EducationalTheoriesand PerspectivesPrepared by:Ann Haizel U. SazonMAED- FilipinoSubmitted to:Dr. Claudia Odette J. AyalaLearning Theories: Four Perspectives 1. Behaviorist Perspective Classical Conditioning: Stimulus/ResponseIvan Pavlov 1!"#1"$% &Classical Conditioning Theor'( Ivan Pavlov, in 1927, began working with learning through "classical conditioning." Initially the dog only salivated when it was eating. Later Pavlov noticed the dog salivated when he carried the food into the roo. !e becoe curious as to why this change had taken "lace. !e thought there were both learned and unlearned co"onents to the dog#s behavior. !e began e$"erienting with different stiuli, and if he rang a bell iediately before giving food to the dog, eventually the dog would salivate erely in res"onse to the sound of the bell. !e generated terinology to describe his observations. %n unconditioned stiulus &'()* such as food, generates and instinctual refle$ive, unlearned behavior, such as salivation when eating. +he salivation was called an unconditioned res"onse &'(,* because it was not learned. +hebell, forerly a neutral sound to the dog, becoe aconditioned learned stiulus &(L)* and the salivation a conditioned res"onse &(,*. )ohn B. *atson 1+#1", &Behaviorism( -ehavioris is ore concerned with behavior than with thinking, feeling, or knowing. It focuses on the ob.ective and observable co"onents of behavior. +he behaviorist theories all share soe version of stiulus/res"onse echaniss for learning. -ehavioris originated with the work of 0ohn -. 1atson, an %erican "sychologist. 1atson held the view that "sychology should only concern itself with the study of behavior, and he was not concerned with the ind or with huan consciousness. !e considered it "araount that en could be studied ob.ectively, like rats and a"es. -d.ard L. Thorndi/e 1+!#1"!" &Connectivism(2ne of +horndike#s great contributions to "sychology was the Law of 3ffect, which states that res"onses which occur .ust "rior to a satisfying state of affairs are ore likely to be re"eated, and res"onses .ust "rior to an annoying state of affairs are ore likely 42+ to be re"eated. +he second contribution was his re.ection of the notion that an is si"ly another anial that can reason. !e believed intelligence should be defined solely in ters of greater or lesser ability to for connections. +horndike#s greatest contribution is "robably the e"hasis he "laced on conse5uences of behavior as deteriners of what is learned and what is not. !e also introduced anial studies for verifying "redictions ade fro his theory. !e also was aong the first to a""ly "sychological "rinci"les in the area of teaching. -d.in 0uthrie 1%#1"," &Contiguit' Theor'( Like 0ohn -. 1atson, 6uthrie was highly "reoccu"ied with ob.ectivity and observable as"ects of behavior. !is contribution is suari7ed in one ain law that thestiulus or cobination of stiuli that led to a res"onse will lead to that res"onse again when re"eated. !e believed that the bond between stiulus and res"onse was established on the first occasion, and that re"etitions neither strengthen or weaken the link. !e referred to stiulus/res"onse bonds as "habits". !is theory lacks an e$"lanation of why s"ecific behaviors occur in the first "lace. 8 !e used contiguity to e$"lain learning 8 !is theory is challenged on the basis of the observation that huans often behave differently in the sae situation. 8 !e believed that oveents were learned, not behaviors 8 !e inii7ed the i"ortance of reinforceent since it occurs after the internal association between stiulus and res"onse has been ade 8 !e thought one habit could be re"laced by another ore desirable habit 8 +he old habit is not forgotten, but erely re"laced, so the newer res"onse takes "lace in the future. B. F. S/inner 1"1!#1""1 &2perant Conditioning( -. 9. )kinner#s syste is based on o"erant conditioning.+he organis, while going about it#s everyday activities, is in the "rocess of :o"erating; on the environent.In the course of its activities, the organis encounters a s"ecial kind of stiulus, called a reinforcing stiulus, or si"ly a reinforcer.+his s"ecial stiulus has the effect of increasing the the behavior occurring .ust before the reinforcer.+his is o"erant conditioningeory, ? Proble )olving. 6estalt becae one of the ain theories of learning. +he three ain 6estalt theorists &1ertheier, @ohler, and @offka* were all 6erans, and received their training and did their early work in 6erany, but all three ended their careers in the '). +he ter "6estalt" was coined by 6raf (hristian von 3hrenfels. !is ideas influenced thetrio of theorists. 6estalt was a holistic a""roach and re.ected the echanistic "ers"ectives of the stiulus / res"onse odels. 4uerous new conce"ts and a""roaches eerged fro this different "hiloso"hical "ers"ective. +he 6estalt theory "ro"oses that learning consists of the gras"ing of a structural whole and not .ust a echanistic res"onse to a stiulus. *ol5gang 6ohler 1+ # 1"%+ &Insight Learning( @ohler was one of the original 6estalt theorists, along with 1ertheier and @offka. %ll of these "fathers of 6estalt" were 6erans, but ended their careers in the '). 6estalt theory eerged as a reaction to the behaviorist theories of Pavlov and 1atson which focused on echanical stiulus/res"onse behavior. +he ter "6estalt" refers to any "attern or organi7ed whole. +he key conce"t in 6estalt theory is that the nature of the "arts is deterined by the whole / "arts are secondary tothe whole. 1hen we "rocess sensory stiuli, we are aware directly of a configuration oroverall "attern which is gras"ed as a whole. 9or e$a"le, when listening to usic, we "erceive a elody rather than individual notes, or when looking at a "ainting, we see the overall iage rather than individual brush strokes. @Ahler e"hasi7ed that one uste$aine the whole to discover what its natural "arts are, and not "roceed fro saller eleents into wholes. 3. Constructivism: 6no.ledge is constructed7 the Learner is an 8ctive Creator)erome Bruner 1"1, &Constructivism( (onstructivis is a eta/conce"t. It is not .ust another way of knowing, but a way of thinking about knowing. It is a theory of counication and suggests that each listener or reader will "otentially use the content and "rocess of the counication in different ways. +here are nuerous constructivist "ers"ectives, and the coon threadthat unites the is that learning is an active "rocess, uni5ue to the individual, and consists of constructing conce"tual relationshi"s and eaning fro inforation and e$"eriences already in the learner#s re"ertoire. )ean Piaget 1"% # 1""1 &0enetic -pistemolog'( Piaget stressed that the develo"ent of knowledge re"resentation and ani"ulation is not genetically "rograed into the brain. !e viewed children as young scientists who are driven to understand their world, and to change their understanding in the face of istaken "redictions about the world. (hanges in knowledge structures drive changes in fundaental cognitive ca"abilities. +he seeingly natural "rogression of cognitive ca"abilities eerge in an orderly way because certain ways of thinking ustbe astered, and for the foundation for subse5uent ones. +he later ones cannot eerge until the early ones have been astered. Stages o5 Cognitive 9evelopment:Stage8geFeatures )ensoriotor stage -irth to 2 years ,udientary "erce"tual abilities ,efle$ive oveents Inability to entally re"resent unseen ob.ects 4on/rando oveents in res"onse to sensations Pre/ 2"erational stage 2 to B years ,e"resentational thought (an ake ental transforations on ideasCiages 'nstructured flow of thought 3gocentric thinking D (annot solve conservational "robles DD =ifficulty with transitive relationshi"s DDD (oncrete 2"erations stage B to 11 years !as astered the conce"t of conservation(an take other#s "erce"tual "ers"ectives (an "erfor o"erations on concrete ideas and ob.ects (annot "erfor ental o"erations on abstractor hy"othetical eleents =ifficulty understanding relationshi"s aong relationshi"s 9oral 2"erations stage 11 years to adult (an "erfor all the cognitive abilities described.

-eyond age 1E %ccuulation of knowledge and skills and notthe ac5uisition of new cognitive abilities 9avid 6ol: &Learning St'les( @olb &19E1* develo"ed the Learning )tyle Inventory &L)I* to evaluate the way "eo"le learn and work with ideas in day/to/day life. !e used the L)I to hel" "eo"le understand how they ake career choices, solve "robles, set goals, anage others, and deal with new situations. +he instruent consists of twelve 5uestions in which the sub.ect selects one of four "ossible res"onses. +he four coluns in the instruent relate to the four stages @olb identified as a cycle of learning< (oncrete 3$"erience &(3*, ,eflective 2bservation &,2*, %bstract (once"tuali7ation &%(*, and %ctive 3$"erientation &%3*. !e "aired %3 and ,2 as "olar o""osites &doing vs. watching*, and (3 and %( as "olar o""osites &feeling vs. thinking*. )ohn Flavell &4etacognition( 9lavell &1971* used the ter etaeory in regard to an individual#s ability to anage and onitor the in"ut, storage, search and retrieval of the contents of his own eory. 9lavell invited the acadeic counity to coe forth with additional etaeory research, and this thee of etacognitive research has continued ore than thirty years later. !e i"lied with his stateents that etacognition is intentional, conscious, foresighted, "ur"oseful, and directed at acco"lishing a goal or outcoe. +hese i"lications have all been carefully scrutini7ed in subse5uent research, and in soe cases have been the sub.ects of controversy aong researchers in etacognition. 9or e$a"le, ,eder ? )chunn &199F* and @entridge and !eywood &2GGG* argue that etacognitive "rocesses need not o"erate in a "erson#s conscious awareness. Sigmund Freud 1,%#1"$" &Ps'choanal'tic Theor' o5 Learning( 9reud is best known for his contributions in the field of thera"y. !is a""roach was dynaic and clinical rather than e$"eriental. !e was one of the earliest 1esterners to recogni7e and work with unconscious "rocesses. Psychoanalysis was aneducational "rocess in which unconscious conflicts are consciously confronted. (ognition was i"ortant in 9reud#s work, and insight into one#s unconscious "rocesses is vital in regulating one#s own behavior. 9rued "ostulated a syste of develo"ental "sychology like Piaget did. !is theory included the conce"t of dynaic tension between cognitive eleents, as Lewin did.$. ;umanistic Perspective: -motions and 855ect Pla' a Role in Learning8:raham 4aslo. 1"1#1"+1 &;umanistic Theor' o5 Learning( %braha >aslow has been considered the 9ather of !uanistic Psychology. >aslow#s theory is based on the notion that e$"erience is the "riary "henoenon in the study of huan learning and behavior. !e "laced e"hasis on choice, creativity, values, self/reali7ation, all distinctively huan 5ualities, and believed that eaningfulness and sub.ectivity were ore i"ortant than ob.ectivity. 9or >aslow, develo"ent of huan "otential, dignity and worth are ultiate concerns. >aslow re.ected behaviorist views and 9reud#s theories on the basis of their reductionistic a""roaches. !e felt 9reud#s view of huan nature was negative, and he valued goodness, nobility and reason. %lso, 9reud concentrated on the entally ill, and >aslow was interested in healthy huan "sychology. Carl Rogers 1"13#1"+ &-aslow. ,ogers outlined attitudes which characteri7ed a true facilitator of learning< 1. ,ealness / the instructor should not "resent a "front" or "facade" but should strive to be aware of hisCher own feelings and to counicate the in the classroo conte$t. +he instructor should "resent genuineness, and engage in direct "ersonal encounters with the learner. 2. Pri7ing the Learner / +his characteristic includes acce"tance and trust of each individual student. +he instructor ust be able to acce"t the fear, hesitation, a"athy, andgoals of the learner. H. 3"athic 'nderstanding / +he instructor can understand the student#s reactions frothe inside. !. Social Learning Perspective: Learning as a group processLev ='gots/' 1"% # 1"$, &Social Constructivism( Iygotsky shared any of Piaget#s views about child develo"ent, but he was ore interested in the social as"ects of learning. Iygotsky differs fro discovery learning, which is also based on Piaget#s ideas, in that the teacher and older children "lay i"ortant roles in learning. +he teacher is ty"ically active and involved. +he classroo should "rovide variety of learning aterials &including electronic* and e$"eriences and the classroo culture "rovides the child with cognitive tools such as language, cultural history, and social conte$t.+he Jone of Pro$ial =evelo"ent is a conce"t for which Iygotsky is well known. It refers to the observation that children, when learning a "articular task or body of inforation, start out by not being able to do the task. +hen they can do it with the assistance of an adult or older child entor, and finally they can do it without assistance. +he JP= is the stage where they can do it assisted, but not alone. +hus the teacher often serves to guide a child or grou" of children as they encounter different learning challenges. 8l:ert Bandura 1"3,&2:servational Learning( -andura#s early work in the 19FG#s re"resents one of the bridges fro behavioristo cognitive odels for learning. 2bservational learning is the "rocess of learning by observing a odel and then du"licating a skill, "rocess, strategy, or task that is deonstrated by the odel. +his occurs without overt instructional activity, and the odel ay not even know heCshe is serving as an instruent of learning for the observer. %ccording to -andura, this ty"e of learning is an inforation "rocessing activity. 9actors that influence observational learning< 1. %ttention / the learner ust have hisCher senses directed at the odel 2. ,etention, coding, and storing the "atterns so they can be retrieved. +his ay includevivid iagery an verbal descri"tions. H. >otor re"roduction / kinesthetic and neurouscular "atterns are "racticed with successive iterations until the odel#s behavior is a""ro$iated by the observer. K. ,einforceent and incentives/ "ro"el the learner to attention, "ractice and retention. ,. 0eneral Theories o5 4emor' > Intelligence ;o.ard 0ardner &4ultiple Intelligences( +he theory of ulti"le intelligences &>I* was first offered to the educational counity by !arvard "sychologist !oward 6ardner &19EH*. )ince it was first introduced this theory has ca"tured the attention of nuerous researchers, authors, andeducators. Its intuitive a""eal and rich e$"eriential basis have led to a "rofusion of books and articles on the sub.ect. )ince his first book on >I 6ardner hiself has authored or co/authored ore than eighty books and articles on the sub.ect. +he theory has en.oyed robust evolution since its ince"tion. 6ardner#s &19EH* original seven intelligences wereusical,K. -odily/kinesthetic,B. )"atial,F. Inter"ersonal, and7. Intra"ersonal.In his later book &6ardner, 1999* he "ro"osed three additional intelligences, 1. 4aturalist,2. )"iritual, and H. 3$istential.%. Instructional Theories Lee )oseph Cron:ach 1"1% # 3111 &8ptitude Treatment Interaction* (ronbach was Professor of 3ducation 3eritus at )tanford 'niversity. +his theory "ro"osed that learning is o"tii7ed when instructional ethods are e$actly atched to the a"titudes and styles of the learner. It is based on the notion of different intelligences &see also 6ardner, )ternberg, and 6uilford*. (o"onents of e$"eriental work included task variables, situation variables, a"titudes of learners, and instructional treatents. ,esearch indicated that high ability students do better with low levels of structure in the learning environent, and that low ability students do better with highly structured environents. %ffect was also observed to influence learning, and research suggested that students with an$iety or high need to confor do better in structured environents, and students who are rela$ed and inde"endent "refer low structure. 6.P. Cross C8L &Characteristics o5 8dult Learners*(ross was influenced by theoretical fraeworks of adult learning such as andragogy and e$"eriential learning. (ross identified two classes of variables that re"resent differences between children and adult learners. +hese were "ersonal characteristics and situational characteristics. Personal characteristics include "hysical, "sychological, social, and cultural as"ects of the learner. +hese are all areas of growth as an individual develo"s fro child to adult. )ituational characteristics include "art/tieversus full/tie "artici"ation in schooling, and voluntary versus co"ulsory "artici"ation. Ro:ert 0agne 1"1%#3113 &Conditions o5 Learning( 6agne#s a.or contributions were as an e$"eriental "sychologist who worked with learning and instructional ethods. !is landark book, "+he (onditions of Learning" was "ublished in 19FB. !e also co/authored "Princi"les of Instructional =esign". 6agne linked learning outcoes with instructional designs.Re5erences-andura, %. ,oss, =., ? ,oss, ). %. &19F1*. +ransission of aggression through the iitation of aggressive odels. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, FH, B7B/BE2-andura, %. &1977*. Social learning theory. 3nglewood (liffs, 40< Prentice !all.>oore, %. &2GGG*. +eaching and Learning< Pedagogy, (urriculu and (ulture. +0 International Ltd, Padstow, (ornwell+an, ). 2 ? Parsons ,. = &2G11*. 3ducational Psychology. 4elson 3ducation, Ltd." 2HK/2B1+heories of Learning in 3ducational Psychology retrieved fro< htt"