sensitize people on the effects of

changing climate. Keywords: assessment, climate change, global warming, greenhouse gas, perception

Introduction Cities all over the world have witnessed

significant change in climate due to global

warming caused by greenhouse gas

emission and other activities of man. The

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change [IPCC](2007), forecasts a

temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees

Fahrenheit over the next century. The

effects of global climate change are very

diverse. During the last century, the earth’s

average surface temperature rose by around

0.6oC and by the end of this century, the

global average surface temperature is

expected to rise by a further 1.1 to 6.4oC

(IPCC, 2007). Climate change currently

contributes to the global burden of disease

and pre-mature deaths. Okali (2008)

observed as quoted by Adeoti (2008) that

human beings are directly exposed to

climate change through changing weather

patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-

level rise and more frequent extreme

events) and indirectly through changes in

ecosystems, agriculture, industry and

settlements and the economy.

One of the causes of climate change is fossil

fuel combustion. In Africa, only a few

countries account for the bulk of the

region’s emission from fossil fuels. These

are Nigeria, Egypt and Algeria which

together account for 35.5% of total fossil

fuel emission from the continent. In fact,

Nigeria is the largest contributor of carbon

dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the

West African sub-region (World Bank

Report, 1995). In Nigeria, only a relatively

small proportion of the natural gas produced

is utilized and as much as 76 per cent of the

gas is flared (World bank Report, 1995).

Nigeria Natural gas comprises per cent

methane1.5-2.0. Carbon dioxide 1.4-2.4,

heavier hydrocarbons 3.9-5.3 per cent, and

ethane, among other compounds (Jones et

al., 1998) thereby contributing substantially

to greenhouse gases locally and invariably

to the global climate.

Odegbenro, Ojoye

Assessment of Public Perception of Climate Change Issues in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria

13

Nigeria is among the nations of the world

that have been at the forefront of the global

efforts in addressing climate change and its

effects even though the resources for

understanding the magnitude and potential

impacts on its economy is low. Despite this

effort and knowledge of the fact that human

activities majorly through deforestation and

fossil fuel combustion, affect the

environment and greatly contribute to

global warming which in turn brings about

climate change, the question is, how

informed are the people whose activities

contribute adversely to climate change and

for whom efforts are being made by world

leaders and scientists to discover mitigation

and adaptation strategies to climate change?

One of the ways the impact of climate

change can be addressed is to acknowledge

the issue, discuss and share the knowledge.

It is important to note that people’s

perception of and reaction to, vary between

economic status and literacy level. In most

developed countries, regular perception

studies are conducted in form of opinion

survey. Such surveys are necessary in order

to create awareness about an issue but this

is missing in developing countries where

the majorities are dependent on economic

activities that are sensitive to climate such

as agriculture and forestry activities.

Leizerowitz (2004) observed that despite

the scientific warnings of earlier decades,

global warming did not become a public

issue until 1988-the hottest year since the

19th century and thereafter, numerous

public opinions have found that the

Americans, Europeans and Japanese are

increasingly aware of and concerned about

global climate change and supportive of a

wide range of mitigation and adaptation

studies. The world poll partner (2010)

discovered through the Pew Global

Attitudes Survey conducted that majority of

respondents from developed countries had

heard of global warming, while awareness

remained quite low in several developing

countries in particular, large categories of

respondents had never heard of global

warming in Pakistan, Indonesia, Nigeria,

and Egypt. This result suggests that many

have not heard about global warming

causing climate to change. There have been

a lot of researches on climate and climate

change and its threats to humanity and

adaptation strategies by authors both within

and outside Nigeria, however, only few

studies exist on public perception of climate

change.

In response to the report, similar studies

were carried out in Lagos, Ibadan and

Kaduna on climate change awareness in

Nigeria with the result showing that climate

change awareness increases with the level

of urbanization and education. The study

conducted by Adelekan (2005) within

Ibadan city revealed that a significant

proportion of the public is aware of the

dynamics of the local climate. In addition,

70% of the respondents have heard of

global climate change but less than 25%

know the causes. Ishaya (2008) examined

the way indigenous people in Jema’a Local

Government Area of Kaduna State

perceived climate change and the author

concluded that lack of awareness and

knowledge of climate change scenarios are

the hindering factors to the adoption of

modern techniques of combating climate

change in the area. The response by

experienced farmers in Jema’a on the

identified effects of climate changes in the

area indicated observed increase in

temperature and decrease in rainfall

quantity. Gbadegesin and Ogundele (2008)

revealed that Lagos level of awareness tally

with the current perception of climate

change in the USA. Most Lagos residents

are aware of the climate change issues and

concluded that awareness increases with



14

level of urbanization, educational status and

to some extent, gender and age.

It is against this background that this

research paper assessed the public level of

knowledge on climate change issues within

Minna metropolis, how they understood the

environment and in addition to investigate

their sources of information on the issue

which could serve as a tool for decision

making on ways to increase climate change

awareness.

The Study Area Minna is the capital of Niger state, Nigeria.

Its conversion to a state capital gave rise to

its population growth with the majority

working with the government and the

livelihood of the remaining population is

dependent on agriculture, trading and

transportation. The metropolis has a mean

annual rainfall of 1334mm. The highest

mean monthly rainfall is September with

almost 300mm. The rainy season starts in

April and lasts to October. The duration of

rains is between 190-200 days. The mean

monthly temperature is highest during the

peak of the dry season usually between

Februarys and March at 37.80C and lowest

in August at 25.80C.The study covered two

local government areas that make up Minna

metropolis; which are Bosso and

Chanchaga. Bosso is a Local Government

area in Niger state with its headquarters in

Maikunkele. It occupies an area of

1,592km2 and a population of 147,359 at

the 2006 census. Chanchaga has its capital

being Minna. It has an area of 72km2 and a

population of 201, 429 at the 2006 census.

The whole study area has been further

subdivided into six major districts namely:

Bosso, Maikunkele, F-layout/GRA, Tunga,

Chanchaga and the Central Business

District comprising of Mobil area, Keterin-

gwari, Kwangila, Yoruba road and Lagos

street.

Figure 1: The study area

Source: Niger State Ministry of Lands and Housing,

2016

Methodology Primary and Secondary data were

employed. Primary data through structured

questionnaire and oral interview were used

to collect information on the socio and

demographic characteristics of respondents,

questions were structured to address the

respondents’ consciousness of prevailing

climatic conditions, level of knowledge

about climate change in particular on key

climatic element of temperature and

rainfall. Secondary data on temperature and

rainfall were collected from the Nigerian

Meteorological Agency (NIMET) in Minna

(on climatic conditions of Minna metropolis

showing the maximum and minimum

temperatures) for the period of 20 years

(1988-2008). A total of 208 responded, out

of 240 questionnaires distributed. This

number participated in the study across the

different socio-economic strata of the study

area which was sub-divided into six districts

for the purpose of this study.

In order to have an unbiased sample;

random sampling was used within the

districts. Simple frequency analysis was

Odegbenro, Ojoye


15

used to compute the onset and cessation

dates of rain and the trend of heat waves.

Chi-Square analysis was used to measure

the reliability and significance of data by

comparing observed measurement with the

expected.

Results and Discussion

Socio-Economic Characteristics of

respondents

Age of Respondents

Out of the two hundred and eight

respondents (208) respondents, 57.2% were

males while 42.3% were female. Majority

of the respondents (56.3) %, were between

20-40 years of age, 21.3%, falls below 20

years, 18.8% % were between 41-60 years

while the elderly between the ages of 61-80

years were3.8%, implying that the

respondents were vibrant.

Educational Level of Respondents

The study had respondents with post-

secondary educational level taking 81.7%,

those with secondary education were

13.0%; 2.4% had no formal education

whereas those with only primary education

were 4.3%. The educational statuses of the

respondents were high due to amongst other

factors, the establishment of Federal

University of Technology, College of

Education and a National Examination

body. This portends that the respondents

were enlightened.

Occupation of Respondents

The study revealed that 29.8% of the

respondents were civil servants, 52.4% were

students, those that were artisans are 10.1%,

traders are 4.8% and farmers were 2.9%. It

can be deduced that the respondents were

actively engaged in one trade or the other

and there are evidences that they are

conversant with their locality and their

immediate environment.

Residency Period

To establish the level of awareness of the

respondents as regards changes experienced

both in temperature and rainfall, the year of

residency of the respondents became

essential. Respondents who had lived in

Minna for over 20 years were 15.9%, 41.3%

had been living in Minna for 11-15 years,

17.3% had residency period of 6-10 years

and 15.9% had lived below 5years.

Knowledge of change in the pattern of

rainfall

Knowledge of Past and Present start of

rain

The respondents opined that there is an

observable change in pattern of rainfall

from their experiences in the past and

present years.. Table1: Educational Level of Respondents

Education Frequency Percentage

Post-Secondary 169 81.7

Secondary 27 13.0

Primary 8 4.3

Non formal 4 2.4

Total 208 100.0

Table 1: Respondents Residency Period

Residency Period Frequency Percentage

0-5 years 33 15.9

6-10 years 36 17.3

11-15 years 86 41.3

16-20 years 20 9.6

Above 20 years 33 15.9



16

Total 208 100.0

51.4% said in the past 20 years that rain

used to start around April, 17.3% claimed

the month of May as the beginning of rainy

season and another 17.3% claimed that start

of rain was in March. Presently, 44.7% of

the respondents’ still observed the start of

rain to be in the month of April, 35.6%

submitted the month of May while 7.7%

believed commencement of rain as March.

It could be deduced that the data for month

of April was reduced while the month of

May was increased implying that the start of

rain has changed from the month of April to

May in Minna as presented figure 2a.

Knowledge of Past and Present cessation

of rain

It was observed that 43.8% of the

respondents observed that the past cessation

of rain was November, 37.5% opined it was

in the month of October while13.5%

claimed that it was in the month of

September. While considering the present

cessation of rain, 13.5 % claimed it was the

month of September, 50% of the

respondents claimed it was in October while

only 11.1% observed November as the

present cessation of rain and 25.4% were

not sure. The result gives a sharp shift from

43.8% that claimed November to 11.1%

while the month of October receive the

biggest nod as the present cessation of rain

(see figure 2b). This implies that the people

are observant and invariably aware of the

changing climate.

Figure 2a: Past and Present onset of rain

Figure 2b: Past and Present end of rain

Knowledge of temperature

Temperature values were also used as

indicator to examine the public knowledge

of changes in climate. 54.3% was of the

opinion that the temperature used to be hot,

32.2% said the temperature used to be very

hot while only 6.2% opined it used to be

extremely hot. Presently, 37.0% were of the

opinion that the temperature is hot, 28.4%

believed it to be very hot while 13.5%

thought the temperature is extremely hot.

The percentages of those respondents who

observed that the temperature used to be hot

decreased while extremely hot respondents’

increased which buttressed the

internationally acclaimed fact that the world

temperature is indeed changing. This

Odegbenro, Ojoye


17

implies that the consciousness and level of

awareness of the people is high. Table 2: Maximum and Minimum Temperature

for Minna (1988-2007)

Year Max.

Temperature

C

Min.

Temperature

C

1988 38.52 26.52

1989 32.49 20.49

1990 39.01 27.01

1991 41.34 29.38

1992 35.06 23.06

1993 34.82 22.81

1994 41.13 29.13

1995 34.45 22.45

1996 39.23 27.23

1997 36.30 24.30

1998 38.80 26.80

1999 39.62 27.62

2000 37.10 25.10

2001 39.27 27.27

2002 35.16 23.16

2003 32.25 20.25

2004 34.63 22.63

2005 42.86 30.86

2006 31.67 19.67

2007 42.67 30.67

Source: Nigerian Meteorological Agency, Minna,

2010

Cause of Changes in rainfall and

temperature pattern

The result of the public perception on

changing pattern of rainfall and temperature

indicate that 48.5% identified climate

change and global warming as a cause. 13.0

relate it to human activities, 25.5% opined

that the change results from position of the

globe while 13.0 had no idea and 0.55

attached change to an act of God(received

when asked about reasons behind the

change in rainfall and temperature pattern

were categorized and presented: 48.5%

were quick to mention climate change and

global warming,13. 0% said human

activities, 25.5% opined that the change

resulted from position of the globe, while

13.0% had no idea, only 0.5% of the

respondent attached change to act of God.

Table 3: Causes of Change in Rainfall and

Temperature

Cause of Change Frequency Percentage

Climate

Change/Global

Warming

97 46.6

Human Activities 30 14.4

Position of the globe 53 25.5

No idea 27 13.0

Spiritual(Act of

God)

1 0.5

Total 208 100.0

Source: Authors Field Survey (2011)

Knowledge of the term “global warming”

and “climate change”

The results on the concepts of global

warming and climate change shows that the

majority are conversant with happenings

around them. 85.6% are aware of the terms

while only14.4% claimed not to have heard

about them.

Source of information

On the source of information available to

people on their awareness of global climate

issues, 26.6% said through television

programmes, 22.8% of respondents claimed

that their occupation contributed to their

knowledge of climate change and 13.5%

who mostly student, gathered the

information from the internet/classroom,

from the newspaper carried 6.2% and 4.8%

acknowledge they heard from family and

friends while 4.8% got their information on

the radio. This invariably implied that

television remains an important source of

information with dual advantages of seeing

and hearing at the same time.



18

Table 4: Source of Information

Source of

Information

Frequency Percentage

Television 49 26.6

Occupation 42 22.8

Internet/ Classroom 34 18.4

Newspaper 13 7.0

Family & Friends 10 5.4

Radio 10 5.4

Total 158 85.6

Source; Authors Field Survey, 2011

Test of relationship between Occupation

and Perception of climate change

Using Chi-Square to determine the effect of

occupation on the perception level of the

people on climate change, it shows that

there was a significant effect. The test was

carried out under 0.05(5%) level of

significance. Chi square value was14.581

and degree of freedom (df) 5. While

checking df under 0.05, the result was equal

to 11.07. This shows that the Chi-square

(calculated) value was greater than the table

value. The authors therefore accepted the

hypothesis and deduced the there was a

significant relationship between types of

occupation and knowledge of climate

change.

Test of relationship between Education

and Perception of climate change

The test was conducted using the given chi-

square value of 11,052 degree of freedom

(df) 4 of respondents who had knowledge of

climate change and checking df under 0.05=

9.49. Chi-square (calculated) value was

greater than the table value; the authors

therefore accepted the hypothesis and

implied that education has a significant

effect on the level of awareness of

respondents on climate change. These

results confirms to the earlier findings of the

similar studies carried out on the level of

education and climate change awareness in

cities such as Lagos and Ibadan.

Conclusion

It has been established that climate change

will have a strong impact on Nigeria and

West Africa in general, particularly in the

areas of agriculture, land use, energy and

water sources. Making perception study a

regular exercise, as in this case,

environmental perception which is the

means by which we seek to understand

environmental phenomena in order to arrive

at a better use of environmental resources

and a more effective response to

environmental hazards will help policy

makers to formulate better policies that

could meet the local needs of the people. It

is important for Urban Planners to use the

available resources one of such is the

outcome of the perception studies generated

to improve the understanding of people on

impacts of climate change and its related

causes in order to enhance security and

safety of lives and livelihoods in our small,

medium-sized, large cities.

Recommendations

It is expedient to state the following

recommendations which includes:

i. The recommends that more indices

about climate change awareness and

its causes and impacts should be

designed.

ii. In addition, television and other

outlets of information dissemination

should be explored to target

population.

iii. Finally, climate change education

should be incorporated into school

curriculum to enhance better

understanding of climate change

issues.

Odegbenro, Ojoye


19

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Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the

Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria *Adebola Abiodun. Olufemi, Adegboyega, Suleiman & Ibitoye, Matthew

Olomolatan

Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System, Federal University of Technology Akure,

Ondo State


Abstract This study assesses shoreline changes, land use and land cover change, geomorphological changes of the coast

as well as analyzes the coastal landforms with a view to generating baseline information for evolving informed

decisions and policies for effective flood control and management. The study utilized multi-temporal satellite

images namely, Landsat TM 1980, 1990 and Landsat 7 ETM+ 2010. Remote Sensing and Geographic

Informtion System techniques were used to analyse the satellite images, shoreline and geomorphological maps

were extracted. The land use classes identified from the image include vegetation, outcrops, grassland, water

body and settlement. The land use classification indicates a gradual reduction in the grassland, increase in

vegetation, water body and also an emergence of settlement in the year 2010. Grassland reduced from

247.65km2 to 93.6km2, vegetation increased from 6.60km2 in 1990 to 135.3km2 in 2010 and waterbody reduced

from 98.75km2 to 97.8km2. The change detection image also illustrates that areas that witnessed increase are

mostly water body and vegetation. Slope of the area also ranges from 0° to 12° with a stream order of 4. The

shoreline length for the year 1980 was 71.60 km, 71.43 km in 1990 and 69.70 km in 2010. A gradual reduction

of 0.17 km in length was noticed between 1980 and 1990 while a rapid reduction of about 1.724 km was

recorded between 1990 and 2010. The shoreline change movement showed that between 1980 and 1990, the net

shoreline movement was estimated 259 meters while the net shoreline movement between 1980 and 2010 was

about 347 meters. The end-point rate also indicated the rates of erosion (424.96 meters) and accretion (277.5

meters) (loss and gain), suggesting higher increase in erosion over accretion. It implies apparent reduction of

the shoreline on yearly basis due to low elevations that range from 00 to 60. The study advocates continuous

monitoring of shoreline changes to reinforce our understanding and establishing the processes driving erosion

and accretion in the coastal areas.

Keywords: Shoreline, Remote Sensing, Digital, Coastal dynamics, Accretion & Erosion

Introduction Coastal zones are considered vital

components of the global bio system as well

as high biological productive regions that

contain wealth of mixed species, genetically

diversified habitat and filter pollutants that

help to protect shorelines from erosion and

storms (Nemani and Running, 1995;

Yagoub and Kolan, 2006). These zones

serve as major carbon sink and oxygen

sources by way of regulating climate and

global ecosystem. Coastal zones are found

occuring at the interface between the three

major natural systems at the earth’s surface

atmosphere, ocean and land surface.

Processes operating in these systems are

responsible for the shaping of the coastal

zone. The interaction among the three

different sets of processes makes the coastal

zone an extremely dynamic one. The zone

is also a zone of transfer of material from

the land surface to the ocean system. The

eroded sediments are often moved to the

beach and near-shore, some to the ocean

floor and accumulated sediments may add

to the land mass in some areas (Davidson-

Arnott, 2010).

Several studies have shown the

effectiveness of remote sensing and GIS

techniques in shoreline dynamics



Abiodun, Suleiman, Matthew

Geospatial Analysis of Shoreline Dynamics in the Coastal Areas of Cross River State Nigeria


assessment. For example, Kumaravel et al.

(2013) used a remote sensing based

approach in shoreline change studies in

Cuddalore District, East Coast of Tamil

Nadu, India. The rates of shoreline changes

were estimated by overlay analysis using

GIS The study revealed that most of the

study area has been undergoing erosion

around 3.21km2 for the past four decades

and that both natural and anthropogenic

processes along the coast modify the

shoreline configuration and control the

erosion, accretion activities of the coastal

zones. In a related study, Ogoro (2014)

carried out spatio – temporal analysis on

changes in the geomorphic shoreline of

Bonny Island. The showed that 1,819.4sq

km, 4,588.38 sq km and 1,781.96 sq km of

land were lost to sea between 1986 and

2001, 2001 and 2006, 2006 and 2011

respectively. In another study, Odunuga et

al. (2013) conducted a geomorphic mapping

and assessment of human activities along

the southwestern Nigeria coastline. The

paper identified various coastal landforms

and anthropogenic activities in relation to

ecosystem degradation and stability on the

southwestern Nigeria coastline. In a similar

study, Pandiaraj et al. (2010) utilized

remote sensing to perform a study on

coastal geomorphological landforms from

Coleroon River Mouth to Cuddalore South

Arcot, Tamil Nadu, India using aerial

photographs and LANDSAT images.

Tomar and Singh (2010) utilized remote

sensing as a tool in geomorphological

mapping in land use planning around

Shivpuri city, India. Landforms were

interpreted on the basis of interpretation

element keys namely such as- tone, texture,

size, shape, color etc. and extract the

specific information from the false color

composites LISS-III sensor images.

Geomorphological units were classified on

the basis of differential erosion processes.

Vinayaraj et al. (2011) assessed quantitative

estimation of coastal changes along selected

locations of Karnataka, India using GIS and

Remote Sensing approach. Qualitative and

quantitative studies on changes of coastal

geomorphology and shoreline of Karnataka,

India were carried out using topo sheets of

Survey of India and satellite imageries

(IRS-P6 and IRS-1D). Changes during 30

years period are studied at each station and

observed significant morphological changes

in landforms like spit, channel Island,

coastal plain, tidal flat, lateritic plain,

alluvial plain and sand bar within and

adjacent to estuarine river mouths of Kali,

Sharavathi, Kollur-Chakkara—Haladi and

Udyavara Rivers.

Given consideration to environment

changes, global warming, and issues

regarding human activities, studies and

quantitative measurements from periodic

changes are beneficial for the environmental

management of shores. Shoreline change is

one of the most common natural processes

that prevail upon coastal areas. The most

important aspect of managing coastal areas

is identifying the location and change of

shoreline over time. This requires frequent

monitoring of the shoreline using satellite

imagery over time (Tamassoki et al., 2014).

In view of the non-existent of this kind of

study on shoreline dynamics in the study

area, this study therefore attempts to carry

out an assessment of the shoreline changes,

an identification of geomorphological

features along the coast, land use and land

cover change as well as analysis of the

coastal landform of Cross river State in

Nigeria. The study also scrutinizes the

environmental consequences of the

shoreline changes with a view to generating

baseline information for evolving informed

decisions and policies for monitoring and

managing anthropogenic activities in the

coastal zone.





Study Area

Cross River State is one of the 36 states of

the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Cross

River State is made up of parts of old

Calabar and Ogoja Provinces divided into

18Local Government Areas. Its capital city

is Calabar. It is located between longitudes

8017’00 E and 80 20’00’’E latitudes 40

50’00’’N and 5010’00’’N (Figure 1). The

state has a total area of 21,287.8km2 and

ranked19th of the 36 states of Nigeria

(Bassey, et al, 2013). The state is home to

approximately 2.9 million people (NPC,

2006), predominantly of Efik, Ejagham and

Bekwarra background. One of the fastest

growing states in Nigeria, Cross River is

endowed with vast mineral resources,

plentiful arable land, and a growing number

of tourist attractions (Funds for Peace,

2015). It is a coastal state bordering

Cameroon to the east.

It covers the Oban Massif, Ikom-Mamfe

embayment and Obudu plateau southern

Nigeria with a humid tropical environment

which experiences alternation of wet and

dry seasons. The Oban Massif is composed

of Precambrian basement, which is overlain

by Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments of the

Calabar Flank. It has an interesting geology

which includes metamorphic rocks such as

phyllites, schist, gneiss, amphibolites and

charnockites with igneous intrusions such as

dolerite, granite, granodiorite, diorite,

tonalite and monzonite. The most prominent

fracture set in Oban Massif is the NNW-

SSE, with a trend of 150º -160º from the

north. Others are NNE-SSW, E-W and NW-

SE sets (Oden et al., 2013). The Ikom-

Mamfe embayment is a 130 Km long by

60Km wide Cretaceous sedimentary basin

extending east from the Lower Benue

Trough, Nigeria, into Cameroon where it

narrows and terminates beneath the Tertiary

to Recent volcanic cover of the Cameroon

volcanic line (Fairhead et al., 1991).

It resulted from the rotation of the Obudu

basement with respect to the Oban Massif

(Oden et al., 2013), and is predominantly a

sedimentary environment in which Albian

sandstones and limestone are overlain by a

sequence of Lower Turonian sandstones,

shales and limestone, all of these being

intruded by a series of post- Turonian basic

to intermediate intrusive (Hossain, 1981).

The Obudu plateau consists dominantly of

basement migmatitic gneisses, schist and a

few amphibolites, all of which have been

intruded by acidic, basic and ultra-basic

igneous rocks (Odein, 2013). This area has

a rugged topography with a series of

elevated ridges separated by lowlands.

Structural data (Oden et al., 2013), show

that the most prominent fracture set in

Obudu basement area is the NW-SE which

trends 140º - 150º from north. Minor sets

occur in the NNE-SSW, E-W and ESE-

WNW directions (Oden et al, 2013). The

state is covered by a body of water from the

tributary of the river cross and the Atlantic

Ocean. This renders the land very fertile

and provides abundant aquatic resources for

exploitation. About two third of the state is

covered by tropical rain forest. This makes

it one of the biodiversity hotspots. This

covers about 32% of the entire state,

making it the world’s second largest

preserved rain forest. The vegetation ranges

from mangrove swamp, through rain forest,

derived savannah and montane parkland.

Cross River State falls within tropical

equatorial climate with high temperature,

high relative humidity and abundant annual

rainfall. Two major air masses affect the

climate of Calabar as well as other

contiguous locations in the West African

region. The Tropical Maritime (mT) and the

tropical continental (cT) air masses affect

the climate in two distinct seasons. mT air

prevails and influences its moisture

characteristic while the cT air influences the

dry season condition due to is desert source

across the two air masses at the upper





troposphere from east to west. This is called

the Equatorial Esterlies (EE). The two air

masses meet at the pressure front called

Inter Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). There

have been a massive development and

urban expansion in the area over the last 10

years. Humid tropical climate (1300-

3000mm rainfall, 30°C mean annual

temperature) prevails over Cross river state

except Obudu Plateau where the climate is

sub-temperate with temperatures of about

15°C-23°C.

About 3 local governments out of 18 cover

the coastal part of the study area. They

include Calabar South, Bakassi and

Akpabuyo Local governments. This is

illustrated in Figure 2.

Materials and Methods The study used Landsat images TM 1980,

1990 and ETM+ 2010 acquired Global

Landcover Facility website and earth

explorer in United States Geological Survey

interface. Landsat 7 image which had scan

line errors was corrected using Landsat

toolbox in Arcmap and Focal Analysis tool

in Erdas Imagine 9.3. In addition, Digital

Elevation Model of the study area was used

to delineate the drainage pattern. Bands 432

within the visible region of the

electromagnetic spectrum (green, red and

near infrared bands) were used to create a

false composite image to make features

distinct from each other. ArcGIS 10.1 and

Erdas 9.1 GIS softwares were used for

image restoration. Creation of coastline

region was done by creating shapefile for

digitizing using the Local Government Area

as input. Land use classes were identified

and mapped in the images, which include

grassland, settlement, outcrops, vegetation

and water body using Maximum likelihood

(ML) classification algorithm in supervised

classification method.

Figure 1: Map Showing Local Government Areas of Cross River State

Source: Oden et.al. (2013)





Figure 2: Local Government Areas along the Shoreline

This classifier considers not only the cluster

centres but also the shape, size and

orientation of the clusters, which is

achieved by calculating a statistical distance

based on mean values and the covariance

matrix of the clusters. The statistical

distance expresses a probability value: an

unknown pixel is assigned to a cluster to

which it has the highest probability. The

assumption of ML classifiers is that the

statistics of the clusters has a normal

distribution. So called equi-probability

contours are drawn around the centre of

each cluster and this allows the operator to

specify a threshold distance by defining a

maximum probability value. By choosing a

small threshold value, a small ellipse

centered on the mean defines the values

with the highest probability of membership

of a class.

The calculated parameters for the shoreline

change include shoreline change envelope

(SCE), net shoreline movement (NSM), and

end point rate (EPR). The change envelope

describes the distance between the shoreline

farthest from and closest to the baseline at

each transect. The shoreline change

envelope reports a distance. This represents

the total change in shoreline movement for

all available shoreline positions and is not

related to their dates. It is the greatest

shoreline distance between two periods. The

study revealed that the distance (SCE)

between the 1980 shoreline and 1990

shoreline was 259 meters (reduction in line

distance) while SCE between 1990 and

2010 shoreline was about 800 meters.

Furthermore, the net shoreline movement

(NSM) is associated with the dates of only

two shorelines. It reports the distance

between the oldest and youngest shorelines.

This represents the total distance between

the oldest and youngest shorelines. If this

distance is divided by the number of years

elapsed between the two shoreline

positions, the result is the End Point Rate

(EPR). The net shoreline movement

between 1980 and 2010 was about 347

meters. This indicates the extent distance

movement of the oldest and youngest

shoreline.

DEM was re-projected from geographic

coordinate system (GCS WGS 1984) to

projected system (WGS 1984 UTM Zone

32N). Drainage network was delineated

using a stream threshold of 500 cells in the

conditioning of the elevation raster in the

hydrology tools of the ArcGIS software.





File geo-database was created in order to

create a shapefile which houses the

shoreline for each year using on-screen

digitizing. Digital Shoreline Analysis

System (DSAS) uses a measurement

baseline method (Leatherman and Clow,

1983) to calculate rate-of-change statistics

for a time series of shorelines. The baseline

is constructed by the user and it serves as

the starting point for all transects cast by the

DSAS application. The transect intersects

each shoreline at the measurement points

used to calculate shoreline-change rates.

Each shoreline vector represents a specific

position in time and must be assigned a date

in the shoreline feature-class attribute table.

The measurement transects that are cast by

DSAS from the baseline will intersect the

shoreline vectors. Identification of

landforms was achieved by visual

interpretation using remote sensing

techniques as well as methodologies from

existing literatures. Change detection

analysis was done by calculating areas

cover by each land cover classes for the

years in view. The characteristics of the

images used the year, resolution and source

of each image is given in Table 1.

Shoreline geometry remains one of the key

parameters in the detection of coastal

erosion and deposition and the study of

coastal morpho-dynamics. DSAS as a

software extension within ArcGIS has been

used by many researchers in measuring,

quantifying, calculating and monitoring

shoreline rate-of-change statistics from

multiple historic shoreline positions and

sources. The main application of DSAS is

in utilization of polyline layers as

representation of a specific shoreline feature

(e.g. mean high water mark, cliff top) at a

particular point in time. A range of

statistical change measures are derived

within DSAS, based on the comparison of

shoreline positions through time. These

include Net Shoreline Movement (NSM),

Shoreline Change Envelope (SCE), End

Point Rate (EPR), Linear Regression Rate

(LRR) and Weighted Linear Regression

Rate (WLR). Despite the inability of this

tool to determine the forcing of morpho-

dynamics, it has been shown to be effective

in facilitating an in-depth analysis of

temporal and historical movement of

shoreline positions and cliff geometry.

Change detection studies was carried using

Erdas Imagine 9.1 using the classified as

input to generate a difference file and a

highlight file. Areas that have undergone

change are shown while areas that

unchanged are presented.

Results and Discussion Land Use and Land Cover Change

Figures 3, 4, 5 and Table 2 showed a drastic

reduction in the area covered by grassland

in the area and a rapid increase in the area

covered by vegetation. This may be due to

presence of good soil condition as well as

lush amount of tropical rain forest in the

area. Also, gradual reduction of grassland

between 1990 and 2010 may be attributed to

the emergence of settlement in the coastal

part of the study area. Outcrops area

coverage in 1990 was 0.03 km2 and was

increased to 68.7 km2 with an introduction

to a small percentage of settlement in places

laden with outcrops. The total area ocuppied

by water body in 1980 was 35% of the

coastal area but was increased to 36% with

an increment of about 1.1% due to

closeness to the ocean.. Vegetation

increased from 14.5% in 1980 to 34.13% in

2010 with an increment of 19.5% while

outcrop increment in acreage ranged from

0.009% to 17.3%. The result of the research

carried out by Odunnuga et al. (2013)

supports the results of this research as it

establishes that human activities along the

southwestern coastline have affected the

coastal features along the coast.





Table 1: Summary of some satellites (LANDSAT) missions used.

Data Resolution Source

Landsat Tm

(1980)

Visible To NIR- 30 Meters

Thermal Band-60 Meters

Landcover.Org

Landsat Tm

(1990)



Landcover.Org

Landsat Etm

Plus (2010)



Panchromatic Band- 15

Meters

Earthexplorer.Usgs.Gov

Dem 1 Arc (30 Meters) Earthexplorer.Usgs.Gov

Figure 3: Land cover map of 1980







Table 2a: Land Use Change Statistics

Landuse

1980 1990 (%) 2010 (%)

Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%)

Vegetation 58.2 14.5567 6.60 1.6504 135.3 33.8

Water Body 141.32 35.3338 98.75 24.6879 97.8 26.4269

Grassland 200.43 50.1095 247.65 61.9132 93.6 23.6202

Outcrops - 0.04 0.009549 68.8 17.3549

Settlement - - 4.5 0.202779

Table 2b: Land Use Change Statistics

Landuse

Change

betw1980 &

1990

Change betw1990 &

2010

Change betw 1980

&2010

Average rate of

Change per yr

Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%) Km2 (%)

Vegetation -51.2 -88.0 128.7 1950 77.1 132.5 2.57 4.42

Water Body -42,57 -30.12 -0.95 -0.96 -43.52 -30.8 -1.45 -1.03

Grassland 47.22 23.56 -154.05 -62.20 -106.83 -53.3 -3.56 -0.12

Outcrops 0.04 - 68.76 171900 - - 3.44 8595

Settlement/

Built Up - 4.5 - - - 0.225 -

Vegetation along the coastline in Cross

River State has increased over the 30 years

study period by 2.57km2, the relationship

between the rate of urbanization and human

activities along the coast is inversely

proportional to the rate of vegetation

increase long the coastline. In Bakassi due

to the crisis over some portion of land,

activities in these areas have reduced





considerably which gave vegetation the

avenue to spring up.

The dynamics of water body as shown in

Figure 2b explains the unstable nature of

water, in this case the coastline reduced by

43.52km2 in 30 years and an average

1.45km2 per year. Sand mining along the

coast has affected the natural flow of water

along the coastline. The rate of loss water is

directly proportional to the rate of water

loss along the coast. Migration of cattle

rearers from northern Nigeria to Southern

Nigeria in search of pastures for animals has

depleted the grassland in the area between

1980 and 2010, grassland reduced

106.83km2 representing an average of

3.56km2 per year. Outcrops in 1990 covered

0.04km2 erosion, flooding in the area

between 1990 and 2010 exposed the

outcrops that were formally covered by soil.

In 2010 outcrops exposed covered

68.76km2 which is a result of urbanization

and erosion.

Hydrology Analysis

The stream analysis showed that there were

four stream orders bordering the coastal

area. The drainage pattern was dendritic in

nature. Also, the slope map also showed

that there were steep areas ranged from 5°

to 12° along the outcrop areas while river

and coastal area showed gentle or relatively

flat areas which range from 0° to 5°

(Figures 6 and 7). Most of the flat areas

were located in the coastal zones with

values ranging from 0° - 6° considered to be

extremely flat in nature. This accounts for

erosion occurrence in the area. Vegetation

and grassland in the region showed gradual

increment. This also accounts for luxuriant

vegetation and supports farming activities in

the region. The highest order of the stream

(4th order) was located in the coastal region

bordering the shoreline.

Figure 6: Slope of Study Area





Figure 7: Map Showing Stream Order

Shoreline Change Analysis and

Extraction

The shoreline length analysis indicated a

gradual decrease between the years in view.

The shoreline length for the year 1980 was

71.5962 km, 71.4262 km in 1990 and

69.7015 km in 2010. A gradual reduction of

0.17 km in length was noticed between

1980 and 1990 while a rapid reduction of

about 1.724 km was recorded between 1990

and 2010. End point rate is calculated by

dividing the distance of shoreline movement

by the time elapsed between the oldest and

the most recent shoreline. The major

advantages of the EPR are the ease of

computation and minimal requirement of

only two shoreline dates. In the analysis, it

was observed that between 1980 and 2010,

Figure 8: Shoreline from Landsat Images





the EPR was about 11.5m for thirty years.

Also, the rate of erosion between 1980 and

1990 was 424.96m while rate of accretion

(increase by gradual accumulation) was

about 277.59m. The rate of erosion was

about 15.4m per year between 1980 and

2010. This indicates that the erosion that

occurs per year is higher than rate of

accretion. This results in the apparent

reduction of the shoreline per year as shown

in figure 8.

Conclusion The study observed a remarkable change in

the shoreline with a gradual reduction of

0.17 km in length between 1980 and 1990,

and a rapid reduction of about 1.72 km

between 1990 and 2010. The study also

revealed that shoreline change envelope was

259m between the 1980 shoreline and 1990

shoreline (reduction in line distance) while

it was 800m between 1990 and 2010

shoreline. The net shoreline movement

between 1980 and 2010 was about 347

meters, representing the extent distance

movement of the oldest and youngest

shoreline. The study further observed that

between 1980 and 2010, the end point rate

was about 11.5 meters for thirty years. Also,

the rate of erosion between 1980 and 1990

was 424.96 meters while rate of accretion

was about 277.59m. The rate of erosion was

about 15.4m per year between 1980 and

2010. This indicates that the erosion that

occurs per year is higher than rate of

accretion.

This results in the apparent reduction of the

shoreline per year. This may be attributed to

low elevation with values ranging from 0° -

6°, suggesting extremely flat topography

and intense farming activities. This trend is

similar to other parts of the Niger Delta

region of Nigeria. Erosion and accretion

processes have been ongoing, outstanding,

and very severe in the area. Specifically, it

is worthy of note to say that these

occurrences are very much peculiar to the

coastal region of Cross River State.

Therefore, quantitative analysis of shoreline

changes at different timescales is very

important in understanding and establishing

the processes driving erosion and accretion

computing sediment budgets, identification

of hazard zones as a basis for modelling of

dynamics and for coastal management and

interventions.

References Bassey, O., Arong, Avwenagha E. and

Oghenero, O. (2013). Evaluation of

ground water resource in Akamkpa

area, Cross River State, Nigeria.

Advances in Applied Science

Research, 4(5), 10-24

Oden M. I, Udinmwen E. and Esu, O.

(2013). The Dolerites of Cross River

State (DCRS): Physical and

Mechanical Properties. Environment

and Natural Resources Research, 3(

1) (1-12)

Odunuga C. U., Lawal O., and Ogoro M

(2013). Vulnerability Of Coastal

Communities In The Niger Delta

Region To Sea Level Rise. Journal

of Research in Environmental and

Earth Science, 2(8), 01-08

Ogoro, C. (2014). Shoreline Geometry:

DSAS as a Tool for Historical Trend

Analysis Geomorphological

Techniques, Chap. 3, Sec. 2.2

(2014) British Society for

Geomorphology

Pandiaraj. D, Karikalan. R, Alaguraja. P,

Jeyaraj. N, Roger .D.C, and

Giriprasad .C (2010). A study on

Remote Sensing on Coastal

Geomorphological Landforms From

Coleroon River Mouth to Cuddalore

South Arcot, Tamil Nadu, India.

International Journal of Geomatics

and Geosciences, 1(1), 98-105

Prabaharan S., SrinivasaRaju K.,

Lakshumanan C. and Ramalingam





M. (2010). Remote Sensing and GIS

Applications on Change Detection

Study in Coastal Zone Using Multi-

Temporal Satellite Data.

International Journal of Geomatics

and Geosciences, 1(2), 159-166

Tamassoki, B., Rabia S., Sheikh S. A. and

Neelam A. (2014) Land use change

mapping and analysis using Remote

Sensing and GIS: A case study of

Simly watershed, Islamabad,

Pakistan. The Egyptian Journal of

Remote Sensing and Space Sciences,

18, 251–259

Tomar A. S.and Singh U.C. (2012).

Geomorphological Mapping Using

Remote Sensing and GIS: A Tool

for Land Use Planning Around

Shivpuri City, M.P., India. IOSR

Journal of Computer Engineering

(IOSRJCE), 5(1), 28-30

Vinayaraj P., Johnson G., Udhaba Dora G.,

Sajiv Philip C., Sanil Kumar V. and

Gowthaman R. (2011). Quantitative

Estimation of Coastal Changes

along Selected Locations of

Karnataka, India: A GIS and

Remote Sensing Approach.

International Journal of

Geosciences, 2, 385-393.

Odein, (2013) is not listed in the reference.





Evaluation of Key Design Elements for

Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools

in Minna, Nigeria

Ayuba, P. & Akpama, D. S.

Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.


Abstract In an era of climate change and a time when pupils especially those in elementary schools spend most of their

time indoors, attempt to entice and encourage children and their teachers to spend more time in well-structured,

child-centred green designed school grounds is timely and cannot be overemphasized. Creating an outdoor

learning and play environment is an initiative that would incorporate green design principles targeted at meeting

children's developmental needs. Children developmental needs are cognitive, physical, social and emotional.

This paper assessed the physical outdoor spaces and natural elements in elementary schools with a view to

integrating these elements in elementary schools in Minna, Niger State. The research was carried out by the use

of a structured observation schedule and questionnaires. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive

statistical tools such as mean, percentages and averages. The findings revealed that only 25% of the

playgrounds of elementary schools in Minna have above average fixed components. It also showed that no

provisions were made for experimental, individual, gathering and ecological spaces. The results generated were

shown in tables. The paper recommended that play-learning environment be integrated in elementary schools in

Minna.

Keywords: Developmental needs, elementary schools, green designed, space, play-learning.

Introduction In the world over, every child plays. The

drive to play in children is so profound that

children will make effort to do so in the midst

of any circumstance. Young children consider

pretending, running and building as fun

(Whitebread, 2012). It is a well-known fact to

researchers and educators that these playful

activities are of immense benefit to the

development of the whole child across social,

cognitive, physical and emotional domains.

Play is indeed very instrumental to a healthy

child’s development; it is no wonder that the

American Academy of Pediatrics issued a

white paper on the topic (Ginsburg, 2007).

The National Association for the Education of

Young Children (2009) named play as a

central component in developmentally

appropriate educational practices, and the

United Nations High Commission on Human

Rights (1989) recognized play as fundamental

right for every child.

Play has a wide range of definitions ranging

from discrete descriptions of various types of

play such as physical, construction play,

language play, or symbolic play (Miller and

Almon, 2009), to a list of broad criteria,

based on observations and attitudes that are

meant to capture the essence of all play

behaviours (Rubin et al., 1983).

Contemporary definitions of play focus on a

number of key criteria. The founder of the

National Institute for Play, Stuart Brown in

his words defines play as anything that

spontaneously is done for its own sake.

Similarly, Krasnor and Pepler (1980) and

Rubin et al. (1983) defined play along a

continuum as more or less playful using a

set of behavioural and dispositional criteria.

Play includes activities that are freely

chosen and directed by children and arise

from intrinsic motivation (Miller and



Ayuba, Akpama

Evaluation of Key Design Elements for Play-Learning Environment in Elementary Schools in Minna, Nigeria


Almon, 2009). Today under the pressure of

rising academic standards in our elementary

schools, play has been given trivial

consideration. In our society today, a

pseudo dichotomy has been created between

play and learning.

This paper therefore, seeks to discourage

the strict relegation of learning to the four

walls of the classroom by assessing the

physical outdoor spaces and natural

elements in elementary schools with a view

to integrating these elements in elementary

schools in Minna, Niger state. This research

will encourage outdoor learning through

play thereby reducing the time spent by

pupils in the classrooms.

The Importance of Play

Play builds the foundation for a lifetime of

learning. Play is pleasurable, intrinsically

motivated, freely chosen and is process

oriented. Play is also non-literal and is

actively engaged. According to American

Academy of Pediatrics (2016), children

playful behaviours can range from 0-100%

playful. It is through play that children at a

very early age engage and interact in the

world around them. The American

Academy of Pediatrics titled “The

Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy

Child Development and Maintaining Strong

Parent-Child Bonds" elucidates on the

importance of play to the healthy

development of children. Among other

things, the report says the" play allows

children to use their imagination, dexterity,

and physical, cognitive and emotional

strength"(p.151). Play is important to the

development of healthy brain. Children

stand the chance to learn how to work in

groups, to negotiate, to share and to resolve

differences, and to learn self-advocacy skill

(Heidi, 2013). These aforementioned

benefits of play would be impossible

without a well-structured and conducive

environment that can foster and instigate

children and their teachers to spend

appreciable outdoor time to play and learn.

It is alarming that as experts are arguing and

yet to come to terms with the importance of

play in the lives of children, the actual time

children spend daily in playing continues to

decrease. Today, children play eight hours

less each week than their counterparts did

two decades ago (Elkind, 2008).

Play as a Pedagogy

Moyles et al. (2002) examined that although

adults endorsed the educational benefits of

play, they were uncertain of their role in

play and how to assess the prospects of

play. Professional knowledge and expertise

is critical in planning and engaging in

playing, learning and teaching. Siraj-

Blatchford et al. (2002) studied effective

pedagogy and distinguished between

pedagogical framing (planning for play,

providing resources and a routine) on behalf

of adults and pedagogical interactions

(specific behaviors in face to face

encounters), and established that both are

required. In conclusion they emphasized

that the most effective settings had a

balance between adult-initiated and child-

initiated activities.

Play is a natural medium through which

learning and development is holistically

enhanced. As suggested by Hayes (2003),

"Play is a pedagogical tool for the teacher as

well as a pathway for learning for a child"(

p.122). It is obvious that young children

learn through play in a composite system.

Components of a Supportive

Environment

Outdoor and indoor learning environments

should be motivating and inviting to all

children, so that they are encouraged and

helped to explore and to use all the

possibilities offered for fun, adventure,

challenge and creativity as stated by





National Council for Curriculumn and

Assessment (NCCA, 2004).The physical

environment, both indoors and outdoors,

encourages positive growth and

development for children through

opportunities to explore and learn. Safe,

clean, spacious, bright, welcoming, warm,

and accessible environments for children

and adults, including those with additional

needs, should afford opportunities to rest

and play. Babies, toddlers and young

children need fresh air and outdoor play

space is essential if children are to have a

balanced, healthy day. Learning is

constrained and may be damaged if young

children are required to sit still indoors,

where adults do most of the talking and

require children to follow their lead (Bruce,

2004). The environment should offer

children opportunities to: actively explore,

make decisions and follow through with

their ideas; engage in co-operative,

symbolic, dramatic or pretend play; move,

dance and increase control over their bodies

(Hohmann and Weikart, 1995).

Socio-cultural theory is concerned with

children’s learning in context. Children

respond to the reality they see around them

and what they learn reflects that reality

(Penn, 2005). Environments can reflect the

lives and activities of the children/families

in the service to establish positive identities.

In addition, environments can have

resources to counteract stereotypical and

discriminatory attitudes (French, 2003).

The same principles apply whether

organizing indoor or outdoor areas. In fact

many of the activities babies, toddlers and

young children enjoy indoors can be

achieved outdoors and with greater

freedom. If in group care, careful

consideration of the organizing of rooms for

different age groups is necessary. Babies

and toddlers need a room or home base

where they can relate for part of the day

with a small group of children and adults,

where they can feel secure and build

relationships. Older children need more

space (French, 2003).

A supportive environment is one structured

to meet the developmental needs of

children. The developmental needs include

emotional development, physical

development, social development and

cognitive development needs. It is

paramount to note that any distinct space on

the playground is likely to have both fixed

and movable components and serving a

range of developmental needs (Heidi,

2013). Fixed landscape components are the

anchor points of a landscape, for example,

trails, groves of trees, hills, and rock circles.

These components must be thoughtfully

arranged, to prioritize connectivity,

maintain flexibility and create a kind of

"loose fit" that allows educators and

children to play an active part in adding

moveable components to customize their

play-learning environment (Heidi, 2013).

A menu for moveable components was

suggested by Heidi (2013), to serve as

objects that enhances play and can be

incorporated into the play space as seen in

figure I. They include but not limited to:

1. Containers: milk crates, buckets

2. Gardening equipment:

wheelbarrows, gloves, watering cans

3. Chalk boxes and tubes

4. Dirt, mud, cob, sand and water.


Ayuba, Akpama



Fig. I. Fixed and moveable components serving

developmental needs. Source: Heidi (2013)

Creating a Supportive Environment

Smith et al. (2005) advocated that the

learning environment should be carefully

planned to meet children needs by

providing them with the optimum

opportunities to work independently, to

make choices, decisions and solve

problems, to engage in real experiences, and

to experience success. The High and Scope

Educational Research Foundation (2001)

suggested that the space should be inviting

for children and organize into well-defined

areas of interest to encourage distinctive

types of play. Hohmann and Weikart (1995)

noted that the interest areas are arranged to

promote visibility and easy movement

between areas and are flexible to

accommodate children changing interests.

Curtis and O’Hagan (2004) promoted a

variety of easily accessible, open-ended,

natural, found, real life materials which can

be used in creative and purposeful ways and

reflect children’s family lives. Materials are

stored so that children can find, use and

return materials they need. The most

effective learning comes from simple but

versatile materials and environments which

extend the child’s imagination and can be

adapted by children to suit their learning

needs and level of understanding. Dowling

(2000) referred to this as an informational

environment which supports children ability

to make and learn from mistakes, discover

the best way of doing things and learn how

to make decisions.

Integrating Key Spaces into Play-

Learning Environments

Developing a conceptual design for a play-

learning environment will require the

bringing together entire piece together- the

fixed and moveable landscape components,

children developmental needs and the

desired spatial qualities of the site. It was

advocated that priority be placed on five

key spaces that should work in concert to

create a diversity of play and learning

opportunities (Heidi, 2013). The key spaces

as described by Heidi (2013) are active

spaces, experimental spaces, individual

spaces, gathering spaces and ecological

spaces as indicated in figure II.

Fig. II. Key spaces in play-learning environments

Source: Heidi (2013)

Active Spaces

Spaces that encourage active play vary in

topography, incorporate changes in height,

challenge the mind to assess competencies

and go beyond perceived limits. Plate I

explains how these spaces feel energetic as

they promote fitness and health.





Plate I. Active Space Source: Heidi (2013)

Experimental Spaces

These are spaces for discovery, exploration,

hypothesizing. They are temporary in

nature. They are also flexible, alive, messy

and emergent. They should feel more like a

lab, a space that supports creativity,

constructing, building, testing and idea

generating. Plate II identifies spaces that are

often very social, offering opportunities for

the development of

communication/language skills. They are

filled with materials, and have child sized

furnishings and storage. Mud, sand, water,

wood, buckets, tools and other types of

loose parts are essential. Educational

materials such as hand lenses, clipboards,

pencils and cameras should be used (Heidi,

2013).

Plate IV. Experimental Space


Individual Spaces

Individual spaces support quiet reflective

moments, observation and listening as

shown in plate III. They feature small

enclaves that are protected, cozy and

enclosed. This type of space would

accommodate one or two children and could

be on the edge of another play zone, most

likely away from an active play area. This is

a space for private time. Some children are

sensitive to noise and have need for a quiet

space in the playground (Heidi, 2013).

Plate III. Individual Space


Gathering Spaces

Gathering spaces can be for a large or small

group. Plate IV describes a typical

welcoming, fostering of social interaction,

and focused on communication, negotiation,

and sharing. They offer seating, shade, and

should have a balance of soft and hard

features (Heidi, 2013). They should be

flexible and accommodate multiple use and

users (staff, children, parents).

Plate IV. Gathering Space Source: Heidi (2013)


Ayuba, Akpama



Ecological Spaces

Trees, shrubs, and vegetation are strong

elements of these spaces. They are alive,

containing ecosystems that attract birds,

butterflies, insects, and worms. They offer

children access to water, soil, and plants

(plate V). They create habitat on different

scales and will attract a diversity of plant

and insect species. They evoke an emotional

response, nurture a sense of responsibility,

and offer moments for reflection(Heidi,

2013).

Plate V Ecological Space Source: Heidi (2013)

Research Method The research method employed to carry out

this study was the use of post-occupancy

survey research. An observation schedule

was structured to evaluate the physical

outdoor spaces and natural elements

available in primary school play grounds.

The assessment was conducted in Minna,

Niger state, Nigeria. Two local governments

which lie within Minna are Bosso and

Chanchaga Local governments. Ten public

primary schools were selected at random

from each of these local government areas

by simple random technique of probability

sampling method. The selection of public

schools was based on the fact that large

populations of pupils in Niger State attend

public schools and has a wide variety of

spread across the wards in the area. The

data was collected and analyzed using

descriptive statistical tools such as mean,

percentages and averages in a tabular

format.

Ten public schools selected from each the

two local government local areas are

tabulated below:

Table 1.0: Schools selected in Bosso local

government area

S/No Name of Primary School

1 Baban Dabo Primary School

2 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch.

3 Gusase Primary School

4 Gurusu Primary School

5 Jikuchi Ube Primary School

6 Kadna Primary School

7 Maitumbi Primary School

8 Shango Primary School

9 Tudun-Fulani Model School

10 Kwarkwota Primary School

Table 2.0: Schools selected in Chanchaga local

government area

S/No Name of Primary School

1 Shango Primary School

2 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. Sch.

3 Anguwan Zakka Primary School

4 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School

5 Ibb Primary School

6 Kuyanbana Primary School

7 Usman Nagogo Primary School

8 Limawa Model Primary School

9 Tunga North Primary School

10 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch

Findings and Discussion of Results The results obtained through observation

schedules were recorded using following

representations.

0 -not available

1 - available

The result in Table 3.0 shows that all the

playgrounds of the schools had both hard

and soft surfaces required for physical

development. It also shows that 85% of

groves of trees will enhance the emotional

development of children. It further shows

that only 10% of the playgrounds have hills

which support cognitive learning, 20% of

rock circles which support social





development but none had trails or

pathways in the playgrounds.

Table 4.0 shows that all the playgrounds

had either sand or mud or both and chalk

boxes which support emotional and

cognitive developments in children during

play. No playground had a play table which

supports both cognitive and social

development and only 25% had garden

equipment which also supports cognitive

developments in children.

Table 5.0 shows that the only type of play

space available in the playgrounds of the

selected primary schools is the active space.

The ecological space, individual space,

experimental and gathering space which

support play-learning environments are not

available. The environment should offer

children opportunities to: actively explore,

make decisions and follow through with

their ideas; engage in co-operative,

symbolic, dramatic or pretend play; move,

dance and increase control over their

bodies.

Table 3.0: Fixed components in playgrounds

S/

No

List of Schools Hard/Soft

Sur.

Hills Rock

Circles

Groves

Of

Trees

Trails Total

01 Baban Dabo Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

02 Chanchaga Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

03 Dr. Yahaya Bawa Bosso Pry Sch. 1 0 1 1 0 60%

04 Gusase Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%

05 Gurusu Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

06 Jikuchi Ube Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

07 Kadna Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%

08 Maitumbi Primary School 1 1 0 1 0 60%

09 Shango Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

10 Tudun-Fulani Model School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem. Sch. 1 1 0 1 0 60%

12 Anguwan Zakka Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

13 Dr.Umar Farouk Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

14 Ibb Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

15 Kuyanbana Primary School 1 0 1 1 0 60%

16 Kwarkwota Primary School 1 0 0 0 0 20%

17 Limawa Model Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

18 Tunga North Primary School 1 0 1 0 0 40%

19 Umar Audi Memorial Primary Sch 1 0 0 1 0 40%

20 Usman Nagogo Primary School 1 0 0 1 0 40%

Total 100% 10% 20% 85% 0%


Ayuba, Akpama



Table 4.0: Moveable components in playgrounds

S/No List Of Schools Containers Garden

Equip.

Chalk

Boxes

Sand/

Mud

Play

Tables

Total











11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem.

Sch.

1 0 1 1 0 60%










Total 55% 25% 100% 100% 0%

Table 5.0: Types of spaces required for a play-learning environment.

S/No List of Schools Active Experi-

Mental

Indivi-

Dual

Gather-

Ing

Ecolo-

Gical

Total











11 Aliyu Mu'azu Sarkin Yakin Mem.

Sch.

1 0 0 0 0 20%










Total 100% 0% 0% 0% 0%





Conclusion The study has revealed that a play-learning

playground has not been given any

considerable attention. It was observed that

only 25% of the playgrounds of primary

schools had above average fixed

components and 55% had moveable

components. It is alarming that no

provisions were made for experimental,

individual, gathering and ecological play-

learning spaces. These would limit or

deprive the children certain developmental

needs which these spaces would have

offered if they were present.

Recommendation Stake holders, developers and professionals

involved in the development of primary

schools, should pay adequate attention to

these key design considerations which

support play-learning playgrounds thereby

creating an enabling environment where

children developmental needs would thrive.

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(2002). Study of pedagogical

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Car Park Usage and Management in Federal

Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria

Oluwole M. S.1, Masugari, D. Y.2 and Elegonye I. I.3

1Department of Transport Management Technology, School of Entrepreneurship and Management Technology,

Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 2Department of Geography, Kaduna State College of Education, Gidan-Waya, Kafanchan. 3Training Department, Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology, Zaria, Kaduna State-Nigeria.


Abstract Parking management is increasingly becoming a major component of surface transport planning needs of public

institutions like schools and hospitals, this is because the means of transportation cannot continually be in

motion. Zaria metropolis harbors a number of such institutions which generates substantial vehicular traffic.

Despite efforts by these institutions to provide parking facilities in the past ten years, persistent incidences of

indiscriminate parking, non-usage of prescribed parking lots, double and road side parking is still very

common. This study examines car par usage and management in five Federal Institutions (NITT, ABUTH,

NCAT, FCE and NARICT) within Zaria Metropolis, it provides information to the number of parking facilities

provided by the institutions, type of parking system adopted, users perception of such facilities and challenges

of parking management in the Institutions. The study was carried out through field observation, traffic count

and administration of 260 copies of questionnaires to determine the types, number, usage and parking duration

on the available facilities (tarred, roadside and shaded) across the Institutions. The study revealed that ABUTH

has the largest and most organized parking lots amongst all. This is perhaps due to the nature of its operations

(tertiary health care service provider) and high level of enforcement instituted by the management. The major

challenges faced by users of the car park facilities are long distance of the parking lots to the destination of the

users within the institutions as well as poor medium of communication and direction to the available parking

facilities. The implication of this study to the usage and management of car park in the study area lies in the

provision of additional designated parking facilities to accommodate the increasing number of vehicles, strict

enforcement through monitoring and sanctions to discourage parking within undesignated areas as well as

integrating parking programmes into the physical development plans of the institutions.

Keywords: Surface Transport, Car Park, Vehicular Traffic, Road Infrastructures.

Introduction Parking issue has become an integral part of

surface transportation system, this is

because all road based means of movement

cannot continually be in motion, and there

will certainly be a time where such vehicle

will come to rest either at home, workplace,

shops or social centers. Car park

management is thus an essential component

of any trip and has risen in significance as

an issue in local and strategic transportation

planning and policy (Hensher and Button,

2000). The socio economic costs of

providing parking facilities to the society is

significant and sometimes there are some

level of conflicts of supply and demand

amongst transport operators and managers

as observed by Victoria Transport Policy

Institute (VTPI, 2013). In Nigeria, car is

one of the dominant means of transportation

and yet parking management seems to be a

neglected aspect of transportation planning

and development. Venues of activities such

as offices, Institutions, markets, shops and

similar places often generate enormous

parking demand that is more than what the

parking provisions can accommodate thus,

creating difficulties of parking vehicles at

desired destinations particularly when

located within the central areas. Since



Oluwole, Masugari, Elegonye

Car Park Usage and Management in Federal Institutions of Zaria Metropolis, Kaduna State- Nigeria


illegal parking, roadside and on-street

parking is becoming a major feature in

Federal Institutions within Zaria, the traffic

carrying capacity of the road within them

which would have supported an efficient

movement of automobiles is greatly limited.

Cities in Nigeria are rapidly growing and

the economic patterns of the people in them

are equally changing, with these changes

there is a dire need for these cities to

adequately provide all the infrastructures

that would aid ensure and efficient mobility.

The use of cars as a means of intra-urban

movement in Nigeria has grown

appreciable, therefore adequate provision of

parking spaces as transportation

infrastructures is one issue relevant

authorities must adequately address (Cuddy,

2007). Zaria in Kaduna state Nigeria is

home to a number of federal institutions like

Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Federal

College of Education (FCE), ABU

Teaching Hospital (ABUTH), Nigerian

College of Aviation Technology (NCAT),

Numerous Research Institutes like the

Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology

(NITT), National Research Institute for

Chemical Technology (NARICT) among

others. Military formations like the Nigerian

Military School (NMS), Nigerian School of

Military Police just to mention a few. These

institutions have been found to be centers of

trip generation and attraction. Despite

efforts made by the management to provide

parking facilities in the past ten years,

persistent incidences of indiscriminate

parking, non-usage of prescribed parking

lots, double and road side parking is still a

major source of worry. All these put

together raise some concern about parking

facilities, and its management in the study

area which if not addressed could lead to

great traffic, environmental, safety and

security within and around the institutions.

The forgoing leads to the examination of car

park usage and management in Federal

Institutions of Zaria metropolis. The study

provides information with respect to the

number of organize car park facilities

available in the institutions, type of parking

system adopted, users’ perception of such

facilities and challenges to the car park

usage and management in the Institutions. It

is expected that findings of this study will

assist in the planning, designing or re-

designing of parking system in the various

institution.

Review of Related Literature Ogunsanya (2002) noted that evidence in

literature suggests that one of the major

objectives of transportation planning is to

ease the movement of passengers and

goods. However, in many towns and cities

of Nigeria (Kano, Port Harcourt, Kaduna

and Abuja), there is an undesirable degree

of traffic congestion on urban roads

occasioned by unorganized parking. He

further observed that, the provision of new

roads is often expensive and most municipal

government usually considers the option of

widening existing roads which involves the

demolition of houses and its attendant cost

of compensation. As city transportation

system expands, it takes up more spaces, the

construction of new roads, the expansion of

existing ones and the building of parking lot

requires the acquisition of part of the

exchange space, yet the more space is

allocated to road transport, the greater the

requirement for more traffic space.

Automobile therefore has an insatiable

appetite for space, it uses space at home, at

work, shopping and even when some spaces

are empty it is tied up or reserved for the

automobile. Automobile do not only have

exclusive space for moving, they also have

a” zone of influence” which expands as the

speed and quantity of traffic increases, thus

reducing the effectiveness of exchanges

space and the level of interaction

(Ogunsanya, 2002).





Unlike other urban problems, crisis in urban

transportation quickly manifest itself in

congestion, delay, accident, parking

difficulties and environmental pollution.

Ayeni (1983) described these as the most

pressing and most visible urban problem of

Nigeria cities. Earlier, Oduola (1981) has

exclaimed that most urban congestion

problems are caused by the sub-optimal

manner in which the roads are used, as road

side and on-street parking, street trading and

total disregard of traffic regulation by road

users are significant human contribution to

the traffic problem. In Lagos for instance,

Ogunsanya (1986) observed that illegal

parking alone account for 30 percent of the

cause of delay along Bangbose, Igbosere,

Ipodo, Bajulaiye, Ereko and Balogun and

Ojoo roads in Lagos state. Litman (2011) noted that mobility within the cities is generally

the key to economic growth in the developed

world, sustainable mobility need to be among

the first problem addressed when talking about

ways to make cities more sustainable. This

sustainable mobility development implies that

the consumption activities should be able to

take into consideration effective utilization of

available resource and develop environmental

friendly system for the mobility of the people

that would not change the natural resources and

at the same time have some positive effect on

the environment.

Simon (1996) observed that there are two

serious disadvantages facing urban

transportation, first was the heavy increase

in motor traffic in city centres which often

creates almost insolvable parking and

garage problems. The second is the vast

increase in road congestion, he submitted

further that in the developing countries,

parking is a complex and long term problem

which cannot be totally eradicated but

managed. Buses and trucks have to load and

unload passengers and goods, they all need

space to park and this pose a problem of

required spaces. The usage of vehicle has a

direct linkage with parking. This is because

after vehicle is driven to a destination, its

usefulness greatly diminishes if there is

difficulty in parking. To be effective

therefore, transportation system must

include adequate parking facilities in all

places that attracts vehicular traffic.

Litman (2011) conceptualized parking

problem in terms of a paradigm shift which

describes a fundamental change in how a

problem is perceived and solutions

evaluated. Parking problem and solutions

can be viewed in terms of a shift from the

old paradigm to the new one. The old

paradigm assumes that parking should be

abundant and free at most destinations. It

strives to maximize supply and minimize

price. The paradigm also assumes that

parking lots should almost never be filled

and that parking facility costs should be

incorporated into the costs of buildings or

subsidized by governments and that every

destination should satisfy its own parking

needs The old parking paradigm asserts that

parking requirements should be applied

rigidly without exception or variation and

that parking management should be seen as

a last resort to be applied only if increasing

supply is not feasible. The new parking

paradigm on the other hand strives to

provide optimal parking supply and price, it

considers too much supply as harmful, as

too little, and prices that are too low are as

harmful as those that are too high as it

strives to use parking facilities efficiently

by considering full lots to be acceptable,

provided that additional parking is available

nearby and any spill over problems are

addressed. It emphasizes sharing of parking

facilities between different destinations and

favours charging parking facility costs

directly to users and providing financial

rewards to people who reduce their parking

demand (Willson and Shoup, 1999).

Management solutions tend to reduce most

parking problems, providing a greater range





of benefits and so are supported by more

comprehensive planning. It is also

important to define parking problems

carefully in order to provide solutions. For

example, it is important to determine

exactly what type of problem, and where,

when and to whom it occurs. Increasing

supply simply helps reduce parking

congestion and spill over problems but

increases most other problems (Edwards,

2002). In order to provide optimal parking

supply, it is the practice in conventional

planning to determine how much parking to

be provided at a particular site by planners

based on recommended minimum parking

standards. This provides an index or parking

ratio used to calculate the number of spaces

to supply at a particular location. These are

unconstrained and unadjusted values, which

generally reflect the maximum supply that

could be needed. These standards are often

excessive and can usually be adjusted

significantly downward (Litman, 2009).

Conventional parking standards are based

on parking demand surveys but the analysis

does not usually take into account

geographic, demographic and economic

factors that can affect parking demand such

as whether a site is urban or suburban, and

whether parking is free or priced. These

standards err toward over supply in many

ways. They are derived from parking

demand studies that were mostly performed

in car-dependent locations. Applying these

standards results in far more parking supply

than is usually needed at most destinations,

particularly where land use is mixed

(Bradley,1997).

Better ways are now available to determine

how much parking to supply at a particular

site. These are the efficiency-based

standards which take into account,

geographic, demographic and economic

factors that affect parking demand (Cuddy,

2007; VTPI, 2008). They also reflect the

relative costs and benefits of different

options, so less parking is supplied where

parking supply is relatively costly to

provide and where management

programmes are easy to implement. Litman

(2007) has also recommended an integrated

parking plan which should be adjusted to

reflect the needs of a particular situation.

The steps include defining the geographic

scope of analysis such as the site, street,

district/neighbourhood and regional scale;

carefully defining the parking problems;

parking planning should be coordinated

with a community’s overall strategic vision

and development of a comprehensive

evaluation framework.

Methodology The study collects data on the capacity of

parking facilities, Parking System in place,

parking facilities compliance level in

different institutions and challenges to

parking management in the study area. The

data required were sourced from the

respective Federal institutions parking lots,

users and security units. Physical

observation, photographic method and

administration of questionnaires to staff,

students and visitors to the institutions. The

study focused on five purposively selected

Federal Institutions out of the fourteen

major Federal Institutions in Zaria

metropolis. Their selection were based on

their relative size, the volume of vehicular

traffic generated or attracted per day and the

relative ease of accessing data. The five

selected institutions are:

i. National Research Institute for

Chemical Technology (NARICT).

ii. Nigerian Institute of Transport

Technology (NITT).

iii. Nigerian College of Aviation

Technology (NCAT).

iv. Ahmadu Bello University Teaching

Hospital (ABUTH) and

v. Federal College of Education (FCE).





Pilot survey was first conducted between

9am- 10am for 3 days to have insight into

the average volume of vehicular traffic

attributed to each institutions per day.

Physical observation was also carried out in

the various Institutions’ parking lots, where

an enumerator was stationed from 7am to

5pm to observe the parking behavior.

Information with respect to the duration of

the average parking time were obtained by

evaluating the time respondents spent on

parking lots. The study population

considered the average number of vehicles

in circulation (staff, students and visitors) in

these selected federal institutions and the

sample size was determined following

Krejcie and Morgan, (1970) table of

determination of sample size where it states

that a sample size of 248 is sufficient for a

population of about 700 at 0.05 level of

significance, see table 1 below.

Table 1 Average Vehicular Flow in the

Institutions

Institutions Av. No. of Vehicle Sample Size

ABUTH 200 70

FCE 150 53

NCAT 130 46

NITT 110 40

NARICT 110 39

Total 700 248

A total of 260 copies of questionnaires were

administered and 248 which represent 96%

were returned, only 12 which represent 4%

were not returned or filled improperly. The

stratified sampling technique was used to

select the respondents for the study. The

data collected were analyzed using

descriptive method involving tables of

percentage.

Results and Discussion Capacity of Parking Facilities

The capacity of parking facilities (marked

and covered parking) in the institutions in

terms of the number of vehicles it can

comfortably accommodate at full capacity

was investigated and presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Capacity of Parking Facilities within the

Institutions

Capacity

of

Parking

Facilities

NI

TT

NCA

T

NARIC

T

FC

E

ABUT

H

Marked

Parking

space

11

0 80 50 45 650

Covered

parking

space

40 60 0 15 80

Total 15

0 140 50 55 735

The result revealed that NITT have a total

of 150 parking spaces with 110 marked and

40 covered parking space, NCAT have a

total of 140 parking space with 80 marked

and 60 covered parking spaces, NARICT

have a total of 50 parking spaces with all

marked while ABUTH has the largest space

and capacity (650 marked and 80 covered

spaces) compared to the other institutions.

The figure of marked and covered parking

spaces in table 2 seems proportional to the

relative size of the organization and the

vehicular traffic it attract. Plate 1 and 2

present a pictorial view of this marked and

covered parking spaces.

Plate 1: Shaded Parking Space at ABUTH





Plate 2: Open Marked Space at ABUTH

Users of Parking Lots

The parking needs of users within these

institutions varies in frequency, duration

and timing, proper management of parking

lots demands that information on this

should be known, this is presented in table

3. Five categories (staff, students, patients,

visitors and other general groups) of users

group were noted.

The result shows that 87.3% of users across

the institutions were staff, 8.1%,

students/participants, while 3.2%

respondent are patients on appointments

which could be relatives of the staff to the

hospitals and staff clinics within the

institutions. It can thus be inferred that staff

are the major users of parking facilities in

these institutions; this is expected in the

sense that they have to commute to work

almost on a daily basis.

Frequency of Parking Space Usage

The ability of parking facilities to meet the

demand to a large extent depends on the

frequency of usage per space and time in

the respective institutions; this was

investigated and presented in table 4. Four

scales (once a while, daily, 2-3 times a

week and weekly) were used.

Table 3 Categories of Users

Name Of Institution Total

N.I.T.T

%

NARICT

%

NCAT

%

ABUTH

%

FCE

%

Staff 59 35 34 38 27 193

26.7 15.8 15.4 17.2 12.2 87.3

Student 0 0 4 11 3 18

0.0 0.0 1.8 5.0 1.4 8.1

Patients 0 0 1 2 4 7

0.0 0.0 0.5 0.9 1.8 3.2

Visitors 0 0 0 0 2 2

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.9

Others 0 0 0 0 1 1

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.5

Total

59 35 39 51 37 221

26.7 15.8 17.6 23.1 16.7 100.0





Table 4 Frequency of Parking Lots Usage

Frequency

Name Of Institutions

Total N.I.T.T

%

NARICT

%

NCAT

%

ABUTH

%

FCE

%

Once in a While 24 2 7 1 2 36

11.1 0.9 3.2 0.5 0.9 16.6

Daily 26 29 25 37 31 148

12.0 13.4 11.5 17.1 14.3 68.2

2-3 Times a

Week

7 1 1 8 3 20

3.2 0.5 0.5 3.7 1.4 9.2

Weekly 2 0 4 5 2 13

0.9 0.0 1.8 2.3 0.9 6.0

Total

59 32 37 51 38 217

27.2 14.7 17.1 23.5 17.5 100.0

As observed 68.2% uses the parking lots,

16.6% once in a while (i.e not exceeding

twice a month), 9.2% 2-3 times a week and

6% weekly. Across the five institutions

daily usage account for the highest

percentage, this agrees with table 3 position

which indicated that staff of the respective

organizations are the major users as they

have to commute to work almost on a daily

basis and frequently than visitors and

students category.

Kinds of Parking System Adopted by

Users

The study sought to know the types of

parking system adopted by the users at the

institutions premises as against what is

required by the management, this led to

table 5 below. As observed 47.2% of NITT

users adopted road side parking. Similarly

22.2% from NARICT, 5.6% from NCAT,

2.8% and 2.2% from FCE and ABUTH

respectively equally adopted parking along

the road. Furthermore, 38.1% of NITT users

parking lot users (which is the highest

amongst the institutions) parked in

undesignated open spaces found in the

Institute, followed by 23.8% from ABUTH,

21.4% from FCE, while 11.9% and 4.8%

are from NCAT and NARICT respectively.

Compliance level of designated areas

parking is higher in NCAT (27.2%) and

ABUTH (25.6). this is pointer to the

effectiveness of the management team

which are most times security personnel.

Plate 3 shows road side parking at NITT.

Table 5 Kinds of Parking Lots Adopted by the Users

Kinds

Name Of Institutions

Total N.I.T.T

%

NARICT

%

NCAT

%

ABUTH

%

FCE

%

Undesignated Open

Places

16 2 5 10 9 42

38.1 4.8 11.9 23.8 21.4 100.0

Road Side Parking 17 8 2 8 1 36

47.2 22.2 5.6 2.2 2.8 100.0

Designated Parking 17 23 34 32 19 125

13.6 18.4 27.2 25.6 15.2 100.0

Total 50 33 41 50 29 203

24.6 16.3 20.2 24.6 14.3 100.0





Plate 3: Road Side Parking at NITT

Duration at Parking Lots

The average time spent at the parking lots

was measured in minutes the outcome is

presented in table 6. The table shows that

86.5% of users in the five institutions

spends above one hour at the parking lots,

10.2% spends 31- 60 minutes, while 3.3%

spends 1-30 minutes. It can thus be inferred

that the duration of parking in the lots the

study area is long and this is because since

most users are staff that spent about 8 hours

from resumption to closing. At the

comparative level amongst the different

institutions, NITT parking lots users spend

less time (1-30 minutes) compared to

ABUTH. This variation can be attributed to

the nature of ABUTH services as a tertiary

health care institution which attracted

visitors and referrals all over the nation and

is open for service 24 hours of the day.

Methods of Acquiring Parking Space

Different approaches are adopted to secure

parking space by users, information in this

regard can be used to substantiate argument

on the degree of orderliness of parking

system in each institutions. Table 7 provides

insight to this. As indicated 14.1% of

respondents from NITT drive in and then

start searching for space, followed by

NCAT and ABUTH with 8.6% of the

respondents each, while 7.3% of

respondents from FCE and 6.4% of

respondents from NARICT adopt similar

approach. The analysis revealed that users

from NITT have more problems searching

for space, this may be attributed to its small

size compared to other institutions.

Generally, most respondents in these

institutions have less access to private or

reserved space for parking in the following

order NITT 0.9%, ABUTH 1.8%, NCAT

2.7%, and FCE 3.2%. Further interview

with the authorities of this institutions

revealed that reserved/private parking

spaces are exclusively preserved for top

management level staff. The situation of

easy access to parking lots location can

aggravate the tendency for unorganized

parking systems in the institutions premises.

Plate 4 below shows unorganized parking at

FCE.

Table 6 Duration At Parking Lots

Name Of Institution

Total N.I.T.T

%

NARICT

%

NCAT

%

ABUTH

%

FCE

%

1-30 Minutes 2 0 1 4 0 7

0.9 0.0 0.5 1.9 0.0 3.3

31-60 Minutes 2 4 8 3 5 22

0.9 1.9 3.7 1.4 2.3 10.2

Above 1 Hour 55 27 26 44 34 186

25.6 12.6 12.1 20.5 15.8 86.5

Total 59 31 35 51 39 215

27.4 14.4 16.3 23.7 18.1 100.0





Table 7 Methods of Acquiring Parking Space

Methods Name of Institution Total

N.I.T.T

%

NARICT

%

NCAT

%

ABUTH

%

FCE

%

Always go to the same

parking space

14 16 11 22 9 72

6.4 7.3 5.0 10.0 4.1 32.7

Have a private or reserved

space

2 0 6 4 7 19

0.9 0.0 2.7 1.8 3.2 8.6

Drive in and then start to

look for space

31 14 19 19 16 99

14.1 6.4 8.6 8.6 7.3 45.0

Drive around the institution

looking for a free space

12 4 3 4 7 30

5.5 1.8 1.4 1.8 3.2 13.6

Total 59 34 39 49 39 220

26.8 15.5 17.7 22.3 17.7 100.0

Plate 4: Unorganized Parking at FCE Zaria

Users’ perception on parking facilities in

the Institutions

The overall perception of the parking

system in the study area was obtained from

the users on a four scale level of strongly

agree to strongly disagree. Various issues

on parking system management like

availability, effectiveness of manpower,

safety and security of cars and presence of

signage facilities for ease of identification

were considered as presented in table. The

inference that can be drawn from table 8 is

that the general provision and standard of

signage for directions, safety and security of

vehicles, and quality of parking lots is

adjudged suitable as majority of the

respondents agreed to the claim. However,

it was noted that there is no effective and

adequate manpower to guide users of the

parking lots. Notwithstanding, car owners

are guarantee of minimum safety of their

vehicles when parked in their premises and

the respondents will want parking services

be provided free of charge.

Challenges of Car Park Usage

The need for the respective institutions to

provide a car park system which will meet

the need of the users’ necessitated enquiry

to car park usage from the perspective of

the users, the result is presented in table 9.

As observed parking space is least a

challenge across Institutions, so also is the

cost of ticket, this is because investigation

during the data collection shows that none

of the institutions charges any fee for

parking within their premises and each of

them have a fairly large land space. The two

issues that is fairly a challenge are distance

of parking lots to destinations (offices,

hostel, classes of hospital words and

medium of communication or who to seek

direction from with regards to the available

and nearest designated parking lots. This

development is perhaps one of the reason

users will park in undesignated places.

Implications of the Study

The implications of the above findings for a

sound and safe car park usage and

management in the Federal Institutions of

Zaria metropolis are:

• There is the urgent need to

discourage parking in undesignated

places within their premises, this





policy should be backed up with

sanctions like: fines, clamping

wheels or detention of erring

driver’s vehicles.

• More parking lots should be

provided within the premises of

these institutions, this should be

preceded with a periodic car park

survey to know the trend of

vehicular traffic influx into the

institutions.

• Each designated parking areas

should be properly marked and

directional signs be provided to

guide users. In addition security

personnel should be provided to

ensure compliance.

Conclusion In conclusion car park facilities is an

important component of surface

transportation planning and management

and corporate institutions like ABUTH,

NITT, NCAT, FCE and NARICT should

integrate this into their physical

development plans. This is because car par

usage and management in each organization

can affect the effectiveness of traffic within

them as well as adjoining land uses

Table 8 Respondents ranking of car parking issues in the Institutions

Table 10 Challenges of Car Park Usage

Challenges Not a

challeng

e

(1)

Least a

challenge

(2)

Fairly a

challenge

(3)

Major

challenge

(4)

Great

challenge

(5)

Total Median IQR

Parking

space

91 38 55 15 15

214

2 2

Cost of

ticket

143 21 5 2 5

176

1 0

Distance to

Destination

112 36 36 7 6

197

1 2

Insecurity 88 15 17 5 4 129 1 1

Medium for

complain

94 33 27 19 9

182

1 2

Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2016)

Range of perception SA A DA SD Total Median

There is more signage in parking areas 54 63 45 27 189 Agreed

There is the presence of standard car

parking system

50 72 57 31 210 Agreed

There is effective manpower,

enforcement officers and efficient car

parking service delivery

40 50 63 62 215 Disagreed

Car owners assured of the safety, of their

cars from theft

66 68 43 36 213 Agreed

Parking lots should be free of charge to

staffs, students and visitors

118 48 23 20 209 Strongly

agreed

Parking policy is an important tool to

reduce car traffic within the institution

188 69 7 19 213 Strongly

agreed





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Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of

Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State

Babatunde, Isaiah Olajide

Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna;

Corresponding Email: [email protected]

Abstract This study examined the dependability of Two-Third of Market Value (TTMV) model of determining

liquidation value of real estate collateral in Niger State. It discussed the value concepts required for mortgage

valuation and the models of liquidation valuation in Nigeria. Primary data were collected by questionnaire

served on thirteen Estate Surveying and Valuation (ESV) firms and sixteen commercial banks (CBs) in the

state. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The results showed that only one ESV firm identified

Market Survey Model (MSM) as the appropriate model of liquidation valuation; that liquidation values assessed

by the ESV firms ranged between 60% and 88.20% of market value (MV) in the state. The appropriate

proportion of liquidation value (LV) to MV in the principal cities, using MSM, was assessed to be 55.28% for

Minna; 57.05% for Suleja; 42.80% for Bida and 39.02% for Kontagora. These results provide the ESVs, the

CBs and the academics in the state the necessary information on the appropriate LV –MV proportion for

collateral valuation. It also enjoins NIESV and ESVARBON to review their valuation standards by substituting

LV for FSV and to include rental value in mortgage valuations. It also recommends MSM to the valuation

regulators as the basis of LV assessment where the property market is active in the state.

Keywords: Market value, Forced sale value, Rental value, Liquidation value, Real estate collaterals; Market

survey model

Introduction Real estate assets have remained one of the

most applied collaterals by institutional

lenders in the global financial credit market

(Nwuba, Egwuatu and Salawu, 2011).

Nwuba et al. (2011) also confirmed that the

Nigerian commercial banks alternated real

estate collaterals with the use of other assets

such as treasury bills, certificates of cash

deposit, government securities, bank

guaranties and receivables of blue chip

companies, bonds, stocks and shares,

machinery and equipment among others.

The vulnerability in the Nigerian stock

market in recent times has dampened the

interest of institutional credit operators in

accepting stocks and shares as collaterals

for securing loans (Asset Management

Corporation of Nigeria Report, 2014).

The Nigerian property market which

provides the necessary data for market and

forced sale valuations of real estate

collateral does not seem to be matured

enough to allow forced sale value to be so

easily measured by the current conventional

method (Babatunde, 2011). Some scholars

have also differed on the possibility of the

pre- determination of forced sale value of

real estate collateral before foreclosure of

loan transactions. Crosby, Devaney and

Matysiak (2003) argued that time was a

critical factor in real estate marketing and

sale and that forced sale implied that it had

become mandatory and compulsory that the

collateral would be sold. If this assertion is

true, how valid then is the notion of “forced

sale value” in valuation of collaterals for

secured lending in Nigeria?

Similarly, the current conventional

technique of forced sale valuation does not

agree with the auction sale method adopted

in the disposal of the pledged collaterals

during the period of foreclosure. Chow,

Babatunde,

Reliability of the Liquidation Valuation Models of Selected Real Estate Collaterals in Niger State


Hafalir & Yavas (2013) emphasized the

merit of auction sales for both foreclosed

and non-foreclosed properties in Singapore.

In the United Kingdom and America, the

notion of forced sale value has become very

contentious. Crosby et al. (2003) in U.K

and Rice (2006) in America argued that

liquidation value of pledged collateral was

the intended requirement of the lender

before and during the collapse of mortgage

transactions. If this argument is valid, why

do estate surveyors and valuers in Nigeria

prefer forced sale value to liquidation value

( as provided in NIESV’s Guidance Notes

on Property Valuation, 1985 and NIESV’s

Valuation Standards and Guidance Notes,

2006) when predicting the auction price of

real estate asset during foreclosure?

Another critical issue of contention is the

technique of assessment and analysis. The

conventional technique adopted by estate

surveyors and valuers in Nigeria is not

currently acceptable in the developed

markets of Europe, America and Asia.

Many valuation scholars in Nigeria such as

Ogunba (2004), Aluko (2007, 2010),

Oluwumi, Ajayi, Olaleye & Fagbenle

(2011) and Babawale (2012) have also lent

their voices to the use of contemporary

property valuation models in Nigeria. Aluko

(2007) and Kalu (2007) declared that the

use of conventional income capitalization

method in the mist of rental volatility was

highly flawed and consequently suggested

the use of one of “its variant, the discounted

cash flow (DCF) which was a much more

contemporary option with the required local

and necessary adjustments.”

Statement of the problem

Forced sale value has become a

controversial value notion among some

critical valuation scholars in the global

appraisal community. A more logical value

alternative (liquidation value) that could be

reasonably defined and assessed is being

canvassed .Similarly the methods and

techniques of determining liquidation value

of collaterals by estate surveyors and

valuers could no longer provide a proxy for

auction sale price. There is therefore an

urgent need to explore a more appropriate

technique that will produce a good

substitute for auction price of real estate

collateral for foreclosure purpose in the

study area.

Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to examine the

dependability of the current technique of

determining the liquidation value of real

estate collaterals in Niger State with a view

to providing an alternative model that will

ensure a more accurate value assessment.

The aim is intended to be achieved by the

following specific objectives:

(i) identify the types of value of real estate

collaterals required for secured lending

practice in Niger State;

(ii) examine the conventional and

contemporary models of determining

liquidation/ forced sale values of real estate

collaterals and

(iii) assess the liquidation value-market

value ratio of real estate collaterals in the

major urban centers of the study area.

Profile of the Study Area

The study area is Niger State. The state

situates in the Northcentral geopolitical

zone of Nigeria. According to the Niger

State website (www.nigerstate.gov.ng

retrieved on15/06/16) , the state is bounded

to the south by River Niger and Kwara

State; bounded to the north by the states of

Kebbi and Zamfara; bounded to the

northeast by Kaduna State; to the east by

Abuja; and to the southeast by Kogi. It

also shares an international boundary with

the Republic of Benin .It has a land area of

76,363 square kkilometers (29,483.9 square

miles which makes it the largest state in

land mass in Nigeria. According to the

http://www.nigerstate.gov.ng/

http://www.britannica.com/place/Kebbi-state-Nigeria

http://www.britannica.com/place/Kogi

http://www.britannica.com/place/Benin




National Population Commission (2006), its

population was 3,950,249 which made it the

18th largest state in the country. Minna is its

capital city. It is subdivided into 25 Local

Government Areas with Minna, Bida,

Suleja and Kontagora as the four major

urban centres.The map of Niger State

showing the four major cities is displayed

on Figure 1. According to the NIESV

Directory (2014), there are 13 practising

firms of estate surveyors and valuers in the

state.

Value Concepts and Valuation

Models for Secured Lending Types of value

Two types of value were provided by the

NIESV (2006) valuation standards and

guidance notes on valuation of real estate

collaterals for secured lending purpose.

They comprised of market value and forced

sale value. International Valuation

Standards Council, [IVSC] (2011) however

specified liquidation value in place of

forced sale value. AMCON (2010) required

rental value in addition to the two types of

value required by the NIESV (2006)

standards. In this subsection, the notions of

market value, forced sale value and rental

value are discussed.

Market value: Foremost valuation standard

organizations such as Appraisal Foundation

(2010), IVSC (2011), Royal Institution of

Chartered Surveyors[RICS] (2014) and The

European Group of Valuers Association,

TEGoVA ( 2016) defined market value as

“the estimated amount for which an asset or

liability should exchange on the valuation

date between a willing buyer and a willing

seller in an arm’s length transaction after

proper marketing and where the parties had

each acted knowledgeably, prudently and

without compulsion.

Figure 1: Niger State Showing the Four Major Cities

Source: Niger State GIS Agency, Minna

(2017)

Ifediora (2005, 2009)) and Ogunba (2013)

described it as the fundamental basis of

value for properties for sale, mortgage,

secured lending, liquidation,

merger/acquisition and all other market

based transactions. Babawale (2012)

similarly portrayed it as the surrogate of

market price. Arising from these academic

connotations this paper accepts market

value as the available substitute, proxy,

alternate or replacement of market price of a

property before actual sale thereof takes

place.

Forced sale value: Encyclopedia of

American Law (2008) described forced sale

value (FSV) as not having any strong

theoretical substance. The few academic

postulations made on FSV did not refer to it

as a concept of value rather it was

conceived as the value that resulted from an

action taken in a law court forcing the

owner of a unit of real estate collateral to

sell it and to utilize the proceeds of the sale

to settle his mortgage debt (West, 2008). It

is therefore an unintentional sale that takes

place by the method and at the time

specified by law so as to apply the proceeds

to settle the mortgage debt incurred by the

owner of the property. NIESV (2006)

asserted that FSV was the same as

liquidation value and subsequently defined

Babatunde,



it as “the amount that may be reasonably

received from the sale of a property within a

time frame too short to meet the marketing

time frame required by the market value

definition.

From the definitions, description and

explanation of FSV provided by

Encyclopedia of American Law (2008),

West’s (2008) and the Business

Dictionary.com, it is not synonymous with

liquidation value as intended by NIESV

(2006). The action of carrying it out through

auction sale is also that of liquidation. It

similarly requires the order of the court

before it could be executed. It is therefore

not a forced sale but rather a court ordered

sale. Juxtaposing all the aforementioned

perceptions with the views of scholars in

Europe and America, liquidation value

seems to be the value notion contemplated

by the lender before mortgage transaction. It

is therefore accepted in this study as the

value notion required, in addition to value

concepts such as market value and rental

value during loan underwriting.

Rental value: IVSC (2011) construed rental

value as market rent and defined it as the

“estimated amount for which a property

would be leased on the valuation date

between a willing lessor and a willing lessee

on appropriate lease terms in an arm’s

length transaction, after proper marketing

and where the parties had each acted

knowledgeably, prudently and without

compulsion”. This definition, which is

different in some instances from rent

passing or rent reserved on a property, is the

accepted description of rental value in this

study.

AMCON (2010) popularized the demand

for the inclusion of rental value and its

definition in foreclosure valuations in

Nigeria. Many commercial banks in Nigeria

today such as the Unity Bank of Nigeria

Plc. and Stanbic-IBTC among others

require it as a concept that should be

included in secured lending valuations.

Rental value of real estate collateral

becomes significant where it is very

difficult to find a buyer in good time for the

property and it has to be subjected to

receivership. In that instance, the receiver

could lease out the property on the basis of

the rental value.

Conventional liquidation valuation model

Conventional liquidation valuation that is

incorporated into market valuation as part

of secured loan underwriting documents in

Nigeria today was adopted erroneously

from the principles of fixing loan for

property development and acquisition

enunciated by British authors such as

Britton, Davies, Johnson, Lawrence and

Rees (1980). The guiding procedure under

the latter was to determine the market value

and the rental value; use trial and error

method to initially fix the proposed property

development/acquisition loan at two-thirds

of the market (or acquisition) value; verify

whether the net rent could defray the

interest and part of the principal; and build

an amortization table on the basis of the

subject net rent for the tenure of the loan. If

the loan could be repaid from the proceeds

of the subject rent, then the two-third-

figure earlier projected would be acceptable

as the mortgage (loan). If the pre-

determined net rent would not be able to

defray the interest and the principal during

the tenure of the mortgage, the fraction

could be further reduced to 3/5; 1/2; 2/5 and

in that geometric order continually.

All the auction sale valuations of collateral

prepared by ESV firms for AMCON

between 2010 and 2014 were based on the

notion of MV.Today, TTMV is still adopted

among ESV firms as the predicted auction

sale value of collaterals in Nigeria

(AMCON Report, 2014) as against a more




logically and scientifically researched

proportion of market value (Rice, 2006).

Studies such as Ogunba (2004) and Aluko

(2007) among others which focused on the

appropriateness of the assessed market

values of real estate collaterals by ESVs in

Nigeria did not examine the model they

adopted in assessing the liquidation value of

the collaterals.

Contemporary model of liquidation

valuation of real estate collaterals

Before liquidation value of real estate

collateral could be accurately assessed, two

conditions, according to Crosby et al.

(2003) should be precedent. They

comprised of the appropriate assessment of

the MV (through accurate data assembly

and processing) and the adoption of a more

acceptable technique of determining the

appropriate proportion of the liquidation

value to MV in the location. Aluko (2007)

confirmed that a great number of MV of

collaterals assessed by ESVs in Lagos,

Nigeria were inaccurate and reviewed them

through contemporaneous valuation. Aluko

(2007) inferred contemporaneity to imply a

situation where valuation exercise

previously carried out by one valuer was

reviewed by another independent valuer as

if the exercise was carried out

simultaneously by the two valuers at the

same time. Aluko (2007), using the data

extracted from the valuation reports

prepared for deposit money banks in Lagos

and provided by the Nigerian Deposit

Insurance Corporation carried a

contemporaneous market valuation of the

collaterals. The study did not however carry

out a contemporaneous assessment of the

liquidation value of the affected collaterals.

Also, Babatunde (2011) declared that in

order to determine a reliable market value

of any real estate collateral, there was need

for the identification and selection of the

appropriate method; use of accurate market

data: and identification and adoption of the

appropriate model as a guiding procedure.

The model adopted to determine the

liquidation value in that work required more

illumination and illustration.

Rice (2006), nevertheless, declared that the

Market Survey Model (MSM) was one of

the most suitable models of determining

liquidation value. Rice (2006) of Rice

Group popularized the use of the model for

the determination of liquidation value of

real estate collaterals in the United States of

America. According to him, the usual

procedure was: to determine the duration of

the sale; classify the property according to

its neighbourhood; find out, through market

survey (the discount allowable on market

value of such property within the

neighbourhood); and make necessary

adjustment for appeal factor. The result

should produce a fair estimate of liquidation

value. Babatunde (2011) agreed with Rice

(2006) on MSM for liquidation value and

consequently assembled evidence of rents in

Niger State of Nigeria through multiple

listing system, MLS, (market survey from

estate agents); gathered evidence of

liquidation value of similar properties from

recent auction sales that emanated from

foreclosure procedures; found the

proportion of each auction sale to market

value derived from contemporaneous

valuation of such real estate asset;

determined the mean percentage as the

proportion of LV to MV. The result was the

LV percentage for the subject cities of

Minna, Suleja, Bida and Kontagora in the

state.

According to Babatunde (2011), the strong

message that this model conveyed to

valuers and users of valuation service was

that the proportion of liquidation value to

market value varied from one city or town

to another and it was a function of actual

auction sale evidences and accurately

assessed market value. He also declared that

Babatunde,



where a city was very big, it could also vary

from one neighbourhood to another.

Babatunde (2011) however did not generate

a specific formula that would generally

define the model, which among others this

study seeks to accomplish.

The challenge of keeping records of:

foreclosed mortgage transactions involving

real estate collaterals by Niger State High

Courts; transfer of title of auctioned real

estate collaterals and accurate assessment of

MV of real estate collaterals could however

be some of the difficulties encountered by

estate surveyors and valuers in putting this

model into optimum use in the state.

Similarly, the model may not be applicable

where the property market is not active.

Methodology The study relied on primary data generated

through a survey conducted with

questionnaire and interview guide. There

were two sets of questionnaire each of

which was structured according to the

objectives of the study. The first set was

administered on the 13No practicing firms

of estate surveyors and valuers (ESV) in

Niger State while the second one was

similarly administered on the 16No

commercial banks (CBs) in the state. The

questionnaire for the ESV firms consisted

of one aptitude question on the appropriate

method of determining the liquidation value

(or FSV as recognized by NIESV, 2006).

The questionnaire for the CBs however

consisted of two sets of questions. The first

section sought information on MV and FSV

of real estate assets that were used as

collaterals for mortgage transactions which

failed and were subsequently foreclosed.

The second section contained questions on

the auction sale prices of the properties at

foreclosure. Also the valuation reports of

the mortgaged properties involved in

foreclosed transactions were requested from

the banks. Thirty two (32) of them were

made available for examination. Descriptive

statistics (frequency, percentages, means

and ratios) and the market survey model

were the main tools of data analysis. Data

derived from the reports were used to

reassess the contemporaneous market value

of the properties. The auction sale prices of

the subject properties were compared with

their respective contemporaneous market

values in order to determine the proportion

of liquidation value to market value in each

of the four principal cities of the state.

Data Analysis and Discussion All the thirteen (13) registered firms of

estate surveyors and valuers who received

the questionnaire completed and returned

them giving a response level of 100 %. 16

CBs were given questionnaire. Only seven

(7) of them completed and returned them,

indicating a 43.75% response level. The

criteria for the determination of LV or FSV

by ESV firms during loan underwriting

period, ESV‘s model of

LV,contemporaneous MV, liquidation and

auction sale price after foreclosure, auction

price percentage of MV and contemp. MV

and determination of appropriate MSM

percentage in the study area were presented,

analyzed and discussed in this section.

Table 1 showed the criteria adopted by the

ESV firms in determining LV of collaterals

in the study area. Table 1: Analysis of Criteria for Determination of

Liquidation Value

S/N Criteria Frequency Percentage

(%)

1 2/3 of Market

Value 10 76.92

2 Rule of the

Thumb 2 15.39

3 Market Survey 1 7.69

Total 13 100

The result on Table 1 indicated that 1No

ESV firm or 7.69 % selected market survey

model which is the appropriate model;




while 10 No ESV firms or 76.92 % and 2No

ESV firms or 15. 39% selected TTMV and

rule of the thumb respectively.This implied

that the conventional TTMV model was the

practice in the state. It really indicated that

ESV firms in the state were yet to be

conversant with the contemporary market

survey model of liquidation valuation.

The result of the analysis on Table 2

showed that 17No properties in Minna,11

No properties in Suleja,3No properties in

Bida and 1No property in Kontagora were

assessed by the ESV firms. The percentages

of the assessed FSV in Minna ranged

between 60 and 88.20; those of Suleja

ranged from 60% to 70% while the ones in

Bida and Kontagora ranged between

66.66% and 66.67%. Out of the 17No

properties assessed in Minna, TTMV model

was presumably used to produce 2/3 of MV

of eleven (11) of them. The model for the

assessment of the liquidation value of the

six (6) other properties could not be

ascertained. They could have been assessed

either on the basis of intuition, rule of the

thumb, instruction by the creditor/borrower

or by mere guess work. Out of the 11No

properties considered for liquidation

valuations in Suleja, six (6) of them were

apparently assessed on the basis of TTMV

while other models that could not be easily

verified were used for the five (5) others

that produced 70%,70%,60%, 60% and

70% respectively. The model of liquidation

value in Bida was 2/3 of MV for the three

properties assessed. The result also showed

that the TTMV model was adopted by the

ESV firm to assess the LV of the collateral

enumerated in Kontagora.

Table 2: Analysis of Forced Sale Valuations of ESV Firms during Loan Underwriting Period Identification

of ESV

Date of

Valuation

Types of Property Location MV

N’000

FSV

N’000

% of

FSV

RSV/MNA/01 10/2007 Flat Bosso,Minna 29,390 19,594 66.67

07/2007 Block of Flats Tunga, Minna 30,000 20,000 66.67 RSV/MNA/02 2005 Duplex Tunga, Minna 3,000 2,500 83.33

2005 Tenenment Tunga, Minna 3,600 3,000 83.33

2005 Tenenment Bosso, Minna 5,000 4,000 80.00

2009 Commercial (shops

and office units)

Tunga, Minna 10,000 7,500 75.00

RSV/MNA/03 9/1/07 Fuel Station Kuta Rd,Minna 15,144 10,600 70.00

31/5/07 Block of Flats F -Lay Out Minna

30,000 20,000 66.67

26/2/09 Flat Suleja 15,108 10,575 70.00

5/3/09 Fuel Station Suleja 32,000 22,000 70.00

RSV/MNA/04 2004 Flat Tunga,Minna 6,000 4,000 66.67

2006 Bungalow D/Kura, Minna 7,500 5,000 66.67

May,2013 Flat Tayi, Minna 5,500 3,667 66.67

RSV/MNA/06 2005 Bungalow Nassarawa

Ward B, Minna

3,750 2,500 66.67

RSV/MNA/07 2008 Flat Tunga,Minna 2,800 2,100 75.00

2008 Bungalow GRA,Minna 17,000 15,000 88.20

RSV/MNA/08 2010 Maissionette London St Minna

30,000 20,000 66.67

Nov,2010 Factory/

Warehouse

Suleja 120,000 80,000 66.67

RSV/MNA/09 July,2010 Flat M.I.W.Estate

Minna

6,000 4,000 66.67

Babatunde,



Aug,2010 Flat M.I.W.Estate

Minna

6,000 4,000 66.67

RSV/SUL/01 Jan,2010 Bungalow Suleja 6,000 4,000 66.67

Nov,2010 Flat Suleja 5,000 3,000 60.00

June,2010 Shops Suleja 12,000 8,000 66.67

RSV/SUL/02 March 2010 Flat Suleja 6,000 4,000 60.00

26/2/09 Flat Suleja 15,108 10,575 70.00

RSV/SUL/03 27/8/2010 Bungalow Suleja 13,050 8,700 66.67.

2/9/2010 Bungalow Suleja 2,100 1,400 66.67

14/07/12 Tenement Suleja 7,850 5,230 66.62

RSV/BDA/01 2010 Flat Bida 5,000 3,333 66.67

2010 Mixed Res/Comm Bida 70,000 46,667 66.67

Feb, 2013 Bungalow Bida 9,150 6,100 66.66

RSV/MNA/02 2011 Bungalow GRA,K/gora 10,000 6,670 66.67

Further analysis of Table 2 is presented on

Table 3.

Table 3: ESV‘s Model of Liquidation Value

Type of Model

adopted by ESVs

Frequency of

collaterals

Percentage

TTMV 21 65.62

MSM 0 0

Unidentified Models 11 34.38

Total 32 100

Findings on Table3 indicated that TTMV

model was adopted to assess liquidation

value of 65.62% of the collaterals surveyed.

The use of other unverifiable models was

considered to have been adopted for the

remaining 34.38% of the collaterals

enumerated. MSM was not applied to assess

any collateral. Only twelve (12) real estate

collaterals out of the thirty two enumerated

had been fully foreclosed with concluded

auction sales after court orders. Their

contemporaneous valuations were

subsequently carried out. The analysis of

the review is presented on Table 4. Table 4

was further analyzed to produce the auction

price percentage of both the MV and

Contemp. MV presented on Table 5.

The results on Table 5 showed that TTMV

could not be a suitable basis for liquidation

value since none of the proportions of

auction prices of the foreclosed collaterals

to market values (i.e. the LV) was up to

66.67%. It therefore implied that any value

assessed by TTMV could not be a suitable

proxy for auction price in the study area.

The proportion of auction prices to market

values assessed by ESV for Minna ranged

between 33.33% and 53 % .The ones for

Suleja ranged between 50% and 51.72%

while those for Bida ranged between

30.30% and 35%.The proportion of auction

price and market value in Kontagora was

32%.




Table 4: Contemporaneous MV, Liquidation and Auction Sale Price after Foreclosure

Bank ID ID of ESV Property Location MV

N’000

C/ MV

N’000

FSV

N’000

Auctio

n Price

(‘000)

CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats Tunga, Minna 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000

CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment Bosso, Minna 5,000 4,000 4,000 2,000

CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Tunga, Minna 6,000 4,500 4,000 2,200

CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow GRA, Minna 17,000 15,000 15,000 9,000

CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat M.I.W Estate

Minna 6,000 4,300 4,000 2,000

CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Tayi, Minna 5,500 5,000 3,667 2,750

CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat Suleja 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000

CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow Suleja 13,050 12,500 8,700 6,750

CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement Suleja 7,850 7,000 5,230 4,000

CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat Bida 5,000 3,500 3,333 1,500

CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow Bida 9,150 5,500 6,100 3,200

CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Bungalow GRA,K/gora. 10,000 8,200 6,667 3,200

Table 5: Analysis of Auction Price Percentage of MV and Contemp. MV

Bank ID ID of ESV Property Location %AP of MV % AP of C/MV

CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats Minna 50 60

CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment Minna 50 50

CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Minna 43.33 57.77

CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow Minna 53 60

CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat Minna 33.33 48.88

CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat Minna 50 55

CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat Suleja 50 60

CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow Suleja 51.72 54

CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement Suleja 51 57.14

CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat Bida 30.30 42.86

CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow Bida 35 42.73

CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Bungalow K/gora 32 39.02

Table 6 presents further analysis of Table 4

in order to determine the MSM percentage

for the four cities under consideration.

Results of the analysis on Table 6 showed

that the percentages of liquidation value to

market value in Minna, Suleja, Bida and

Kontagora were 55.28, 57.05, 42.80 and

39.02 respectively. The MSM percentage

for each city was obtained by computing its

mean %AP of Contp. MV. The percentage

of liquidation value in relation to market

value in the study area could be generally

defined by the following MSM equation

which was derived from Table 6:

P=∑a/m N

Where P= percentage figure; a= auction sale

price; m= properly assessed market value

and N=number of sales transactions

The results of the analysis further revealed

that where the property market was not

active in terms of frequent sales of

foreclosed collaterals as it was in case with

Kontagora, the MSM equation might be

misleading to the lender in the event the

market later becomes active.

Babatunde,



Summary of Major Findings The summary of major findings in this

study arranged in accordance with its

objectives indicated that 10 No ESV firms

representing 76.92% and1 No ESV firm

representing 7.69% of the respondents

selected the conventional TTMV model and

MSM of determining liquidation value

respectively. Twenty one (21) real estate

collaterals representing 65.62% of the

collaterals surveyed had their liquidation

values assessed on the basis of TTMV

model while the liquidation values of the

remaining eleven (11) collaterals

(signifying 34.28% of the total) were

assessed on the basis of unverifiable

models. It was also discovered that TTMV

could not be a suitable model for the

assessment of the proxy for auction price in

the study area.

Table 6: Determination of Appropriate MSM

Percentage

Similarly, the use of MSM was yet to be

recognized as a model for assessing

liquidation value of collaterals in the study

area. Liquidation values of collaterals

assessed by the use of MSM in a

contemporaneous valuation in Minna,

Suleja, Bida and Kontagora indicated

aggregates of 55.33%, 57%, 42.86% and

39.02% of market values respectively.

These percentages proved to be closer to

those of auction sale prices of collaterals

foreclosed in the recent past in the state.

Conclusion and Recommendations The study reviewed the use of the TTMV

model of assessing LV of real estate

collaterals during valuation for secured

lending in Niger State. It discovered that

TTMV model was the most popular model

for assessing liquidation values of

collaterals amongst estate surveyors and

valuers in the state. The study considered

MSM of liquidation valuation popularized

by Rice (2006) to assess the liquidation

values of some foreclosed real estate

collaterals in the state. It discovered that the

LV of such real estate assets could be

proxies, surrogates and replacement values

for their auction prices during foreclosure

since they were at close range to ones

indicated by the proportion of auction prices

to MVs of collaterals assessed by ESVs in

the study area.

Bank ID ID of ESV Property C/MVN

’000

Auction Price

(AP)N ‘000

% AP of

C/MV

MSM

%

CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/01 Block of Flats,

Minna

25,000 15,000 60

CB/MN/01 RSV/MNA/02 Tenenment,

Minna

4,000 2,000 50

CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/04 Flat ,Minna 4,500 2,600 57.77

CB/MN/02 RSV/MNA/07 Bungalow,

Minna

15,000 9,000 60

CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/09 Flat, Minna 4,500 2,200 48.88 55.28

CB/MN/03 RSV/MNA/04 Flat, Minna 5,000 2,750 55

CB/SL/04 RSV/SUL/02 Flat,Suleja 5,000 3,000 60

CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Bungalow,

Suleja

12,500 6,750 54 57.05

CB/SL/05 RSV/SUL/03 Tenement,

Suleja

7,000 4,000 57.14

CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Flat, Bida 3,500 1,500 42.86 42.80

CB/BD/06 RSV/BDA/01 Bungalow, Bida 2,350 42.73

CB/KT/07 RSV/MNA/02 Flat,Kontagora 8,200 3,200 39.02 39.02




The study is concluded with the

recommendation that MSM percentage of

market value should form the basis of the

determining liquidation values of real estate

collaterals where the property market is

active in the state. Similarly, NIESV and the

Estate Surveyors and Valuers Registration

Board of Nigeria (ESVARBON) should

replace forced sale value with liquidation

value as canversed by IVSC (2011) and

other international valuation standards

organizations in their valuation templates.

Since valuation users now demand for the

inclusion of rental value in valuation reports

for secured lending, NIESV and

ESVARBON should include it in their

standards. Academics in Estate

Management and Valuation are also advised

to carry out similar studies in other states of

Nigeria in order explore the possibility of

building more valuation models that would

reduce lenders’ losses whenever real estate

collaterals are foreclosed in Nigeria.

References Aluko, B.T. (2007). Implication of current

trend in mortgage valuation practice

in Nigeria. International Journal of

Strategic Property

Management,11(1), 17-31.

Aluko, B.T. (2010). Accuracy of auction

sale valuations in distressed bank

lending decisions in Nigeria.

Journal of Business Economics and

Management 8(3), 225-233.

AMCON (2010). Template for foreclosure

valuations: Working template

presented for the use of Estate

Surveying and Valuation firms

engaged for foreclosure valuation at

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arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng 66

Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building

Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation

Projects in Minna

Ayuba, P. & Albert, B. S.

Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Minna

Corresponding E-mail: arcayubaxx2@ futminna.edu.ng

Abstract Deconstruction involves the process employed to disassemble the existing building structures such that it can be

reused or recycled. As cities develop and grow, urban renewal is often carried out which requires that existing

structures be made to reflect changes in modern architecture and to meet new standards. This process is often

done hurriedly and without necessary precautionary measures required to salvage building components that

may still be valuable and reusable. The resultant effect is great economic loss, damage and more worryingly

generation of significant waste and lots of debris to the built environment. Selected urban renewal and

renovation sites were examined to find out the techniques employed in removing whole or parts of such existing

structures allow for effective reuse or recycling. The study employed the case study survey and descriptive

research methods. Data were collected by means of structured observation and interviews. The result showed

that more emphasis was given to the economic benefits of deconstruction over its sustainable benefits. The

findings further demonstrated a lack of technical know-how as well as deployment of unsuitable equipment

during the construction process. The study recommended that there is need for the engagement of

deconstruction experts and specialists in order to ensure proper deployment of appropriate tools in carrying out

the work. The research concluded that greater partnership between construction industries and recycling

factories should also be encouraged.

Keywords: Building components, deconstruction, recycle, reuse, salvage, waste

Introduction Buildings are known to require

maintenance, refurbishment or renovation to

sustain their life cycle. It may also be

completely demolished when it has

approached its end of life. Over the years,

demolition has been mostly employed to

achieve this partial or complete removal of

buildings. This process generates

tremendous amount of waste and debris.

Santos and Brito (2005) confirm that

construction and demolition wastes are

responsible for up to a third of all wastes

dumped into landfills. The result of this

includes ecological impacts, severe negative

landscape, and occurrence of illegal dumps,

emissions and leaks. The Boulder County

(2008) adds that about 136 million tons of

debris is generated annually in the United

States arising directly from building related

construction and demolition waste. The

bulk of which comes from renovation and

urban renewals. The Century Bay Builders

(2016) further reiterates that the

decomposition of construction and

demolition waste is directly responsible for

the production of methane – one of the most

portent greenhouse gases. However, as

more attention is continuously drawn

towards sustainability, more attention is

also paid to the techniques and methods that

are used to take buildings apart.

The process where old buildings are

dismantled carefully in such a manner as to

preserve the building components for reuse

or recycling is referred to as deconstruction

(Sherman, 1998). Deconstruction can be

Ayuba, Albert

Appraisal of Recycling of Deconstructed Building Materials from Selected Renewal and Renovation Projects in Minna


seen to be the opposite of building

construction as the building is dismantled in

the reverse order in which it was built.

Century Bay Builders (2016) and Greer

(2004) also concur with the above definition

that deconstruction is simply construction in

reverse. Diven and Taylor (2006) put

deconstruction to mean the process by

which a building is dismantled from the

roof down, a piece at a time. Deconstruction

can similarly be seen as a green approach to

the dismantling of buildings. It ensures that

the waste arising as a result of the debris are

minimized and the building components are

recycled (Addis, 2006).The Century Bay

Builders (2016) similarly defines

deconstruction to be the selective

dismantling of building components for

recycling, reuse and efficient management

of waste. Santos and Brito (2005) also

describes as a process that ensures the

maximization of whole building materials

and components to complete the duration of

their technical life cycle for social,

sustainable and economic purposes by

means of careful disassembly methods and

techniques.

This is as opposed to demolition where the

‘wrecking ball’ or ‘bulldozer’ approach is

employed to teardown a building with all of

the building components crushed into debris

that would typically end up in landfills or

dumps (Thomsen, Schultmann, Kohler,

2011).

It can hence be deduced that deconstruction

is a sustainable practice that can be

harnessed to significantly reduce waste and

debris arising from renovation or renewal

projects. The potentials that deconstruction

possesses especially when sustainability is

factored is quite enormous and could

potentially lead to massive energy savings

and enhance the environment. This paper

seeks to assess the extent to which building

deconstruction is employed in building

renovation and renewal projects in Minna to

reuse or recycle building components and

materials.

Deconstruction as a Sustainable Practice

The modern concept of deconstruction goes

well beyond the economic benefits to being

strongly tied to environmental sustainability

(The Century Bay Builders, 2016). Beyond

giving a building material a new life cycle,

it helps reduce the craving for new

resources and materials for building new

projects. This leads to lower energy

consumption and emissions that could have

otherwise been emitted from the production

of new building components.

Deconstruction is usually carried out on a

local level, it saves energy that would have

been expended on transporting debris and

wastes to dumps or landfills. It also grossly

reduces the production of solid waste by

ensuring that construction waste is either

significantly minimized or not produced

entirely. It further opines that since

construction and demolition waste accounts

for up to 20% of solid waste, this should be

a big saving for better sustainability

(Century Bay Builders, 2016).

The New South Wales Department of

Environment, Climate Change and Water

(2010) also alludes to the fact that

Deconstruction contributes immensely to

sustainability and helps avoid negative

environmental impacts associated with

Construction and Demolition wastes. This

can be achieved through the lowering of the

amount of materials extracted and reducing

the amount needed to be produced. Other

benefits of Deconstruction to sustainability

include protection of air quality, reduction

of water pollution, reduction in energy use,

reduction of habitat loss as well as reduction

in the production of greenhouse gases.

The National Association of Home Builders

[NABH] (2000) who are responsible for the

construction of over 80% of homes in the

United States of America further support




the earlier assertions by The Century Bay

Builders (2016) and New South Wales

Department of Environment, Climate

Change and Water (2010) that

Deconstruction has important benefits to

sustaining the environment by diverting

valuable resources from dumps into

recycled components for profitable uses.

Stages in Deconstruction

The main goal in deconstruction is to ensure

that disassembled building components are

either reused or recycled. However, that

may not often be the case as certain

building materials may not be salvageable

entirely. The figure 1 further explains the

process involved in the Deconstruction

cycle.

Benefits of Deconstruction

There are incentives for a contractor or

client to take the deconstruction option as

against the generally accepted norm of the

‘bulldozer’ or ‘wrecking ball’ demolition

approach. The New South Wales

Department of Environment, Climate

Change and Water (2010) posits that the

choice between Demolition and

Deconstruction lies with the factors of time,

cost, site security, availability of storage

space, health and safety issues, construction

company/client reputation and

environmental sustainability. Sherman

(1998) comments that Deconstruction is

increasingly becoming practical for its

savings on disposal costs, reducing

demolition costs, decreasing distance to

dump sites, the generation of financial

revenue from the sale of recycled materials,

minimizing dangerous air pollutants such as

asbestos, lead, dust and burning of building

components on construction sites. He

further states other benefits to include the

enhancement of contractor/client image as

being more environmentally responsible,

preserving landfill spaces, while conserving

energy at various stages of deconstruction

and preserving raw materials.

Figure 1: Stages in Deconstruction. Source: Kibert, Chini (2000).

Ayuba, Albert



Daven and Taylor (2008) similarly support

the postulation put forward by Sherman

(1998) that apart from financial benefits that

would likely accrue to the client/contractor,

the environmental trade-off as well as life

cycle assessment of building materials with

the accompanying savings on the

acquisition, transportation, manufacture,

installation and energy expended makes

Deconstruction an interesting prospect. It

continues that the use of Deconstruction can

lead to less dust, less noise and reduced

vibrations around sites.

The New South Wales Department of

Environment, Climate Change and Water

(2010) further reiterated some of the

benefits of Deconstruction to include;

a. Financial gains from the sale of

salvaged components.

b. Lowering of disposal costs as well

as transportation of debris to dumps

sites.

c. Reduction in the consumption new

resources that would have been

manufactured.

d. Increasing the business prospects

and opportunities of contractors to

environmentally savvy costumers.

The Indiana Brown Fields Program (2010)

further comments that as much as 30-50%

can be saved from using Deconstruction

when compared to traditional labour cost.

It can be deduced that there exist quite some

advantages when using Deconstruction over

the traditional Demolition in addition to

sustaining the environment.

Current Issues on Deconstruction

Although a lot of advantages and benefits

exist for Deconstruction vis-à-vis

Demolition, quite a number of issues remain

unresolved and serve as potential stumbling

blocks to the use of Deconstruction New

South Wales Department of Environment,

Climate Change and Water (2010). Some of

these issues observed include;

a. Longer time taken to deconstruct

b. The labour required is more skilled

and intensive.

c. Specialised tools and equipment

Jacque (2008) also opines that

Deconstruction takes more time, requires

more pre-planning and involvement in the

process by everyone and requires more on-

site storage space.

Bruening and Chini (2004) provide further

insight into some of the current challenges

to Deconstruction viz;

a. Existing buildings structures were

neither designed nor constructed in

such a manner as to allow for

Deconstruction

b. Deconstruction often requires

special equipment and tools and is

sometimes unavailable or even non-

existent.

c. Building codes and building

standards very rarely adopt

standards or regulations to aid

Deconstruction.

d. Lack of expertise.

e. Financial and environmental

benefits have not been sufficiently

established.

As specialised tools and equipment for

Deconstruction become more available and

accessible, the intensive nature of the labour

would likely reduce. This could in turn lead

to lesser time required to successfully

deconstruct a building. As more attention is

continuously drawn to field of

Deconstruction, experts and skilled

technicians and artisans may likely emerge

to further enhance the disassembly of

building parts. This could also further

provide job employment opportunities as

well as make Deconstruction even more

efficient in reducing waste until eventually

a situation is reached where everything can

be salvaged. Greer (2004) however, argues

that unless there are more economic and




financial benefits to Deconstruction, its

potentials based on sustainability alone may

be limited. This is especially because the

construction industry is largely money

driven and heavily influenced by financial

benefits.

Types of Deconstruction

Deconstruction is basically divided into

two: Table 1 summarises the types of

deconstruction, its characteristics and likely

Deconstructed materials.

Research Methodology The study employed the case study and

descriptive research methods, to study the

problem. Both primary and secondary data

were used. Primary data were obtained from

direct observation and interviews. A total of

8 renovation/ urban renewal sites within

Minna metropolis were studied. Sites were

selected using purposive non-probability

sampling based on the magnitude of

renovation wok carried out and wastes

generated. Public works were accorded

more priority while simple residential

buildings were given lesser priority.

Secondary data were obtained from

journals, textbooks, online sources and

other publications to further corroborate

findings from the field. The data was

collected and analysed using descriptive

statistical tools such as mean, percentages

and averages in a tabular format. The data

were analysed and computed using

Microsoft office 2010.

Study Sample. Table 2: Sampled Project Sites

S/No Name of Project

1 Cbn Minna, Paiko Road

2 Mini Market, FUT Minna (Gidan Kwano

Campus)

3 Late Idris kuta’s Villa, IBB Drive, Hill Top

Minna

4 City Centre Shopping Mall, Mobil Roundabout

5 No 15. Commissioners Quarters.

6 DSS Office Minna

7 Residential Estate, Behind Bomas Supermarket.

8 Kuta Road

Table 1: Types of Deconstruction

Type of

Deconstruction Definition Characteristics

Types of Materials

Salvaged

Non-structural Non-structural

deconstruction involves

removal of building parts

and elements whose

disassembly does not

affect the structural

integrity of the building.

Normally light and can be

salvaged with minimum

safety issues. It seldom

requires bracing or support

to disassemble.

Floor finishes, doors and

windows, wall finishes,

sanitary wares, electrical

fittings and installations,

fire fighting fittings.

Structural Structural deconstruction

involves the removal of

building parts and

elements that constitutes

an integral part of the

building and/or

contributes to the

integrity of the building

structure.

Typically large, rough and

often more likely to be

reused as building

materials or recycled into

other products.

Roofing sheets, roof

trusses, ceilings, suspended

floor systems,

blocks/bricks,

steel/wooden beams and

columns

Source: National Association of Home Builders [NAHB] (2000).

Ayuba, Albert



Discussion of Results Table 3 shows the demography of the

samples studied. 37% of the sampled

studied were urban renewal projects while

63% were renovation works. This implies

that a lesser amount disassembling of

building components is required since

renovation works requires lesser amount of

stripping and removal of components and

materials.

Renovations are mostly carried out on non-

structural components of buildings; hence

the materials salvaged are mostly non-

structural components. Table 3also shows

63% of the Clients public/ government

institutions and 37% of were private clients.

This signifies that majority of the projects

studied were sufficient in scope and size as

most public buildings or offices have large

acreage.

Table 3: Demography of The Samples Studied

Name of Project

Nature

of

Project

Nature

of Client

Ren

ew

al

Ren

ov

ati

on

Pu

bli

c

Pri

va

te

CBN Minna, Paiko

Road 1 1

Mini Market, FUT

Minna (Gidan Kwano

Campus)

1 1

Late Idris kuta’s Villa,

IBB Drive, Hill Top

Minna

1 1

City Centre Shopping

Mall, Mobil

Roundabout

1 1

No 15.

Commissioners

Quarters.

1 1

DSS Office Minna 1 1

Residential Estate,

Behind Bomas

Supermarket.

1 1

Kuta Road 1 1

TOTAL 3 5 5 3

Percentage (%) 37 63 63 37

Table 4: Method of disassembly

Name of Project Labour

used

Equip

ment

Used

Sk

ille

d

Un

skil

led

vo

lun

teer

s Sim

ple

too

ls

po

wer

ed

too

ls

CBNMinna, paiko road 1 1

Mini market, FUTMinna

(gidankwano campus)

1 1

Late IdrisKuta’s Villa,

IBB Drive, Hill Top

1 1

City centre Shopping

Mall, Mobil Roundabout

1 1

No 15. Commissioners

Quarters.

1 1

DSS Office Minna 1 1

Residential Estate,

Behind Bomas

Supermarket.

1 1

Kuta Road 1 1

TOTAL 2 4 2 7 1

Percentage (%) 2

5

5

0

25 8

7

13

Table 4 shows the distribution of the

various methods and skill sets employed in

carrying out the task. The table indicates

that 50% of the projects employed unskilled

labour, 25% skilled labour and a further

25% utilised volunteers. Proper

Deconstruction of building components or

building structures require sufficient

knowledge of the building process as

deconstruction is merely construction in

reverse. It then means that unskilled labour

and volunteers which constitute 75% of the

labour used- though cheaper and more

economical – are generally unsuitable for

deconstruction works. This results in more

wastage and poor management of the

deconstruction activity. Building materials

and other components salvaged are hardly

reusable immediately and end up being

recycled (raw materials for the same or

equivalent product) or down cycled (raw

materials for lower value goods). The

wasted components or materials remaining




sadly end up in dumps or landfills due the

use of inappropriate labour force which

endanger the environment.

Table 4 further shows the equipment

utilised during the Deconstruction process.

87% of projects studied utilised simple

handheld tools and 13% employed the use

of powered tools. This reveals that more

time and effort will be required in 87% of

Deconstruction works. Since powered

machines require careful handling, skilled

labour will be required to execute the job as

is the case on the CBN Minna site shown in

plate 1. Less time will also be spent in

carrying out the work.

Plate 1: Removal of Floor Finish using powered

tools

Table 5 shows deconstructed building

materials salvaged on the respective sites.

All sanitary fittings, roofing (Plate 3),

egresses and wooden trusses were salvaged

in all of the samples studied. Floor finishes

were sampled in 87% of sites. The

remaining 13% was salvaged due to the

nature of floor finish involved (cement sand

screed). 63% of sample studied also made

efforts to salvage power fixtures and steel

bars.

Ceiling, Blocks/bricks, lighting fitting and

wall finishes were only deconstructed in

13% of the sites sampled, while no site

salvaged sanitary piping and concrete as

also shown in Table 5. Concrete and

sanitary wares were not salvaged on any of

the sites sampled. Very few sites

disassembled Ceiling and Lighting fitting

and may not be unconnected with the low

resale value of these components.

Although sanitary piping (PVC or

Galvanised) and lighting fittings (tungsten)

have harmful impacts on the environment,

they were not salvaged. This further

confirms that economic benefits are the

primary motivation for deconstruction with

sustainability of the environment probably

being a secondary reason. Blocks were also

predominantly neglected due to difficulty

and expertise required in carefully

disassembling as seen in plate 4. This

further reiterates the assertion made from

Table 4 that the use of unskilled workers

will result in wastage and turning of blocks

and concrete into debris. The lack of

technical know-how in recycling blocks and

concrete even when broken or turn to debris

further contributes the neglect in

deconstructing blocks and concrete.

Plate 2: Wall tiles carefully salvaged.

Ayuba, Albert



Table 5: Deconstructed Building Components and Materials

Name of Project Non-structural Components

(Salvaged)

Structural components

(salvaged)

Plu

mb

ing

wa

res

Plu

mb

ing

pip

ing

P

ow

er f

itti

ng

s

Lig

ht

fitt

ing

s

Flo

or

fin

ish

es

Wa

ll f

inis

hes

Eg

ress

es

Ro

ofi

ng

sh

eets

Cei

lin

g

Wo

od

en

tru

sses

Blo

cks/

Bri

cks

Ste

el B

ars

Co

ncr

ete

CBNMinna, paiko road 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Mini market, futminna

(gidankwano campus)

Na N

a

1 1 1 1 1

Late IdrisKuta’s Villa, IBB Drive,

Hill Top

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

City centre Shopping Mall, Mobil

Roundabout

1 1 1 1 1

No 15. Commissioners Quarters. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

DSS Office Minna 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Residential Estate, Behind Bomas

Supermarket.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Kuta Road na na 1 1 1 1 1

TOTAL 6 0 5 2 7 1 8 8 1 8 1 5 0

Plate 3:Roofing sheets carefully salvaged.

Conclusion A lot of waste is generated from

Construction and Demolition sites.

Deconstruction is one of the sustainable

practices that can be employed to mitigate

and substantially reduce the amount of

waste and debris generated, conserve

energy and protect the environment.

Deconstruction was shown to be more

beneficial and helpful than ‘wrecking ball’

or ‘bulldozer’ style demolitions.

Deconstructed materials salvaged from

buildings can be reused, up cycled,

recycled, down cycled, compost, and burn

or landfilled in the order of preference. The

study also shows that more preference is

given to the economic benefits of

deconstruction to its sustainability.

Recommendations • Tax breaks or relief or other reward

systems can be offered to companies

and contractors who choose

deconstruction over demolition as

practiced in Australia, US and the EU.

• Efficient deconstruction requires

specialisation and expertise. Companies

that specialise in Deconstruction should

be subsidized and encouraged.

• The Leadership in Energy and

Environmental Design (LEED) rating

system should be incorporated into the

National Building Code to encourage

industry professionals to adopt

sustainable deconstruction practices.

• Architects should design buildings to

allow for Deconstruction.

• More modular, demountable and

prefabricated construction should be




encouraged as it allows for easy

disassembly.

• Recycle plants and Processing facilities

for concrete, blocks and cement related

waste is highly required to eliminate

cement waste as it constitutes the bulk

of the debris that end in landfills and

dumps.

• Surveys need to be carried out prior to

Deconstruction to determine the

required tools, equipment and

technicality to be used.

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332.Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09613218.

2011.585785. [Accessed 7th January

2016 ].

http://www.centurybaybuildes.com/index.php/green-info/deconstruction

http://www.centurybaybuildes.com/index.php/green-info/deconstruction

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2011.585785

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2011.585785




A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover

Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State,

Nigeria

Adebola Abiodun Olufemi 1, Ojoye Shamsideen2 &

Ibitoye Matthew Olomolatan1 1Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System (GIS), Federal University of Technology,

Akure, Ondo State 2Department of Geography, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State. 1Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information System, Federal University of Technology Akure,

Ondo State

Corresponding E-mail:[email protected]

Abstract The shoreline is one of the most important features on earth’s surface. They are highly dynamic and ever

changing. Changes are over time scales including minutes, hours, decades and Centuries. Spatial scales vary

from local to regional to worldwide. Although change is continuously occurring, it doesn’t occur in a constant

manner. Many factors influence these changes including the type of shoreline (rocky, sandy), wave activity,

tidal variations, storms and human impacts. The shoreline change study is necessary for updating the shoreline

change maps and management of natural resources. Shorelines are the key element in coastal GIS and provide

the most information on coastal landform dynamics. The frequent monitoring of coasts is only to accesses

variation of shoreline changes. This study investigates the shoreline changes of Akwa Ibom in Nigeria for three

different years 1990, 2000 and 2016, changes that occur in the land use land cover of the area and landforms

around the coast. The rate of shoreline change was assessed using Linear Regression (LRR) and End Point Rate

(EPR) methods. Landsat imageries for the three years were acquired and processed using Arcgis software by

digitizing the shoreline of the coast to determine the changes that occurred in the years under review, maximum

likelihood classification was done to classify the study area into different landuse/landcover in order to detect

the changes that had also occurred. The shoreline change detection was conducted using the Digital Shoreline

Analysis System (DSAS). Based on this result, it was concluded that the shoreline is eroding at -19.03 m/yr and

accreting at 15 m/yr.

Keywords: Coasts, End point rate, Accretion, Erosion, shoreline, geospatial.

Introduction Coastal shorelines worldwide are changing

rapidly as a result of natural physical

processes and human activities. Natural

factors such as sediment supply, wave

energy, and sea level are the primary causes

of coastal changes, whereas human

activities are catalysts causing

disequilibrium conditions that accelerate

changes. Coastline defined as the line of

contact between land and the water body, is

one of the most important linear features on

the earth’s surface, which has a dynamic

nature (Winarso et al., 2001).

Shoreline shifting is the uncontrollable

result of coastal erosion/accretion, the

consequence of near shore currents. With

reverence to the sediment supply, a certain

portion of coastline may have excess, be in

balance, or have a discrepancy in its

sediment budget. Enormous drop or boost in

the sediment supply, in a little span of time

or a stretched period, creates a

shortage/excess in the sediment budget

which causes shoreline shifting, multi-year

shoreline shifting mapping seems to be an

important task for coastal monitoring and



Adebola, Ojoye, Ibitoye

A Geospatial Analysis of Coastal Land use/Land Cover Pattern and Shoreline Changes in Akwa-Ibom State, Nigeria


appraisal, satellite remote sensing data in

combination with Geographic Information

System (GIS) is being used in shoreline

extraction and mapping.

Tides often determine the range over which

sediment can be deposited or eroded and the

tidal range are influenced by the size and

shape of the shoreline. Waves erode

shorelines as they break on the shore

releasing their energy, the larger the wave

the more energy it releases and the more the

sediment it moves. Human activities of

dredging, reclamation and infrastructural

development along shores also deface the

shoreline. A coastline or shoreline can be

geographically defined as a linear

intersection of coastal land and the surface

of a water body.

The shoreline is generally considered to be

the edge or margin of land next to the sea or

river Shorelines have been defined by

different coastal management and

regulatory agencies but most coastal zone

studies describe the coastline as the

interface between land and water (Bird,

1967; Dolan et al., 1980). The changes in

the coastline largely depend on its geology

and geomorphology, the nature of tidal

waves impacting on the coastline; changes

in sea level; and sediment transport by long-

shore currents (Carter and Woodroffe,

1994; Cowel and Thorn, 1994; Pidwirnyi,

2006a). Human activities which include

dredging, construction of breakwater

infrastructure and physical development;

mineral exploration and exploitation, ports

construction, removal of backshore

vegetation, construction of barges and

coastal control works and reclamation also

deface the coastline tremendously (Franos

et al., 1995; Bergerand 1996; Ibe 1988;

Pandian et al., 2004). The shoreline is the

bridge between aquatic life and terrestrial

life, and it is usually a fragile eco-zone,

hence the study of shoreline changes can be

of immense benefit to the understanding of

complex coastal ecosystems. Shorelines are

widely used as ports for navigation and

marine commerce and therefore are of

economic value and critical to the socio-

economic development of non-land locked

nations.

The location of the shoreline and the

changing position of its boundary over time

are of elementary importance to coastal

scientists, engineers and managers

(Douglass and Crowell 2000; National

Research Council, 1990).

Study Area

Akwa ibom is a state in Nigeria, it is located

in the coastal southern part of the country,

lying between the latitude 40 32’N and

5033’N and longitudes 7025’E and 8025’E.

The State is bordered on the east by Cross

River on the west by Rivers state, on the

south by Atlantic Ocean with population of

over 5 million people, it was created in

1987 from the former cross river state and is

currently the highest oil and gas producing

state in the country.

The topography of Akwa Ibom is rugged,

consisting of hills and ridges with steep-

sided valleys. The hills and ridges of this

region which are separated by flood-prone

lowlands are remnants of the west-east

extension of the Enugu-Okigwe. The slopes

are greatly ravaged by erosion during the

rainy season. The existing climatic factors

in Akwa Ibom would have favoured

luxuriant tropical rainforests with teeming

populations of fauna and extremely high

terrestrial and aquatic biomass. The native

vegetation has been almost completely

replaced by secondary forests of

predominantly wild oil palms, woody

shrubs and various grass under growths.

Akwa-Ibom state is reputed to hold the

highest oil palms per capita in Nigeria. The

climate of Akwa-Ibom State is





characterized into two seasons, namely, the

wet or rainy season and the dry season. In

the south central and central parts of the

state, the wet or rainy season lasts for about

eight months but towards the far north, it is

slightly less. The rainy season begins about

March-April and lasts until mid-November.

Akwa-Ibom State receives relatively higher

rainfall totals than other parts of southern

Nigeria. The total annual rainfall varies

from 4000mm along the coast to 2000mm

inland (NIMET, 2014). The whole of

Akwa-Ibom State is underlain by

sedimentary formations of late tertiary and

Holocene ages.

Deposits of recent alluvium and beach ridge

sands occur along the coast and estuaries of

Imo and Qua Iboe Rivers, and also along

the flood-plains of creeks. Inland, a greater

part of the state consists of coastal plain

sands now weathered into laterictic layers.

Ituen et al. (2014) remote sensing and

Geographic Information System (GIS)

based application in the analysis of

Shoreline change in Ibeno Local

Government. Area [LGA], Akwa Ibom

State. Satellite imageries of1986, 2006 and

2008 were used to extract the shoreline

through heads-up digitization. The rate of

shoreline change was assessed using Linear

Regression (LRR) and End Point Rate

(EPR) methods. The shoreline change

detection was conducted using the Digital

Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS).

Landsat Thematic Mapper (LTM) of 1986

and Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) of

2006 both of 28.5 X 28.5metres ground

resolution were acquired from the United

States Geological Surveys (USGS) and

actually used for various analysis carried

out. A high resolution Ikonos image of 2008

with about 1m ground resolution was

obtained and used. These imageries cover a

period of 22yrs. The range of time and years

chosen was due to data availability. The

result however indicated that the rate of

erosion is found out to be very high with

maximum value of -7.8m/yr recorded at Itak

Abasi community. On the other hand, some

portions of the shoreline are accreting at an

average rate of 2m/yr. Based on this result

however, it was concluded that Ibeno

shoreline is eroding at an average rate of -

3.9m/yr.

Fig 1: Map of the study area





Areas mostly affected by accretion

processes are identified near Qua Iboe River

Estuary and ExxonMobil Jetty where sand

filling is usually done for settlement

purposes. This best explains the reason for

the submersion of school buildings,

residential buildings and the persistent

inundation of large portions of land in the

area. Mitra et al. (2013) used Change

detection analysis of the shoreline using

Topo-sheet and Satellite Image in

Mandarmani-Shankarpur West Bengal

applied remote sensing and GIS techniques

on the multi-temporal satellite image and

topo-sheets, shoreline extraction using

water index and subsequent change

detection analysis was carried out to assess

the erosion-accretion pattern in the region at

both regional and local scale. Depending on

the erosional pattern, the entire study area

was divided into four erosional-cells, and

independent study was carried out in

different cells. The results exhibit that this

coastal region has been experiencing

erosion.

Kumaravel et al. (2013) and Saravana et al.

(2015) used remote sensing and GIS based

shoreline change studies in the Cuddalore

District, East Coast of Tamilnadu South

India, to investigate the spatial as well as

quantify the shoreline changes along the

coast in the parts of Cuddalore district, east

coast of TamilNadu by using geospatial

techniques. used Quantitative estimation for

shoreline change using Remote Sensing and

GIS for South South Andaman Island, India

and Andaman Island, India, respectively

Multiyear shoreline mapping is considered

as a valuable task for coastal monitoring

and assessment and detection of shoreline

change and estimation of erosion and

accretion along the eastern coast of the

South Andaman. The SOI topo-sheet 1979,

IRS 1D 1998 and IRS P6 2009 satellite

pictures were used to delineate the shoreline

changes. The results revealed that there is a

greatest value of erosion over 30 years of

studying. Boatemaa et al. (2013) used

impacts of shoreline morphological change

and sea level rise on mangroves keta coastal

zone investigated the effect of sea level rise

and shoreline recession on the mangroves at

Anyanui, using geospatial data and

modeling techniques. The local trend in

rising sea level was analysed using data

from a tide gauge station in Ghana. The

results indicate that Keta coastal zone is

eroding at a rate of about 2.32m/yr and the

sea level is rising at a historic rate of

about3mm/yr. The study revealed that

increasing sea level rise will enable the

shoreline to migrate about 8 km inland in

the next 100 years, which could pose a

severe threat to the mangrove forest. It also

emerged that there is a significant increase

in mangrove cover between 1986 and 2002.

Ramanamurthy et al. (2016) used Shoreline

Change Monitoring in Nellore Coast at East

Coast Andhra Pradesh District Using

Remote Sensing and GIS to investigate the

shoreline changes of Nellore district in

Andhra Pradesh coast, as well as the

quantity of the erosion and accretion rate.

Using multi-temporal resolution satellite

data(TM & LISS III, IV) and Geographic

information system(GIS) 25 years period

i.e, from 1989 to 2015. The resultant coastal

maps were used to estimate the

geomorphologic changes and shifting of the

shoreline position. This integrated study

was found useful for exploring accretion

and erosion processes in the region. About

87.6 km of coastline was found to be

accreting nature with average of +1.40 m/yr

followed by 38.4 km of coastal line eroding

with average of -1.36 m/yr and stable

coastline of 41.4 km was found. This study

demonstrates that combined use of satellite

imagery and statistical method such as

linear regression for shoreline change

analysis are helpful for erosion monitoring

and preventive measure.





Prukpitikul et al. (2012) used shoreline

change prediction model for coastal zone

management in Thailand to utilize geo-

informatics technology to increase accuracy

of a shoreline prediction model along two

study sites in Samutprakarn province and in

Prachuabkirikhan province. The result

presents that averaged erosion and accretion

rate along Samutprakarn province was

22.30 meters/year and 2.94 meters/year,

respectively. On the other hand, the average

rate of coastal erosion along

Prachuabkirikhan province was much

lower, being 2.48 meters/year while the

accretion rate was approximately 4.11

meters/year. The predicted shoreline change

at Samutprakarn province in 2019 is about -

132.69 ± 0.758meters while at

Prachuabkirikhan is 40.58 ± 0.0012 meters.

Barman et al. (2015) used an approach of

future prediction for trends of shoreline

position for Balasore Shoreline to analyze

the shift in shoreline due to coastal

processes and formular available for best

estimate of future shoreline positions based

on precedent shorelines, simple Linear

Regression Model and End Point Rate

(EPR) was adopted to takeout the rate of

change of shoreline and its future positions,

based on empirical observations at

67transects along the Balasore coast.. The

rate of shoreline movement calculated from

the fixed base line to shoreline position of

1975, 1980, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005 and

2010 and based on this, the estimated

shoreline of 2013 was calculated. The

estimated shoreline was compared with the

actual shoreline delineated from satellite

imagery of 2013. The model error or

positional shift at each sample point was

observed, the positional error varies from

−4.82 m to 212.41 m. It has been found that

model prediction error is higher in the left

hand side of river Subarnarekha. The

overall error for the entire predicted

shoreline was found to be 41.88 m by Root

Mean Square Error (RMSE). In addition, it

was tested by means difference between

actual and predicted shoreline positions

using “t” test and it has been found that

predicted shore line is not significantly

different from actual shoreline position at

(t132 = 0.278) p < 0.01.

Materials and Method

In the process of carrying out this study, the

use of satellite images and GIS tools to

extract the shorelines for three different

years of 1990, 2000 and 2016 became very

necessary. In this case, Landsat Thematic

Mapper (LTM) of 1990 and Enhanced

Thematic Mapper (ETM) of 2000 both of

28.5 X 28.5metres ground resolution were

acquired from the United States Geological

Surveys (USGS) site and used for various

analysis carried out. These imageries cover

a period of 26yrs. The images were

processed to delineate the shorelines for

1990, 2000 and 2016 with a view to

determining their rate of changes over the

study period. ARCGIS was used to perform

clipping of the study area, image processing

of the areas were done by combining bands

together.

Image classification was done on the three

images to separable land use/cover

categories which are dense, light vegetation,

unpolluted, polluted water, settlements and

wetlands. Digitizing of the shorelines was

done on the three images to detect the

changes that occurred over the years. The

combined false colour images of the area

were used for the identification of

geomorphology and landforms around the

coast.

a) Processes of Shoreline Extraction

To extract the shorelines from the satellite

images, shape files were created in Arc

catalog for each of the images. For easy

data handling, the three images were

spatially re-projected to Universal

Transverse Mercator (UTM 1984). This was





followed by the determination of shoreline

reference feature where measurements were

based.

b) Determination of Rate of Shoreline

Change

After the shorelines were extracted, a base-

line was created parallel to these extracted

shorelines in order to cast perpendicular

lines to the shorelines and also to serve as

the origin for measuring distances of the

shorelines in relation to the established

base-line.

The base-line was created through buffering

method in ArcGIS 10.1 and this served as

the starting point for generating transects. In

this case, a 600 meter buffer was created

just above the lines, resulting in a single

buffer of 600 meters around the outermost

line. The upper and side sections of the

buffer were deleted resulting in a single line

600 meters from the shoreline.

This line served as the base-line and was

smoothened to remove the rough side of the

line in order to cast perpendicular transects

on the shorelines under consideration. The

base-line and shoreline data were imported

into a geo-database in order for DSAS to

recognize the data. Before running the

DSAS program, spatial reference and

feature type requirements of the shoreline

files were reconciled. The multiple shape

files of the shorelines were appended into a

single feature class by using the Append

tool from the Arc Toolbox. The various

attribute tables for the baseline and the

appended shoreline file were created as

shown below. If no accuracy field value

exist for a specific shoreline or Zero is used

in the accuracy field, a default value

specified in the Set data Accuracy section

by the user could be used. The ID field was

populated to control the order of transect

casting along the baseline.

c) Determination of Net Shoreline

Movement (NSM)

After the computation of the rate of change

in shoreline, the End Point Rate method was

used to calculate the distance of shoreline

movement by subtracting between the

earliest and latest measurements (i.e., the

oldest and the most recent shoreline). The

major advantage of the EPR is that, it is

easy to compute with minimal requirements

of shoreline data (two shorelines). The

linear regression rate-of change statistic

(LRR) was the second rate of change

method used. This was done by fitting a

least squares regression line to all shoreline

points for a particular transects. The rate is

the slope of the line. The linear regression

method has the advantage that all the data

are used, regardless of changes in the trend

or accuracy in addition to the method being

purely computational.





Figure 1: Baseline, Transects and Shoreline of the Study Area

Result and Discussion The rate of shoreline change was assessed

using Linear Regression (LRR) and End

Point Rate (EPR) methods. The shoreline

change detection was conducted using the

Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS)

an extension of ArcGis.

Shoreline length

From the maps and table, it shows that 1990

shoreline is 246.928 in length; it increased

in year 2000 to 257.678 and decreased

again in year 2016 to 251.061m.





Table 1: Length in meters of each of the shoreline from 1990-2016

Shoreline Year Length(m)

1990 246.928

2000 257.678

2016 251.061

Fig 2: Shoreline of the study area in year 1990

Fig 3: Map showing the shoreline of the study area in year 2000





Fig 4: Map showing the shoreline of the study area in year 2016

Changes In Shoreline Over Time

Getting the changes that occurred over the

years (End Point Rate) EPR and Net

Shoreline Movement (NSM) was used.

Net Shoreline Movement

The result of the analysis revealed

remarkable changes in the study area

Shoreline, the net change measured as the

distance between the most recent and

earliest shorelines, in this case the 1990,

2000 and the 2016 shorelines changes. 1990

to 2016 shows the highest changes between

the remaining years of shore line changes.

The change that occurred between the

timing of each available image is presented

in Figures 6.





Fig 5: Map showing the shifting in shoreline between 1990-2016

Fig6: Net Shoreline Movement (1990- 2016)

End Point Rate

After the computation of the rate of change

in shoreline, the End Point Rate method was

used to calculate the distance of shoreline

movement by subtracting between the

earliest and latest measurements (i.e., the

oldest and the most recent shoreline).

From Figure 7, the highest accretion is at

the rate of 950 and the erosion is -1300.

This shows that in this period erosion was

more than accretion. EPR for shoreline

2000-2016 shows that the highest accretion

is at the rate of 250 and the erosion is -800.

This shows that in this period erosion is

more than accretion. It is noticed that there

is a decrease in erosion and accretion of

EPR of shoreline 2000-2016 compare to

that of 1990-2000.

Fig 7: EPR of the shoreline from 1990-2000

NS

M

CH

AN

GE







From graph, EPR for shoreline 1990-2016

shows that the highest accretion is at the

rate of 390 and the erosion is -495

Table 2 shows the sum total of the

magnitude of Net Erosion and Accretion

that occurred over the different periods

under investigation. Table 2 shows the net

change of shoreline erosion and accretion.

The net change was at -350m in 1990-2000,

it increased in 2000-2016 but decreased in

1990-2016 at the rate of -105m.

Rate per year of erosion and accretion over

1990-2016 is calculated as; Erosion or

accretion / years from 1990-2016.

Erosion = -495 / 26 = -19.03 m/yr

Accretion = 390 / 26 = 15 m/yr

Table 2: Shoreline Erosion, Accretion and Net

Change in Meters

Periods Accretion

(M)

Erosion

(M)

Net

Change

(M)

1990-2000 950 -1300 -350

2000-2016 250 -800 -550

1990-2016 390 -495 -105

Land Use Land Cover Change Analysis

From the classified images of 1990, 2000

and 2016, the area of each land use

categories were computed and compared

statistically





Fig 10: LULC map of Akwa Ibom and the ocean area of year 1990

Fig 11: LULC map of Akwa Ibom shoreline in year 2000

Land use classes

Vegetation- this is classified into dense and

light vegetation

Settlements- These portray all developed

land, including social utilities such as

transportation infrastructure (roads and

highways), built up areas, bare grounds and

human settlements of any size.

Water- These are categorized into polluted

and unpolluted water. They include all areas

covered by water like ocean, river and

lakes.

Wetlands - lands that are covered or

saturated by water for all or part of the year

(for example peatlands). It also includes

reservoirs

Cloud cover- these area covered by cloud

when the image of the area was taken by the

satellite.

From table 3 the total land use in square

kilometers is 17304.132568.

Dense vegetation decreased from 3475.298

in 1990 to 2992.5162 in 2000 and to

1187.178 in 2016 sq km. Light vegetation

increases from 1990-2016, Settlement is

low in 2000 compare to 1990 and increases

in 2016, wetland increases from 1990 to

2016, unpolluted water increases.





Table 3: Land use and land cover classification statistics between 1990 and 2016

LULC

CLASSES

Year 1990

Area

(sq km)

1990 Area

(In %)

Year

2000

Area

(sq km)

2000

Area

(In %)

Year

2016

Area

(sq km)

2016 Area

(In %)

Dense

Vegetation 3475.296 20.08362 2992.5162 17.29365 1187.178 6.860664

Light

vegetation 407.2473 2.353468 4222.5948 24.40224 5237.414 30.26684

Settlement 1208.528 6.984043 723.0681 4.178587 954.243 5.514539

Farmland 2236.056 12.92209 - - - -

Wetlands 1642.298 9.490785 1794.8313 10.37227 2677.335 15.47223

Polluted water 2306.006 13.32633 1694.8953 9.794744 1946.384 11.24809

Unpolluted

water 2354.049 13.60397 5559.7509 32.12962 5301.578 30.63764

Cloud cover 3674.651 21.23568 316.476 1.828904 - -

Total 17304.1325

68 100 17304.13 100 17304.13 100

Conclusion The shoreline change in Akwa ibom has

been analyzed using the integrative

approach of satellite imageries and GIS

tools and it revealed that the shoreline of the

study area is being eroded due to natural

cause and human interference.

Also the present study demonstrated the

efficiency of remote sensing data in the

study of land use and land cover changes. It

gives a fairly good understanding of land

use/land cover changes or transition for a

period of years, which in turn will be very

helpful for local administrative bodies for

decision making in the state and coastal

management in the country.

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The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste

Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria

Abd’razack, Nelson T.A., Medayese, S.O., Umaru, E.T. & Shaibu, S.I.

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Minna.


Abstract This study investigated the spatial distribution of solid waste dump sites in the study area, established the

residents’ perceived level of exposure to solid waste hazards, and the effect of living near refuse dump sites.

Systematic random sampling technique was used to administer 500 questionnaires to the households in the

study area. The result of the study indicated that there is only one legal dump site located in Buntu area; there

are 19 illegal dump sites within the town. The proliferation of illegal dumpsite was as a result of convenience

and open spaces within the town. The most frequently used method of waste disposal is on weekly basis. The

use of plastic bucket is favoured for storage. The level of health risk associated with living close to dumpsite

shows that a total of 878 houses are at the severe risk, while, 1,898 houses are at mild risk level. The study

concludes that There should be a total clearance of the existing illegal dump site and proper monitoring of the

waste management in the town to forestall illegal dumping, and adequate information to residents and

awareness on the danger of consequences of indiscriminate dumping of refuse in an undesignated dump site.

Keywords: Illegal Dump Site, Solid Waste, Waste Management, Environment, Urbanisation.

Introduction Waste generation is a result of consumption

of resources and other activities of mankind.

As this is an unavoidable event in day to

day living, there is need for waste generated

to be managed. Lack of proper management

of waste always results in environmental

and health challenges. Globally, the process

of waste management requires a chain of

activities from collection, sorting,

transporting and disposal. If any of these

lines of management is disrupted, it affects

the management of the waste. How this

may be efficiently done poses a problem in

many societies today. Another natural

process, population growth, makes waste

management even more challenging; more

people in a specific geographic location

would imply a higher level of waste

generated, hence more waste to contend

with in that area. As poorly managed wastes

are perceived as environmental hazards of

high significance, the societies’ inability to

manage waste generation effectively play

no small role in increasing extant

environmental pressures (Karanjit et al.,

2007).

The double function of Sabon Wuse as the

Local Government Headquarters and the

resettlement of displaced people from Abuja

due to its proximity to the Federal Capital

has increased the population of the town

and thereby increased the solid waste being

generated. The responsible agencies, such

as Niger State Environmental Protection

Agency (NISEPA) and Tafa Local

Government Council Public Health

Department did not have any improvement

in the capacity to handle the massive

garbage being generated in the town. The

local Government and NISEPA could not

control the urban development as well as

waste disposal sites that are scattered all

over the town, which resulted into poor and

unclean environment.

Abd’razack, Medayese, Umaru, Shaibu

The Risk of Residing in Proximity to Illegal Waste Dump Site in Sabon Wuse, North-Central, Nigeria


General Concept of Waste

Waste generally is an unwanted by-product

of man’s activities. It is defined by Lutui

(2001) as “materials that currently have

negative value to their owner, that is the

generator incurs costs in managing them

(importantly this does not prevent them

from having positive value to another owner

at another location in space or time)”

(Lututi, 2001: p3) and are disposed of. Solid

waste is a matter of time and places, as what

is a waste can become raw material in

another place. For example, the recycling

plant uses solid waste product as raw

material for production of other items

(Sanusi, 2010). Research has shown that

there are two different variance of waste,

that is, solid waste (effluence) and liquid

waste (foul water, semi- liquid and the

gaseous liquid Biogas). “Waste” does not

have a generally concise definition,

however waste is generally known to be any

unwanted material (Lutui, 2001).

Morrisson, Wray, Dever, and Dusbaun

(2000) define waste as “any matter

prescribed to be waste under national

legislation, any material listed as a waste in

appropriate schedules, and in general, any

surplus or reject material that is no longer

useful and which is to be disposed off”.

This definition uses two words that is

important to this study “waste is neither

wanted nor has value to the owner” and

which in turn need to be disposed off.

Waste has an unwelcome and often

unnoticed effect on the environment and

hamper development and civilization (Kim

and Gobalan, 1997) and can be traced to the

growth of industrialization in modern

economies (Holmes, 2000).

Solid Waste

Solid waste could be defined as any non-

liquid and non-gaseous substance produced

out of human activities which are regarded

as being useless. It could take the form of

garbage, refuse, and sludge (Nwosu and

Olofa, 2015). Solid waste can also be

regarded as materials, which are no longer

in use. This includes household garbage,

unwanted materials from commercial and

mining activities. Solid wastes are

categorized in to three (3) types, based on

the composition. These are:

i. Biodegradable; mainly composed of

green waste, garbage, trash.

ii. Non-biodegradable; this consist of

scraps, synthetic (plastic, rubber, leather)

materials, metals etc.

iii. Semi-biodegradable; this consist of

rubbish (paper, cartons, wood.)

Solid waste can also be defined as those

materials that are generated, resulting from

man’s activities and are not in form of

liquid or gas but are compacted and

substantial.

Types of Solid Waste

i. Domestic Solid Waste: These

consist of rubbish and garbage from

household (i.e Municipal waste).

Other examples are reminant of food

materials, old newspapers, spoilt

kitchen utensils, cartoons, baby toys

etc. it is always the principal focus

of solid waste management till date

(Abdrazack, Yusuf and Utange,

2013). In Sabon Wuse, The Niger

State Environmental Protection

Agency are those that are saddled

with the responsibility of collection

and disposal of Municipal solid

waste management.

ii. Agricultural Solid Waste: These

waste resulting from different

agricultural activities, include

cultivated waste (weed); harvested

wastes from plants, field and tree

crop wastes; the dung from Animal

production and waste from operation

of feed lots as described by United




Nation Environmental Programme

(UNEP, 2010).

iii. Commercial Solid Waste : These

include all solid waste which

emanate from business and profit

making activities such as financial

institution (Banks, market, stores,

super market), educational

institution (theatres, lecture halls and

class rooms), hospitals (Abdrazack

et al., 2013)

iv. Industrial solid waste: These are

solid waste product from the

production of goods. They include

all solid waste which result from

both light and heavy industries. In

most developed countries, industrial

solid waste account for the most

divasting tonnes of general waste

hazards. In the USA for examples,

industries generate one third of the

general waste produced in the

country. They are mostly as a result

of industrial processes of

manufacturing operation inherent in

the country. Examples of such

operations are: processing plant,

repair and clearing establishment,

refineries, manning and mineral

operations (UNEP, 2014).

v. Special Solid Waste: These types of

waste comprise of waste from street

sweeping, road side litter, debris,

dead animals, abandoned vehicles

and litters of store drains. They are

called ‘special waste’ because it is

impossible to predict where they

will be found (Abdrazack et al.,

2013).

Literature Review Rapid increase in the types and volume of

domestic waste (either liquid or solid waste)

as a result of continuous economic growth,

urbanization and industrialization, is

becoming an escalating problem for

national, state and local governments to

ensure effective and sustainable

management of waste. In the year 2006, it

was estimated that the total amount of

municipal solid waste (MSW) generated

worldwide reached 2.02 billion tons of

waste, representing a 7% annual increase

since 2003 (Global Waste Management

Market Report, 2009). It was further

estimated that between year 2007 and 2011,

global generation of municipal waste would

rise by 37.3%, equivalent to roughly 8%

increase per year. Based on incomplete

reports from its participants, The Basel

Convention estimated that about 318 and

338 million tonnes of solid waste were

generated in 2001 (World Bank, 2010).

Owing to an increase in human population,

industrial and technological revolutions,

waste management has become increasingly

complex (Akinbile and Yusuf, 2011).

Marshall and Farabahksh (2013) observed

that population growth and subsequent

innovations have not only led to changing

consumption patterns across borders but

have also placed considerable pressure on

waste management services. This is so

because as the world races towards its urban

and more complex future, the by-product of

the urban lifestyle, waste, is growing at

even faster rates. At present, global solid

waste generation is growing approximately

at 1.3 billion tonnes per year and is

expected to double by the year 2025

(Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). The

pressure placed on waste management

services has consequently led to widespread

inefficiencies that are mainly due to lack of

funds, improper infrastructure, inadequate

waste collection services, unlicensed waste

management activities, insufficient waste

minimisation and limited waste related

legislation (Nahman and Godfrey, 2010).

Inefficient waste management services have

also led to extensive illegal dumping.

According to Zurbrugg (2002), illegal

dumping refers to an instance where solid




waste is disposed of in inappropriate

manners in places such as in drains, roads,

near rivers and on private and public land

that is not legally approved for such a use.

Dumped materials typically include

furniture, garden waste, discarded

appliances, household rubbish, building

rubble, broken glasses, old tires, hazardous

materials such as illegal pestilences, and

metal contamination and abandoned

automobiles (United States Environmental

Protection Agency, 1998).

Illegal dumping of waste products is a

recognised problem in much of the world

and Nigeria. At a global level, dumping has

resulted in increased costs associated with

clearing and clean-up efforts. For instance,

in Britian, clearing waste that is dumped

every 35 seconds has cost the government

millions according to the British

Broadcasting Corporation (BBC news,

2005). There have also been instances of

developed countries dumping waste in the

less developed countries. A recent

occurrence is the dumping of old and

broken television sets in Ghana by one of

the United Kingdom’s leading waste and

recycling companies. This is said to have

been done in violation of the laws in

relation to the flow of waste to developing

countries (Wasley, 2011). In the city of

Abidjan in Côte d'Ivoire, vast amounts of

toxic waste released by a tanker registered

under a Dutch Oil Trader resulted in the

death of ten people and left many others

suffering from diarrhoea, vomiting and

nosebleeds (Johnson, 2006). It is uncertain

as to how the toxic pollutants entered the

country. Such occurrences thus make it

important for countries to monitor and to

enforce policies that ensure proper waste

disposal services. Bylaws for illegal

dumping are clearly presented, but the

enforcement of these regulations is unclear.

Dumped solid waste has serious

implications for the health, environment and

the quality of life. Dumped solid waste

contaminates both soil and water. This

occurs when water from rainfall seeps

through dump waste and mixes with

substances within the waste and forms a

substance known as leachate. According to

Akinbile and Yusuf (2011), leachate

released from waste sites also poses a high

risk to groundwater and surface water if it is

not properly managed. Dumpsites also

make the surrounding areas prone to

flooding as the different components of

waste can block drains, creeks and culverts

(United Nations Environment Programme,

2005). In an attempt to combat illegal

dumping and mitigate its effects, residents

in rural areas burn sites. This, however, has

a direct impact on the environment because

fires cause severe erosion due to burning of

trees which limit vegetation growth. Small

animals such as birds are also affected as

they die from feeding on materials from

waste sites and by being stuck in debris

(Project Green Sweep, 2011).

The presence of an illegal dumpsite can

cause serious health problems for nearby

residents as it is an ideal breeding ground

for disease-vectors such as rats and

mosquitoes (United States Environmental

Protection Agency, 1998). Certain

respiratory illnesses such as asthma and

tuberculosis are also linked to illegally

dumped waste (Etengeneng, 2012). The

occurrence of illegal dump sites not only

affects health and the environment, but also

the quality of life. According to Madava

(2001), illegal dumpsites have adverse

effects on the basic human rights of people

with regards to the standard of living. This

is so because hazardous wastes are

prospective pollutants of the biophysical

and human environment. This is so because

the presence of dumpsites does not only

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=africa&Rootmap=cotedi&Mode=d&SubMode=w




deteriorate the quality of the environment,

but also breaches human rights as it has an

impact on community pride. More often

than not, the sight and smell that emerge

from illegal dumpsites are unpleasant and

diminish the land value. Illegal sites that

mostly constitute of flammable substances

and gases are vulnerable to fires. More also

as stated by United State Environmental

Protection Agency (USEPA), the impact is

not limited to the aesthetic appeal of

landscapes, but also diminishes the value of

surrounding properties significantly, forcing

residents to vacate their homes to further

places (USEPA, 2005).

The situation in Nigeria is different in that

the process of urbanisation in the country is

unplanned; there is population explosion as

decentralisation of government has turned

villages to local government headquarters

thereby attracting more people to the urban

centres (Okpala, 2004). This has led to high

production of solid waste, the traditional

attitude, poverty and high level of ineptitude

on the agency responsible for waste

management has contributed significantly to

turn our towns and cities to garbage cities

rather than serene environment (Oyelola,

and Babatunde, 2013). Table 1 shows the

level of waste generation in some selected

cities in Nigeria. There are many illegal

waste dump sites round the cities. The

population of the cities are grasping with

the environmental and health risks

associated with unclean environment. This

has led to breeding of pathogenic condition

(breeding ground for mosquitoes, rodents

and airborne diseases (Ogwuelika, 2009).

Table 1: Volumes of solid waste generated in some

Nigerian cities (Tonnes/year) Cities Tonnage/

Month

Density Kg/Capital day

Lagos 255,556 294 0.63

Kano 156,676 290 0.56

Ibadan 135,391 330 0.51

Kaduna 114,433 320 0.58

Port/Court 117,825 300 0.60

Makurdi 24,242 340 0.48

Onitsha 84,137 310 0.53

Nsukka 12,000 370 0.44

Abuja 14,785 280 0.66

Source: Ogwuelika, 2009

Table 1 has clearly shown that the city of

Lagos generates more waste than every

other cities in Nigeria due to population of

the state. It is worthy to know that Kano has

a larger population when compared with

Lagos state but Lagos state generates more

waste than Kano. Ogwueleka concluded

that, on the average the Southern part of the

country generates about 0.63 kg per capita

per day while the Northern part produces

about 0.56 kg per capita per day. On the

average, the country produces about 0.60 kg

per capita per day.

Study Area Sabon Wuse is a Community in Tafa Local

Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria,

adjoining the Federal Capital Territory

Abuja. It is located on latitude 90’33”N and

longitude of 71051”E with the projected

population of 71,074 people as of 2015

(NPC, 2011). The geographical location of

Sabon Wuse is shown in Figure 1 in the

context of Nigeria and Niger State. The

study area has a long range of hills and

ridges on the western side of the town,

which serve as restrictions to physical

development in that part of the town.

Presence of many slopes and valleys in the

town encourage rapid erosion and formation

of gully channels that are common in the

town. Incidence of flash floods is a

common occurrence especially in high

density areas. While farming remains the

chief occupation in Sabon Wuse, the town

is noted for mat making and export of

cotton weaving and dyeing.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_State




Figure 1: Location of Sabon Wuse in the National and State context

Source: URP Dept. FUT Minna.

Research Methodology The methodology adopted for the study was

a mixed-methods approach which integrated

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

mapping, qualitative and quantitative

research (Bryman, 2006). This approach

was selected to ensure that the data

presented a holistic view of the issue at

hand. In order to map out illegal dumpsites

throughout the town, the town was divided

into four neighbourhoods and all illegal

dumpsites within the neighbourhoods were

identified. The GPS co-ordinates of each

illegal dumpsite were then taken and

recorded using a hand-held GPS. The co-

ordinates of the dumpsites were then

entered into Geographic Information

Systems (GIS) software called ArcMap.

This software used the coordinates to

generate a map displaying the location of

each dumpsite, the coordinate of each refuse

dump point, height of the refuse dumpsite

and area coverage of each refuse dump site.

Systematic random sampling technique was

adopted in administering a set of pre-tested

questionnaire on households living near the

dump sites. To do this, ten of the twenty

illegal dumpsites in the town were

randomly selected from the four

neighbourhoods in the town. A set of self-

administered questionnaire designed to

include dichotomous, Likert rating,

checklist and open-ended questions, was

used to obtain primary information on

respondents’ attitudes and views on solid

waste dump sites. Forty residential

buildings within the closest proximity (as

the crow flies) from all the dumpsites were

purposively selected. A household was

randomly sampled in each of the selected

building and the household head provided

the required data. It was only in the

absence of the head that available oldest

adult member of the household was

interviewed. 500 copies of the

questionnaire was administered out of

which 370 copies were correctly filled,

returned and used for analysis of the study.

Both descriptive and inferential statistics

(Analysis of Variance and Tukey Post-Hoc

tests) were used in analyzing data collected

at p≥0.05.

The level of exposure to environmental and

risk hazard when living in proximity to

dump site was measured using Chung and

Poon (2001) scale. The scale measured the




distance to dump site to determine the level

of rsk and exposure to hazard thus:

i. 0.00 - 50.00 metres = Very Severe

Risk

ii. 50.01 – 100.00 metres = Severe Risk

iii. 100.01 – 150.00 metres = Moderate

Risk

iv. 150.01 – 200,00 metres = Mild Risk

v. >250.00 metres = No Risk

Research Findings and Discussion Results of the study are presented under

four main headings: Spatial distribution of

illegal dumpsites; Assessment of solid

waste disposal method; Residents’

perception of level of exposure to solid

waste hazards; and, Effects of living near

solid waste dump sites.

Spatial Distribution of Waste Dump in

Sabon Wuse

Investigations conducted by the researchers

revealed that although there is only one

legally recognized solid waste dump site in

Sabon Wuse town, nineteen illegal ones

were identified by the authors. Spatial

distribution of the dump sites are presented

in Table 2 and Figure 2. From Figure 2, it

is revealed that illegal dumpsites of solid

waste were found throughout inhabited

parts of the town. Distance of the legal

dumpsite and inadequate enforcement of

environmental sanitation laws and edits,

especially in relation to illegal dumping of

solid wastes, might be responsible for the

proliferation of illegal solid waste dump

sites in the town.

Table 2: Spatial Location of Solid Waste Dump Site in SabonWuse

S/N Location of

the Dump

Site

Status

of

Dump

Site

Location and Coordinate

of Dump Site

Size of the Dump Site

Northern Eastern Length

(m)

Breath

(m)

Area

(m2)

Height

(m)

Vol.

of

Waste

(m3)

1 Buntu Legal 9°17.932'N

7°13.707'E

100 70 7,000 3 21,000

2 AngwanYashi Illegal 9°18.265'N

7°14.430'E

5 3 15 1 15

3 Katampe Illegal

9°18'290"N

7°14.876'E

10 5 50 1 50

4 Katampe

Bridge

Illegal 9°18.125'N

7°14.718'E

12 6 72 1 72

5 Aso Illegal 9°17.962'N

7°14.575'E

50 20 1,000 1 100

6 Behind

SarkinAso

House

Illegal 9°17.884'N

7°14.542'E

40 30 1,200 5 6,000

7 Central

Mosque Aso

Illegal 9°17.924'N

7°14.417'E

20 11 220 1 220

8 AngwanTofa Illegal 9°17.997'N

7°14.096'E

70 45 3,150 4 12,600

9 Behind Aso

Market

Illegal 9°18.169'N

7°14.228'E

10 4 40 1 40

10 AngwanYashi Illegal 9°18.327'N

7°14.365'E

10 5 50 1 50

11 Hausawa Illegal 9°18.535'N

7°14.366'E

4 2 8 1 8

12 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.591'N

7°14.388'E

6 3 18 4 72

13 Abuja Kaduna Illegal 9°18.574'N 18 2 36 3 108




Expressway 7°14.389'E

14 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.549'N

7°14.367'E

16 4 64 1 64

15 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.529'N

7°14.345'E

5 3 15 1 15

16 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.525'N

7°14.343'E

20 10 200 4 800

17 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.494'N

7°14.318'E

40 20 800 8 6,400

18 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.477'N

7°14.307'E

15 7 105 4 420

19 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.484'N

7°14.293'E

6 4 24 2 48

20 Abuja Kaduna

Expressway

Illegal 9°18.472'N

7°14.282'E

12 8 96 5 480

Figure 2: Spatial location of both legal and illegal waste dump site in SabonWuse




Assessment of Solid Waste Disposal

Methods

Solid Waste Disposal Methods in the Study

Area

Table 3 shows the level of assessment of

waste collection and disposal in Sabon

Wuse. The analysis indicated that 21.4% of

respondents dump their solid waste to an

informal collector on daily basis; about

61.7% dump their solid waste

indiscriminately on weekly basis which is a

clear indication that they often dump their

waste when they are less busy which

happens that be Saturday and Sunday when

they do not go to work, While 14.9% on

fortnightly, this deal with dumping of refuse

at any time they were able to see the

informal refuse collectors which does really

have a prescribed day and 6.0% on monthly

basis.

Table 3: Frequency of Waste Disposal in Sabon

Wuse

Frequency of

Disposal

Number of

Respondents

(%)

Daily 79 21.4

Weekly 228 61.7

Fortnightly 55 14.9

Monthly 7 1.9

Total 370 100.0

The most used municipal waste storage

facilities in the study area are; Plastic

Bucket (23.4%), Cotton Sack (18.2%),

Nylon Bag (21.4) and Bagco Bag (11.7%),

reasons being that they are easy to convey

to various area of disposal because of their

light weight and they are less expensive and

very few people in the study area are aware

of the undesignated dump site so they are

often saddled with no option than dumping

it off available place of their choices. Table

4 shows various storage facilities used by

households in Sabon Wuse.

Table 4: Method ofWaste Collection in SabonWuse

Storage

Facilities

Number of

Respondents

(%)

Palm Tree

Front Basket

24 6.5

Plastic

Bucket

87 23.4

Cotton Sack 67 18.2

Drum 60 16.2

Nylon Bag 79 21.4

Bagco Bag 43 11.7

Others 10 2.6

Total 370 100.0

Risk Associated with Illegal Solid Waste

Proximity to Houses in SabonWuse

Figures 3 and 4 show the extent of

closeness of compounds to refuse dump in

the study area. The risk of staying close to

refuse dump was measured between 100

meters and 200 meters. The risk ranges

from fatal, severe and mild (Chung and

Poon, 2001). Satellite image of the study

area was used to capture the number of

compounds that were within the 100 meters

(Severe) and 200 meters (mild) risk. This

process is known as buffering. The

buffering uses radius to determine the area

of coverage. The total numbers of structures

at the study area is 3,571. The total number

of compounds at severe risk (100m) is 878

which is 24.6% and at mild risk (200m) is

1,898which is 53.2% of the total number of

structure within the study area. Dumped and

untreated solid waste has serious

implications for the health, environment and

the quality of life of people, therefore,

Chung and Poon, 2001 indicated that

residents within the buffering region of the

refuse dump at 100m are at higher risk than

those at 200m distance. This is due to the

fact that level of exposure to hazard is high,

hence the ability of rodents and other

vectors to transmit infections is also high.

The implication of this is that the closer the

residents to dump site the higher the risk of

both environmental and health hazard in

Sabon Wuse.




The analysis of the proximity to risk of

exposure to hazard is measure using the

buffer analysis as shown in Figures 3 and 4.

The buffer that was used followed the 100

metres and 200 metres risk zones. The 100

metres shows a severe risk associated with

living within the catchment of such

environmental and health risk, while, 200

metres buffer on the other hand shows a

mild risk of exposure to both environmental

and health risk as posited by Chung and

Poon (2001), it is better to avoid living in an

area where there is risk whether mild or s

evere.

Figure 3: 100m Risk radius showing houses closer to waste dump site in Sabon Wuse




Figure 4: 200m Risk radius showing houses closer to waste dump site in Sabon Wuse

Residents’ Perception of the Types of

Hazard Exposed to in the Study Area.

Table 5 shows the perception of residents to

various risks of exposures to solid waste

hazard in the study area. The extent of

perception of the risk is measured using

Linkert Scale. The range of the scale is

Strongly Agreed (SA); Agreed (A); Fair

(F); Disagreed (D) and Strongly Disagreed

(SD).

The specific risk and hazard exposed to by

the residents based on their perception

include the following: Foul water, Dust

during hamattan, Dust at the beginning of

rainy season, Dust at the end of rainy

season, Rats and Rodents attack,

Houseflies, Mosquitoes, Defacing the

physical appearance of the environment,

Children playing off the dump, Injuries

from sharp objects of the dumps, Pollution

of water bodies and Smoke from burning of

the waste.




Table 5: Residents’ Perception of the Type of Hazard exposed to in the Study Area

S/

N

Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) Ground

Total SA A F D SD

1 Domestic Sewage 47 89 62 130 41 370

2 Sand Dust 29 26 202 60 53 370

3 Erosion 38 50 38 67 187 370

4 Poor Physical Apperance of the Environment 199 24 103 17 24 370

5 Children Playing on dump sites 7 19 48 125 171 370

6 Rats and Rodents 7 46 38 55 223 370

7 Mosquito Breeding 147 72 50 82 19 370

8 Houseflies 113 159 55 14 29 370

9 Injuries from Sharp Objects 5 14 19 183 149 370

10 Epidemics 7 34 46 84 199 370

11 Pollution of Water Source 17 7 10 130 206 370

12 Smoke from burning of solid waste (open

dump)

31 10 50 58 221 370

Table 6 shows the responses of the

residents in respect to their exposure to

hazard of solid waste. These data are known

as Variable Numbers of Respondents

(VNR) and the Fixed Hazard Grade (FHG)

is ranged from 1-5 of which 5 is the most

dangerous. The procedure of calculation of

the households level of exposure to solid

waste Hazards is shown thus:

AG = ∑FHG XVNR (1)

(SSо)

Actual Grade (AG) = Fixed Hazards Grade

(FHG) X Variable Numbers of Respondents

(VNR)

Sample Size (SSо)

Where;

Fixed Hazards Grade (FHG): ranging from

1 to 5, were ‘1’ is Very Good; ‘2’ Good; ‘3’

Average; ‘4’ Very Poor and 5 is Extremely

Dangerous.

Variable Numbers of Respondents (VNR):

the total number of responses for each

grade.

Sample Size (SSо) - it is referred to as the

sample size of the study area, which is 370.

Table 4 also shows that erosion, children

playing on the dump, injuries from sharp

objects of the dumps fall within the fair

condition, meaning that their effect as a

result of the presence of these refuse dumps

is minute/ fair on the people around that

area. In the same vein, it shows that: foul

odour, dust at the beginning of rainy season

and house flies falls with the average

condition, which indicate that most of the

just itemized hazards exist on an average

scale in the study area as a result of those

refuse dumps being present in that area.

In addition, Table 4 also indicates that: dust

during hamattan, rats and other rodent

outbreak, mosquitoes, defacing the physical

appearance of the environment, pollution of

water and smoke from burning of waste fall

within the very bad condition on the ranking

scale, which means that there is a very high

existence of health hazards due to the

presences refuse dump sites in the study

area. It has made the area susceptible solid

waste hazard and if urgent measures are not

taken, it would be more terrifying in the

nearest future.




Table 6: Households Level of Exposure to Solid Waste Hazards

S/N Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5) Actual

Grade Poo

r

Fair Average Very

Bad

Extremely

Dangerous

1 Domestic Sewage .13 .48 .51 1.40 .55 3.07

2 Sand Dust .01 .08 .16 1.97 2.01 4.23

3 Erosion .08 .14 1.64 .65 .71 3.22

4 Poor Physical Apperance of the Environment .02 .18 .37 .91 2.69 4.18

5 Children Playing on dump sites .31 .86 .45 .12 .39 2.12

6 Rats and Rodents .02 .25 .31 .73 2.53 3.95

7 Mosquito Breeding .10 .10 .39 1.35 2.31 4.17

8 Houseflies .02 .25 .31 .60 3.02 4.19

9 Injuries from Sharp Objects .40 .39 .41 .88 .26 2.34

10 Epidemics .54 .13 .84 .18 .36 2.05

11 Pollution of Water Source .05 .04 .08 1.40 2.79 4.36

12 Smoke from burning of solid waste (open

dump)

.08 .05 .41 .62 2.99 4.16

Perception of Residents to Solid Waste

Hazard in Sabon Wuse

Table 7 shows level of health hazard

exposed to when residing close to dump site

in the study area. The health hazard exposed

to varies,and it included the following: fear

of disease, discomfort from foul odour,

irritation from the sight of the dump, fear of

people leaving the neighbourhood, fear of

persecution by the environmental sanitation

body, the neighbourhood being repulsive to

needed businesses, friends and relatives not

wanting to visit.

Table 8 shows the response of the residents

to risk of health hazard when residing close

to refuse dump in the study area. The

variable was then grouped as Variable

Numbers of Respondents (VNR) and the

Fixed Hazard Grade (FHG) is ranged from

1-5 of which 5 is the most dangerous. The

total number of respondent is 370. The

procedure of its calculation and judgement

follows the same procedure.

Table 7: Residents’ Perception to Level of Health Hazard in the Study Area

S/

N

Perception of Risk Exposed to Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5)

Actual

Grade

Poo

r

Fai

r

Averag

e

Very

Bad

Extremel

y

Dangerou

s

1 Fear of disease 12 38 101 144 75 370

2 Discomfort from foul Odour 22 34 139 82 175 370

3 Irritation from the sight of the dump 26 12 79 197 113 370

4 Fear of people leaving in the neighborhood 34 77 108 86 65 370

5 Fear of persecution by the environmental

sanitation body

26 82 77 82 103 370

6 The neighborhood being repulsive to needed

businesses

31 10 43 127 159 370

7 Friends and relatives not wanting to visit my

family

26 14 67 123 139 370

8 Blocking of roads 21 46 53 151 99 370




The result of Table 8 also shows that fear

of disease, discomfort from foul odour,

irritation from the sight of the dump, fear of

people leaving the neighbourhood, fear of

persecution by the environmental sanitation

body, friendsand relatives not wanting to

visit and blocking of roads falls within the

average condition, it therefore indicate that

due to the presence of the refuse dump the

area suffers the just listed health hazard in

an average manner, that is to say, the

occurrence are minimal though exist in that

area. Furthermore, The Table 8 shows that

only one falls within the very bad condition,

this indicates that the presence of the refuse

dump has made the neighbourhood to be

repulsive to needed businesses. According

to the popular Nigerian saying “The eyes

eat before the mouth”. Due to the

unpleasant odour, unpleasant view and

other environmental deterioration caused by

the present of the refuse dump, this has

drastically harper business activities with

the affect area of the study area.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the

following recommendations are hereby

proposed;

There should be a total clearance of the

existing illegal dump sites and proper

monitoring of the waste management in the

town to forestall illegal dumping. The

offenders of this provision should be

punished to serve as a deterrent to others.

There should also adequate information to

residents and awareness on the danger of

consequences of indiscriminate dumping of

refuse in an undesignated dump site. System

of refuse collection by the responsible

agency that is Niger State Environmental

Protection Agency should be improved

upon to include door to door system of

refuse collection, putting into consideration

durable storage facilities.

Regular evacuation of the solid waste from

dump site by the government and its

agency. Prompt and timely evacuation of

municipal solid waste from residence to the

nearest landfill and sorting of the waste to

reduce the time of decomposing and

recycling of recyclable waste. It should be

noted that if there is a delay or irregular

frequency in evacuation of municipal solid

waste, it might lead to the temptation of

residents returning back to their usual habit

of indiscriminate refuse dumping.

Table 8: Residents’ Level of Risk of Health Hazard Exposed to in the Study Area

S/

N

Hazard Fixed Hazard Grade (1-5)

Actual

Grade

Poo

r

Fair Averag

e

Very

Bad

Extremel

y

Dangerou

s

1 Fear of disease .03 .21 .82 1.56 1.01 3.62

2 Discomfort from foul Odour .06 .18 .47 .88 2.40 3.99

3 Irritation from the sight of the dump .07 .05 .64 1.51 1.53 3.80

4 Fear of people leaving in the neighborhood .09 .42 .88 .94 .88 3.19

5 Fear of persecution by the environmental

sanitation body

.07 .44 .42 .88 1.40 3.21

6 The neighborhood being repulsive to needed

businesses

.08 .05 .35 1.38 2.14 4.01

7 Friends and relatives not wanting to visit my

family

.07 .08 .55 1.32 1.88 3.90

8 Blocking of roads .06 .25 .43 1.64 1.33 3.70




Conclusion The study has been able to establish that

there is one legal and 19 illegal dump sites

in Sabon Wuse Area despite its close

proximity to Federal Capital of Nigeria and

influx of people to the town. The quantity of

waste generated shows that it ranges

between 0.52 kg/capita/day and 0.62

kg/capita/day.The result also shows that

dumping of solid waste into the surrounding

is the most favoured method. There is also

the use of informal waste collectors who

also dump the waste in the illegal dump

sites in the town. The perception of the

residents to the risk of staying close to

refuse dump varies between severe (at

100m) and mild (at 200m). The total

number of buildings exposed to the risk of

both environmental and health hazard is

about 25.6% at 100 m and about 53.2% at

200 m buffer. This shows that a greater

number of residents are exposed to danger

on health and environmental hazard. This

has an effect on the health care delivery as

many residents are prone to mosquito attack

and epidemic as a result of houseflies.

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Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential

Properties in Minna Metropolis

Hassan Shuaibu Liman*1, Isaac Ayodele Olatunji1, Gbenga Morenikeji1,

Oluseun Olukemi Olubajo2 & Zakari Dodo Usman3 1Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria 2Department of Building, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. 3Department of Estate Management, Niger State Polytechnic, Zungeru.

Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Abstract Mass appraisal has become a standard approach of valuing large groups of properties especially for taxation

purpose. It is widely used in developed countries including the US, UK and other European countries as well as

in some developing countries such as Malaysia. In this paper, the application of mass appraisal model in

Nigeria was examined. Hedonic based multiple regression analysis was used to analyse a set of 91 transaction

data recorded between 2009 and 2013. The regression results revealed the contributory effect of the different

housing attributes on the house price. Based on these results, a mass appraisal model for residential property

valuation was developed. The performance of the model was evaluated using ratio study and the model was

found to be adequate. It was discovered that a good mass appraisal model can bring about improvement in

property tax administration in the study area by reducing cost and ensuring fairness and equity, which are very

crucial in any property tax assessment process. The paper recommends that future studies should incorporate

GIS, more explanatory variables as well as larger sample size to improve the accuracy of the model.

Keywords: Mass Appraisal, Residential Property Price, Hedonic Model, Ratio Study

Introduction The significance of housing to both the

society and economy cannot be

overemphasised. It provides for one of the

basic human needs and also constitutes a

substantial proportion of the wealth of many

households as stated by Forensic

Technologies International (FTI Consulting,

2012). This wealth also accrues to

government as most countries of the world

use different forms of taxes levied on

homeowners as revenues to carry out

developmental projects. These projects will

in turn offer direct or indirect social benefits

to the property occupants and in most cases

lead to increase in values of their properties.

Property tax therefore is one of the major

and important sources of revenue to the

local government, the arm of government

mainly charged with the administration of

property taxes (Harris and Moore, 2013;

Owuso-Ansah, 2012; Sipan, et al., 2012).

However, this potential of property tax as a

source of revenue has not been fully

realised particularly in Minna, despite the

city’s economic importance. Therefore, the

selection of Minna for this study is due to

the importance of the city as the capital of

Niger State, which shares boundary with

Nigeria’s capital city, Abuja. Minna has

over the years experienced continuous

influx of people which has led to rapid

increase in its population. However, this

rise in population has not been accompanied

by adequate infrastructural development.

Real property tax is thus seen as one of the

avenues through which the local

government can generate more revenues to

finance its activities especially in terms of

infrastructural development for the benefit

of the populace. Consequently, there is need

for a systematic real property tax

administration system that will serve the



Liman, Olatunji, Morenikeji, Olubajo, Usman

Developing a Mass Appraisal Approach for Residential Properties in Minna Metropolis


interest of the government and people. It

becomes very important to propose a more

efficient way of assessing house prices by

the local governments for the purpose of tax

administration. This will ensure equity and

uniformity, as well as effectiveness in the

assessment process, which will be

advantageous both to the taxpayers and the

local authorities. It will also lead to

reduction in costs of property assessment as

well as time saving. This has necessitated

the recommendation of mass appraisal for

taxation purposes, which will serve as a

starting point to providing an effective tax

system in Minna.

Property valuation is required for different

purposes including taxation. This implies

that before tax is levied on a property, the

property has to be properly assessed to

know its value. The accuracy of this

valuation is very paramount for a good tax

system and also very important to property

market players especially the real estate

professionals (Sipan and Ab Rahman,

1996). The valuation of real estate has been

carried out using the traditional methods of

valuation which are comparison, cost,

investment, profit and residual methods

(Selim, 2008). These approaches are still

useful for single property valuation. It is

however argued in the literature that they

are not efficient for valuing large group of

properties especially for the purpose of

taxation, which requires a certain level of

equity and fairness across all the assessed

properties. This is because these traditional

methods have some level of subjectivity and

also bring about inconsistencies of assessed

values (see Sipan et al., 2012). Apart from

the inconsistencies, errors involved and the

lack of evidence to be used by valuers in

adopting the traditional sales comparison

approach also makes the valuation process

difficult, thereby resulting in inaccuracy of

valuation opinion (Bozic et al., 2013). Due

to lack of any standardized procedure for

determining residential property value in

Minna, people may tend to resort to

personal judgement to arrive at an estimated

value. There is therefore need for a shift in

paradigm to more reliable methods of

valuing properties. Thus, mass appraisal, an

approach for valuing large group of

properties was introduced.

The purpose of this paper therefore is to

employ a hedonic regression approach in

estimating house prices in Minna, Nigeria,

with the aim of applying a mass appraisal

model for residential property taxation

which will ensure equity, fairness and cost

effectiveness that will be at the advantage of

the taxpayers and the local government.

Literature Review Mass appraisal

According to International Association of

Assessing Officers(IAAO), mass appraisal

is “the process of valuing a group of

properties as of a given date and using

common data, standardized methods, and

statistical testing (IAAO, 2013a).” It usually

involves large group of properties as against

individual property (Kauko and d'Amato,

2008). Mass appraisal started in the United

States in the 1920s, and has since then

continued to evolve (Florida Department of

Revenue, 2002). It has been adopted in

developed countries like America, the UK

and other European countries. Research in

the field of mass appraisal is also gaining

more prevalence in some developing

countries such as Malaysia. There is

however no evidence of the application of

mass appraisal model for property taxation

in the Minna property market.

Mass appraisal performance evaluation

In mass appraisal, the performance of the

model has to be evaluated to ensure that the

model is capable of replicating the forces of

demand and supply in the whole tax

jurisdiction fairly and equitably. According





to IAAO (1990), the primary tool used to

evaluate the performance of mass appraisal

models is ratio study. For the purpose of

equity, there are two major aspects of mass

appraisal accuracy measured in a ratio study

which are appraisal level and appraisal

uniformity.

Appraisal level

Appraisal level measures the proximity

between assessment values and actual sales

prices on an overall basis (IAAO, 2013a).

This is because in mass appraisal, appraised

values do not usually equal market prices.

The principle however is that

overappraisals should balance

underappraisals such that the typical ratio

is near 1 or 100 percent. The four measures

of appraisal level in a ratio study are the

median, arithmetic mean, weighted mean

and geometric mean, each of which has its

pros and cons. It is thus recommended that

all the measures be calculated and

compared for proper guidance (IAAO,

1990). Note that wide variations among the

different measures of appraisal level may be

indicative of poor appraisal performance.

The Standard for Ratio Study (IAAO,

2013b) stipulates that while the theoretically

desired level of appraisal is 1.00, a level

between 0.90 and 1.10 is acceptable for any

class of property with the exception of cases

where stipulated local standards must be

followed.

Appraisal uniformity

The second tool used in measuring the

performance of mass appraisal is the

appraisal uniformity. It basically looks at

the consistency and equity of values. First,

it considers uniformity between property

groups, for example, “that residential and

commercial properties are appraised at

similar percentages of market value and that

residential assessment levels are consistent

among neighbourhoods, construction

classes, age groups, and size groups.

Secondly, it also considers the consistency

of assessment levels within property

groups” (IAAO 2013a). The typical

measures of uniformity used in ratio study

are the Coefficient of Dispersion (COD)

and the Price-Related Differential (PRD).

The standards for COD have been outlined

in details in the Standard on Ratio Studies

(IAAO 2013b). Generally, a COD between

5 – 20 is acceptable depending on the type

of property being appraised. It should be

noted however that Low CODs (15 or less)

tend to be associated with good appraisal

uniformity (IAAO, 1990).

The PRD on the other hand is used to

measure assessment’s progressivity or

regressively. It provides a simple gauge of

price-related bias, which shows the extent

of bias between low- and high-value

properties in the sample used. The Standard

on Ratio Studies (IAAO, 2013b) specified

an acceptable PRD of 0.98 to 1.03. PRD

below 1.00 is an indication of assessment

progressivity, whereby the assessment ratios

increase with price. It implies that the high-

value properties are over-appraised.

Conversely, PRDs above 1.00 tend to

indicate assessment regressivity, in which

case the assessment ratios decline with

price, indicating that the high-value

properties may be under-appraised (IAAO,

1990).

Hedonic price model

Alternative methods of assessing values of

properties have sprung up lately such as

econometric models which are useful

approaches in estimating home prices to

buyers and local authorities (Tabales et al.,

2013). More so, the authors noted that over

the years, classical hedonic models in real

estate appraisal have been used as a

procedure to estimate prices of such

complex goods as housing. The hedonic

model posits that “a good possesses a

myriad of attributes that combine to form





bundles of utility-affecting attributes that

the consumer values (Ching and Chan,

2003).” The hedonic model based on micro

economic theory has been widely used in

real estate valuation and housing market

studies, particularly in analysing residential

property prices and rental values (Selim,

2008). The hedonic approach is particularly

useful when there is no enough statistical

information especially the property

transaction details (Tabales et al., 2013). It

also has the advantages of easy-to-use,

easy-to-understand and high accuracy of

results (Tian, 2013). In the case of a house,

the model tends to estimate the price or

rental value of the house as a function of its

attributes. Other advanced techniques that

are used in mass appraisal include artificial

neural networks, spatial analysis, fuzzy

logic, kriging, autoregressive integrated

moving average, spatial autoregression,

geographically weighted regression, moving

window regression, time trend analysis and

feedback (Jahanshiri et al., 2011;

Mohamad, 2012). The literature has shown

that the Ordinary Least Square regression is

the most common model used in property

assessment ratings (Sipan et al., 2012).

There are two types of variables that are

usually included in a house price hedonic

regression model. They are dependent

variable (also called regressand or measured

variable) and independent variable (also

called regressor or predictor variable)

(Ismail, 2005). According to the researcher,

the dependent variable is a measure of

house value, which is represented by rents,

sales price, asking price, or even owner's

estimated price as the case may be. The

researcher noted that the use of each of

these different measures of house value is

evident in previous studies, adding that

rents are normally adopted in case of studies

that involve rented properties while the

other measures of value are adopted in

studies that involve owner occupied

properties.

The second type of variable, which is the

independent variable includes all significant

factors that are likely to affect the measure

of value. In the housing market literature,

these factors have been broadly grouped

into three namely the structural, locational

and neighbourhood attributes. Focusing on

property-specific attributes, Wyatt (2007)

submitted that “the principal physical

qualities of the building are size, age,

condition, external appearance (including

aspect and visibility), internal specification

and configuration.” He argues that these

qualities are hypothesized to have effect on

the level of “performance of the building to

varying degrees depending on the use to

which it is put.”

Factors for mass appraisal approach in

residential neighbourhoods

Residential real estate prices can be

influenced by a diverse number of attributes

or factors. These factors can be broadly

classified under micro and macro

determinants. The macro determinants of

house prices are those macroeconomic

factors such as inflation, exchange rate,

unemployment rate and GDP that affect the

entire economy of a country. The micro

factors on the other hand, which are

property specific factors and are of

relevance in hedonic price analysis, have

been classified into three by Watkins (2001)

as physical, neighbourhood and locational

characteristics. For the purpose of this study

which focuses on developing a mass

appraisal model, only the micro

determinants of house price will be

considered because mass appraisal is based

on local property markets.

Sirmans and Macpherson (2005) listed out

the top twenty housing attributes (micro

house price determinants) that are most





frequently included in previous studies on

hedonic house price modelling. Table 1

shows details of the appearances of the

variables from the previous studies.

It is worthy of note that not all of these

variables can be found in the present study

area. The absence of some variable in the

current study may be attributed to

differences in contextual, idiosyncratic and

cultural settings as noted by Ching and

Chan (2003) or as a result of variation in the

nature of the property market characteristics

as noted by Bello and Bello (2008). In

addition, the unavailability of data on some

variables has equally limited the number of

variables to be included in the study.

Methodology

Data

Data used in this research are property

attributes/ characteristics and sales

transaction data. The attribute data cover the

three aspects of structural, locational and

neighbourhood attributes earlier mentioned

and they include house type, size, number

of rooms, number of bathrooms/toilets, age,

condition, location, distance to the central

business district and neighbourhood

facilities available. The sales transaction

data is basically the price at which the

residential properties in question were sold

and the respective year each property was

sold. These attributes were identified from

previous studies through literature review.

Table 2 shows the list of variables included

in this study and their units of measurement.

They are variables for which data were

obtained by the researcher. Macroeconomic

factors were not included since they are

variables that are more concerned with the

larger economy of the country as a whole

rather the local property market as

applicable to this study.

Due to the unavailability of much

residential transaction records in the study

area, data for this study is made up of 91

house sales transaction cases in Minna,

recorded between 2009 and 2013.

Table 1: Variables often included in most hedonic models

Independent

Variables

Number of (Times):

Appearances Positive Negative Not Significant

Lot Size 52 45 0 7

Ln Lot Size 12 9 0 3

Square Feet 69 62 4 3

Ln Square Feet 12 12 0 0

Brick 13 9 0 4

Age 78 7 63 8

No. of Stories 13 4 7 2

No. of Bathrooms 40 34 1 5

No. of Rooms 14 10 1 3

Bedrooms 40 21 9 10

Full Baths 37 31 1 5

Fireplace 57 43 3 11

Air Conditioning 37 34 1 2

Basement 21 15 1 5

Garage Spaces 61 48 0 13

Deck 12 10 0 2

Pool 31 27 0 4

Distance 15 5 5 5

Time On Market 18 1 8 9

Time Trend 13 2 3 8

Source: Adopted from Sirmans and Macpherson (2005)





The data were sourced from six of the

registered estate surveying and valuation

firms that are practicing in Minna. The

firms provided data on residential property

transactions, particularly the sales prices

and corresponding property attributes. Note

that in a ratio study that utilizes sales data

only (as in the case of this research), there is

limited extent of control that the researcher

has over sample size (IAAO, 1990). This

implies that the sample size will be limited

by the amount of data available. Other

secondary data used in this research were

sourced from published materials and

documents that contain discussions about

the subject matter of research and the

research trend. These sources include

textbooks, reports, journals, conference

proceedings, gazette materials, internet and

other electronic sources.

Table 2: List of variables and their descriptions

Variable Variable

Name

Measurement

of Variable

Variable Description

Y Price Nigerian Naira

(N)

Price of the House: Actual Sales price of the house in

Naira

X1 Type Nominal Type of House: Whether the house is a Tenement,

Flat, Semi-Detached or Detached Bungalow or a

Duplex

X2 Size Scale (Sqm) Total Size of the house in square meters

X3 Rooms Scale Number of rooms in the house

X4 Bathrooms Scale Number of bathrooms or toilets in the house

X5 Age Scale (Years) Age of the house since it was built

X6 Condition Nominal Physical condition of the house: Whether the house is

Very Poor, Poor, Fair, Good or New.

X7 Year Scale Year the house was sold: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012 or

2013

X8 Location Nominal Location of the house: Area in which the house is

located – low, medium or high income area.

X9 Distance Scale (KM) Distance of the house to the Central Business District

(Mobil)

X10 Facilities Nominal Number of facilities available in the neighbourhood

the house is located such as School, Hospital/ clinic,

Police Post.

A representation of the proposed model is

given as:

P = a + βx + e (1)

In the equation 1, P is the House prices, a is

the constant, β is the coefficient matrix, x is

the set of independent variables and e, the

error term. Substituting for the variables, we

will have the equation re-written thus:

House Price = Constant + β1 (Type) + β2

(Size) + β3 (Rooms) – β4 (Baths) + β5 (Age)

+ β6 (Year) + β7 (Condition) – β8 (Location)

+ β9 (Distance) + β10 (Facilities) + error

term (2)

Table 3: Descriptive statistics

Variables Mean Std. Deviation

Price 4349450.54 2711923.206

Type 3.14 1.644

Size 171.7 54.453

Rooms 5.88 5.625

Bathrooms 2.79 1.197

Age 12.58 8.694

Condition 3.23 1.034

Year 3.67 1.491

Location 2.40 .728

Distance 2.9398 1.28924

Facilities 3.13 .957





N 91

Five types of houses were sampled in the

study. They are detached bungalows, semi-

detached, flats, tenements and duplexes.

The number of rooms in a house ranges

from 2 to 21 rooms depending on the house

type. The prices of these houses range from

N1,200,000 for tenements, which are the

cheapest types, up to N10,000,000 for

duplexes, with the average price being

about N4,349,450. Most of the recorded

transactions within the sample period of 5

years took place in 2013 with the other

samples almost evenly distributed

throughout the previous year. This is an

indication of improved record keeping by

the estate firms. Data on the condition of the

houses revealed that 32 of the houses are in

fair condition, 25 are in good conditions

while 20 were said to be in poor state of

repairs as at the time they were sold.

Method of analysis

The study employed the use of statistical

technique particularly the hedonic price

modelling approach base on multiple

regression analysis (MRA) to empirically

identify the significant factors that affect

house prices in the study area and the level

of effect exerted by each of the factors. The

selection of this method of analysis is based

on the evidence from literature that MRA

performs better when small samples are

used for analysis (see Kauko and d’Amato,

2008). The coefficients from the regression

result showed the marginal contribution of

each of the variables included in the

regression model to the overall price of a

house in the study area. The significant

factors identified from the regression results

were then used to propose a model. The

model was then evaluated to test its

suitability for the purpose of mass appraisal.

The model evaluation was done with the aid

of the mass appraisal evaluation technique

known as ratio study. The two aspects of

mass appraisal accuracy in a ratio study

namely appraisal level and appraisal

uniformity were measured to ascertain the

adequacy of the model. There are four

measures of appraisal level in a ratio study

which are the median, the arithmetic mean,

the weighted mean and the geometric mean,

each of which is expected to be at a level

between 0.90 and 1.10. On the other hand,

appraisal uniformity is typically measured

using Coefficient of Dispersion (COD) and

the Price-Related Differential (PRD). While

the COD should normally fall between 5

and 20, the PRD is expected to be between

0.98 and 1.03.

Results A regression analysis was obtained using all

the variables and it was found that the

number of rooms did not pass the check,

having a P-Value of 0.272 which is above

0.05. Consequently, the variable was

excluded and a second regression model

was obtained which is shown in table 4. The

model has a coefficient of determination

(R2) of 0.923. This shows that about 92% of

variation in house price can be explained by

the independent variables. The F-statistics

(F-value – 107.57 and F-sig. – 0.000)

indicate that the independent variables when

put together are statistically significant in

determining house prices in Minna. While

the F-statistics show the significance of the

variables as a whole, the significance of the

individual variables is indicated by their

respective P-Values (sig.) and the results

shows that all the variables are individually

significant (p-values less than 0.05).

Further evaluation of the results reveals that

the problem of multicollinearity does not

exist in the model as all the variables have a

tolerance that is greater than 0.1 and VIF

that is below 5. The contributory effect of

each variable can be observed from the B

coefficients of the variables. A look at the

signs of the coefficients of the independent

variables will reveal that all the variables





included in the model except age of a house

and its distance to the CBD are positively

correlated with house prices. This implies

that a unit increase in each of the variables

with positive coefficients (type of house,

size, bathroom, condition, year, location and

facilities) will bring about corresponding

increase in price of a house. On the other

hand, the negative signs on the coefficient

of age implies that the older a house is, the

lesser the price of the house. Likewise, the

farther a house is from the CBD, the lower

the price of the house.

A mass appraisal model was therefore

obtained using the coefficients from the

regression results. The equation for the

model is presented as follows:

House Price =-5721793.178+

255441.430(Type)+5942.767(Size) +

722872.168(Baths)- 30191.112(Age) +

1035230.685

(Condition)+146506.912(Year) +

675543.323 (Location) - 189033.094

(Distance)+531602.035 (Facilities) (3)

The model presents house price as a

function of the different attributes of the

house, each of which affects the price at

varying degrees as indicated by the

coefficients

Mass appraisal performance evaluation

As earlier stated, every mass appraisal

model has to be evaluated. The essence of

the evaluation is to compare the appraised

values with the actual sales prices to see if

the model can be accepted. Evaluation of

the model in this study was done using ratio

study. The results of the ratio study are

presented in table 5.

Table 4: Regression coefficients

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig. Collinearity

Statistics

B Std. Error Beta Tolerance VIF

(Constant) -5721793.178 719275.614 -7.955 .000 - -

Type 255441.430 68010.869 .155 3.756 .000 .561 1.783

Size 5942.767 1904.560 .119 3.120 .003 .652 1.534

Bathroom 722872.168 97761.689 .319 7.394 .000 .512 1.955

Age -30191.112 12335.514 -.097 -2.447 .017 .610 1.641

Condition 1035230.685 124791.713 .395 8.296 .000 .421 2.373

Year 146506.912 76315.623 .081 1.920 .048 .541 1.847

Location 675543.323 176636.993 .181 3.824 .000 .423 2.362

Distance -189033.094 87677.689 -.090 -2.156 .034 .549 1.823

Facilities 531602.035 169577.230 .188 3.135 .002 .266 3.757





Table 5: Measure of appraisal level and appraisal

uniformity

S/N

o.

Measure of

Appraisal Level

Required* Result

1 Median 0.9 – 1.1 1.0024

2 Mean 0.9 – 1.1 1.0091

3 Weighted Mean 0.9 – 1.1 1

4 Geometric Mean 0.9 – 1.1 0.94

Measure of

Appraisal

Uniformity

5 Coefficient of

Dispersion (COD)

5 – 20 20.91

6 Price-Related

Differential (PRD)

0.98– 1.03 1.009

*Note: The requirements for each of the measures as

stipulated in The Standard on Ratio Studies (IAAO

2013b) have been discussed in the previous sections.

All the measure of appraisal level

computed, that is, the median, arithmetic

mean, weighted mean and geometric mean

fall within the acceptable standard of 0.90 –

1.10. In addition, two measures of appraisal

uniformity were computed. While the PRD

has fallen within the acceptable of standard

of 0.98 – 1.03, the COD is a bit above 20

(20.91), the researchers deem the model still

acceptable considering the sample size

utilized in the research as well as the fact

that all the five other measures are within

the acceptable standards.

Conclusion The paper made attempt to develop a

symbolic Mass Appraisal model to

undertake valuation of residential properties

in Minna. The research established that

house prices in Minna are significantly

influenced by type of the house, its size,

age, condition, the number of bathrooms,

year the house was sold, location of the

house, its distance to the CBD as well as the

availability of neighbourhood facilities. The

age of a house and its distance to the CBD

have negative effect on prices, meaning that

as the two variables increase, house prices

tend to decrease. The study has used these

significant variables to develop a model for

mass appraisals of residential properties for

taxation purpose. The model was evaluated

using ratio study; a mass appraisal

evaluation technique. After evaluation, the

model was found to be suitable and is

therefore recommended for mass appraisal

of residential properties in Minna. The

study further recommends that in the future,

more explanatory variables and larger

samples should be used and Geographic

Information Systems (GIS) should be

incorporated to accurately capture the

locational attributes of the properties, as it

has been noted in previous studies like Tian

(2013) that the adoption of GIS has helped

to produce more accurate assessment

values.

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Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria

Urban Area

Fidelis C. Duchi and Wadanda Kabiru Musa

Department of urban and regional planning, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Corresponding E-mail. [email protected]

Abstract The Urban Heat Island effect is linked to the built environment and threatens human health during extreme heat

events. This study aimed to examine the spatial pattern of heat islands in Zaria urban area. Satellite imagery,

Landsat imagery Base map and Metrological data were used. Reconnaissance survey was used for data

collection with other sources. ArcGIS and Google earth software were used to collect data and analyzed using

remote sensing, simple descriptive statistical techniques method. The results show the correlation between the

maximum temperature and the years of analysis as 0.8433 with 84.33% linear relationship. The coefficient of

determination R2 is 0.7112 which reveals 71.12% change in maximum temperature caused by variation of time.

To attain a balance heat change in Zaria Urban area it is recommended to: Restore loss of vegetation,

Consideration for landscaping in plan approval, strategic management on congested city and traffic problems,

Consideration for building material and orientation, Creation of shelter belt and stabilizing river embankment,

Encouraging the use of permeable surface, Use of contemporary techniques, Partnership towards sustainable

environment and Improving the competency of environmentalists.

Keywords: urban heat island, land use; spatial analysis, remote sensing, strategies

Introduction Global warming has obtained more

attention because the global mean surface

temperature has increased since 19th

century. Urbanization has occurred at

unprecedented rates in the last 100 years.

The United Nations estimated that in 2010

more than half of the world’s population

lived in cities, predicting an increase to

more than 70% by 2050 (United Nations,

2012). It is argued that the world urban

population will increase from 3.5 billion in

2010 to 6.2 billion and by 2050 almost all

of which will be focused on developing

countries. Growing at about 5% per annum,

Nigeria’s urban population estimated at

46.2% in 2005 would rise to 58% by 2050

(UN-Habitat, 2008). Given the expected

urban expansion, cities are likely to triple

their developed land intake a situation that

would have untold negative environmental

and economic consequences. The

implications of negative externalities of

climatic change, increased vehicular

congestion, alterations in natural drainage

systems, and reduced water supply which is

generally change in the land use cover are

already associated with rapid urbanization.

The term, urban heat Island (UHI) was

coined by Gordon Manley in 1958. UHI

phenomenon is known for centuries, but the

semi-scientific awareness of the urban

climate anomaly is traced back to mid-18th

century. In the 1750s, Ezra Stiles noted that

the air of towns was warmer than the

country side (Meyer, 1991). Urban heat

island (UHI) can be defined as an urban

area which is significantly warmer than its

surrounding rural area. It is a measurable

increase in urban air temperatures resulting

primarily from the replacement of

vegetation with buildings, roads, and other

heat-absorbing infrastructure (United States

Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]

(2008).

Duchi, Musa

Assessment of Urban Heat Island in Zaria Urban Area


The urban heat island (UHI) effect is linked

to the built environment and threatens

human health during extreme heat events.

This study analyzed the weather

characteristics of land uses within an urban

area associated with higher surface

temperatures, and whether concentrations of

hot land uses exacerbate this relationship.

Higher concentrations of these land uses are

usually associated with more extreme

surface temperatures. Municipal planners

and decision-makers formulate policies and

regulations that are specific to the

problematic land uses in order to mitigate

extreme heat. Temperatures are gradually

increasing globally due to changing climate.

The built environment in urban center is

categorized into different land uses for local

and regional planning. General

meteorological conditions also affect the

magnitude of the UHI effect. The UHI is

maximized under conditions of minimal

cloud cover (increased solar input), low

wind speeds (reduced mixing of air) and high

vertical stability (thermal inversions) (Oke,

1987). The horizontal and vertical motions

of air reduce the rural-urban microclimate

contrast. Cloud-cover at night absorbs and

re-radiates long-wave radiation emanating

from the surface back to the ground so that

surface cooling everywhere is diminished

and tends to reduce the UHI effect (Oke,

1987; Stull, 1988).

Statement of Research Problem

Extreme temperatures have serious impacts

on human health, including but not limited

to heat rash, sunburn, fainting, and heat

exhaustion. Continuous rising temperatures

in urban areas create an uncomfortable

environment for residents which results in

increasing demand for energy to use air

conditioners during extreme heat events,

decrease in surface albedo that increase the

amount of energy at the surface. Therefore,

the understanding of urban heat island

concept and strategies will help planners to

make physical planning recommendation

for sustainable urban development.

Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to examine the

spatial pattern of heat islands in relation to

land use pattern in Zaria urban area.

The following are the specific objectives

1. To review the concept and analytical

technique of urban heat island.

2. To examine the physical

development characteristics of Zaria

urban area.

3. To assess the implications of urban

heat island pattern in Zaria urban

area.

Description of the study area

Zaria Urban area is located between

latitude10◦57’36’’N and 11◦15’32’’N and

7◦39’00’’E and 7◦53’02’’E. the urban area is

made up of Sabon Gari and Zaria local

government areas and some parts of Giwa

Local government area like Shika about

from Ahmadu Bello University main

campus, Samaru. Zaria Urban Area is

bounded by Kudan to the North, Igabi to the

South, Soba to the East and Giwa to the

West. Zaria is about 26 km from Kudan, 50

km from Igabi, 40 km from Soba and 29 km

from Giwa.

Conceptual Advances in Urban Heat

Island

The understanding of urban energy balance

and search for causes that facilitate it is

greatly enhanced by Oke’s (1976)

conception of the urban atmosphere as a

system composed of two distinct layers: the

urban canopy layer (UCL) and the urban

boundary layer (UBL). The UBL is the

overall atmospheric system that extends for

many kilometers above cities, whose

characteristics are determined by the form

and pattern of cities. And the UCL is that

layer of the atmosphere where most life




occurs; from ground up to the mean height

of roofs (Oke,1982). Montavez et al. (2000)

shows that in fine weather, the city size and

population play important roles in the

intensification of UHI. This could be due to

increase in anthropogenic heat release, air

pollution, surface roughness and structures

that absorb, store and transmit more heat.

Smith and Levermore (2008) concluded that

the bigger or denser the city the bigger also

the UHI intensity.

Research have revealed that a wide range of

urban factors are responsible for higher

temperatures in urban areas compared to

those of rural areas (UHI) and they include;

urban geometry, anthropogenic heat,

thermal characteristics of urban surfaces,

obstruction to wind flow by buildings and

lack of vegetation. From the works of

Landsberg (1981), Oke (1973, 1978, 1982,

1988), Roth et al (1989) and Santamoouris

(2002), the most important factors

influencing the UHI effect are summarized

as follows; Canyon Geometry, Building

Materials, Greenhouse Effect,

Anthropogenic Heat Source, Evaporative

Cooling and Wind Pattern

Materials and Methods In this study remote sensing, Google earth

and GIS data from different sources were

used. Three medium resolution Landsat

Thematic map (TM), Enhanced thematic

map (ETM) and Enhanced thematic map

plus (ETM+) of the study years, using path

and row, 189 and 52 respectively which

were used to detect the heat island pattern

of the study area. These images were

obtaining from the United States Geological

Survey (USGS) website as standard

products. Also in order to avoid the impact

of seasonal variation, all images were

selected from the same season in such a

way that the cloud cover will not exceed

10%. The images are also of 60m spatial

resolution which makes it convenient for

comparison of changes and pattern. The

Google earth imagery of Zaria urban area

were obtained for Google Earth 4.2

software, using Zaria, Kaduna as point of

reference to be searched.

Results and Discussion The data were analyzed using classification,

overlay analysis and descriptive statistical

method. The statistical method used: mean

and graphs to illustrate trends of heat island

pattern over time. The pattern is made up

various land use of residential, commercial,

industrial, public and semi- public, open

spaces, Roads and streets. Even though the

heat island pattern is dynamic in respect to

economic development and social progress,

it does not come without costs, as such there

is potential implications of the heat island

change in Zaria urban area over time. The

potential implications of heat island can be

considered as environmental. In trying to

establish the environmental implications

heat island pattern in Zaria urban area some

climatic parameters were considered to

define the climatic condition of the study

area which are precipitation and

temperature. Land use change have been

said to affect climatic condition and at the

same time the climatic condition of a place

do affect land use, as such it can be said that

an indirect relationship exist between the

two. In trying to understand such

relationship for this study, there is a need to

understand the variation of temperature of

the study area over time. The dynamic heat

island distributions for each study year as

derived from the maps below;

Heat Island Pattern 1980

The heat island pattern in the study area in

1980 can be visually seen from the map

below which depict the highest magnitude

as 32.22 0c, medium, 30.52 0c and lowest

as 28.96 0c. The difference between the

Duchi, Musa



highest and the lowest temperature range is

3.24 0

Fig. 1: surface temperature classification across Zaria urban area

Source: Landsat image, 1980

Figure 1, above revealed that there was an

urban heat island effect within the study in

1980 the red colour depicts the highest

magnitude, yellow colour medium and

green colour depict the lowest heat island

intensity. Comparing the urban heat island

intensities, it can be seen that the patterns

shows a typical temperature profile for an

urban heat island. The temperature gradient

from the rural area to the suburban area

form the basis of heat island extend in Zaria

urban area within the residential and

commercial land use, Zaria city wall expand

with residential land use, Tudun Wada

residential and commercial land use, Sabon

Gari commercial, industrial and mixed land

use, Samaru residential, commercial and

educational land use. The rest of the sub-

urban area has a relatively gentle

temperature gradient forming the plateau

The thermal center (“Peak”) of an urban

heat island is usually located in the central

urban center.

Heat Island Pattern 2015

The heat island pattern in the study area in

20115 can be visually seen from the map

below which depict the highest magnitude

as 39.50 0c, medium, 37.75 0c and lowest

as 36.03 0c. The difference between the

highest and the lowest temperature range is

3.47 0c.




Fig. 2: surface temperature classification across Zaria urban area

Source: Landsat image, 2015

Figure 2, revealed that there was an urban

heat island effect within the study in 2015

the red colour depicts the highest

magnitude, yellow colour medium and

green colour depict the lowest heat island

intensity. The temperature gradient from the

rural area to the suburban area form the

basis of heat island extend in Zaria city,

Tudun Wada and Samaru signifies an

increase in residential, commercial and

educational land use, Sabon Gari and PZ

witness an increase in commercial,

industrial and educational land use. The rest

of the sub-urban area has a relatively gentle

temperature gradient forming the plateau

The thermal center (“Peak”) of an urban

heat island is usually located in the central

urban center. More over congestion of

residential unit, traffic, emission of harmful

gases from industries, automobile and the

use of firewood and generator as source of

cooking and lighting due to urbanization. It

is clear that the relationship between land

use and surface temperature revealed and

confirms that urban heat island effect is

usually observed between urban and rural

land uses Surface temperature tends to

increase with the size of commercial and

industrial land use polygons and decreases

with the size of parks, recreation and water

body polygons.

Rate of Heat Island Change in the Study

Area (1980-2015)

The rate of heat change analysis base on the

implication of land use change over time,

Tables 1 shows the detail of mean

maximum and minimum temperature within

the study area. Table 1: Mean maximum and minimum

temperature (oC) for Zaria urban area

Year Max Min Mean

1980 35.2 11.57 27.80

1985 36.0 12.67 27.91

1990 37.53 12.58 28.00

1995 35.43 12.65 28.71

2000 37.7 9.935 28.90

2005 37.133 12.58 28.70

2010 38.5 12.42 29.40

2015 39.29 16.19 29.90

Source IAR ABU, Zaria

Duchi, Musa



Table 1: Shows trend of temperature change

within the period from 1980-2015.

Regression Analysis of Mean Maximum

and Minimum Temperature for Zaria

Urban Area Analysis of Maximum Temperature

Table 2 analysis reveals the correlation

between the maximum temperature and the

years as 0.8433 (84.33%) indicating linear

relationship between the maximum

temperature and the years of analysis. The

coefficient of determination R2 is 0.7112

indicating that 71.12% of change in

maximum temperature is caused by time

change. This is due to change on surface

characteristics and morphology over time

which include thick walls, concretes surface

and tarred roads, high anthropogenic

activities such as; high population density,

busy streets and high traffic volume

accounting for the anthropogenic heat

release.

The analysis reveals the least square

(regression) model that would be used to

predict the maximum temperature pattern in

Zaria is y = 0.100*t – 163.646. where y is

the maximum temperature and t is the time

(years). The p-value of the slope of the

model (0.009) is less than 0.05 we therefore

conclude that the there is a significant

increase in maximum temperature over the

years of analysis as shown above.

Table 2: Regression Summary for Maximum

Temperature

Regression Statistics

Multiple R 0.84333

R Square 0.711206

Adjusted R Square 0.663074

Standard Error 0.847171

Observations 8

Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value

Intercept -163.646 52.22403 -3.13354 0.020233

Year 0.100498 0.026144 3.843964 0.00852

y-0.100*t-163.646

Fig. 3: Max. Temperature pattern with its estimated trend




The graph reveals the least square

(regression) model that predict the

maximum temperature pattern in Zaria, the

blue line represents maximum temperature

gradients while the red line represents the

trend over years’ y = 0.100*t – 163.646.

where y is the maximum temperature and t

is the time (years). And the coefficient of

determination R2 is 0.7112 indicating that

change in maximum temperature is caused

by time, which signifies increase in

maximum temperature over the years of

analysis as shown above. with a projected

predicted values at five years’ interval to

2025.

Predicted values

Year Max. Temp (0C)

2020 39.36

2025 39.8625

The table above reveals the maximum

temperature pattern and estimated trend

with predicted values at five years’ interval

to 2025. Which signifies that there will be

an increase in maximum temperature in

years to come if proper measures are not put

in place to mitigate the occurrence.

Analysis of Minimum Temperature Table 3: Regression Summary for Minimum

Temperature

Regression Statistics

Multiple R 0.476736

R Square 0.227278

Adjusted R Square 0.09849

Standard Error 1.647931

Observations 8

Table 3 reveals the correlation between the

minimum temperature and the years of

analysis as 0.4767, indicating 47.67% linear

relationship between the minimum

temperature and the years of analysis. The

coefficient of determination R2 is 0.2273

indicating that 22.73% of change in

minimum temperature is caused by time

change. This is due to surface

characteristics and morphology over time

which include thick walls, concretes surface

and tarred roads, and high anthropogenic

activities, such as high population density,

busy streets and high traffic volume

accounting for the anthropogenic heat

release. while area with lower temperatures

have lower anthropogenic activities.

The above analysis reveals the least square

(regression) model that would be used to

predict the minimum temperature pattern in

Zaria is y = 0.068*t – 122.378. where y is

the minimum temperature and t is the time

(years). The p-value of the slope of the

model (0.232) is greater than 0.05 we

therefore conclude that the there is no

significant increase in minimum

temperature over the years of analysis as

shown above

.

Coefficients Standard Error t Stat P-value

Intercept -122.376 101.5871 -1.20464 0.273699

Year 0.06756 0.050856 1.32844 0.232324

y-0.068*t-122376

Duchi, Musa



Fig. 4: Min. Temperature pattern with its estimated trend

The graph reveals the least square

(regression) model that predict the

minimum temperature pattern in Zaria, the

blue line represents minimum temperature

gradients while the red line represents the

trend over years’ y = 0.068*t – 122.378.

where y is the minimum temperature and t

is the time (years). And the coefficient of

determination R2 is 0.2273 indicating that

change in minimum temperature is caused

by time, which signifies a moderate shift in

minimum temperature over the years of

analysis as shown above. with a projected

predicted values at five years’ interval to

2025. Predicted values

Year Min. Temp (0C)

2020 14.0932

2025 14.431

The table above reveals the minimum

temperature pattern and estimated trend

with predicted values at five years’ interval

to 2025. Which signifies that there will be

an increase in minimum temperature in

years to come if proper measures are not put

in place to mitigate the occurrence.

Temperature Records in Different Days

of the Survey (From 14, 15 and 16 July

2016)

Table 4 reveals the temperature record of

day one at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm

with maximum UHI intensity occurred by

2:00pm at 37 0c. The minimum UHI

intensity occurred in the morning by

8:00am with at 18 0c. In the evening by

5:00pm at 19 0c. It can be concluded that

the UHI intensity is relatively higher during

the daytime.

Table 4: Result Day One Temperature (Oc)

Name Of Site 8:00

Am

2:00

Pm

5:30 Pm

Shika 18 25 19

Samaru 20 26 21

Kwangila 22 30 22

GRA 20 24 19

PZ 23 33 24

Sabon Gari 24 35 25

Park Road

Round About

25 37 25

Agoro Bridge 18 25 19

Tudun Wada

Market

20 28 20

Kofan Doka 22 27 22

Zaria City 24 28 23




Diurnal temperature variation for day

one

The result reveals the highest diurnal

temperature for day one is 37 0c at 2:00 pm

with a mean temperature of 28.9 0c, this is

due to surface characteristics and

morphology which include thick walls,

concretes surface and tarred roads, and high

anthropogenic activities, these area is

known as commercial centers with high

population density, busy streets and high

traffic volume accounting for the

anthropogenic heat release.

The graph reveals the temperature record of

day one at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm

respectively with maximum UHI intensity

occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 37 0c.

The minimum UHI intensity occurred

during early morning about 8:00am with a

value of 18 0c. And late evening about

5:00pm with the value of 19 0c. it can be

concluded that the UHI intensity is

relatively higher during the daytime.

The table reveals the temperature record of

day two at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm


occurred at 2:00pm with a value of 35 0c

difference of 2 0c compare to the day. The

minimum UHI intensity occurred during

early morning about 8:00am with a value of

17 0c and late evening about 5:00pm with

the value of 18 0c. With a difference of 2 0c

compare to day one. it can be concluded

that the UHI intensity is relatively higher

during the daytime.

Fig. 5: Result of Day One Temperature

Duchi, Musa



Table 5: Result Day Two Temperature (OC)

Name Of Site 8:00

Am

2:00 Pm 5:30 Pm

Shika 17 25 18

Samaru 20 27 21

Kwagila 22 31 23

Gra 20 26 21

Pz 24 30 25

Sabon Gari 26 32 24

Park Road

Round About

26 35 25


Tudun Wada

Market

20 32 21

Kofan Doka 22 30 22

Zaria City 25 32 24


two

The result reveals that the highest diurnal

temperature for day two is 35 0c at 2:00 pm

and it has a mean temperature value 0f 29.6 0c, this is due to surface characteristics and

morphology which include thick walls,








day two at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm



difference of 2 0c compare to the day. The



17 0c. And late evening about 5:00pm with


compare to day one. it can be concluded


during the daytime.

The table reveals temperature record of day

three at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm



difference of 2 0c compare to the two. The





compare to day two. it can be concluded


during the daytime.

Table 6: Result Day Three Temperature (OC)

Name Of Site 8:00 Am 2:00 Pm 5:30 Pm

Shika 19 26 20

Samaru 20 27 21

Kwagila 23 29 24

Gra 20 25 20

Pz 24 30 25

Sabon Gari 25 31 25

Park Road

Round

About

25 33 24


Tudun Wada

Market

23 28 22

Kofan Doka 22 29 22

Zaria City 25 30 23




Fig. 6: Result of Day Two Temperature


three

The result reveals that the highest diurnal

temperature for day three is 33 0c at 2:00

pm and it has a mean temperature value 0f

28.5 0c, this is due to surface characteristics

and morphology which include thick walls,







Cumulative diurnal temperature

variation

It is being observed that day one has the

highest diurnal temperature of 37 0c while

day two has the highest diurnal mean

temperature value of 29.6 0c in respect to

day one and three with 28 0c, the cumulative

diurnal mean temperature is 29 0c which

shows and appreciable variation in the mean

diurnal temperature variation, all the station

areas of high temperature is due to the

anthropogenic factor, while area with lower

temperatures have lower anthropogenic

activities. Chow and Roth (2006), Balogun

and Olaleye (2000), and Okpara (2002) all

agree that station with highest temperatures

were always at the commercial areas and

the high level of traffic and nature of the

surface morphology, and this also true for

this study.


day three at 8:00am, 2:00 pm and 5:00pm



difference of 2 0c compare to the two. The





compare to day two. it can be concluded


during the daytime.

From the analysis carried out, it reveals that

Kwagila, PZ, Sabon Gari, park road

roundabout Tudun Wada, Kofan Doka and

Zaria city wall has the highest pick of heat

island compare to Shika, Samaru, GRA and

Agoro bridge.

Duchi, Musa



Fig. 7: Result of Day Three Temperature

Conclusion From the results of this study, it can be

concluded that Zaria urban area adequately

represent the nature of surface cover and

morphology, temperature variables are

responsible for significant variation within

the study area. The seasonal climatic

conditions of the region were also noted to

have significant effect on the annual urban

heat island variation. The study has shown

that Urban heat island studies using

satellite-based remote sensing data have

also come into prominence. Because apart

from providing a large array of information

with a wide spectrum of possible

applications, the data also have the

advantage of availability for areas that may

not be physically accessible due to physical

dangers or socio-political restrictions.

Planning Recommendations Having examine the pattern of heat island

change in the study area which shows that

built-up is increasing with decreasing

vegetation cover which is likely to continue

into the future. If proper measure is not put

in place may likely heighten the

vulnerability of the town to the effect of

floods, extreme temperature and other heat

change related implications as mentioned in

the implications above. As such, in order to

attain a balance heat change in Zaria urban

area, the following are recommended for

sustainable urban development, restoration

of lost vegetation, tree planting campaign

,consideration for landscaping in plan

approval, strategic management of

congested part of the city and traffic

problems, consideration for building

material and orientation ,creation of shelter

belt and stabilizing river embankment

,encouraging the use of permeable surface

,use of contemporary techniques,

partnership towards sustainable

environment, improving the competency of

environmentalist.

References Balogun, A.A. and Olaleye, J.O. (2000).

The Characteristics of the Urban

Temperature Excess in Akure.

International Journal of

Environment and Development,

4(2),

Chow, W. and Roth, M. (2006). Temporal

Dynamics of the Urban Heat Island

of Singapore. International Journal

of climatology, (26), 2243 - 2260.

Ezra. S. (1750). scientific awareness of

urban climate anomaly towns and

country side

Ibidun, O.A. (2005). Country Report: Urban

climate research in Nigeria. IAUC

Newsletter International Association




for Urban Climate Issue No. 13,

October, 2005

Landsberg, H.E. (1981). The urban Climate.

New York: Academic Press.

Meyer, W.B. (1991). Urban Heat Island and

Urban Health: Early American

Perspectives. Professional

Geographer, 423(1), 38-48.

Montavez, J. P., Jiminez, J. I. and Sarsa, A.

(2000). A Monte Carlo Model of the

Nocturnal Surface Temperatures in

Urban Canyons. Boundary Layer

Meteorology, 96, 433-452

Oke, T.R (1982) The Energetic Basis of

Urban Heat Island, Quarterly

Journal of the Royal Meteorological

Society, 108(455), 1-24

Oke, T. R. (1973). City size and the urban

heat island. Atmospheric

Environment, 7, 769 - 779.

Oke, T. R. (1976). The Distinction between

Canopy and Boundary-layer heat

islands. Atmosphere, 14(4), 268 -

277.

Oke, T. R. (1978). Boundary Layer

Climates, London: Methuen pp. 372.

Oke, T. R. (1987). Boundary Layer

Climates, London: Routledge.

Oke, T. R. (1988). The Urban Energy

Balance. Progress in Physical

Geography, 12(4), 471 1508.

Okpara, J.N. (2002). A Case Study of

Urban-Heat Island over Akure city

in Nigeria during the end of wet

(October-Novemebr) season.

Journal of the African

meteorological society, 5(2), 43 –

53.

Roth, M., Oke, T. R. and Emery, W. J.

(1989). Satellite-derived urban heat

islands from three coastal cities and

the utilization of such data in urban

climatology. Int. J. Remote Sens.,

10,1699- 1720

Santamouris, M. (2002). Energy and

Climate in the Urban built

Environment. London: James and

James Publishers..

Smith, C. and Levermore, G. (2008).

Designing urban spaces and

buildings to improve sustainability

and quality of life in a warmer

world. Energy Policy, 36,: 4558-

4562

Stull, R.B., (1988). An Introduction to

Boundary Layer Meteorology.

Kluwer Academic, 666 p.

UN-Habitat (2008). urban population

expansion negative environmental

and Economic consequences.

United Nations (2012). World population

prospects 2012

http://esa.un.prg/unup.

http://esa.un.prg/unup




Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of

Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using

Shassic Method

Yakubu. D. M

Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology Minna


Abstract There is need for the construction industry to comply with necessary law and regulations as regard to safety and

health of their workers in order to improve on their safety records. In Nigeria, construction industry loses 5 – 7

% of its workforce annually to construction accidents. This has gaven the industry a poor safety and health

record. As such this paper will assess safety and health performance of contractor’s construction project in

Nigeria using Safety and Health Assessment System in Construction (SHASSIC) method. The assessment is

usually carried out in three different approaches i.e document check, site/workplace inspection and employees

interview. The result of the assessment show that the performance of the contractors is two (2) stars in ranking.

This means that in term of compliance to safety management standard on sites, the construction

firms/organizations considered for the work fall within two (2) stars in ranking were all their potential and

significant workplace high risks/hazards are partly managed and not properly documented. Therefore, what the

industry needs is an act (OSHAct) that provides for the promotion, coordination, administration and

enforcement for occupational safety and health. Also, effective application of OSH management system can

lead to safety construction work and reduce the rate of accidents on construction sites and improve safety

records.

Keywords: construction, management, performance, project sites, safety and health.

Introduction Construction industry is vital to the

development of any nation, as it strongly

contributes to the economic growth of any

nation. As such there is need for the

industry stakeholders to comply with

necessary law and regulations as regard to

safety and health of workers, most

especially during the construction stage.

Construction project i.e. a product of

construction industry involves a wide

range of economic activities such as

housing project, commercial building

project such as hotels, office building, and

high rise building project and civil

engineering works i.e bridge construction,

Airport, Seaport, Jetty, Tunneling

construction etc. At the same time the law

of construction health and safety requires

action to protect those at work on sites

(such economic activities sites) as well as

members of the public who may be

affected as a result of such activities. Also

Occupational Safety and Health Act of

1994 (OSHAct) obligates each employer

to provide and maintain a safe and

healthful workplace for all employees.

Chang (2008) stated that more than

100million people in this world take

construction work as a profession and

according to Keller and Keller (2009)

reported that tens of thousands of

construction workers are injured while on

the job each year and an average of over

1000 die, while in Nigeria, construction

industries lose 5 – 7 % of its workforce

annually to construction accidents,

(Olatunji et al., 2007). A number of

studies have revealed that accidents and

injuries in construction in many

developing countries such as Nigeria are

far higher and worse than in developed



Yakubu

Assessment of Safety and Health Performance of Contractors’ Construction Projects in Nigeria Using Shassic Method


countries such as the UK, US, China and

Australia (Idoro, 2007). This is because,

the later have active and fully functioning

health and safety regulatory bodies and

employ innovative and workable safety

methods on construction sites. According

to Awodele and Ayoola (2005), several

hundreds of construction workers are

killed each year on Nigerian construction

sites, with many more rendered

temporarily or permanently disabled.

Dodo (2014) reported that accidents on

Nigerian construction sites still cause

devastating effects on the lives of workers,

properties, project delivery times, and

have also undercut the completion of

projects within defined budgets and

achievement of specifications. This calls

for immediate efforts to identify and

explore innovative ways of promoting

safety on construction sites. Tam et al.

(2004) revealed that the behaviors of

contractors on safety management are of

grave concern including the lack of

provision of personal protection

equipment, regular safety meetings and

safety training. Despite the existence of

laws related to safety and health at

workplace in many nations, the accidents

rate in most of those nations is at high rate,

based on the report of center to protect

worker’s right (1993), that many safety

professional and scholars were of the

opinion that the existing safety legislations

and regulations are not strong enough to

bring about the require zero accidents

level at construction site. Though, by

complying with those legislations and

regulations, safety on construction sites

can be improved as legislations and

regulations provided a platform for a good

construction practices. Also, (Ratay, 1997)

and (Haupt, 2001) agreed that a good code

of standard i.e legislations and regulations

can improve on construction safety at an

acceptable cost. Lack of Occupational

Safety and Health Act (OSHAct) and poor

implementation of safety management

system in Nigerian construction industry is

responsible for poor performances record

of safety and health. As such this paper

will looked into the performance records

of safety and health measures of

contractors, by assessing safety and health

performance of contractor’s construction

project in Nigeria (Abuja) using Safety

and Health Assessment System in

Construction (SHASSIC) method.

Assessing Safety and Health

Performance

The occurrence of high incidence of

accident and fatality rate are reason why

the construction industry is regarded as the

most hazardous industry as many

constructions workers are killed, some

suffer from various injuries and some

suffer various illness due to occupational

diseases on construction site. As such,

safety management in the construction

sites should be a thing of concerned to

everybody in the industry, most especially

the client, contractor, professional, sub-

contractors etc.

Similarly, the responsibility of safety at

construction sites, most especially of the

construction workers, rest on the shoulder

of the main contractor of the work. But

Said et al. (2009), realize that zero

accident is indeed, an attainable objective,

client, designer firm and contractors can

complement each other by playing

different roles in preventing accident to

achieve an injury free worksite.

Furthermore, Said et al. (2009) have

drawn the attention to the fact that

contractors are without doubt, still the

main party to plan and control

construction site safety, and that the

designers can only reduce safety hazards

in the working environment by

considering workers safety issues in their

design decision.





Taking safety issues in to design decision

simply mean how a construction work or

activities can be carried out without any

form of injuries or illness to the

construction workers. This design decision

concept applies only to the design of the

permanent structure as it does not initiate

how to make different method of

construction engineering safer. This issue

is addressed by Toole et al. (2006), that

the design for safety concept for example,

working at height does not focus on how

to use fall protection system but it does

include design decision that influence how

often fall protection will be needed.

However, what this mean is that while

designing for safety for working at high, it

does not provide or explain how protection

from working at high could be achieved i.e

how to erect scaffolding but it does

provide decision that influence provision,

location and type of scaffolding needed to

accomplish the working at high.

Also more client are now interested on

issue of safety at construction sites, this

may be due to high cost involved in

payment on accident compensations to the

victims and the legal liabilities in relation

to worker’s injuries. As such it is the client

that stands a better chance of gaining

accident free construction site, as cost of

construction accidents and the legal

liabilities in relation to workers’ injuries

will no longer be an issue of concerned to

them.

A study conducted by Coble (cited in Said

et al., 2009) showed that the average

worker’s compensation insurance cost

could be conservatively estimated at 3.5%

of the total project cost. Said et al. (2009)

concluded that the clients can actively

impact construction safety by selecting

reliable contractors addressing safety

issues in design and participating in safety

management during construction.

Contractors Safety and Health

Performance

Despite the fact that the designer and the

client are nowadays much more interested

on the issue of safety at the construction

sites, the management of construction

safety on site still rest on the shoulder of

the contractor. Contractors have a role to

play in promoting safety programmers and

safety behavior as stipulated in OSHA

1994 Section 17 (Duties of employers and

self-employed to their employees), and

they have an obligation to ensure that their

workers are not exposed to risk which can

affect their safety and health.

As such it has become a vital issue to

select a contractor with knowledge of

safety and health together with a good

performance on safety and health based on

their previous record. A contractor is an

individual or groups that work for a

reword. Therefore a contractor is

contracted to do something for another

party and in consideration for what is done

and receive a payment. Also this

contractor is subjected to the same guiding

rules of OSH Act 1997 and their duties are

covered in part 1V of OSH Act.

The nature of operation of contractors in

some countries differs most especially as

regard to big jobs. For example, in

Malaysia, according to Ghani et al.

(2012), the current trend is the undertaking

of big project by subcontractor; the main

contractor would only lobby for the

project, while construction matters would

be handed over to the sub-contractor for a

substantial profit. This contract system has

been in existing for long in many part of

the world, the only thing required is that

the main contractor has to make sure that

competent sub-contractor (with vast


Yakubu



knowledge on safety and health) is

selected to handle such type of project.

A study conducted by Koehn et al. (cited

in Ghani et al., 2012) affirmed that the

contractors must have a full power to

select a sub-contractors, in order to ensure

that the sub-contractor has both skill and

manpower to undertake the job in a safer

manner. Therefore, for effective

implementation of safety and health at

construction site, there is the need for full

commitment and support from top

management to the contractor in order to

improve safety performance on sites.

When contractors believe that the

management cares about safety and health

issues at construction sites, they will be

more willing to improve safety

performance.

Methods and Materials The main focus of this paper is to assess

the health and safety system as practiced

on site by contractors in Abuja. Three (3)

large indigenous construction firms that

have been in construction activities for the

past ten (10) years were considered. Also

the construction firms must have an

ongoing project that is between 25 – 75%

completed. As such there is the need to

study how health and safety are being

handled on sites and this make qualitative

approach best research method to be

adopted for this work. In this work the

commitment of the management must be

looked into together with how workers

view health and safety on their working

place. Also this work required the

inspection of workplace, so as to ascertain

how free such workplace of element that

causes accidents. As such structured or

standardized questionnaire called Safety

and Health Assessment System in

Construction (SHASSIC) was adapted for

the assessments.

SHASSIC is an independent method to

assess and evaluate the safety and health

performance of a contractor in the

construction projects. It is recommended

that the assessment be carry out when the

work progress is between 25 – 75%

completion. As this is the stage were

different work trades activities will be

going on at sites.

Assessment Approach

The assessment is usually carried out in 3

(three) different approaches as contain in

the (CIS 10, 2008):

a. Document Check.

Checking OSH related document will

enable the assessor to ascertain the level of

compliance with safety and health programs

and activities. There are 63 questionnaires

identified for this component check.

b. Site/Workplace Inspection

Workplace inspection are expected to be

carry out at five different highly risk area

within the site, there are 62 items identified

for inspection. Workplace inspection

provides valuable visual comparison

evidence on the OSH programs

implemented, enforced and practiced at

site/workplace.

c. Employee’s Interview

Employees shall be randomly selected from

all levels and occupations so that they could

be interviewed by the assessor using

established standard questionnaire. There

are 48 questions for this component. The

employees are categorized into 3 (three)

categories. The (CIS10, 2008) list the

numbers of employee from each category to

be interview as follows:

Category A Management personnel, 1

employee from management personnel, The

Project Manager represents the management

personnel.





Category B Safety and Health Committee

Members, Section 30 of OSHA (Act 514) of

1994, requires the employer to establish a

safety and health committee at workplace

that employed forty or more people at such

place of work. Among the function of the

committee at workplace include

investigating any matter at workplace which

a member of the committee or a person

employed consider as a threat or not safe or

risk to safety and health of those at

workplace and have been brought to the

attention of the employer. Also the safety

and health committee review the measures

taken to ensure the safety and health of

person at work.

Category C, Construction Workers

Assessment Method

Weightage

The weightage for safety and health

performance are allocated in accordance to

3 (three) components as shown in the Table

1 below; Table 1: Allocation of Weightage for Components

COMPONENTS WEIGHTAGE.

Document check 40%

Workplace inspection 40%

Employee interview 20%

Total score 100%

Source: CIDB CIS 10:2008.

The weightage system is aimed at making

the score quantitative in representing the

safety and health performance of the

respective contractor. Basic formulas for

respective component weightage are as

follows;

1. Document check.

Total Number ‘C’ Scored. X 40% =

SHASSIC score for Document Checked-(A)

(63– Number of ‘NA’)

2. Site/Workplace Inspection


SHASSIC score for workplace inspection-

(B). (310 –Number of ‘NA’)

3. Employee’s Interview


SHASSIC score for employees interviewed-

(C). (330 – Number of ‘NA’).

Where:

C is the total number of “Compliance”

NA is the total number of item that is “Not

Applicable”.

b. S

tar Ranking

The total SHASSIC score in Document

Check (A) plus (+) total SHASSIC score in

Workplace Inspection (B) plus (+) total

SHASSIC score in Employees Interview

(C). Component shall justifying the ranking

star or stars. Stars awarded ranges from 1

star to 5 stars as shown in the table 3.2

below:

Table 2 Star Ranking

SHASSIC (score %). Star(s) Awarded. Justification.

85 to 100 *****

Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards are

managed and documented.

70 to 84 ****


managed and documented but there are few low risks work

activities are neglected.

55 to 69 ***


managed and documented but there are few medium risks

work activities are neglected.

40 to 54 **

Potential and significant workplace high risks/hazards partly

managed and not properly documented.

39 and less *

Potential and significant risks/ hazards poorly managed and

not properly documented.

Source: CIDB CIS 10: 2008


Yakubu



Results of the SHASSIC Analysis This consists of construction industry

standard questionnaire, which is

administered on each of the three sites

selected for this work. At each of the three

sites three (3) set of questionnaires were

administered i.e document checking,

workplace inspection and employee

interview questionnaire. Table 3 shows the

analysis and the result of assessments

carried out in each of the three construction

sites.

Discussion of Results Various firms/organizations sizes

implement health and safety in different

ways. For, these types of firm/organization

(large size) they are expected to have an in-

house safety and health expertise and are

less likely to need or seek external

assistance. It can be observed from table 4.1

that the size of the site determines the

number of subcontractors. The site with

lowest number of employees has 18

subcontractors while the site with highest

employees has 20 subcontractors. The

subcontractors are supposed to be vast in

safety and health knowledge. In term of

document checking, site 3 has the highest

number of scores 19 while site 1 has 15 and

site 2 has 14. Therefore it can be observed

from Table 3 that the scores of document

checking are determined by the size of the

site and the number of subcontractors. The

effectiveness of document checking on sites

depends upon how management of those

sites was able to document and manage

their document on sites. As regard to

workplace inspection, there exist

inconsistences as the site with higher

employees and higher numbers of

subcontractor (site 3) score less than site

with less employees and subcontractors (site

1). Both sites 1 and 3 score more than site 2

as regard to workplace inspection.

Therefore size of site and number of

subcontractors has little or no impact on

workplace inspection scores. The size of the

sites and the number of subcontractors has

little determinant on the knowledge of

safety and health management practice on

sites among the employees i.e management

personnel, safety and health committee

members and the construction workers. Site

1 with 135 employees and 19

subcontractors scores 11, while site 3 with

138 employees and 20 subcontractors also

scores 11. The size of the firm/organization

determines the percentage scores of

SHASSIC, which automatically determine

the star ranking of the sites. From table 4.1,

site 3 and 2 with the highest numbers of

employees scores 48.25 and 46 respectively

and qualified as 2 star in ranking. Site 2

scores 33 and qualified as 1 star in ranking.

Therefore, the size of the sites determines

the SHASSIC scores. The average

SHASSIC scores of the 3 sites is 42.42%,

(40% – 52%), this qualified the sites as 2

star in ranking. This means that in term of

compliance to safety management standard

on sites, the construction firm/organization

consider for the work falls within two (2)

stars in ranking were all there Potential and

significant workplace high risks/hazards are

partly managed and not properly

documented. It was observed that only

foreign construction companies that are well

established in their mother’s countries are

able to compete and have the ability to

maintain their standard in the existing

situation as regard safety and health at

workplace.





Table 3 Analysis of SHASSIC Results

SHASSIC Results

S/no Size of

the

site

Number of

Subcontractors

Document

check

scores (40).

Workplace

inspection

scores

(40)

Employees

interview

scores

(20)

SHASSIC

Scores

(100)

Star

ranking.

1 135 19 15 20 11 46 2star

2 128 18 14 10 9 33 1star

3 138 20 19 18.25 11 48.25 2 star

Also observed is that many accidents at

construction sites can be prevented if the

construction teams can carry out their

responsibility with emphasis on accident

prevention in mind from the design stage to

completion stage down to the demolition

stage, but the main issues is how to

encourage the design team, management

and the workers to see safety and health as a

way in achieving zero accident at sites.

Another issues observed is that accident

prevention measures are left in the hand of

the contractors alone, despite the fact that

both the design team and the client have

great impact on the project. Some clients’

views issues of safety as an additional cost

and are much more engaged in safety

violation.

Conclusion and Recommendation

From the analysis of performance of

contractors construction project as regard to

safety and health measures on the

construction sites using Safety and Health

Assessment in Construction (SHASSIC)

method, it can be concluded that the

contractors’ performance are two (2) star in

ranking. This means that at the contractor’s

construction project sites most of the

potential and significant high risks/hazard

are partly managed and are not properly

documented. Therefore, the current standard

of safety and health measures of

construction site i.e were potential and

significant workplace high risks/hazards are

partly managed and not properly

documented makes the construction sites a

dangerous place of work were all form of

injuries and illness can occur.

Effective application of OSH management

system can lead to safety construction work

and reduce the rate of accidents on

construction sites. This view have been

supported further by (Hinze, 1997), that the

implementation of the OSH Management

system by the main construction parties

must apply at all level of the construction

process and must comply with the existing

safety and health laws and regulation at

workplace. Therefore, what Nigeria

construction industries need in order to

improve on their safety records is

enforcement act i.e OSHAct together with

adoption and implementation of safety-

conscious contractors supported by

experienced and trained employees. Safety

training is an important aspect of improving

safety records. Lack of safety training will

have a bad impact on the workers as they do

not have knowledge and education to

prevent the accident at construction sites.

There is need for government to support a

specific safety management system in place

as a legal requirement at workplace like the

construction sites. Reiman and Rollenhagen

(2011) stated that safety management is

associated with the policies, objectives,

procedures, methods, roles and functions

that aim at controlling hazards and risk in

socio-technical systems. The company’s

management should ensure that training;

personal protective equipment and other

resources are provided to the project


Yakubu



management team in order to demonstrate

its commitment. Effective safety culture

within a firms/organizations structure

should be established as this will enable

employees to have a good attitude toward

workplace safety and health practice. In

order for the safety cultural system to be

effective and to achieve its objectives, it

needs to be supported at all levels of

management in the firmd/organisations and

at the same time the system must be able to

create a positive safety culture and climate

in which everybody should be convinced of

the importance of safety and acts

accordingly. Also there is need for the

firms/organizations to have a clear,

complete and workable site safety plan as it

is among the most effective methods for

ascertaining site safety. Regular safety

audits provide an effective way to review

and refine site safety plan, thus improving

safety in the jobsite or workplace. Adequate

and well-articulated safety program can cut

down the rate of accident, which could help

in promoting the image of the companies

most especially as regard to safety and

health of construction sites. There is need to

have a construction insurances in order to

protect those involved and the equipment

against any form of accident due to the high

risks involved in the construction operation.

The objective of any insurance at any

workplace is to protect lives of those at

work and properties/equipment at the

workplace.

References Center to Protect Workers’ Rights (1993).

An Agenda for Change, Report of

the National conference on

Ergonomics, Safety and Health in

Construction. Washington, D.C. 18

– 22 july.

Chang, D. O. (2008). Global construction

and asian workers: Expansion of

TNCs in asia and implications for

labour.

CIS. (2008). Safety Health Assessment

System in Construction.

(CIS10:2008). CIDM Malaysia.

Ghani, B. E. M. K., Hamid, E. D. Z. A.,

AbduRahim, B. E. A. H., Mohamad

Kamar, B. E. K. A., and Abdul

Rahman, B. M. A. (2012). Safety in

Malaysian Construction: The

Challenges and Initiatives. Jurutera

Construction Bulletin, Malaysia

Haupt, T. C. (2001). The performance

approach to construction worker

safety and health. University of

Florida.

Hinze, J. (1997). Construction safety: Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Keller, and Keller. (2009). Construction

Accident Statistic, from keller and

keller library.

http://www.2killer.com/library/const

ruction.ac

Olatunji, O. A., Aje, O. I., and Odugboye,

F. (2007). Evaluating health and

safety performance of Nigeria

construction sites. CIB World

Building Congress.

Ratay, R. T. (1997). Construction Safety

Affected by Codes and Standards.

Proceedings of a session sponsored

by the Design loads of structures

during construction standards

committee and the performance of

structure during construction

technical committee of the structural

engineering institute minneapolis,

USA, 6 – 8 October.

Said, I., Mohd,W..S., and Abdelnaser, O.

(2009). The role of clients in

enhancing construction safety.

annals of faculty of engineering

hunedoara, 7(2).

Tam, C. M. and Fung, W. H. (2004). Study

of Attitude Changes in People after

the Implementation of a New Safety

Management system: The

Supervision Plan. Construction





Management. Economics, 19, 393 –

403.

Toole, T. M., Hervol, N., and Hallowell, M.

(2006). Designing for construction

safety. Modern Steel Construction,

46(6), 55-59.





A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice

Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing

Procurement Service in Abuja

Olatunji I.A.

Dept of Estate Management and Valuation, Federal University of Technology, Minna.

[email protected]

Abstract Currently, an assessment index to guide Estate Surveyors and Valuers (ESV), willing to offer housing

procurement service for house-seekers does not exist. Concomitantly, house-seekers in Abuja, because of their

limited capacities to gather and process contemporary housing market data, are in need of advice from ESV.

This technical constraint explains why the levels and variations in Housing Choice Optimality, (HcO), in Abuja

are unrevealed. The aim of this paper is to develop an Optimality Index,(OPTi), a simulation framework to

assess HcO, and test its application from two perspectives based on utility optimization of 5 key variables,

namely, household income, property value, workplace distance, commuting cost and activity pattern. Data from

12 randomly selected ESV firms, 56 households extracted from a larger set of 182 Middle Income

Households, (MIH), on the basis of carefully selected criteria, and 1 median income Household were

purposefully chosen as illustration, to demonstrate the application of OPTi to assess HcO. It was revealed that

indeed there are wide variations in HcO across households in the 6 neighborhoods studied, ranging from

0.9044, 0.6612, 0.3424, -7.184, -0.7774, to -11.703. These results seem to confirm that a wide level of

housing inequality exists even among households in Abuja, and in some neighborhoods the levels are

unacceptably low. The consistency of the results with well known pattern in Abuja housing market is a proof

that the simulation package could assess housing wellbeing objectively. It is recommended that OPTi could be

used by ESV to assess housing conditions from utility perspective as it is more inclusive than cost-based

affordability indices.

Keywords: Housing Choice Optimality, Decision-support, Property value, Simulation, Housing Well-being.

Introduction Technical and regulatory constraints are two

main obstacles to the assessment of

housing-specific wellbeing, designated in

this research as housing choice optimality

(HcO) among Abuja urbanites. Emphasis in

this study rests on the development of a

utility-based technique to assess HcO as a

Decision-Support system for ESVs who

may wish to offer Residential

Accommodation Procurement services

(RAPs). It is a specialized and upgraded

form of agency services which Estate

Surveyors and Valuers (ESVs) are

positioned to offer. Many ESVs offer

residential agency services strictly on the

basis of affordability, rather than tenants’

housing well-being.

In spite of the opportunity that abounds for

the ESV in RAPs services, anecdotal

evidence suggests that a void in service

coverage still exists to serve the household

more purposefully as a tenant. This void

constitutes, and translates to, a gap in

knowledge which, as emphasized by Maritz

and Ghyoot (1990), requires specialized

training and education. Going back to the

history of Estate Management, Thorncroft

(1965) in his definition places emphasis on

the supervision of real estate interests to

secure optimum returns and social benefits

for any holder of an interest in property.

However, the mechanism by which

optimality could be measured objectively is

still missing in real estate practice.



Olatunji

A Simulation Framework for Housing Choice Optimality: Decision-Support Guide for Housing Procurement


The aim of this research is to develop a

simulation framework to assess housing

choice optimality, HcO, and test its

application from two perspectives:

households and neighborhoods. Three

objectives set up to achieve this aim are to

develop a simulation Technique for

assessing Housing Choice Optimality, HcO

levels and variations and test the application

of the technique to assess HcO for the

Median Income Household in a selected

population of Abuja, as an illustration.

Thirdly, the simulation package is to be

applied in a wider context, to assess the

HcO variations among 6 selected Medium

density neighborhoods.

Housing has been confirmed as a major

issue in urban Nigeria, and, Abuja as a

political and commercial center, has

witnessed unprecedented in-migration and

outmigration in recent times. However,

Abuja is now widely recognized as a

maturing and emerging global property

market and it presents a suitable test-bed for

an examination of peoples’ welfare

attributable to housing choices.

Nigeria, alongside 42 other emerging

property markets, is classified as a Low

Transparency Market (LTM) by Global

Real Estate Transparency Index [GRETI]

(2016). This is just 1 step above an Opaque

Market, but 3 steps below a Highly

Transparent Market. GRETI concluded that

transparent real estate practices have direct

correlation with efforts to raise community

well-being in LTMs. The main features of

LTM which are reminiscent of Abuja are

low levels of “security of property rights

ownership, safe housing and workplaces

and being able to trust estate agents to act

honestly and professionally”. In the

absence of appropriate indexation of

housing well-being in Abuja, it is doubtful

if real estate transparency practices could be

guaranteed.

The main research question posed by this

study is consolidated into the levels of

optimality in residential choice decisions

made by households in the study area.

It is assumed, for the purpose of this study,

that work or gainful employment is an

important economic activity of the urban

MIHs and that MIHs are rational and tend

to seek after optimality when compelled to

make residential choices. Although a

previous study by Limbumba (2007) affirms

this tendency for Dar es Salam, it remains

only an assumption in Abuja since there is

no corresponding empirical study.. It is also

presumed that variables which are

measurable on scale ratio are reliable

indicators of housing choice optimality.

The study scope covers residential choice

decisions by middle-income households in

an urban setting. Studies have shown that

MIHs are found in nearly all neighborhoods

as owner-occupiers or tenants, but are

predominant in certain districts that are

purposively identified in the study area.

Spatial data through empirical observations

including physical measurements were

primarily relied upon; this imposes

considerable limitation on the sample size

for the study, but the methodology adopted

ensures validity of results.

The need for an indicator to assess any

human condition susceptible to wide

variations such as housing choice is

undeniable. This is explained by

multiplicity of affordability indicators, most

of which are cost-based. The importance of

Optimality is borne out of the absence of an

objective gauge to measure well-being

attributable to housing (Limbumba, 2007).

A lot of criticisms have trailed the

continued use of variants of affordability

index as a measure of housing conditions

principally because it is cost-based. To

compound the problem, the technical





capacity of the house seeker to gather and

process property market data is severely

limited thus require an advisor. This

limitation justifies the development of a

Decision-Support guide for the ESVs, as a

real estate advisor, to assist the house seeker

professionally. Ultimately, the ESVs using

this guide would have an enhanced capacity

to serve the general public beyond mere

agency service because Optimality index is

utility-based and a more inclusive indicator

of housing well-being.

Literature and Theoretical Review Theoretical Underpinnings for Utility

Concept and Optimality in relation to

housing

A strong theoretical base is needed to

address the measurability or evaluability

aspects of housing well-being. The

theoretical underpinning is provided by the

utility concept. Utility Functions which

convert all arguments of residential choice

to a measurable unit, in a clearer form, seem

to rectify the shortcomings about

measurement of Housing well-being, HWB.

It is supported by Straszheim (1975),

Granfield (1975) and Cappoza and Helsley

(1989) to model residential location choice.

The Cobb-Douglas version of the utility

function was adopted with modifications by

Bolton (2005) and Pollakowski et al.

(2007). However, Bolton’s version seems

to have more demonstrable application and

capabilities, using ICT. Though unsuitable

in its present form for a number of reasons

(for example the nature and composition of

variables adopted), it lends itself to

adaptations and is amenable to

modifications and technical transformation.

Barlowe (1986) stresses the combined

importance of the utility, scarcity and

futurity. Going further than Barlow, the

Appraisal Institute (2001) defines utility as

the ability of a product (such as housing) to

satisfy a human want; all property must

confer utility on households (tenants, owner

investors or owner occupiers). Utility,

scarcity and effective purchasing power, are

the four economic factors that create

property value. The Institute draws

distinction between the design features that

enhance attractiveness (amenities) and

utility. The influence of utility depends on

the characteristics of the property such as

size utility, design utility, location utility

and other specific forms of utility.

Emphasis is also placed on functional

utility, defined by Appraisal Institute (2001)

as the ability of a property to be useful and

to perform the functions for which it is

intended; the efficiency of buildings in

terms of architectural style, layout, (traffic

pattern or circulation pattern), size and type

of rooms. Optimal functional utility implies

that a building is considered best to meet

the expectations of the users. In their

opinion, the marketability or rental value is

the ultimate test of optimal functional

utility. Other standards of functional utility

are design/layout, amenity, comfort level,

ease and cost of maintenance, space, safety

and security.

Bid-rent theory

Households, in a bid to maximize utility,

have to compete for urban space, with other

users. The development of this proposition

is attributed, in Knox and McCarthy (2005),

to Alonso (1964a). First, household will

find central locations and employment

nodes most attractive and desirable and will

be prepared to bid highest rent for the right

to be nearest. The reasons are two-fold:

central locations offer the highest utility and

the best opportunity to earn the highest

income; then the commuting cost to work

node is less than elsewhere. Secondly, each

class of household as argued by O’Sullivan

(2000) will have a distinct bid-rent curve

that reflects its capacity to pay rent for

locations at varying distances from the


Olatunji



Central Bussiness District (CBD). These

benefits accruing to a household are

interpreted as Utility for which the

household, in competition with others, is

compelled to pay a rent. Alonso found out

that the bid-rent declines from the center to

the periphery at a rate that partially reflects

the quality and costs of urban transportation

system as presented in equations IV and V.

Also, Olatubara (1994) argued that activity

pattern which represents the nodes regularly

patronized by the household is an important

factor.

Location Theory

Location theories are concerned with the

allocation and use of land resource, and

how land uses compete for the limited urban

and regional space. The theory of urban

land use is traced to Ricardo, the 19th

century classical economist who stated that

among other things the location of a piece

of land determines its use and its rent

(Aluko, 2004).

From the reviewed authorities, five major

factors that seem to have dominant effect on

residential choice are property attributes,

neighborhood characteristics, activity

pattern, socio-economic variables and other

non-housing factors. From this broad

grouping, the key variables identified by

Olatunji (2012) are extracted for optimality

test on the basis of their measurable

attributes: space for land (L) and

improvement (H), property value,

commuting cost(C) and workplace distance

(D) and household income(Y).

Utility Function

The utility function combines all the

aforementioned key variables or

determinants in a way that brings out a

solution for decision making. In Bolton

(2005), three sets of functions are developed

based on modified Cobb-Douglas utility

version. Olatunji (2010, 2012) present an

adaptation of this utility functions with clear

transformations in Equation I.

The Key Variables

The key variables revealed in the literature

and theoretical reviews are six. Property

Value represents the rental value of the

apartment of choice. It is obtained by

disaggregating and adjusting the self-

declared contract rent for errors emanating

from property quality, land space, house

space, land price and house price.

Household Income is the monthly gross

income upon which the household has full

and effective control. The total distance

attributed to movements of house members

to all the various activity nodes patronized

on a monthly basis is the Network Linkage

or Activity Pattern, while the cost

implication in terms of out-of-pocket

expenses is the Commuting Cost. All other

articles, goods and services upon which the

household spends the entire remainder of its

income after meeting the rental and

commuting costs are classified as Non-

housing variable.

Methodology Primary data obtained from 182 households

in the study areas were employed. Through

questionnaires, data pertaining to the socio-

economic status of the household and the

commuting costs per month were obtained.

Data on physical spaces (house sizes and

plot sizes), were obtained partly through

physical tape-survey and from ESVs. The

property values profile of the area was

obtained from the ESVs. The network

linkages of activity patterns engaged in by

each household and its members were

established in terms of distances in

kilometers, their spatial pattern of house and

workplace locational geo-references were

established using handheld GPS in

conjunction with Google Maps online

application.





The study area was first stratified by

neighborhood densities and then the

medium density neighborhoods where

MIHs are predominant were purposively

chosen. Identification was based on advice

and assistance of Abuja Geographic

Information System (AGIS). In Abuja,

Utako, Durumi, Wuye and are 4 of 11

districts with features matching medium

density. MIH are selected randomly

therefrom. There are 107 estate firms in

Abuja, listed in the 2014 directory of

Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and

Valuers, NIESV and 10 were selected with

systematic randomness from the directory

of practicing firms.

The respondent household with five

options, as revealed in its questionnaire

indicated the highest number of choices,

and was selected to illustrate the Housing

Choice Optimality simulation. The list of

56 households (representing 30.77% of the

population of MIH in the study area), whose

questionnaires disclosed complete spatial

data on four key decision variables

(household income, property value

constituents, commuting cost and network

distances) was extracted from the 182

households surveyed by Olatunji (2014) and

used for the Optimality Simulation

programme.

Data Presentation Table 1 presents the optimality decision

variables in 14 rows and 7 columns. The

columns designated 1- 5 on top are the

house options available to the household to

chose from. The income row shows the

entire family income which is constant for

all. The 2nd and 3rd rows are the plot and

house sizes respectively, presented both in

hectares and square metres, with measured

data capturing instrument. Land rent is the

amount of rent attributed to bare land. It is

derived, as a residual, by apportionment as

indicated in Royal Institution of Chartered

Surveyors, 2014 Guidance Notes.

Table.1 Housing Choice Optimality Data for Five Options available to the Median Income earner

Variables House Choices

1 Variable

Name

Notation/

Unit

1 2 3 4 5

2 Income N/m p.a. 510000 510000 510000 510000 510000

3 Plot size Ha; (m2) 0.0136;

(136)

0.0625;

(625)

0.0537;

(537)

0.06;

(600)

0.043

(428)

4 House size Ha; (m2) 0.0158;

(158)

0.0171;

(171)

0.0134;

(134)

0.024;

(240)

0.0001;

(114)

5 Rental Value N/mth;

(N p.a.)

120000;

(1440000)

200000;

(2400000)

143,750;

(1725000)

208,333

(2500000)

200000

(2400000)

6 Land rent* N/m2/mth; N/

m2p.a

143.48;

1723

111.83;

1342

98.5;

1182

335.42;

4025

357.83

4294

7 House rent** N/m2/mth; N/

m2p.a

7630.8;

635.9

9130;

760.84

8136; 678.03 354.17;

29.51

4931;

354.17

8 House value N / ha/mth 6359030 7608430 6780261 295139 4109415

9 Land Value N /ha/mth 1435833 1118333 985000 3354167 3578333

10 Commuting

Cost

N/mth 31000 39000 38000 34000 30000

11 Activity

Pattern

Km/mth 120 192 264 288 252

12 Location Km 5.25 9.9 10.35 6.0 6.1

13 Utility - 8925 2354 -4957 719 3165

14 Optimality - 0.561 0.166 -0.6468 0.6318 0.303


Olatunji



Development of Simulation Framework

To attain a certain desired level of

residential fulfillment, a household, i,

expends all its monthly income,Yi, on a

particular house choice c plus other

essential needs, E, as follows:

Yi = ALjcPLjc + EPEjc+HjcPHjc + Cwc .….I

Where, L , H, E represent land, house and

non-housing good respectively, and PL,

PH, PE represent their respective prices; A

is a constant.

After expending all household income,

Yi = Xi, where Xi is total monthly Expenditure ………….II

A level of utility is attained, thus,

Uijc = A . Ljcα . Ejcβ . Hjcθ - gDɣ ……….III

Where

Uijc represents the welfare level

experienced by household i at location j

from house choice c; Ljc is the plot size of

location j; Ejc is the size of the non-housing

goods; Hjc is the size of the house chosen;

and D is the network linkage of activity

pattern engaged in. The parameters, α, β, θ,

are defined as proportionate returns to scale

on each of the three variables, L, H and E..,

defined in Equation I

Prices are specified for each of the variables

as follows:

PLj = Pw exp (δ) Dwc + N …………IV

Where PLj is the bid-rent or Price per

hectare of the plot located at j ,

Pw is the rack-rent or price per ha of

workplace location, w by household i);

Dwc is distance between workplace (w) and

house chosen(c); and N is the market value

of the neighbourhood quality of location j;

PEjc the unit price of essential pack is 1;

and P0 is a special price representing the

rack rent.

The commutting cost function is specified,

thus:

C= vDwcη ……….V

PE, the combined price of all the non-

housing needs is designated as 1 unit.

The magnitudes or sizes of the variables,

Land (L), House (H) and Non-housing good

(E), are derived from Marshalian demand

functions respectively in Equations VI, VII

and VIII thus:

L* = α M

(α + β+θ) PL VI

H*= θ M VII

(α + β+θ) PH

E*= β M VIII

(α + β+θ) PE

where M is Y-C, and other parameters are

as previously defined.

The Optimality Index, OPTi

The index is construed as the level of

optimality that the household under

observation stands to obtain from the given

house choice. It also has the ability to

measure the true Location efficiency of a

particular house choice to a particular

household. The Utility obtained, Uijc,

represents the satisfaction level achieved as

indicated by the examination. It is the figure

of utility in Column S that corresponds to

the location D, of the house choice,

Revealed or Stated.

The Utility obtainable, Uiw represents the

highest satisfaction possible for the

household under analysis, given the

combination of factors, variables and

parameters that exercise control over the

household choice. It is the highest figure of





Utility, and it is usually, but not always,

found at D=0 or close to D=0.

The Optimality Index , OPTi, is derived

from the simple relationship:

OPTi = (Utility Obtained)/( Utility

Obtainable)

OPTi=Uijc/Uiw IX

Where,

OPTi is the level of fulfilment, contentment

or satisfaction that a particular household i

whose primary workplace is w, stands to

achieve from a particular house choice c in

neighbourhood j,

Uijc is the Utility obtained by household i

from house choice c at neighbourhood j,

Uiw is the highest possible utility

obtainable by household i from house

choice c at workplace w or at any other

location for that matter.

At the zenith of any choice, Uijc will equate

Uiw. This implies that the maximum OPTi

is unity, 1. Under extremely adverse

conditions utility obtained or obtainable

could be negative, and then OPTi could be

negative. The optimal choice is indicated

by OPTi = 1; any values less than 1 can be

construed or interpreted as sub-optimal

choices. The three theoretical optimization

conditions, if passed, are merely to

reinforce the OPTi.

As OPTi is tied to utility, two facts are

worthy of note; OPTi has no units and its

relative figures are useful for comparing the

HWB of two or more house choices in

rank, bearing in mind that the highest

figure is 1. In absolute terms, OPTi has the

capacity to show by how much the HWB of

one choice exceeds or falls below the other.

This is a good Decision-Support attribute of

the model.

Computer Simulation Programme

Based on these functions a computer

programme is developed to simulate the

choices made by the selected households in

Abuja. This is illustrated in thirteen steps

that lead the household from preference to

choice demonstrated in Excel Spreadsheets

and Worksheets.

Step1: In an Excel Worksheet, all the

parameters for Abuja are preset at defaults

as follows:

α=0.1; β= 1.1 ; θ = 0.3 ; η=0.75;

v=7969.87; g= 337.897; δ= -0.85

γ= 1.75;Po=1000000; Y=0; D=0

In Excel Spreadsheet, the parameters are

entered in Columns B through to Column

K.

Step 2: Impute Y, Household Income (In

Column A)

Step 3: Impute D, Workplace distance (In

Column L)

Step 4: Impute PH, House value directly (In

Column P)

Step 5: Impute PL, Land value, actual using

the PL function and N, the add-on, that

produce actual land price. (In Column Q)

Step 6: Impute H, house size, actual by

adjusting θ from preset position by iteration

Step 7: Impute L, plot size, actual by

adjusting α from preset position also by

iteration. Observe and record the utility.

Step 8 : Generate U values for locations

D=0, 1, 2….. to D=11km across the city.

Scan all values of U and observe U*

maximum, usually at D=0 or nearby.

Step 9: Set OPTi level in Column S

Step 10 : Observe OPTi at location D

Step 11: Repeat steps 2 to 10 for each

available house choice.

Step 12: Observe and compare OPTi indices

for all available house options

Step 13: Select House option corresponding

to the highest OPTi


Olatunji



The Simulation Narrative: how the

simulation process runs

Compelled by need, an accommodation

seeker usually enlists friends, co-workers,

relations as well as professional estate

agents to find a house matching the need in

terms of size, location, rent and other

pertinent variables of housing, all of which

are consolidated into HcO. From these

sources a finite set is generated. If

consulted, the ESV extracts only six

variables from each of the options presented

by the accommodation seeker, represented

in Plate 1. These are fed into the simulation

programme, starting with Step 2. For

security, the programme is passworded and

opens a dialogue box when the password is

imputed. The house choices are assessed

consecutively, until the OPTi in each case

is arrived at in Step 21. The limitation here

is that the choice set must be finite as the

programme is not designed to handle

unlimited choice sets.

Plate1: Dialogue box to generate Optimality

index and show the record

On the Simulation Programme:

The Simulation Programme is based on

Visual Basics programming language with

Microsoft Access database and is run

through 21 steps as follows:

Step 1. Click on Here to continue

Step 2. Login: User Name;

Password

Step 3. Click on Template

Step 4. Select select template

Step 5. Select Abuja or Minna

Step 6. Click on Show the Template’s

variable Inputs

Step 7. Input α, β, θ

Step 8. Click on Activate

Step 9. Input Y = and Click on Activate

Step 10.Input D = Click on Activate

Step 11.Input PH= Click on Activate

Step 12. Click on Calculate PL to open a

Dialogue box

Input PL Present =

Click on Calculate (delete –ve signs

in dialogue box)

Click on Close

Step 13. Click on Activate

Step 14. Click on Calculate to calculate H;

then Activate

Step 15. Click on Calculate to calculate L;

then Activate

Step 16. Click on Generate Utility

Step 17. Click on OK in Project 1 dialogue

box

Step 18. Click on Proceed to generate

Optimality Values

Step 19. Click on Generate Optimality

Step 20. Click on OK in Project 1 dialogue

box, Optimality generated

Step 21. Click on Show Record

Observe the value of OPTi corresponding

to D, and record.

Application of Framework to Assess the

HcO for the Median Income Household

The median income for the population of

study was found to be N510,000, attributed

to a particular household; other details

specific to the household are shown in

Table 2 and are used alongside income as

the variables for the simulation exercise.





Table 2: Field Data for Median Income-Earning Household

D C Y L H Pl Ph Rent P.M. Nd Opti

5.25 31000 510000 0.0136 0.0158 1435833 6359030 120000. 120 0.6505 KEYS: OPTi= Optimality Index; Y= Income in Naira per month; D=Distance in km; PH= House price in Naira per ha per month; PL=

Price attributed to neighbourhood quality in Naira per ha per month; H=House size in ha; L= Plot size in ha; C= Commuting Cost in Naira per month; ND=Network Commuting in kilometers

The values of α, β, θ are 0.04607, 0.8547,

0.237. When imputed with relevant data

obtained from the housing market shown in

Table 2 and run in the simulation

programme, they produce the output in

Table 3.

The annual rental of N1446101 returned by

the Simulation programme in Table 2

constitutes a good pedagogical check

against the actual rental value of

N1,440,000 per annum respectively

obtained from the property market. Minor

difference is attributable to serial

approximations.

Table 3 shows the profile of residential

choice utility optimisation for the Median

income household in Abuja over a span of

12 kilometers radius from Durumi I.

Durumi I , where the household lives is

identified by georeferenced coordinates

9.025004N; 7.465576E and UTM readings

997978.7N; 331342.0E. The household

head workplace is located 5.25 kilometers

away and has UTM georeferences of

1001056.909 Northing and 333539.546

Easting. Furthermore, the household

activity network, ND, amounts to 120

kilometers per month which is below the

neighbourhood mean of 205 kilometers.

The Table also shows comparative results

of two housing indices: that Affordability

(24%) and H+T (29%) place this particular

household on a better affordability level

than the benchmarks of 30% and 45%

respectively. Ostensibly, this implies that

the household is well off in term of

affordable cost burden. However, the OPTi

level of 0.6505 portrays more accurately,

the level of well-being achieved by the

household as sub-optimal in term of utility

achieved. The interpretation of this index is

undertaken in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 3: Utility Optimisation Output from Simulation Programme for Abuja

***Y D Utility MCD MMUD Affor1 H+T Rent p.a. OPTi

510000 0 17054 0 0 0.25 0.25 1539545 1

510000 1 16626 -12,507 -12,317 0.25 0.26 1515486 0.9952

510000 2 15730 -13,258 -20,735 0.24 0.27 1499083 0.9604

510000 3 14423 -13,568 -28,128 0.24 0.28 1484703 0.8947

510000 4 12765 -13,722 -34,930 0.24 0.28 1471496 0.8002

510000 5 10790 -13,800 -41,324 0.24 0.29 1459100 0.6807

510000 5.25 10249 -13,812 -42,872 0.24 0.29 1446101 0.6505

510000 6 8520 -13,834 -47,413 0.24 0.3 1447312 0.5621

510000 7 5970 -13,841 -53,262 0.23 0.3 1436008 0.4245

510000 8 3152 -13,828 -58,912 0.23 0.31 1425101 0.2527

510000 9 74 -13,802 -64,395 0.23 0.31 1414532 0.0117

510000 10 -3256 -13,767 -69,735 0.23 0.32 1404252 -0.3125

510000 11 -6833 -13,724 -74,950 0.23 0.32 1394227 -0.7933

510000 12 -10650 -13,675 -80,055 0.23 0.33 1384428 -1.7623

***All notations are as previously defined


Olatunji



The negative values of both MMUD and

MCD are a check or proof that the settings

are theoretically in order.

Application of Simulation Framework to

assess HcO in Selected Neighbourhoods.

The levels of WBH are designated by

optimality levels and measured by OPTi

index, a Utility-based indicator, and a proxy

that consolidates the key house choice

variables. The results of Optimality

variations using the OPTi index are

presented in Table 4 and they confirm that

there is indeed a wide variation across

households, neighbourhoods and even

between the study areas.

The range of values of OPTi indices among

individual households was computed in line

with the simulation framework of this

study; this is interpreted in Table 5. Three

of the six neighbourhoods in Abuja (Utako,

Abacha and FinanceQ in Table 4) with

favourable indicators on the H+T and AFF

indices are observed to have poor housing

choice optimality standards.

Main Contributions to Knowledge

The paper contributes to knowledge by

developing a Decision–Support System for

measuring housing-specific well-being,

HcO, as an assistive tool for Estate

Surveyors and Valuers in practice of

Residential Accommodation Procurement

counselling service to house seekers on

demand. Also, it enables the ESV to

ascertaining the levels of optimality or

household-specific well-being of a

neighbourhood and a contemplated house

choice. All of these hold some prospects in

policy formulation towards Housing Care

and Support for the well-being of the family

in the study area.

Table 4:Comparative Schedule of Optimality and

other Housing Indices across 6 selected

Neighbourhoods in Abuja

AFF

Index(%)

H+T (%) OPTi

Sagamio 14.12 18.74 0.6612

Okekenta 16.23 21.60 0.9044

Estate4 26.88 32.29 0.3424

Utako 22.97 26.81 -0.7774

I. Abacha 37.74 41.44 -11.703

Finance Q 28.91 36.20 -7.184

Study Area 14.87 20.39 -2.959

Source: Fieldwork, 2016

Table 5 Interpretation of Residential Choice

Decisions on Optimality Index Scale

OPTi

indexLevel

Description

of Choice

Decision

Optimality

Interpretation

1 Excellent Optimal

≥ 0.80 Very Good Sub-optimal

≥0.60 Good Sub-optimal

≥0.50 Moderate Sub-optimal

≥0.20 Poor Sub-optimal

≥0.00 Very poor Sub-optimal

≤ 0.00 Non-optimal

Source: Fieldwork, 2016

Findings

The results emanating from the simulation

programme seem to confirm the existing

belief that there are wide variations and

inequalities in housing conditions in urban

Nigeria. The limitations in technical

capacities of house seekers to gather and

process property market data provide an

imperative and justification for developing

an assistive technique or decision-support

system. To this end, the Simulation

Framework developed appears to offer

predictive capability to assess Housing

Choice Optimality.

Conclusion and Recommendation Housing delivery policies by the Federal

and State Governments in Nigeria,

particularly in FCT and neighboring Niger

State, if correctly interpreted, are steps

towards creating wider house choice sets for





Nigerians and to improve their well-beings

associated with housing. The study uses

revealed residential choice and measurable

variables to model well-being attributable to

housing choices among households and

neighborhoods in the study area. The results

of the simulation are largely consistent with

the well-known pattern of well-being,

which portrays wide inequalities in housing

perceptions among a fairly homogeneous

group of Middle Income Households; the

OPTi enjoys an advantage drawn from its

quantitative and objective attributes.

In the business world, the indices issued

from time to time by Rating Agencies such

as Moody, Fitch and Standard and Poors on

the economic performances of Financial

Institutions, Corporations and the national

economies are very useful decision-support

guides for decision makers. In the same

vein, the degree of precision in this

framework could point to its usefulness as a

predictive and objective decision-support

guide to empower Estate Surveyors and

Valuers in advising their clients on Housing

Choice Optimality. It is thus recommended

that ESVs using this package would be able

to offer Residential Accommodation

Procurement services to their clients based

on optimal choices.

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Practice in Nigeria. Lagos: Bamboo

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165-168

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Aluko, O. (2004). Housing and Urban

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275-284.

Appraisal Institute, (2001). The Appraisal

of Real Estate, 12th. edition.

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Bolton, R.E. (2005). Computer Simulation

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Model. Journal of Economic

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Cappoza, D.R. and Helsley, A. (1989). The

Fundamentals of Land Prices and

Urban Growth. Journal of Urban

Economics, 26(1). pp295-306.

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(2016). Retrieved from

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y-tiers. [Retrieved 12th December,

2016].

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satisfaction with Public Housing in

Lagos, Nigeria. Urbanistika Ir

Architektura, 33(4), 239-247.

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Location Preferences and Urban

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[Retrieved 18th March 2007].


Valuers (2006). Valuation Standards

and Guidance Notes p.141. Nigerian

Institution of Estate Surveyors and

Valuers (2012). Draft Code of

Professional Ethics and Practice.

Codes 2.2, 6.2,6.5 & 6.6,


Valuers (2005). The Constitution,

Chapter XV(I).


http://www.jll.com/greti/transparency-tiers

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Valuers (2012). The Draft

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Urban Residential Location

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Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,

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Property Rights and Urban Poverty

in Minna. International Journal of

Housing Markets and Analysis,

3(3), 256 – 269

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Residential Choices and Utility

Optimization in Abuja and Minna. An

unpublished PhD Seminar Paper

presented to the School of

Environmental Technology, Federal

University of Technology, Minna,

Nigeria

Olatunji, I. A. (2014). An Assessment of

Residential Choices and Utility

Optimization in Abuja and Minna.

An unpublished PhD Thesis

presented to the School of

Environmental Technology, Federal

University of Technology, Minna.

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Boston: Irwin McGraw-hill, pp370-

400

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(2007). Amenity-Based Housing

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http://www.nber.org/books/stra75-1%20.%20pp%2078-115




The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use

Pattern in Makurdi Urban, Benue State, Nigeria

Victor Umoren and Alexander Mchi Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Nigeria.


Abstract This study examines the effects of road quality on commercial landuse pattern in Makurdi, urban, Benue State.

The study investigated the road condition and the spatial pattern of commercial landuse change in the study

area. The study was carried out considering the year between 2008 and 2014, to determine the variation in

landuse pattern across the neighbour in relations to the road quality in the study area. The study employed field

observation and measurements. The study area road map, layout plans for the years 2008 and 2014 were used

for the analysis. The data required for the study was obtained from primary and secondary sources that provided

baseline and subsequent information needed for the research. The population for the research consists of one

hundred and twenty seven majors in the study area from which a sample of forty-four roads was drawn for

investigation representing 36.6% of the population of the area. Multi-stage simple random sampling was used in

sampling. The research analysed variation in commercial land use pattern due to road quality across

neighbourhoods in the study area. The result shows that interaction effects between neighbourhood and road

quality was not statistically significant, F (8, 28) = .432, p = 0.892. There was significant effect for

neighbourhood, F (8, 28) = 4.279, p = 0.002 and road quality, F (1, 28) = 20.419, p = 0.0001. The study

revealed that road quality influence commercial land use pattern across neighbourhoods in the study area. The

study recommended that mix use development be encouraged, more roads to link the neighbourhoods in

Makurdi urban should be develop and adequate attention should be given to planning of commercial landuses in

the area.

Key Words: Road quality, Commercial landuse, Pattern, Makurdi urban, Neighbourhoods.

Introduction In the history of cities, transportation and

land use have a close link. People settled in

areas that are accessible by different modes

of transportation available at each period of

time. As settlements grew into clusters,

there is need for better transportation

facilities. Based on the new modes of

transportation that became available, cities

in turn developed. SRPC (2003) defines the

framework for land use and transportation

cycle based on form, function, land use and

transport. The form implies the nature and

structure while the function implies the

level of its efficiency and effectiveness

relating to landuse and transportation. Land

use and transport are interlinked; so

whatever affects land use also affects the

transport policy. To have an efficient and

effective transport system implies getting

the land use planning right, and planning

urban development implies getting the

transport access right. In other words, the

different policy spheres and disciplines have

to work together to deliver the best results

for the functioning of towns or cities. The

purpose is to reduce the need to travel, the

length of journeys and make it easier for

people to access jobs, shopping, leisure

facilities and services by public transport,

walking and cycling.

The rapid economic development of a

country depends on her concern for

transportation. However, urban road

network is developed to link land uses in

the town and facilitates the movement of

people/services, thereby allowing for social

interaction. High quality road network

connects key urban centres and isolated

local communities for which many public

transport options are limited or not

Victor, Mchi

The Effects of Road Quality on Commercial Land Use Pattern in Makurdi Urban,


available. The growth of towns necessitated

for improved road network development to

cater for increased pedestrian and vehicular

movements. Umoren, Sule and Eni (2011)

reported that a good quality road

infrastructure attract socio-economic

development than a bad road condition.

Their study revealed that Akwa Ibom State

has a total length of 6288km of roads. A

total of 1272.6km (20 %) constituted paved

or tarred roads while about 5015.4km (80

%) constituted unpaved roads. The study

revealed that a greater percentage of the

roads in the area were unpaved and could

not be used in all seasons, maintenance

costs are high and they reduce the economic

life of vehicle. The study further reported

that a greater number of the roads in the

study area are single lane and narrow.

Potholes, depressions and sagging surfaces

are common features on the roads that

impede free flow of traffic. The study

recommended that efforts should be made

to increase the length of paved roads in the

area to attract socio-economic development.

It is a known fact that as the economic

activities expands in the city centre, it spills

over to adjoining areas and these changes

seem to occur in nearly all cities in Nigeria

(Egbenta, 2010). The trend was observed in

most towns/cities including Uyo, Lagos,

Enugu, Calabar and Jos. Residential plots

situated along major roads were fast

disappearing; while commercial land uses

had invaded residential areas fronting the

major roads within residential zones.

The Calabar municipal land use had

undergone a substantial level of change

from residential use to commercial use with

the latter becoming more prevalent. Eja,

Nwachi, Sunday, Inah, and Ita (2011)

examined the pattern of commercial land

use pattern in Calabar, Nigeria. The study

used questionnaire to collect data on

commercial land value and factors

influencing the location of various land-use

in the area. The study revealed that there is

a positive relationship between commercial

land use and rental value in the area.

The terms "invasion" and "succession,"

derived from plant and animal ecology is

used to describe the processes of

neighborhood population alteration.

Weinstein (2007) explained the

fundamental way one ethnic or racial group

replaces another. A few people from one

group invade a neighborhood inhabited

largely by members of another group. The

long-time residents begin to move out as the

invading group move in, and in time the

new group succeeds the old. According to

Weinstein (1992), revealed long-time

Coney residents who remained behind in

the 1970s, unable or unwilling to move to a

better neighborhood, needed no urban

sociologist to quote Chicago School

ecological theories to them. Competition for

housing may result into conflict as the

locals and the newcomers attempt to devise

strategies to achieve their goal. If some

accommodation between the locals and the

newcomers is not conducive, one of the two

groups will withdraw. If the newcomers

withdraw, the invasion has been halted. If

the established population withdraws, their

departure coupled with the continued arrival

of the new group will result in succession.

Invasion and succession refer to change in

land use or dominant activities in the

neighborhood. The concepts of road

network and commercial land use patterns,

and invasion-succession theory are essential

to guide the study towards attaining the

stated objectives.




The study is aimed to assess the effects of

road quality on commercial land use. The

study will enlighten the policy makers of

the need to formulate policies that will

encourage maintenance of road network and

re-zoning of some areas in Makurdi urban.

The Study Area Makurdi, the capital of Benue state is

delineated by sixteen kilometres radius with

the centre of the town taken at a control

near the post office. It lies between latitudes

7˚28' - 8˚00' North and longitudes 8˚28' -

8˚35' East (Shabu and Tyonum, 2013) as

shown in Figure1. It is bounded by Guma

local government in the north-east, Tarka

local government in the east, Gwer local

government in the south, Gwer-West local

government in the west and Doma local

government area of Nasarawa State in the

north-west (Edan, Idowu, Abubakar and

Aliyu, 2014).The town is traversed by trunk

‘A’ road that connects the southeastern

parts of the country to the north. Makurdi

has a total land area of about 820 square

kilometres (Shabu and Tyonum, 2013). An

assessment of the land use pattern in the

study area indicated that the area comprises

of residential, commercial, industrial, public

space, public, recreational, transportation

and urban agriculture landuses.

The major roads also called primary or

arterial roads are routes that carry long

distance through traffic to specific areas in

urban centers (Dauda and Lawali, 2014).

Arterial roads are the major road links in

Makurdi urban. They handle large volumes

of freight and passengers that traverse

through the town.

Access roads are largely the neighbourhood

street system. These roads are relatively free

of through traffic and handle local traffic.

These roads are required to provide a high

level of safety and adequate access to

neighbourhood services and facilities.

Pathways are pedestrian ways and they are

in the form of narrow accesses leading to

individual premises. Vehicular traffic is

restricted on the pathways. For the purpose

of our investigation, major roads compose

of arterials and collectors.

Methodology The research design followed a multi stage

framework covering survey analysis and

interpretation of data. The data required for

the study was obtained from primary and

secondary sources that provided baseline

and subsequent information needed for the

research. The study employed field

observations and measurements method in

study area. The study area road map, layout

plans for the years 2008 and 2014 was

obtained from the Ministry of Lands and

Survey, Makurdi and used for the analysis.

The analogue Makurdi township map for

the years 2008 and 2014 was obtained from

Office of the Surveyor General of the

Federation, Abuja. The purpose of selecting

the above years for study was that the study

area went through rapid road network

development during the civilian

administration that came to power in 1999.

And therefore there was need to investigate

how commercial landuse react to road

network development in the study area. A

Register of business premises was obtained

from the Ministry of Commerce and

Industries, Makurdi, for assessment of

commercial landuse determined through

Victor, Mchi



identification and measurement of

commercial shop area cover in the study

area. Other secondary data sources include

available materials from scholarly sources

such as textbooks, road transportation and

other planning research journals, etc.

The population for the research consists of

One hundred and twenty seven major roads

in Makurdi urban from which a sample of

forty-four roads was drawn for investigation

representing 36.6% of the population in the

study area. The sample for the study was

drawn using a multi stage simple random

sampling technique. The geographic

coordinates on Makurdi road map was

converted to Universal Transverse Mercator

(UTM) coordinates for ease of computation

then gridded into four quadrants and labeled

1-4 as shown in figure 2.

The Selection of the study location was

based on quadrant sample location

coordinate system using Excel spreadsheet

approach. Random numbers for eastern and

northern axes of the map were generated

using Excel spreadsheet formula

(Mathwave, 2015);

=RNAD() ... Eqn. 1

The generation of random numbers for east

and north axes; =RAND() were 0.350763

and 0.172047 respectively. The sample

location coordinates was derived using the

formula (Wilson, 2007):

= RAND()*(high – low) + low Eqn. 2

To obtain quadrant sample location, the

generated random numbers were used.

Sample coordinate location for east axis

was 0.305763(457380.28 – 444380.28) +

444380.28= 448355.20 mE. While for north

axis; sample coordinate location was

0.172047(859764.18 – 849764.18) +

849764.14 = 851484.65 mN. The

coordinates (448355.20 mE, 851484.65

mN) were plotted as shown in Figure 2 to

determine sample location, and quadrant 3

was selected for study. The land use spatial

pattern in Makurdi urban was assessed

through the comparison derive by counting

of tables on data generated in 2008 and

2014 approach. The total number of

potholes, sagging and depressions on each

road was used to assess the quality of each

road, this was done by observation. The

structural defects of each major road were

counted and recorded. Road quality

assessment was done using equation 3 as

shown below.

Q =1/n …Eqn. 3

Where; Q = road quality,

n = number of structural

defects (sagging, potholes and depressions),

1 = unity.

The scores were plotted on a model linear

scale ranging from the minimum number

(zero) to the maximum number (one). A

benchmark was established at lower

quartile. The road quality scores recorded

below the benchmark of the model were

classified as bad quality while road quality

scores above the benchmark were regarded

as good quality. The two-way ANOVA with

the aid of SPSS software, which seeks to

investigate the variation of commercial land

use pattern due to road quality across the

neighbourhoods in the study area was

adopted in the analysis.




Results and Discussion The selected forty-four roads were assessed

to determine the road quality of the road

network in the study area. The road quality

assessment was based on the Road Quality

Index (RQI) model derived by the

researcher. The RQI has a benchmark that

determines the road quality index for the

roads in the study area. The benchmark is a

point on the RQI model that determines

whether the road was good or bad quality

and expressed as follows:

Road Quality Range (RQR) = 0.50 – 0.03

= 0.47

Bench mark= 25% of RQR

= 0.12

If RQI < 0.12 = Bad Road Quality or

if RQI > 0.12 = Good Road Quality.

Twenty-six roads out of forty-four

roads representing 59.10% were in good

condition therefore are of good quality.

Eighteen roads representing 40.9% of the

roads in the study area were of bad

quality.The study revealed that new bridge

road, Iyorchia Ayu road, David Mark

bypass, Abdullahi Shelleng road and Ishaya

Bakut road in the study area have the

highest RQI of 0.50 as shown on Table 1

below.The 2008 and 2014 land use in the

study area was assess through a-screen

digitisation of township maps as shown on

Table 1.

The null hypothesis which states that

“There is no significant variation in

commercial landuse pattern due to road

quality development across neighbourhoods

in the study area” was tested. A two-way

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was

employed to investigate using SPSS

Version 17. The application of the two-way

ANOVA in this research was to compare

the means of a single variable (commercial

landuse pattern) at different levels of two

conditions (road quality and

neighbourhood) in the study area. The

Levene’s Test for a P-value significance of

the analysis was 0.72. This value was more

than 0.50, therefore, null hypothesis was

rejected and the alternate hypothesis, which

states, “there is significant variation in

commercial land use pattern due to road

quality development across the

neighbourhoods in the study area” was

accepted.The acceptance of alternate

hypothesis provides adequate grounds for

further investigation. The study area was

divided into nine landuse categories:

Wurukum, Ahule, High level. Old GRA,

Ankpa quarters, Idye, Nyiman, Ankpa ward

and Modern market. The interaction effects

between neighbourhood and road quality

was not statistically significant, F (8, 28) =

.432, p = 0.892; therefore the main effect

can be interpreted.There was significant

effect for neighbourhood F (8.28) = 4.279, p

= 0.002. From the (Neave, 1978) table of F-

distribution, the table value for degree of

freedom (28 under 8 at 5% level) is 2.27,

therefore null hypotheses was rejected while

alternate hypothesis was accepted. There

was significant effect for road quality, F (1,

28) = 20.419,p = 0.0001. ) From the table of

F-distribution, the table value for degree of

freedom (28 under 1 at 5% level) was 4.17,

therefore null hypotheses was rejected while

alternate hypothesis was accepted. This

means that the good and bad nature of the

road quality influence the commercial

landuse pattern in the study area. Similarly,

differences occur in commercial landuse

pattern in the study area on the basis of

neighbourhood.

The effect for neighbourhood and road

quality provided in the Partial Eta Squired

column are 0.550 and 0.442 respectively.

Using Cohen’s (1988) criterion, these

effects are classified as large.This implies

that the effects reach is statistical

significance. The post-hoc comparisons

indicated that the mean score for the Ankpa

quarters, Ankpa ward, High level, Nyiman,

and Wurukum differs significantly from one

another as shown in Table 2 below.

Victor, Mchi



Table 1: Road quality index and land use change by neighbourhoods S/No. Name of Road RQI 2008 2014 Change Neighbourhood

1 New bridge road 0.50 5.46 20.10 14.42 Wurukum

2 Abu King Shuluwa road 0.33 3.42 13.44 10.02 Ahule 3 Wurukum Market road 0.14 4.10 11.55 8.42 Wurukum

4 Gboko road 0.17 4.92 14.17 9.38 Wurukum

5 Onitsha street 0.08 3.53 9.50 7.28 Wurukum

6 Awe street 0.04 2.19 7.84 6.94 Wurukum

7 Iyorchia Ayu road 0.50 7.24 17.09 12.37 Wurukum

8 Amokachi lane 0.05 3.58 7.62 6.41 Wurukum

9 Konshisha street 0.14 5.39 18.37 12.92 High Level

10 Katsina Ala street 0.17 6.15 21.52 14.37 High Level

11 Abbatoir street 0.03 1.80 8.23 5.03 Wurukum 12 Conrad Welgba street 0.04 5.28 8.49 3.21 Idye

13 Ishaya Bakut road 0.50 3.86 8.21 4.35 Idye 14 Vandeikya street 0.14 5.13 17.09 11.96 High Level

15 Calabar street 0.04 5.84 12.92 7.08 High Level

16 Boniface Okoli street 0.06 2.34 3.35 1.01 Ankpa ward

17 Esther Acka street 0.25 4.36 8.57 4.21 High Level

18 Abdullahi Shelleng road 0.50 6.59 22.63 16.04 High Level

19 Balewa crescent 0.33 2.88 13.92 11.04 High Level

20 Kashim Ibrahim way 0.25 3.89 9.51 5.62 Old GRA

21 J S Tarka way 0.17 4.12 10.13 6.01 Old GRA

22 Ogiri Oko road 0.11 0.35 1.52 1.17 Old GRA

23 Joe Akaahan way 0.33 6.97 18.01 11.04 High Level

24 College crescent 0.05 0.85 3.21 2.36 Ankpa ward

25 Lawrence Onoja street 0.03 1.57 4.96 3.39 Ankpa ward

26 David Mark bypass 0.50 3.39 6.84 3.45 Ankpa ward

27 Edward Ujege street 0.20 6.80 10.69 3.89 High Level

28 Regina Agbese street 0.05 2.81 8.08 5.27 High Level

29 Iorkyar Ako street 0.20 3.62 13.06 9.44 High Level

30 Major Wende street 0.08 3.22 11.63 8.41 High Level

31 Ugbokolo street 0.17 3.62 8.89 4.91 High Level

32 Inikpi street 0.07 5.16 14.59 9.43 High Level

33 Jonah Jang crescent 0.14 4.98 10.15 5.17 Nyiman

34 Old Oturkpo road 0.10 6.15 15.58 9.43 High Level

35 Atom Kpera road 0.33 3.98 5.35 1.27 Ankpa ward

36 Jerry Agber street 0.14 6.77 13.46 6.69 Ankpa quarters

37 Jerome Hwande street 0.07 2.75 6.23 3.48 Ankpa ward

38 Simon Songo street 0.05 3.25 5.23 1.98 Ankpa quarters

39 Naka road 0.25 13.01 22.83 9.82 Ankpa ward

40 Simon Aondona street 0.07 2.15 8.60 6.45 Modern Market

41 Augustine Ezekwisili street 0.07 2.56 5.01 2.45 Modern Market

42 Ahmadu Comassie road 0.04 4.57 10.90 6.33 Modern Market

43 Dominic Oneya road 0.33 4.16 13.24 9.08 Modern Market

44 Sefanu Tor Sabo street 0.03 3.87 6.55 2.68 Modern Market

Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015)




Table 2: Post Hoc Tests Multiple Comparisons of Neighbourhoods.

Neighbourhood (I-J) Mean Difference (I-J) Std.Error Sig. level

(LSD)

Sig. level

(HSD)

Ahule-High level ± 4.2860 1.97860 .039 NS Ankpa quarters-High level ±6.9210 1.97860 .002 .036 Ankpa quarters-Wurukum ± 6.4063 2.07795 .005 NS

Ankpa ward- High level ±5.1960 1.20313 .000 .005 Ankpa ward- Wurukum ±4.6812 1.36034 .002 .041 High level- Idye ±5.5160 1.97860 .009 NS High level-Modern market ±3.8980 1.35731 .008 NS High level-Nyiman ±6.7110 1.97860 .002 .046 High level-Old GRA ±5.0293 1.66236 .005 NS Idye-Wurukum ±5.0013 2.07795 .023 NS Modern market-Wurukum ±3.3832 1.49843 .032 NS Nyiman-Wurukum ±6.1963 2.07795 .006 NS Old GRA-Wurukum ±4.5146 1.77945 .017 NS

Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015)

Table 3: Post Hoc Two-Way ANOVA Table

Tests of Between-Subjects Effectsb

Dependent Variable: Commercial

Source

Type III Sum of

Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 544.248a 17 32.015 4.634 .000

Intercept 691.142 1 691.142 100.041 .000

Neighbourhood 236.498 8 29.562 4.279 .002

Road Quality 141.065 1 141.065 20.419 .000

Neighbourhood * Road Quality 23.883 8 2.985 .432 .892

Error 193.440 28 6.909

Total 2768.998 46

Corrected Total 737.688 45

. r squared = .738 (adjusted r squared = .579)

Source: Author’s Data Analysis

The Post hoc test shows the neighbourhoods

where significant variation in land use

pattern occurs.

Table 3 shows the post hoc two-way

ANOVA test, it can be inferred that

commercial landuse pattern varies with

neighbourhood and road quality (p = 0.002

and p = 0.0001) respectively. It can be

concluded that commercial landuse pattern

varies with the neighbourhood and road

quality in the study area. The improvements

of road network in the study area influenced

positively on commercial activities.

Businesses cluster where they can take

economic advantage and maximize profits.

The areas designed for resident has changed

to commercial area. However, the impact is

associated with environmental and traffic

consequences.

Makurdi urban is expanding very fast. The

Makurdi CBD has grown beyond its limits

and exerts pressure on the zones that

surrounds it. Commercial land use extends

to other neighbourhoods outside the CBD

leading to gradual disappearance of

residential land use and commercial land

use increased by 19.07% annually. This

agrees with Barau and Bashayi’s (2013)

Victor, Mchi



study, which reported that the emerging of

Lafia CBD witnessed the gradual change in

land use from residential use to commercial

use. It also agrees with Egbenta (2010) who

stressed that residential neighbourhoods in

Enugu bordering business district were

overwhelmed by the expansion of the

Enugu business district. Commercial land

use pattern varies in neighbourhoods due to

the road quality in the study area. The

variation in commercial land use occurs in

all neighbourhoods at varying intensities.

The increase in commercial activities in

Makurdi urban per year is tremendous as

residential land use is fast disappearing.

This is an indication that adequate

consideration was not given for commercial

places in the planning of the Makurdi urban

when the layouts were prepared. The

implication of the inadequate provision for

commercial spaces in Makurdi urban is that

the wind of invasion-succession will compel

residents to move to urban fringe. This

would likely create housing problems. The

rents will soar, residents would pair up with

their neighbours thereby increasing the

occupancy ratio and altering the residential

densities. There is need to plan the Makurdi

urban fringe to accommodate these people

so as to avoid haphazard development and

promotion of squatter settlements.

The emerging commercial land use pattern

in the study area has changed the zoning

plan of the area. There is need to rezone

these areas so as to avert incompatible uses.

This would boost the internally generated

revenue hence property owners will pay

appropriate ground rents on their

commercial property. The emerging

commercial land use pattern would be

associated with environmental problems

hence the anticipation of increase waste

generation, strain of water and electricity in

those areas, indiscriminate constructions

would likely cause drainage problems. The

study identified concentration of road

network development in some

neighbourhoods leaving others without

adequate road network. This implies that

commercial activities would concentrate on

the existing major roads, that would likely

cause traffic congestion.

Conclusion The study revealed that 59.10% of the road

networks in the study area are of good

quality while 40.10% were rated as bad

quality. Most of the good quality roads are

found in High level, and Wurukum

neighbourhoods. Good road network

enhance free flow of vehicle thereby

influencing distribution of goods and

services and motivates the shop owners to

locate their business along good quality

roads in anticipation of maximum profits.

The study revealed that “there is significant

variation in commercial landuse pattern due

to road quality and neighbourhoods across

the study area. The interaction effect

between road quality and neighbourhood

was not statistically significant, F (8, 46) =

.432, p = 0.892 at 5% level.However, the

effect for road quality, F (1, 46) = 20.419, p

= 0.0001 and neighbourhood, F (8, 46) =

4.279, p = 0.002, were statistically

significant. This implies that the road

quality and neighbourhood influence the

variations in commercial landuse pattern in

the study area. The effects of road network

on commercial land use pattern in Makurdi

urban was studied in relation with the

neighbourhood.The road quality and

neighbourhoods influence the pattern of

commercial landuse activities in the study

area.

Recommendations The following recommendations were made

based on the findings, to point the way




forward on the part of the policy makers.

The study recommends the following:

i. The Government should encourage

subdivision design that will

maximise connectivity and develop

major roads in Ahule, Nyiman, Idye

and Ankpa quarters neighbourhoods

to connect more areas.

ii. Houses fronting Abdullahi Shellang

road, Iyorchia Ayu road, Konshisha

street, Katsina Ala street, New

Bridge road, Naka road, Joe

Akaahan Way and Atom Kpera road

should be redesigned to at least four

storey. The upper, middle and lower

storey should be used for residential,

offices and retail business

respectively.

iii. As the planning of the study \area

continue to evolve the government

should give adequate attention on

planning of commercial areas, since

commercial investment contribute to

the economy of the area.

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Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State

Development and Property Corporation’s Residential

Schemes on Resident’s Well-Being

Mokolade B. Johnson1, Michael Adebamowo1, & Olatunji Adejumo2 1Department of Architecture, University of Lagos. 2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Lagos.

Corresponding author; [email protected].

Abstract The outcomes of rapid urbanization crisis are many, and it dates back to the Lagos bubonic epidemics of 1928.

According to literature, resident’s well-being is a key factor in the quest to provide residence and

neighborhoods that are people-responsively designed, produced and situated in a conducive physical

environment to bring about satisfaction, quality of life and health. This study attempts to find out how the

physical attributes of residential units and the immediate neighborhood impact on the well- being of residents.

Human well-being as a positive state connected to experience, emotions and cognitive evaluation of residents’

life is one of the assertions that underpins the focus of this study. Four (4) largest low- income residential

schemes belonging to Lagos State Development and Property Corporation (LSDPC) were purposively selected

among its residential stock. Residential attributes identified as residents’ well-being indicators was qualitatively

and quantitatively measured through on-site assessment of physical quality and neighborhood characteristics.

Appraisal of as-built drawings, structured survey, resident’s self-measurement and physical observational

technique were used as instruments to collect data from 1980 to 2017 period. The outcome of this study seeks

to inform designers and policy makers about the possibility of user-consideration in residential provision and

time-based residential design for human well-being benefits.The study suggests that neighborhood

infrastructure that can enhance resident’s well-being as proposed by people-responsive designs are embarked on

to consolidate on past gains, in order to alleviate the hydra-headed problem of residential inadequacy and

maintain sustainable well-being in future residential developments. The implication of the results and findings

were highlighted.

Key words; neighborhood, physical well-being, residential unit, responsive-residential design.

INTRODUCTION

The exponential population growth in Lagos

in the last five decades as one of the results

of rapid urbanization compounds the

problem of residential inadequacy. Other

attendant enumerated challenges include,

overcrowding (high occupation density),

and poor building quality, lack of good

residential infrastructures, poor air quality,

poor indoor ventilation and natural daylight

due to wrong building orientation,

unsatisfactory neighborhoods, generally

unsanitary and deplorable residential

environments major problems in this

setting. Mabogunje (2002). These problems

usually have wide-ranging effects on the

quality of life, happiness, comfort,

satisfaction, welfare, health and well-being

of inhabitants. (Amole, Ajayi and Okewola

2002).Well-being is a positive state which is

generally connected to experience, emotions

and cognitive evaluation of one’s life. (Deci

and Ryan, 2008; Conceicao and Bandura

2008). Another assertion say that, physical

well-being refers to the resident's

cumulative positive and negative experience

associated with the, preparation, possession,

function, maintenance and management of

the residence within a given period

(Katrien,2010). From reviews of research

done by Rapoport (1995) on home

interpretation, meanings and urban

environment. From review of research work

done by various scholars, Rapoport (1995)

worked on home interpretation, meanings

and urban environment. Housing



[email protected]. 162

satisfaction was researched by Amole &

Tettly (1998) and Jiboye (2010). Iyagba

(1997) and Ademiluyi (2010) dwelt on

residential delivery, housing quality and

sick buildings. Adebamowo (2007)

researched on residential energy

consumption and thermal comfort. Research

on housing and psycho-social benefits was

carried out by Ilesanmi (2011). Financial

and mortgage aspects by Nubi (2006). Post

occupancy evaluation by Iweka (2012) and

challenges in residential delivery was

tackled by (Olayiwola, Adeleye &

Ogunsakin (2005). All these areas have

severally investigated, but it appears that

residential research on the impact of public

residential scheme attributes on resident’s

physical well-being have not been covered.

Human well-being is promoted when the

residence is designed, produced, prepared,

and situated in a conducive physical

environment (location) to meet the use and

needs of the occupants, while bringing

about satisfaction, enhanced quality of life

and sustainable physical well-being.

Grzeskowiak, Sirgy, Lee and Claiborne

(2005).This study examined how the

residential buildings and immediate

environments can function as a tool for

enhancing resident’s well-being through

people-responsive architectural design.

Much of the research that relates to the

impact of the physical and urban

environment on mental, social and

psychological wellbeing has been on the

developed world Evans, Chan, Wells, and

Saltzman, (2000). Many factors was

identified as variables that can influence

resident’s well-being positively or

negatively. These include; dwelling density

(overcrowding), noise, spatial adequacy,

spatial organization, accessibility, privacy,

security, social network, air quality,

landscape, infrastructural decay and general

neighborhood visual amenity (aesthetics)

(Dutton,2003). Research has also explicitly

proven that there are associations between

ownership and well-being, to the extent that

psychological well-being varies in a

significant manner between residents in

different residential tenures (Clapham,

1991,2005; Cairney,2005).

It appears that due to the lack of

understanding central to the link between

the physical residential setting and well-

being, past residential building studies have

not paid much attention to the issue of

human well-being in the existing residential

stock of the Lagos State Development and

Property Corporation (LSDPC). In spite of

the fact that there are varieties of residential

prototypes in the public and private sectors,

there is inadequate knowledge of what the

existing and emerging situations are for

well-being. From the residential architecture

perspective, this could be useful knowledge

for future programming, planning and

design of improved residential buildings

and environment in Lagos.

Literature Review This study focus on assessing the residential

attributes (characteristic) of the LSDPC

residential scheme and their impact or

influence on resident’s physical well-being

and the implication for architectural design

(Ilesanmi,2005; Jiboye, 2009)(See figure 1).

This is the gap in knowledge that this study

attempts to fill. Presently, there is a scarcity

of knowledge to establish whether the

existing Lagos State Development and

Property Corporation (LSDPC) residential

stock promotes residents’ physical well-

being or not, in order to assess its

implication for design. Understanding the

relationship between residential attributes

and human well-being is central to knowing

how architectural designs of existing

residential schemes are meeting the well-

being need of occupants.

The quest is to bring to the fore the

minimum physical standards for healthy,

Johnson, Adebamowo, Adejumo

Assessment of Residential Attributes of Lagos State Development and Property Corporation’s


family-friendly residential neighborhoods

qualities and physical characteristics that

impact and improve well-being from the

architectural design standpoint. Human

well-being was considered as a wider

umbrella under which the health aspects of

residents are embedded.

To attenuate the diminishing quality of life

that poor designs can bring, it is necessary

to identify the value and benefits to

residents’ well-being achievable through

thoughtful and people-responsive

architecture. Sometimes, in the bid to cut

costs in residential provision, we lose more

than money from these residential schemes

by using financial budgetary mechanisms,

cheap or unsustainable building material to

cut cost and poor construction methods such

that the project eventually becomes grossly

inadequate and unsustainable.

Residential researches in 2012, estimated

that the UK spends up to £2 billion per year

treating illnesses arising from poor

residential buildings – more than the sum

spent by local authorities on their own

residential stock. (McGillivray and Clark

2012). A good residence is a crucial

criterion for quality standard of living.

(Aribigbola, 2008). It is very fundamental

to the welfare, survival and health (Evans,

2003). Hence, the residential setting is one

of the best indicators for evaluating

standard of living of residents. The location

and residential typology are also factors

crucial to this assessment. Rapoport (1995)

noted that shelter is central to the existence

of man. He submitted further that this

involves access to land, shelter and the

necessary amenities to make the shelter

functional, cultural, aesthetically pleasing,

safe and hygienic to satisfy well-being.

In Nigeria, earlier studies of public

environmental health focused almost totally

on disease control, pollution, emission

control, chemical toxicants and their

relationship to other illnesses from the

medical science angle of research.

However, in the last 50 years, the definition

of environmental health has widened to

include the effects of the physical and social

environment on human health according to

World Health Organization WHO, (1946).

It now encompasses issues related to quality

of residences, urban and rural development,

land use, public infrastructure systems and

industrial development. (WHO, 2010).

Issues Affecting Well-Being.

Environmental well-being

Researchers such as Wells, Evans and Yang

(2010) found that factors such as density of

communities, presence and size of parks,

land-use mix, height and size of residential

structures, food store location, and road

layout affect people’s physical health and

well-being. Most of the major health

problems plaguing the U.S. population

today— from psychological distress to heart

disease to diabetes—have significant

environmental causes. According to

Coetzee (2002) and Lawanson (2015), when

changes in the environment are intense, the

more vulnerable are inhabitant’s level of

well-being. The residential environment is

the place where human beings appreciate

through experience the benefits of

architectural design more than anywhere

else because individuals eat, repose, engage

in physical activity, interact and form social

bonds here (Wiggle, 2003;, UNHABITAT,

2003; Wells et al., 2010). The four main

metaphors that describe the residence are

subsumed in the idea that it is not only a

physical, but a mental, social, and

psychological phenomenon (Onibokun,

1983; Salau, 1990; United Nations, 1992;

Rapoport, 1995; Gifford, 2002;

Sommerville, 1992; Fincher and Gooder,

2007). The residential environment entails

the organization of space, time, meaning

and communication, setting systems,




cultural landscapes, and the make-up of

fixed and non-fixed features in order to

figure out relationships between society and

built environment (Rapoport, 2001). The

residential building is an important and

significant entity of the residential

environment. This significant phenomenon

is embraced dialectically in the culture of

the major Nigerian nationalities of Yoruba

as “ile” , Igbo as “uno” and Hausa as

“gida”.In these settings, the residence is a

living entity representing physical, social,

cultural, economic and historical values and

status of the family. It is transferable

through inheritance from generation to

generations. Culturally across major

Nigerian tribes, it is taboo to offer

traditional family homes for sale (Odunjo,

1970; Babade, 2008). Other functions that a

residence performs in the traditional society

include the protection of family genealogy,

values, and care for the elderly through the

extended family system, and the protection

of the ancestral history (Igwe, 2001).

Architecture and Physical Well-Being

There is a connection between how a

residential scheme is conceived, designed,

managed, built, and ultimately occupied.

Three key issues at the core of residential

provision highlighted are; residential design

must be wide-ranging and inclusive, it must

accept change and transformation, and must

incorporate the user as part of the design

decision-making process (Habraken, 1972;

Iweka, 2012).

Architecture is a discipline and practice that

is directly concerned with the development

of the physical environment which is one of

the four phenomena or aspects of well-

being (Rapley, 2003; Bond and Corner,

2004). It is science and art at the same

time.” We do not just ‘exist’ within a

physical environment - we interact with it

and derive important meaning from it”

(Altman, 1993; Jacard and Jacoby, 2010).

Residential schemes are products of

architecture, this suggests that when the

residence and neighborhood (built

environment) are designed with the

intention to satisfy users need from the

conceptual stage, the benefits are many. The

nexus between poor residential attributes

and poor health is well established (Iyagba

et al., 1997; Wells et al., 2010). For

example, the Building Research

Establishment [BRE] (2010) reported that

almost a quarter (4.8 million) of homes in

England contain defects that can give rise to

hazards which can lead to serious health

risks such as cardio-respiratory disease,

stroke, asthma, excess cold, excess heat to

mention a few. Estimates put the cost to the

National Health Scheme (NHS) of these

hazards at £600 million per year, while the

cost to individuals and society from loss of

earnings is estimated, at £1.5 billion per

year. Also, Peg (1994) points out that in the

United States of America, the Pruitt-Igoe

residential scheme built in St Louis,

Missouri in the 1950s was hailed in

architecture circles for its attractive physical

design (Bacon,1985). However, the facility

served its residents so poorly that the

authorities found no other remedy than to

pull down the buildings in 1972. Many

problems arising from chronic indoor and

neighborhood spatial dysfunction have also

be proven to affect resident’s well-being.

Shelter and well-being

Shelter is one of the three basic cardinal

needs of man, it is a habitation, a place of

abode or house in which a person lives over

a period of time. It offers refuge and

protection from harsh and unfavorable

environmental elements and living

conditions. It usually assumes various

dimensions (tangible and intangible) and

meanings depending on the resident’s

attachment to this setting. The size, type and

quality of residence is determined by one or

combination of factors like income,




location, culture, identity, socio-economic

influences, government or developers

control amongst others (Rapoprt, 1995).

Another argument described a house as a

tool or device intended to meet intangible

and subjective needs like residential

satisfaction, purpose in life, identity,

meaning of life and satisfy other psycho-

social requirements which are strongly

beneficial and related to resident’s health

wellbeing (Sarvima, 2006). These tangible

and intangible dimensions of a residence are

usually not fully appreciated and factored-in

at the architectural design and planning

stage. In situations where these residential

aspirations are not met as cited before,

several poor residential buildings and

spaces had to be re-designed or eventually

demolished because the spaces and their

users were inharmonious (Peg, 1994;

Cairney and Boyle, 2004). The assertion of

Le Corbusier that a house is a tool or device

primarily produced for living, so every part

of its design functions to satisfy the well-

being needs of occupants, the desire to

fulfill this leads to the actual construction of

the residential building irrespective of class

or creed. Ilesanmi (2011) opined that,

“Shelter is symbol for family, quality of

life, residential satisfaction (hearth), it is

autonomous and usually a status symbol for

the residents or owners.”

At the conceptual stage, it is difficult for

architects or planners to comprehend many

real or unforeseen challenges in the brief

available for the design, planning and

production of residences. Therefore, proper

assessment of the relationships between

residential attributes and resident’s

wellbeing need to be undertaken, because

literature strongly established that poor

dwelling is strongly associated with poor

health (Iyagba, 2005; Shaw, 2004;

Wilkinson, 1999 ). There’s a growing

understanding and awareness that enabling

healthy lifestyles through well designed

residential environments can mean savings

in health treatment costs. Improvement of

existing schemes can be embarked on

through gradual improvement or phase by

phase upgrading and not total

redevelopment of existing built

environment to enhance health and well-

being of residents (Gray, 2001; Wells et al.,

2010).

Wellbeing is defined as the state of good

health, happiness, satisfaction and living in

perceptually healthy conditions physically,

socially and mentally. The World Health

Organization (WHO, 1948) have also

postulated that in improving the quality of

life of residents, three main aspects impact;

the quality of residential building, the

quality of the close environment

(neighborhood) and the quality of the urban

site (Mohit, Ibrahim and Rashid, 2010). The

Aristotelian concept of living well and

reaching our full human potential well-

being may be explained as living a

meaningful life, characterized by feeling

empowered to make change, be happy,

healthy, and connected to one’s

environment and community. The

relationship between these factors are inter-

related and central to understanding how

residential attributes of a residential

environment can have significant effect in

determining and enhancing human well-

being (Giuliani 2003; McGillivray 2007).

Scholars like Dolan and White (2007)

explained well-being as a non-physical

phenomenon suggesting a strong possibility

that resident’s health outcomes are related

or affected by other aspects like the social,

financial, spiritual, mental and

psychological attributes. The World Health

Organization’s (WHO) classical definition

states that “health is not merely the freedom

from sickness, disease or infirmity, but a

favorable state of physical, mental and

social well-being”. (WHO, 1946) also

affirms this position.




In the past 50 years, residential provision

programs set by Lagos State government

and private collaboration initiatives fell

short of projected targets. Hence policy and

plan to tackle the problem of inadequacy,

finance, lack of residential infrastructure,

over-crowding, congestion, poor air quality,

noise pollution, poor residential planning

and other associated challenges of urban

sprawl confronting Lagos since the 1930s

have remained unresolved. The assessment

of the availability or non- availability of

residential infrastructures, good sanitary

environment and living conditions

established through people-responsive

planning of the residential environment are

key factors that this study considered

relevant for assessing the level of well-

being of residents (Olayiwola, Adeleye and

Ogunsakin, 2005).

Residential development in Nigeria in

general and LSDPC in particular has been

the responsibility of government as the

largest spender. Therefore every agenda set

by government to achieve these had

tremendous impact on financing, residential

provision, adequacy, quality and public

perception of the sector.

Relationship Between Residential Quality

and Well-Being

Well-being is a complex concept, it varies

from setting to setting and from individual

to individual. It ties together a number of

assorted, but connected psycho-physical

factors from life-fulfilment, to happiness

and resilience, or mental toughness (Deci

and Ryan, 2008; Diener and Biswas-Diener,

2008). According to some theories, if some

fact about life does not affect experience, it

cannot affect well-being. Traditionally,

well-being has been identified with a single

objective dimension where material

progress measured by income or Gross

Domestic Profit (GDP). However, it is now

widely accepted that the concept of

wellbeing cannot be captured solely by

GDP. Human well-being is a multi-

dimensional phenomenon encompassing

all aspects of human life. One approach to

measure multi-dimensional well-being is to

use objective indicators to complement, or

supplement or replace GDP (Conceição and

Bandura, 2008). Well-being is a concept

that people and policymakers commonly

aspire to improve. Nevertheless, it is an

indistinct concept, lacking a collectively

acceptable definition and often faced with

opposing interpretations. This study also

hinges on the definition that views well-

being as generally a description of the state

of people’s life situation, which classifies

well-being into two broad categories: the

objective and subjective aspects which is

explained to a large extent by Hedonists

(McGillivray 2007; Conceição and

Bandura, 2008). The Hedonistic theory

describes “hedonia” as a state of pleasure,

and “eudaimonia” describes it as life

experienced as meaningful and engaging

(Sarason, 1974; Twigger-Ross and Uzzell,

1996; Sarvina, 2006; Shueller and

Seligman, 2010).

In the Gallup’s model (see Figure 1),

Human well-being is at the center of five

identified criteria for assessment. The

community and physical aspects are the

platform on which this study stands.

Figure 1: Chart showing the Gallup’s 5 aspects of

wellbeing,

Source; Gallup & Hill (1960).

Methodology




The archival architectural drawings was

evaluated vis-à-vis what was built and their

evolution from 1980 till date. Formative and

summative method of evaluation was

adopted in the study. The formative

evaluation focuses on how program

implementation relates to specific

objectives established at the program

development or initiation phase, including

issues regarding stakeholders’ satisfaction

with the amenities provided. Most studies

on public housing dealing with satisfaction

adopt this approach because they seek to

answer questions on how, why and under

what conditions residential projects succeed

or fail. The summative evaluation, on the

other hand, evaluates the effectiveness of a

program after it has been executed or

implemented. It focuses on the relationship

between the goals of a program and its

outcomes. This approach provides a way to

measure how a program works (that is, its

effectiveness), and proffer suggestions on

ways to improve it. The application of this

method was evident in a number of studies

that evaluated outcomes of public housing

in Nigeria (Awotona, 1982; Bana, 1991;

Mustapha, 2002; Obeng-Odom, 2009).

Study Area

The Metropolitan area of Lagos takes up to

37 per cent of the land area of Lagos State

and houses about 90 per cents of its

population. (Mabogunje, 2002)). The lack

of accommodation facilities in Lagos is

enormous. It is normal that the size of the

family is five or more persons and they all

live together in the small room, average of

4.30 m2 (Nubi, 2006; Iweka, 2012). Most of

the houses are in poor conditions and the

facilities in them are shared. Sewage

systems are in deplorable states or non-

existing, sewage is available only in high

income areas. (Amole et al., 2002).




Fig 2; Map of Lagos Metropolis showing Local Government Areas (Scale; Undefined

“In 2011, Lagos was 150 years old. It is by

no means one of Nigeria’s oldest cities”

(Godwin and Hopwood, 2012). Lagos

became a capital city during the colonial

acquisition era and was part of the British

Empire and can be compared to other urban

centers like Singapore and Hong Kong,

New York in many respects. Though not as

developed, Lagos as a heterogeneous city

can boasts of modern infrastructure and

substantial funds investment. Residential

provision at the government level in the

Lagos Metropolis of Lagos State as it is

now known dated back to 1928. Lagos

Executive Development Board (L.E.D.B.)

was established for the provision of modern

residential infrastructures in order to

transform the informal settlements, ghettos

so as to change the filth and unhealthy

conditions which prevailed in Lagos at the

time. The Board was saddled with the sole

official responsibility to transform these

areas into a planned and habitable

residential environment. L.E.D.B. had the

executive powers for planning and

development in central Lagos, while Lagos

City Council was in charge of adjoining

districts to maintain, construct new roads,

drains, parks and the vetting of building

plans for Town planning approval. This

resulted in long delays of approvals which

led to frustrations of private developers and

non-compliance to building codes and

regulations. A problem which is still

prevalent till date.

The status of Lagos as a political and

economic capital of Nigeria brought a

resultant astronomical expansion that

necessitated the involvement of the Ikeja

Area Planning Authority (I.A.P.A) in

development control and residential

provision for the ever-growing populace

desperately in need of decent and healthy

accommodation. However for efficiency in

the residential delivery bureaucracy, Lagos

State between 1967 and the 5 year period

that followed consequently merged the three

government agencies. In 1972, the Lagos

Executive Development Board (L.E.D.B.),

Ikeja Area Planning Authority (I.A.P.A.),

and Epe Town Planning Authority

(E.T.P.A.), transformed into what is known

today as Lagos State Development and

Property Corporation (LSDPC ). The

LSDPC Edict No. 1 of 1972 provided the

legal framework that backed up this merger.

Consequent on its advent, LSDPC took over

the liabilities of L.E.D.B., I.A.P.A. and

E.T.P.A. and relinquished its power for

development control to the Lagos State

Ministry of Works and Planning

(L.S.M.W.P.) The Corporation now has a

completely commercialized and profit

driven agenda. The goals of new LSDPC

include; Development of land and all its

attendant interests like residential buildings,

acquisition, development and maintenance

of residential schemes.Shopping centers,

offices, desirable industrial buildings that

can enhance the establishment’s

performance. Facility management and

service provision to the residential schemes

built and responsibility for the sale and

letting of residential building owned or

developed by the LSDPC. Rasaki (1988).

Table 1 LSDPC residential low-income scheme

built since 1983

S/N Name of Estate No of

Units

1. Abesan 4,272

2. Amuwo-Odofin 2,068

3. Anikantamo 714

4. Dairy

Farm/Ijaiye

708

5. Dolphin II. 576

6. Iba 2,388

7. Iponri 1,026

8. Isolo 3,664

9. Ojokoro 534

Total 15,950




Appraisal showed that the drive for quality

of life, residential health and well-being is

not listed in agenda for L.S.D.P.C.’s

residential delivery program, which can

explain the decay in the infrastructure of the

residential scheme in general, hence

justifying the relevance of this assessment.

Tracing the antecedents of LSDPC as

agency sole responsible for residential

provision sheds light on the issues that

surround housing delivery.

Four (4) of the largest low-cost residential

estates belonging to Lagos State

Development and Property Corporation

(LSDPC) were purposively selected. They

are Abesan (4272 units), Isolo (3664 units),

Iba (2388 units) and Amuwo Odofin (2068

units). A total of 12,392 units. Systematic

random sampling technique was applied to

choose a sample size of 7.5% of the

residential units of each scheme (see table

2) as follows;

Table 2 List of selected residential neighborhood,

units and sample size.

No. Residential

scheme

No. of

residential

units

Sample

size

7.5% of

units.

1 Abesan 4272 320.4

2 Isolo 3664 274.8

3 Iba 2388 179.1

4 Amuwo Odofin 2068 155.1

Total no of units 12,392 929.4

Data was obtained from primary and

secondary sources, through triangle

approach comprising of physical appraisal

and measurement of built floor plans and

site plans as it exist now, and the proposed

drawings in the archives and database of

LSDPC. Well-being indicators were

examined under three broad categories of

variables, namely; neighborhood attributes

in LSDPC’s design, residential typologies,

and infrastructure and well-being pointers

through structured survey, respondent’s

self-measurement, and observational

method. Identified variables include;

Community/ social amenities-Crèche,

Nursery/ primary school, children’s

playground. Neighborhood open spaces-

General, central and easily accessible car

park for residents. Landscaped parks for

recreation and social integration.

Multifamily and physical exercise-friendly

spaces. Like football field, basketball,

badminton, lawn tennis and so on.

Health facilities- hospital, clinic, pharmacy.

Commercial infrastructures- shops, food

and fruit stalls and mobile sellers. Religious

needs- church and mosque Neighborhood

and residential access - adequate non-

resident car parks, good vehicular roads,

wide enough walkways, intra-neighborhood

trails, street lights, and vehicular traffic

control like speed bumps. Sanitary control

amenities-central refuse dump.

On the Likert scale of 1-7, with 7 being the

highest score. Residents were guided on

self-reporting of the indicators of well-being

in both residential spaces (living room or

parlor, lining room, bedroom(s), kitchen,

store, toilet, and bath) and immediate

neighborhoods. (Roads, car park,

neighborhood open spaces, drains,

recreation, sidewalks.)

The Gap Analysis Model

This conceptual approach was adopted by

this study commonly used in post

occupancy evaluations, residential delivery

and other residential research work. It states

that “residential buildings and its immediate

environment should be able to satisfy the

purpose for which they were designed”. The

GAP analysis is used as a tool to minimize

the gap between what is produced and the

reality of how it is used or what became of

it. – see figure (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and

Berry, 1985).




Findings Findings include but not limited to

inadequate neighborhood amenities, poor

anticipation of the effect of population

growth on the residential schemes at

conceptualization stage. Physical well-being

enhancing variables (open spaces,

neighborhood parks, wide enough

walkways, neighborhood visual amenity,

hygienic or sanitary environments, effective

refuse collection are necessities and not

optional during design and

conceptualization. Open spaces favorable to

neighborhood recreation interactions were

not integrated in to neighborhood layout, as

such, it was easy for them to be converted

to other uses different from their original

concept. Neighborhood building

arrangement were forced into a linear

pattern, this suggest that building

orientation must follow linear order and

wrongly so, as they do not take advantage

of natural air speed and flow for effective

ventilation and lighting of interior spaces.

Congestion

The histograms were presented for

understanding in the cast of the questions to

responders as it appeared on the survey.

This is to establish the self-measurement

method of measuring well-being. Table 3 Inadequate parking:

Frequen

cy

Perce

nt %

Valid

perce

nt

Cumulative

percent

valid 34 18.9 18.9 18.9

Yes 78 43.3 43.3 62.2

No 68 37.8 37.8 100.0

Total 180 100.0 100.0

Histogram of inadequate parking.

Parking Convenience Table 4

frequ

ency

perce

nt

Valid

perce

nt

Cummulative

percent

Valid

1-2

mins

72 40.0 59.5 59.5

3-4

mins

36 20.0 29.8 89.3

5-6 min 13 7.2 10.7 100.0

Total 121 67.2 100.0

Missin

g

59 32.8

Total 180 100.0

Nearness to Household Consumables

Table 5

Frequency percent Valid

percent

Cumulative

percent

valid 11 6.1 6.1 6.1

available

169 93.9 93.9 100.0

HEALTHY LIFESTYLE PROMOTING

AMENITIES. Table 6

Frequ

ency

Perce

nt

Valid

percent

Cumulative

percent

valid 20 11.1 11.1 11.1

available 129 71.7 71.7 82.8

Not

available

31 17.2 17.2 100.0

Total 180 100.0 100.0




Histogram of health support facility.

Table 7: Likert scale self-rating from residents.

frequ

ency

perc

ent

Vali

d

perc

ent

Cumula

tive

percent

valid 29 16.1 16.1 16.1

excellen

t

25 13.9 13.9 30.0

Very

good

12 6.7 6.7 36.7

good 17 9.4 9.4 46.1

Very

fair

8 4.4 4.4 50.6

fair 25 13.9 13.9 64.4

Poor 36 20.0 20.0 84.4

Very

poor

28 15.6 15.6 100.0

Total 180 100.0 100.0

General Neighborhood Visual Amenity

(Aesthetics)

Histogram on general neighborhood aesthetics Accessibility Table 8: Condition of roads and walkways frequen

cy

percent Valid

percent

Cumulative

percent

valid 8 4.4 4.4 4.4

excell

ent

16 8.9 8.9 13.3

Very

good

9 5.0 5.0 18.3

good 26 14.4 14.4 32.8

Very

fair

21 11.7 11.7 44.4

fair 19 10.6 10.6 55.0

Very

poor

32 17.8 17.8 100.0

Total 180 100.0 100.0




Plate 1 & 2: Isolo; The neighborhood conditions here are

typical of the other case studies; collapsed roads and

drains.

Histogram of road condition.

Resident’s Self-Envisaged Tenure. Table 9: Self-Projected Tenancy.

Frequenc

y

Percen

t

Valid

Percen

t

Cumul

ative

Percent

Valid

1-2

yrs

33 18.3 20.6 20.6

3-4

yrs

64 35.6 40.0 60.6

4-5

yrs

30 16.7 18.8 79.4

10yrs

Above

33 18.3 20.6 100.0

Total 160 88.9 100.0

Total 180 100.0

Histogram on tenure

I Plate 3:Non-existent water supply system , façade

redesign with makeshift sun shading.




Plate: 4 Abandoned open spaces are refuse dumps

Plate 5: Abesan approach- No clear separation

between vehicular and pedestrian access.

Plste 6: Amuwo Odofin- modification and addition to

existing structures

Plate 7: Open drains.

Plate 8: Iba residential scheme. Newly built additions to

residential units with improved sun-shading devices, no

street sidewalks and drains

Plate 8a: Iba residential scheme. Newly built additions to

residential units with improved sun-shading devices, no

street sidewalks and drains.

From these assessments, it was evident that

the neighborhood amenities beneficial to

resident’s well-being proposed at design

stage were either grossly inadequate and

now completely absent in about 76% of the

evaluated schemes. 82.4% of communal

open spaces was later converted to other

uses different from their original concept.

These schemes were built 1983, all of them

no longer conform to pre-designed

standards and dictates. Residential premises

and immediate neighborhood open spaces

are abandoned overgrown with weeds and

double as refuse dumping grounds. Most

neighborhoods have collapsed drains,

narrow walkways (1.0m -1.2m wide)

instead of the recommended 1.5m-2.4m.

(Neufert, 2000) and undefined foot-paths.

Buildings plans and elevations have been

altered without due approval, neighborhood

visual amenity have been destroyed.




Electricity and water supply is at residents’

discretion in all the assessed neighborhood

Well-being indicators like convenient car-

parking, shops and religious buildings,

schools, open recreational spaces were not

thoughtfully integrated in to the schemes

with the aim of delivering physical well-

being. These are inadequate, non-existent or

collapsed in about 85% of the examined

residential schemes. Rampant destruction of

neighborhood general aesthetics was

common-place in estates like Abesan ,Isolo,

Iba, and Amuwo Odofin. The impact of

these residential well-being crisis were

confirmed by government demolition of

illegal structures and unapproved traders

and artisan stalls around lager schemes like

Isolo and Abesan as the field assessment of

this study progressed.

Conclusion and Recommendations The study recommends that neighborhood

infrastructure beneficial to well-being as

suggested by resident-responsive design are

not converted and abused, in order to

maintain sustainable well-being in future

residential developments. Physical well-

being is an aspect of human well-being that

should be the design-focus of future

residential developments, while a phase-by-

phase redevelopment of existing scheme

can be systematically carried out to improve

on the well-being status of occupants. The

study highlighted the different components

and variables of well-being among selected

residential schemes, in order to facilitate

design-led actions to improve or enhance

well-being. Also, due to pressure on the

inadequate urban residential capacity, this

study recommends that the high population

existing residential schemes be reduced

with the view to enhance occupant’s well-

being.

It took 35-40 years to get to this deplorable

level of physical well-being in these

residential schemes, urgent remedial

measures are necessary to recreate

conducive living conditions for physical

well-being. In conclusion, the study

recommends that firmer pro-active

development control policy actions and best

professional practices are necessary to

protect occupants, maintain current

residential capacity and hence make the

residential developments sustainable in

terms of well-being.

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