Education of the Gifted and Talented CH 9

7/29/2019 Education of the Gifted and Talented CH 9

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CH AP TE R 9II

for Creative Growth

I know that it is possible to teach children to think creatively. . .I have seen children who had seemed previously to be

"non-thinkers" learn to think creatively, and I have seen themcontinue for years thereafter to think creatively.

E. PAUL TORRANCE (1995, P. 269)Students find training in creative strategies to be enjoyable and it does improve students' abilities to use specific strategies taught . . . Teachers should be aware that transfer will likely not occur unless they take time to assist students with seeing and practicing other

applications. SCOTT L. HUNSAKER (2005, P. 292)

N CREATIVITY BE TAUGHT?creativity be taught or are you born with it? The answer is yes and yes. Some people are borna special combination of creative genius an d intelligence that, activated by high motivationa sense of destiny, leads them to dream their dreams and implement their creations that

the world a better place. The names Leonardo da Vinci, Wolfgang Mozart, Marie Curie,Edison, Albert Einstein, George Washington Carver, and Georgia O ' Keeffe come toamount of creativity training can elevate an average person to such lofty creativeness.

from Chapter 8 that Taylor (1959) referred to this high creativeness as the genius level ofand Csikszentmihalyi (1996) classified those with it as the "big C" creative people.

At the same time, il is absolutely true that everyone's personal creativity cal1 be improved. Incase of gifted and talented children, efforts to strengthen their creative abilities-and get

to use the abilities they were born with-can have visibly dramatic effects, as evidenced, for


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222 Chapter 9 ' Creativity [[Odyssey of the Mind programs. Furthermore, theseprograms have proven effective, based on multipleoutcomes, including divergent thinking tests , problemsolving applications, surveys, an d affective measures(Meador, Fishkin, & Hoover, 1999; as cited inHunsaker, 2005).

Many teachers already are creativity conscious and integrate creativity exercises into classwork, perhaps daily. For example, some teachersarrange independent projects in language arts, sci-ence, or art areas. Such projects help students develop such creative problem-solving attitudes andskills as independence, problem defining, information gathering, idea generating, evaluating, decisionmaking, and communication , along with valuabletechnical skills.

Some teachers give divergent thinking exercises, either as a classroom brainstorming activity orby asking students individually to write their ideas.Divergent thinking problems mayor may not betied to the subject matter at hand. For example,teachers might ask students to think of unusual usesfor ping pong balls or for the math balance scales;improvements for bicycles or better ways to evacuate th e building in case of fire ; or clever ways tomake the school burglarproof or to keep th e hallways clean. Some ask "What would happen if . . . 7"questions: What would have happened if gasolineengines were never invented? if nobody went toschool? if Jefferson had not arranged the Louisianapurchase? if we didn ' t have any fingers? if nobodycould spell or write a correct sentence? Many workbooks are filled with divergent thinking and othercreativity exercises and activities. Some favorites areHearthstone Traveler (Stanish, [988), Mindglow(Stanish, 1986 ), H i p p o g r ~ f f Feathers (Stanish, 1981),l Believe in Unicorns (Stanish, 1999), Sunflowering(Stanish, 1977), Teac hing ls Listening (Gordon &Poze, 1972a), Strange and Farmllar (Gordon & Poze ,1972b), Making It Strange (Gordon, 1974), and NewDirections in Creativity (Renzulli, Callahan, Smith,Renzulli, & Ford, 2000).

Further, as we will see in Chapter II, teachersinterested in character and values education can use"What would happen if . . . ?" questions, brainstorm -ing, and other creativity thinking techniques taught

and values and make commitments to prodnot self-destructive, principles. "What wouldif everyone were always rude to everyone elsem any ways can we think of to make a newfeel welcome?" (Davis, 2003a, 2003c).

Some teachers review biographical intion about creative people, such as the tlifestyles, attitudes, and thinking habits ofEin stein, Curie, or Picasso. They might ask sto research the life of a creative person anmight design and create a learning centerplains the person's thinking style, personalitygles, and accomplishments. On parents' nigdents might dress as famous creative characexplain " what it 's like being me" (Betts & K1999). The goal of the biographical approahelp students better understand creativity a. ative people and, possibly, to motivate themquire some of the attitudes an d technical talehave learned about.

Specific training in divergent thinkingtive. Pyryt (1999; as cited in Hunsaker, 200meta-analysis of 25 studies, concluded that simproved performance in divergent thinkinwas directly correlated with the number ofsessions in which they participated. He furthethat direct teacher in s truction was more ethan student self-directed study.

GOALS OF CREATIVITY 'rRAININGThe strategies just described are logical ef" teach creativity." However, creativity tmight be better structured if we itemize thgoals and objectives of such training an d tview ways to achieve each objective (see, e.g1987, 1989a, 2003b, 2004). The list is bruncomplicated:

raising creativity consciousness, teachative attitudes, and strengthening creatsonality traits;

improving students' understanding of cr strengthening creative abilities through e teaching creative thinking techniques; involving students in creative activities


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recommendation is that a sensible creativityeffort should include all of these objectives

their corresponding activities. By a remarkablea sensible order of objectives an d their

learning activities exactly matches th e orderwhich these topics are presented.

ANDPERSONALITY TRAITS

creativity consciousness and creative alti-is the single most important component of teach -

growth. Creative attitudes are taught increative thinking course and program, and forreason. To think creatively, a person must be

of creativity. He or she must valuethinking; appreciate novel and far-fetchedbe open-minded and receptive to the zany ideas

mentally set to produce creative ideas;be willing to take creative risks, make mistakes,even fail. Sternberg (2000a), in fact, argued thatcreativity stems from conscious decisions-for

redefine problems, overcome obstacles,what you love to do, and believe in yourself.

In Torrance's (1995) list of 20 suggestions forcreativity in school experiences, about halfsing creativity consciousness and alter

attitudes, such as "Teach children to value theirthinking," "Develop tolerance of new ideas,"

"Develop constructive criticism, not just criti(p. 44). In Piirto's (2004) list of 13 suggestions,

most all did-for example, "D o your own creativeand "Set a creative tone."Many students are capable of creative achieve

they do not think about creativityr apprecia te the importance of creativity for theirgrowth-for developing their talents and

coping successfully with their world,for simply getting more out of life. Students also

become more aware of the importance of creinnovation in th e history of civilization an d for

society's present and future problems.without creative innovation an d creative

ple, we still would be living in caves during ourand sick lives, digging roots and clubbing ro

lunch.

Cha pter 9 Creativity]]Strengthening CreativePersonality TraitsCreative persona lity traits are tied close ly to creaattitudes and awarenesses. 'vVe normally do no t spof "teaching perso nality traits." However, teachersreward and encourage the (positive) kinds of traits beh aviors that relate to creative thinking-confidenindependence, enthusiasm, adventurousness, a willness to take risks, curiosity, playfulness, humor, talone for thinking, interest in complexity, perceptness, and artistic and other aesthetic interests. Cropand Urban (2000) suggested these important attituan d personality traits that may be strengthenedthe classroom: autonomy, ego strength, positive sconcepts, preference for complexity, toleranceambiguity, and acceptance of all (even contradtory) aspects of one's own self.

Regarding "contradictory" aspects of the sBarron (1969) and others noted long ago thatative perso ns assimilate traits traditionally associawith the opposite sex. More recently, CropleyUrban (2000) reported this "integration of opsites": stereotypically masculine traits of autonose lf-confidence, an d toughness with stereotypicfeminine traits of sensitivity, intuition, and respobility. Even with brilliant, natural potential, thouwould a Hell's Angel pursue a career in ballet?

Teachers can also foster creativity by encouring students to learn independently, by no t judgstudent ideas harshly, tolerating "sensible" errors,couraging flexible thinking, promoting self-evaluatencouraging fantasy and imagination, helping studecope with fru stration and failure, accepting studentthey are, helping students resist peer pressure to cform, rewarding courage as much as rewarding beright, and being aware that a child's "difficult" behacould be a manifestation of creativity (CropleyUrban, 2000; Fleith, 2000; Rejskind, 2000).

Teachers also m ay take a direct ap proach: Hstudents understand each creative attitude and tan d why it is essential for creativeness.Creative AtmosphereCreative at titudes and awareness relate closely tonotion of a creative atmosphere, an environmwh ere creativity is encouraged and rewarded. C


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224 Chapter 9 Creativity IIRogers ( 1962) called it psychoLogicaL safety, a prerequisite for creative thinking. In brainstorming it iscalled deferred judgment- the noncritical, nonevalu -ative, and receptive atmosphere where fresh and evenwild ideas may be safely proposed.

When a teacher refers to the "different" child asa creative thinker, the students are less likely to referto that child as weird and the student is more likely tobe appreciated rather than shunned.

It is an ancient and honored principle of psy-chology that rewarded behavior will persist and be -come stronger, while punished or ignored behaviorwill disappear. A creative atmosphere rewards creative thinking and helps it become habitual.

Blocks to CreativityCreative attitudes and predispositions may be aidedwhen teachers raise students' awareness of blocks andbarriers to creative thinking, which may be categorizedas perceptual, cultural, and emotional (Davis, 1999,2004; Simberg, 1964 ). With perceptual blocks, we be -come accustomed to perceiving things in famiJiar ways,and it simply is difficult to view them in a new and cre-ative way. Here is an illustration of a perceptual block:Given the letter stream BTAENNLEATNTEARS, crossou t [0 letters to find a meaningful word. (See footnoteif you give up."" )

Cultural blocks, as with perceptual blocks, re-sult from learning and habit. With cultural blocks,we have the creativity-squelching effects of traditions, conformity pressures, and social expectations,which-along with " fear of being different"-w i l lnip creativeness in its proverbial bud.

Conformity pressures and social expectationscan take the form of idea squelchers. The list that fol-lows contains some favorites, condensed from alonger list by Warren (1974 ; Davis , 2004). Thinkabout your efforts in installing an innovative GfTprogram as you read these:

It won 't work. It's not in th e budget.

The so lution is BANAN . \"/hat did you cross out '

We've never done it before .We're not ready for it yet."Vhat will parents think?We' re too small for that.We have too many projects now.Somebody would have suggested it bewere any good.We can ' t do it under the regulations.It's not in the cu rri culum.[t will mean more work .

Such idea squelchers are the products of unrinflexible, and uncreative attitudes .

It is true, of course, that the human p. of socialization, educat ion, and even healrelations necessarily require a good meconformity. How ever, chiLdren and adults saLize that there is a time for conformity anfor creativity.

Emotional blocks are the insecurities aeties that interfere with creative thinking.find temporary states. such as job anxietiepressures, emotiona l problems, or health cWe also have more permanent emotionasuch as a chronic fear of making mistakes ofear of being different , fear of not beingenough , fear of rejection. fear of supervisority. and other persis tent anxieties.

Some of us need a whack on the sidhead to jostle us out of our uncreative attituBox9 .1).

Fortunately, a heightened creativity coness and creative attitudes are a natural ouof most types of classroom creativity exercac t ivities . As we noted in Chapter 2, thdifferences between people who haveabilities and those who use their creativel ie in attitudes. awar e ness, and relatedpersonality traits that predispose peopleand behave in creative ways. Sternbergitemized tips that encourage students tocreative habits an d t ra i ts-and to use thBox 9.2 ).


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Chapter 9 Creativity rr

AWhack on the Side of the Head

One popular book on stimulating creativity, written for corporate readers, is entitled A Whack on the Side ofHead (von Oech, 1983) The entire book focused on removing 10 mental blocks. As his book title suggests, Ittake a whack on the side of the head to Jolt us out of our anticreative attitudes.

The first mental block, The Right Answe r, is the well-learned assumption that there is one right answer.this is not so. We should look for the second right answer, the third ri ght answer, and mnrc . A later right ansprobably will be more creative than the first.

Von Oech's second block , That's Not Logical, is based on the common assumption thilt logical thin ki nbetter than illogical thinking. However, illogical thinking stimulates the imaginative p:y and new perspectthat can generate creative ideas.

A third block to creative thinking is Follow the Rules . Instead of following thE' rules, :'J id von Oech,should play the revolutionary and challenge rules. He rec ommended holding" rule-Inspecting and rule-d iscardisessions .

Pressure to Be Practical is his fourth block. Instead, we should ask creativity-stimulating "What iP " qutions and encourage " what-iffing" in others.

AvoidAmbiguity is the fifth block. In fact, a period of amb iguity is an integral part of creative problem sing. Such ambiguity inspires Imaginative solutions.

Von Oech's sixth block is To Err Is Wrong While a fear of mak ing mi"takes inhibits trying new things,ative innovation necessarily requires making errors and even failing. Thomas Watson, founder of IBM, claim"The way to succeed is to double your failure rate" (von Oech, 1983, p. 93 )

The seventh block is the notion that Play Is Frivolous . Countless creative Innovations and scientific disceries have been born by playing with ideas; and childlike thinking, humor, and plaYing with ideas are commtraits of creative people.

Block number eight is That's Not My Area. This block is an excuse for not even trying to so lve a problFurther, many innovations are born by adapting ideas from outside a field .

Don't Be Foolish, block nine, is another cultural barrier. Said von Oech, you occasionally should playfool, and you certainly should be aware of when you or others are putting down a creative "fool. "

Finally, the 1Oth block is the self-squelcher I'm Not Creative . If you se ri ou sly believe this, you wi lcorrect.

Do you need an occasional whack on the Sde of the head7

CREATIVITYcreativity training will have more impact and

a more lasting impression if students areunderstand the topic of creativity. There is

large body of information that contributes to this

2004; or Treffinger, Sortore, & Cross, 1993, fooverview). Some main topics that could comlessons "about creativity" are the following:

the importance of creativity to self and soccharacteristics of creative people;the nature of creative ideas as modificat


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226 Chapter 9 . Crea tivity JJ

BOX 9.2Tips for Strengthening Creativity

Know when to be creative and when to conform. For example, be crea tive in artistic and reproJects; do not be creat ive on multiple-choice exams or by violating normal school requirements . Find out what you are best at. Exper m ent and explore; take ri sks and cha llenge yourse lf. Youdiscover new talents. Be motivated from inside yourself. not from the outside. Work to please yourself; do things t

terest you . Seek satisfaction in d Job well done. Do not le t personal problems stop your thinking and your work . Accept that everyone somehas problems, and try to take them in stride. Work can take your mind off problems. Do not take on more-or less-than you can handle . Find the balance that allows you to do aough Job, but without accomplishing less than you could. Be persistent. Do not let frustration, boredom, or fear of failure stop your creative work. Finish

you start- but also kno"v when to qUit if you hit a dead end . Make your environment more creative. Do your parents, teachers, and friends support your crefforts) Does yo ur room in sp ire creative thinking) Can you change your environment to make Itcreat ive)Source: Informa ion based on Sternb r9 (1 990).

the nature of th e creative process- sta ges,changed perceptions, modify ing, combining,ana logical thinking;creative abi liti es;theories and definitions of creativity;tests of crea tivi ty and the rationale underlyingthem;creative thinking techniques; andbarriers to crea ti ve thinking, including vonOech's LOblocks.As we noted previo usly, biog raph ies of well

known crea tive people provide a usefu l way to teachstudents about desirable creat ive chara cteristics, attitudes, habi ts, and Ii festyles.

Students also ca n learn pri ncip les of creativethinking such as the following:

Creativity wiLl help yo u live a more interesting,successful, and enjoyable life.

Creative peop le are not rigid; they look atof

Crea ti ve peop le are aware of pressuconform-to be like everybody else. Creative peop le are not nonconfo rmerthe time.

reative thinking includes taking rismaking mistakes-Jnd the more creativeis, the greater is the risk of mistakes and

Creative people play with ideas, considof possibi liti es, use techniques, think aca lly, eva lu ate their ideas, and get theinto actio n.

Creati ve peop le use, and don ' t wastetalents.

STRENGTHENING CREATIVE ABILIIn Chap ter 8 we itemized abiliti es that logicaderli e creativity. [t is a common and re asonabegy to try to st rengthen creative abilities thprac tice and exerc ise, the same way we strenskills of reading, math, typing, solving che


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We will look again at some of those abilities,strategies, exercise s, or materials that aim at

ea ch ab ility. Note that most activitiesonly exercise creative abilities, but also implicitlycreativity consciousness and bend attitudes in a

direction.Note also that there is a thin-to-n onexistentbetween creative ab ilities Jnd many thinking

. Bloom's ( 1974) class ic higher- o rder thinkingof analysis, synthes is, and evaluation were listed

Chapter 8 as creative abilities. Other " thinkingsuch as critical thinking, reasoning, planning,

organizing are, obvi ously, essential to creativesolving. Thinking skills are disc ussed in

10.ORIGINALITY. ELABORA-

Many types of que stions and problems willthese tr aditional creative abilities. Studentsdo the exercises as a class, perhaps followingstorming rules, or else individually. One of theinvolving meth ods is to divide students into

teams. All teams work on the sameand then report all or their best ideas to the

class. Students often are surprised at the differproblem interpreta ti ons, approa ches, an d ideas

the other groups. The surprising differencesri sk putting forth their own creideas.

Some use ful types of exercises for stimulatingflexibilit y, originality, and elaboration follow:

I. With "What would happen if ... ?" exe rcises,students list conseq uences for unlikely events.The events may be ima gin


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228 Chapter 9 . Creativity IIway to serve lunch in the cafeteria, new sandwiches or other treats for McDonald's, a bettermousetrap, and so on.Looking more specifically at each ability,

fluency can be exercised by having students list thingsthat are, for example, round, square, sweet, sour,blue, white, made of metal, made of wood, long andslender, short and stubby, smell good, taste bad, orhave sharp edges. Some flexibility exercises ask students to look at things from different perspectives:How does this room look to a tidy housekeeper? ahungry mouse? an alien from outer space? How doesa highway look to a tire? a crow? a lost pilot?Elaboration exercises require the learner to buildupon a basic idea-for example, developing the dogwalking or cat-petting machine in detail (measurements, materials, costs) or elaborating and embellishing a short story, drawing, invention, class outingor field trip, or creative dramatics people machine.SENSITIVITY TO PROBLEMS Exercises aimed atstrengthening problem sensitivity should have thelearners find problems, detect difficulties, or identifymissing information . Therefore, one type of exerciseis having students ask questions about an ambiguoussituation or even a common object. For example,what questions could you ask about clouds, Mexico,Mickey Mouse, a computer, the moon, or the schoollunch program? Another type of problem sensitivityexercise would begin with "What don't we knowabout . . . ?" or "What is wrong with . . . ?"PROBLEM DEFINING Problem defining is a complex ability. Relevant exercises would evolve aroundthe following activities:

Identifying the "real " problem. What reallyneeds attention (fixing)? What are we reallytrying to do?Detecting missing inforrnation. What's missinghere? What else do we need to know? Identify important aspects of a problem. What's relevant? Essential? What should we focus on? What can we ignore? Clarifying and simplifying the problem.Checkout service at a discount store is veryslow. vVhat needs to be done?

Identifying subproblems. What problemslated to the main problem? What problefollow from each solution?Proposing alternative problem definitionexercise asks questions such as those pthe "[n what ways might we . . . ?" tacticCPS model (Chapter 8).Defining the problem more broadly to onew solution possibilities. VVhat is it, gethat we wish to accomplish? VVhat is a bview of this problem?

VISUALIZATION AND IMAGINATION \fisuaand imagination are, obviously, central creative (e.g., Daniels-McGhee & Davis, 1994; Piirto, Three books filled with imagination-stimulatincises are Put Your Mother on the Ceiling (D

. 1973), Scamper (Eberle, 1995), and 200 Ways oImagery in the Classroom (Bagley and Hess, 19ask students to relax, shut their eyes, and visuaJizcolorful narration-for example, "Now put a ligin each hand . . . . Hold your hands straight ouside. . . . Pretend that your light bulbs are jet engRun down the street for a takeoff . . ." (Eberle

Another exercise guaranteed to elicit vistion is a creative writing activity suggesHelman and Larson (1980): "Cut out headlinea newspaper dealing with unusual stories anthe kids make up the stories." The familiar gstore rags provide an endless supply of canheadlines. Among the winners are these inspiring entries: "Angry Dad Sells Bratty"Baby Born Talking Gives Dad WinningNumbers," "Lightning Bolt Zaps CoffinCorpse Comes Back To Life l" "Titanic SuAfloat for 80 Years," "Teacher Picks Up HitchGhost," and "Woman Weds Two-Headed ManGets Sued for Bigamyl"ANALOGICAL THINKING As we will seenext section, analogical thinki ng is not just ative ability, but it is also the single most commimportant creative thinking technique usedsciousl), or unconsciously-by creatively prodpeople (Davis, 2004; Gordon, 1961). Many acfor exercising analogical thinking appear inbooks by Gordon (1974), Gordon and Poze


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and Stanish (1977, 1986, 1988). A teacher orcoordinator also can make up his or her own

with the format of such questions as "Howhamburger like a good day at school 7" "Wha t anis like a bass fiddle and why?" "What kind of

(animal, fish, vegetable, car, book, fish,is like you?" and, perhaps,is sadness?" or "How can noise be

In the next section we will see the direct analmethod, which involves finding ideas by askingnature has solved similar problems-for exam

"How do animals, birds, and plants keep warmwinter?" "What could have given a cave dwelleridea for a spear? and \A/hat do you think was the

?"PREMATURE CLOSURE Most children

adults are guilty of grabbing the first idea thatitself. However, considering many ideas and

two of the most basic princiof creative problem solving, principles that stushould thoroughly understand. Brainstorming,heavy emphasis on the rationale behind deferjudgment, should help with this pivotal ability

attitude).Creativity Exercises

are many types of creativity and problemexercises that may be used to strengthen cre

abilities. Some are relatively simple, divergentcomplex aes

products for, or solutions to, difficult invenor design problems.A workbook by Stanish (1988), Hea rthstone

includes instruction and exercises in thesepoetry writing (cinquains, diamante ), creative

analogical thinking, values, recogpatterns in nature, idea-finding techniques,CPS model, idea evaluation, and more. Considercinquain writing strategy:

Select a title word (for example, merry-go-round).Brainstorm words (or phrases) associated withthe title (for example, wild horses, beasts, children, music, mirrors, ticket to ride).Brainstorm a second list of "-ing" words de

Chapter 9 Creativity IIlaughing, playing, circling, spinning, galloprunning).Brainstorm a third list of feeling words aending in "- ing" (for example, exciting, wdering, thrilling, rnastering, owning the woriding high).Write the title on one line, two associawords on the second line, three "-ing" woon the third line, four feeling "- ing" wordsthe fourth line , and another word associawith the title on the fifth line.

Here is one result:Merry-go-roundMusic, wild horsesGalloping, playing, laughingThrilling, wondering, mastering, owning world Ticket to ride. Said Stanish, such cinquain may be used

write about oneself, to capture the essence of a reing assignment or an important person one has stied, or as the conclusion to a unit of study. TrySome of Stanish's (1988) other exercises include following:

In what ways is our circulatory system liktree? Investigate the use of spirals in computerVan Gogh paintings, the human face, horns of animals, noral patterns, religitemples. If I were a hawk, in what ways might I assertopinion? Something that few people know about me isCreate a humorous drawing that merges tmeanings of a word (for example, horn, schbark, sock, punch). What kind of sound would an exclamatpoint (question mark, dollar sign ) make? Invent a Rube Goldberg machine , with at lefive steps, to time your suntan (walk your d


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230 Chapter 9 . Creativity IIPERSONAL CREATIVETHINKING TECHNIQUESPersonal creative thinking techniques are methodsthat are developed and used, consciously and unconsciously, by every creative person, regardless of thesubject or content of his or her creations. This topiclies at the core of central questions such as "Wheredo ideas come from?" and "What is the nature of theinternal creative process?" (Davis, 1981a ).

Most personal techniques are analogical inna ture. That is, the innova tor based the idea for thecrea tion on a news event, an hi storical event, or anearlier book, movie, melody, art or architecture style,invention, scien tific discovery, business idea, someother previous innovation , or some phenomenon innature. Indeed, whenever we hear the phrase "was inspired by ..." o r "was based upon . .," we can besure that a deliberate or accidental ana logical technique was used by the innovator.

An important point is that every sing le one ofthe standard techniques described in the next sectionoriginated as a personal creative thinking tech nique-a method that some crea tive person used inhis or her day-to-day high-level creative thinking.The standard techniques are uncomcious methodsmade conscious, knowable, and teachable.

To present the flavor of personal creativeth inking techniques, le t's look at a few examples. Inscience, Einstein used what he called "mental experiments." In hi s most noted example, he once ima gined himself to be a tiny be ing riding through spaceon a ray of light, which helped him develop his general theory of relativity.

In art we find recurrent subjects and styles withevery famous painter, reflecting their pe rsonal crea tivethinking techniques. Picasso, for example, is known forhis African, harlequin, blue, and pink (rose) periods,during which his paintings were inspired by particularthemes. He also deliberately disassembled faces andother elements and put them back together in moreoriginal arrangements. Pa ul Gaugu in painted Sou thPacific natives in his unique style, time and again.Edgar Degas is noted fo r his graceful ballerinas.Renoir's trademark is his soft pas tel, female subjectsand stilllifes. Georges Seurat used a "dot" style (pointil

Seurat's most famous painting,Afternoon on the Isle of La Grande Jatte, inspiBroadway musical Sunday Afternoon in the PaGeorge. Andrew Lloyd Weber's Cats was baT. S. Eliot's Old Possum's Book of Practical Cat

Even Leonardo da Vinci reportedly waItalian streets, sketchbook in hand, looking foes tin g faces for his pa inting The La st Throughou t ar t history, ideas for paintings havtaken from mythology, the Bible, or historical

All of Franz Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsoddrawn from the folk tune s of Hungarian gTchaikovsky, too, developed folk tunes intphonies. Aaron Cop land's man'elous AppaSpring was based on the folk tune Simp le Gifthe ever-popular Star Spangled Banner came fEnglish drinking song.Cartoonists con tinually use deliberate aca l thi nk in g to find ideas. For examp le, after Gulf War, Saddam Hussein was portrayedpowerless Wizard of Oz behind the curtain-Saddam the grea t and powerful!"

Former columnist-humorist Art Bualso used deliberate ana logical think ing-borideas and concepts from one area and usingmake a humorous political comment in anothone column, he borrowed ideas from TV soapand used them to discuss a new "Seamy, Steaof Power and Greed-The Budget of th eSta tes Government":

1 couldn't put it down. 1 kep t turning thpages to see what governmen t programwo uld be cut next. It's more frighteninthan Rosemary's Baby.

You mean it's a thriller?It 's more of a whodunit. Or, speciically, who's doing it to whom. It's abou

money and power, the strugg le for suvival, death and taxes and man's fate inworld he never made.

Any sex?The military chapters are ver

sexy, particularly the love scenes betweethe President of the United States anthe new weapons that the Pentagon ha


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You mean the President is in bedwith the military-industrial complex?

All through the book! Some of thescenes are so hot that Tip O'Neill hasthreatened to ban the book in Boston . . . .Toward the end of the 16th century, Holinshed's

Chronicles, a history book, was published. WilliamShakespeare used it extensively as a source of ideasfor Macbeth, Henry IV, Henry V, Henry VI, Richard II,and other plays. He drew from Plutarch's Lives to writeAntollY al1d Cleopatra and Coriolanus. Troilus andCrt'ssicia came from varioLlS accounts of the storyofTroy.

Contemporary novelists and screenwriterscontinue to draw ideas analogically from identifiablesources. For example, Japan's attack on Pearl Harborduring World War II inspired the films From Here toEternity, Tara , Tara Tara! and Pearl Harbor. In an interview, the screenwriter of High Noon confessed thatthe inspiration for his award-winning suspense western came from the intimidation of writers and actorsin Hollywood, by organized crime, in the 1950s.

The Star Wars series was based partly on an effective personal creative thinking technique used byGeorge Lucas. While writing the script for Star Wars,Lucas read books on mythology. Said Lucas in aTime magazine interview, "] wanted Star Wars tohave an epic quality, and so [ went back to the epics."hus, in the movie we find a young man who must

prove his manhood to himself and to his father; whorescues a princess in distress; who has an older and

iser mentor (actually, two-B e n Kenobi andoda); and who battles with a villain, Darth Vader.ome western movies have been built deliberatelyround the sa me principles.

Professional comedians also use personal crethinking techniques, both for th eir unique type ofumor and for their original delivery. Comedian Don

ickles insults people, using the same insults again and("Shut up, dummy; you're makin' a fool of your

Rodney Dangerfield 's "I don't get no respect"heme makes him one of America's most successful coedians. He continually puts himself down: "Wllen ]

born, the doctor told my mother, 'I did everyt.hingcould, but he's gonna be okay.''' "I couldn't play hide

'cause nobody wanted to find me!" "I remem-

Chapter 9 Creativit y 1f 2ber when] called this girl for a date. She said, 'S ucome on over, nobody's home.' So I went over an'body was home! " "Last week] went to a psychiatrHe said '] think you're crazy.' I said I wanted ano topinion, so he said, 'Okay, [ think you're ugly, tooThe list of creations and innovations produced via psonal creative thinking techniques, usually analogiin nature , could be endless. At the same time,should not lose sight of unexplainable creative genand inspiration. Consider the marvelous Harry Pobooks and movies. Although Ernest Hemingway drideas from his travels and World War II , he also sa"The stuff comes alive and turns crazy on ya '."Developing Personal CreativeThinking TechniquesThere are several ways students may be encourageddevelop personal creative thinking techniques. Fistudents should understand how even extraordinarcreative people have "found" ideas. This demystifcreativity and helps convince students that they acan legitimately build upon existing ideas withofeeling "uncreative." After all, if William ShakespeaFranz Liszt, George Lucas, and Art Buchwald cborrow plots, tunes, and ideas, so can they.

Second, some recurrent personal creatthinking techniques may be teachable. For exampsome techniques include these strategies:

1. Deliberately using analogical and metaphical thinking. For example, in aesthetic creations sdents can find ideas by looking at what others hadone and where their ideas came from . Students clearn to ask th es e questions: What else is like thWhat has worked for others? What could J adafrom similar problems or situations? Does histothe Bible, or other literature suggest ideas? Wwould professionals do (Davis, 2004 )?

2. Modifying, combining, and improving prent ideas.

3. Starting with the goal-perhaps an idealperfect solution, such as having the problem solveself-and working backward to deduce what isquired to reach that goal.

4. Asking yourself how the problem mightsolved 50, 100, or 200 years in the future.


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232 Chapter 9 . Creativity 11Because personal creative thinking techniques

develop (1) in the course of doing creative things or(2) from inst ruction by people who use and understand such techniques, CIT students should becomeinvolved in such inherently creative activities as art,photography, creative writing, acting, journalism , in dependent research, or other activities requiring creative thinking and problem solving.

Mentorships may be especially good, becausethey involve many hours of direct , personal workwith a creative professiona l. Field trips lead to exposure to experts, to creative ideas, and to sophisticatedelaborations and embellishments of ideas .

Visitors also can teach personal creative thinking techniqu es . For example, school districts in somestates contract with a different visiting artist orwriter each school year. In this way children have aclose view of the creative processes of a variety ofartists during their school years. University an d industry resea rchers and other creative professionalsalso may be invited to share their experiences relatedto creative discoveries and creative thinking.

STANDARD CREATIVETHINKING TECHNIQUESSeveral well-known methods for producing new ideasand new idea combinations are taught in most university and profession al creativity training courses.These strategies also may be taught to middle and highschool students and to gifted and talented elementarystudents. One lively workbook, Imagination Express(Davis & DiPego, 1973), incorporates standard creativethinking techniques into a fantasy story about aSaturday subway ride from Kansas City to Pittsburgh,to Dublin, to Tokyo, to Santa Monica, and back. It alsoteaches good creative attitudes and awarenesses.

The techniques of brainstorming, attributelisting, the CPS model, and others a re taught, for example, in the workbooks by Stanish (1977, 1981,1988, 1996, 1997, 1999, 200 1; Eberle & Stanish,1980, 1996) in a form th at is comprehensible toyoung learners.

It is worth repeating that every standard creative thinking technique began as a personal tech nique that some creativE' person explained and thusm ade conscious and teachable.

BrainstormingAlex Osborn, co founder of the New York advagency Batten, Barton, Dursten, and Osbofounder in 1954 of the Creative EduFoundation, identified the conditions an d lisrules fo r brainstorming. The main princdeferred judgment: Idea evaluation is postponelater. Deferred judgment implicitly creates ative, creative atmosphere-an appreciation foideas and a predisposition to find them. O(1963) noted, simply enough, that any type ocism or evaluation interferes with thinking ofnative ideas: You cannot do both at once. Apurpose of any brainstorming session is to genlong list of possible problem solutions.

Brainstorming may be used in the clafo r (I) teaching brainstorming as an effecti'ative thinking technique , (2) practicing cthinking (and thus strengthening attitudes anties), and, perhaps, (3) solving some pressingproblem, such as high absenteeism, messygrounds, drug problem s, traffic problems,thefts, raising money, selling play tickets, and

Osborn's four ground rules are simple:1. Criticism is ruled out. This is deferre

ment, which contributes to th e catmosphere that is essential for uninhimaginations to work.

2. Freewheeling is welcomed. The wilidea is, the better it is. Seemingly preposideas can lead to imaginative, yet workablutions.

3. Quantity is wanted. This principlethe purpose of the sess ion: to producelist of ideas, thus increasing the likelihfinding good solutions to the problem.

4. Combination and improvementsought. This lengthens the idea list. Aduring the session, students should be eaged to spontaneou sly "hitchhike " oother's ideas, with on e idea inspiring thVariations on brainstorming include

brainstorming, in which new viewpoints are foturning the problem aro und. For example, cothese questions: How can we increase vand


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How can we increase the electric bill? How can westifle creativity? How can we decrease morale? Reversebrainstorming quickly points out what currently isbeing done incorrectly and implicitly suggests solutions. With stop-and-go brainstorming, short (abo utIll-minute) periods of brainsto rming are interspersed with short periods of evaluation . This helpskeep the group on target, selecting th e apparentlymost profitable directions. In the Phillips 66 technique, small groups of six brainstorm for 6 minutes,after which a member of each group reports eith erthe best ideas or a ll ideas to the larger group.

Nominal brainstorming groups (Katzenbach,1998; as cited in Isaksen & Gaulin , 2005) may not begroups at all an d are probably inappropriatelynamed. They are groups in name only and can be verysmall groups with common goals or even "groups" ofone (hardly a group). They follow the guidelines forbrainstorming, with individuals writing their id easand sharing them afterwar d. In brainstorming, nominal groups generated more ideas than some realgroups that were not fac ilitated by a leader (Isaksen &Gaulin, 2005), although no t as many ideas as somereal groups th at were facilitated by trained leaders. Inthe same study, the brainwriting variation of brainstorming groups generated the most ideas, comparedwith other kinds of brainstorming groups. In brainwriting, the participants write their ideas down andshare them with others during the sessions so thatthey can build on on e anoth er 's ideas.

It is worthwhile to try to ru n a classroombrainstorming sess ion. The teacher begins by discussing creativity and creative ideas, which lea ds tothe subject of brains torming as one method thatstimulates creative thinking. The four brainstormingrules are discussed, and a problem selected, such as"How can we raise mon ey for new playgroundequipment?" or "How can we turn the classroom intoa foreign planet'" A volunteer scribe lists ideas on theblackboard. Th e teacher-leader 's role is to ask,"Anyone else have an idea?" Or the leader mightspecifically ask quieter students whether they haveideas they wish to contribute. If a serious problem(for example, messy hallways ) is th e focus, the leadercan give the group 48 hours' advance noti ce of theproblem. Gifted and talented students can also learnto organize and lead brainstorming sessions.

Chapter 9 Creativity Jl 2Whereas teachers and gifted students can lea

to lead brainstorming sessions of all varieties , thcan do that better with training. When brainstorming groups were led by tr ain ed facilitators , grouproduced more ideas an d were more likely to ovecome the typical barriers to successful brainstorming, such as app lying judgement inapp ropri atelygiving up in the group (H unsaker, 2005). Isaksen anGaulin (2005) remind us also that brainsto rmingonly a part of the creative process.IDEA EVALUATION Li sting wild ideas does nrepresent the complete problem-solving procesTherefore, a brainstorming session can be followedan idea evaluation session. Idea evaluation wouldmost important if the class intended to present tschool principal (or the mayor) with some blue-ribbsolutions to a real current problem. The group cbrainsto rm evaluation criteria such as the followinWill it work? Can the school afford it? Will the commnity (paren ts, principal, mayor ) go for it? Is adequatime available? Are materials available? As we saw in tprevious chapter, the most relevant criteria would listed across the top of an evaluation matrix, the spcific ideas itemized in rows down the left columTable 9.1 shows one evaluation matrix that was costructed to evaluate ideas brainstormed for the prolem "How can we build school spirit?" The total scorare a guide to ideas that students may wish to pursuThe use of objective criteria

1. helps evaluate th e ideas in a mostly unbiasemanner;

2. helps students learn to evaluate as part of thoverall creative problem-solving process;

3. teaches an effective evaluation technique, onthat is used in both the CPS model and FutuProblem Solving;

4. requires students to consider many co mpnents and views of the problem;

5. often helps the group explore its values relatito the problem at hand (what crite ria are trurelevant?);

6. prevents idea evaluation from becoming a pesonal attack on specific children; and

7. helps children understand that thinking"s illy" and "far- fetched" ideas truly can lead good, practical solutions to problems.


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234 Chapter 9 . Creativity [] TABLE 9.1 Example of Evaluation Matrix IDEAS CRITERIA

Effect Educa- School Effect Effecton tional Spirit on on

Cost Teachers Effects Effect Students Community TBuy class sweatshirts + 3 +2 +1 +3 + 3 +3Establish school baseball team -2 +2 0 +2 + 2 +2Start interclass competition 0 0 +1 + 3 + 2 0Get new school building -3 +3 +2 +3 + 3 -2Get rid of troublemakers -3 0 - 3 +1 - 3 -3POSITIVE F l r [ U ~ ; NEGATIVE EFFECTS i 3 = Excellent - I = Slighr ly Negative + 2 - c;ood - 2 = Somewhat Negative+ 1 - Fair - 3 = Ver y Negativeo = Not Applicable

Evaluation sessions may follow the use of anyof the creative thinking techniques in this section.Attribute ListingRobert Crawford ( J978), designer of attribute listing,a rgued. "Each time we take a step we do it by changing an attribute or a quality of something, or else byapplying that same quality or attribute to some otherthing." Attribute listing thus is both a theory of thecreative process and a practical creative thinkingtechnique. According to Crawford's definition, thereare two forms of attribute listing: (l) attribute modi-fying and (2) attribute rral1Sferring. Either strategymay be used individually or in a group.ATTRIBUTE MODIFYING The problem solver listsmain attributes (characteristics, dimensions, parts)of a problem object, then thinks of ways to improveeach attribute. For example, a group of studentsmight invent new types of candy bars or breakfast cereals by first writing important attributes (size,shape, f1avor. ingredients, color. texture. packaging.nutritional value. name, intended market. and so on )on the blackboard. and then listing specific ideas undereach main attribute. Particularly good combinationsa re picked out of th e lists of ideas. Not-so-good,but nevertheless entertaining, ideas- the 2-pound"Popeye's Delight" candy bar containing spinach andstero ids and created for muscle-builders-will keep

enthusiasm high. In university design engincourses the attribute modifying strategy is calsubstitution method of design.

The attribute listing technique is simpleworks-whether used for inventing breakfast cwriting short story plots, or solving any othelem in which attributes can be identified. Forple, the problem of "dirty hallways" might be aby th e listing of such attributes as studentstudent awareness, available trash containersplinary consequences. and/or other aspectsproblem. Students would li st specific ideasproving each attribute.ATTRIBUTE TRANSFERRING This is a pureanalogical thinking- t ransfe rring ideas frocon text to another. We noted earlier how delanalogical thinking is used by creative persmany aesthetic and scientific areas. As one claapplication, ideas for a creative an d memorabents' night or open house might be found by bing ideas from a carnival or circus, Disneylanthe "W ild West," a funeral pa rlor. McDonaldStar Wars or Harry Potter movie .Morphological SynthesisThe morphological synthesis technique is a simtension of the attribute listing procedure (AllenDavis, 2004). Specific ideas fo r one attrib


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Chapter 9 Creativity fT 23

A sixth grade Milwaukee class used the morphological synthesis method to generate 121 zany ideasfo r creative sandwiches, Can you find a tasty combination? A revolting one? If you add a thirddimension, with five types 01 bread, how many IOtal ideas would you have?

New Companions to Add Zest .,., u., enu::J 0; u.0 .,> '" E 0; ;0 c c:: '" .,"0; C. :J 0- E 'v; '", " .0::., 0 u:J 0- 0 'ro :J ;0 '": o '"U Tuna Fish'"...r::u Peanut Butter'U Jellyc::en" Sardines1" Deviled Ham'U"c:: Corned Beef'"U; Salmon

Cheese

Ratings 01 Various SpreadsChoices

Flavor 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5thSuper Goober(Peanut Butter /Cranberry) 17 2 0 4Charlies Aunt(Tuna and Applesauce) 3 16 2 2Irish E yes are Smiling(Corn Beef and Cottage Cheese) 0 0 16 2 6C ack leberry Wh iz(Hard Boiled Eggs/Cheese Whiz) 3 2 14 4Hawaiian Eye(Cream Cheese and Pineapple) 3 3 3 6 9

FIGURE 9.1 A Morphological Sandwich, Source,' From Creativity Is Forever, 4th ed, by G. A. Davis (Dubuque,IA: Kendall/Hunt). Used with permission.dimension of a problem are listed along one axis of amatrix; ideas for a second attribute are listed along theother axis. Plenty of idea combinations are found inthe cells of the matrix. One sixth-grade class inventednew sandwich ideas with the morphological synthesistechnique (Figure 9.1). With a third dimension (typeof bread) you would have a cube with three-way combinations in each ceiL Davis (2003a, 2003c) used morphological synthesis to generate hundreds of exercisesfor teaching values and moral thinking.

The method may be used with a half-dozen dimensions by listing ideas in columns. The columns

may be cu t into strips that can slide up or down, tocreate hundreds or even thousands of combinationmade by reading horizontally.Idea ChecklistsSometimes , on e can find a checklist that suggests solutions for your problem. For example , the YellowPages are often used as a checkJist for problems lik"vVho can fix my TV?" or "Where can I get a haircut?" High school coun selors have used the YellowPages for career counseling id eas, Ex amining a gif


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236 Chapter 9 . Creativity IIstore catalogue- or browsing through a gift store,clothing store, book store, cheese-and-sausage store,or gourmet kitchen/food shop, which often can bedone on the Internet- is also using an idea checklist.

Some idea checklists have been designed especially for creative problem solving. The most popularof these is Alex Osborn's (1963) 73 Idea-SpurringQuestions.

The checklist technique sometimes is calledthe SCAMPER method: Substitute, Combine, Adopt,Modify-Magnify-Minify, Put to other uses, Eliminate,Reverse-Rearrange.Synectics MethodsSynectics comes from the Greek word synecticos,means the joining together of apparently unrelatedelements. It was his work with creative-thinkinggroups that Jed William J. J. Gordon, originator of thesynectics methods, to identify strategies that creativepeople use unconsciously. He made these strategiesconscious and teachable in a form for adults(Gordon, 1961; Gordon and Poze, 1980) and for children (Gordon, 1974; Gordon and Poze, 1972a, 1972b;see also Stanish, 1':177, 1':)86, 1988).DIRECT ANALOGY With this method, the personis asked to think of ways that similar problems aresolved in nature by animals, birds, flowers, weeds,bugs, worms, lizards, and so on. For exam pIe, ideasfor conserving energy could be found by asking howanimals keep warm in winter.

In a creativity workshop for the elderly, many ex-pressed concern for their personal safety With a synectics approach, the problem became, "How do animals,plants, and birds protect themselves, and how can theseideas help the elderly?" The list included spray cans ofskunk scent, slip-on fangs and claws (mildly poisonous), a compressed air can that screams, an electronictransmitter that secretly "yells" for police assistance,traveling only in groups, camouflage, or disguises (forexample, wearing a police uniform), and others.PERSONAL ANALOGY Imagine you are a piece ofcandy sitting quietly with your candy friends on theshelf of the local drugstore. A little boy walks in, placesa nickel on the counter and points at you. How do youfeel? What are your thoughts? Describe your experi

ences for the next 15 minutes. The purpose of suercises is to give elementary students practice wpersonal analogy creative thinking technique.this strategy, new perspectives are found by becpart of the problem, usually a problem object.would you be like if you were a highly efficieopener? A captivating short story? A truly excitinvaluable educational learning experience for chiFANTASY ANALOGY Problem solvers thifantastic, far-fetched, and perhaps ideal solthat can lead to creative, yet practical, ideas. Gsees fantasy analogy as a type of Freudian wish fment. For example, we can ask how to makproblem solve itself: How can we make the hakeep themselves clean? How can we get parewant to attend open house? How can we gsch091 board to want to give us a new instrucmaterials center? Some years ago, design engprobably asked, "How can we make refrigeratofrost themselves? ovens clean themselves? autbile brakes adjust themselves?" This was emplfantasy analogy.SYMBOLIC ANALOGY A fourth synecticsnique is called symbolic analogy; other namcompressed conflict and book titles. Your dictionacall it an oxymoron. The strategy is to think ofword phrase or "book title" that seems self-conttory, such as "careful haste" or "gentle toughnesscompressed conflict would be related to a partproblem and would stimulate ideas. For exampphrase "careful haste" might be used by educatfirefighters to stimulate ideas for quickly and evacuating a large school building. "Gentle toughmight stimulate ideas for designing automobiledurable fabrics, or long-distance bicycles.

An exercise from a synectics workTeaching Is Listening, by Gordon and Poze (19includes a direct analogy, personal analogy, andbolic analogy:

1. \A/hat animal typifies your concept of free(Direct analogy)

2. Put yourself in the place of the animahave chosen. Be the thing! Describemakes you feel and act with so much free(Personal analogy)


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3. Sum up your description of the animal youchose by listing the "free" and ('unfree" parts ofyour animal life.Free: ________________

Un free: _____________

4. Express each of these parts of your life in a single word. Put together these two words and refine them into a poetic, compressed conflictphrase .

5. Circle the phrase you like best. Write a newessay about freedom. Use any material youmay have developed in this exercise.Synectics methods can be used in the class

mom either as creativity exercises or as material forlessons in techniques of creative thinking.

As a final note on creativity techniques, a five volume series of activity books for students at different grade levels (K-8) uses brainstorming and other"forced relationship" techniques to improve students'

Chapter 9 C reativity II 2"ideational fluency and originality . . . [and ] the abito speculate and imagine" (Renzulli et a1., 2000, p.As with virtually all creativity training efforts,activities will also strengthen creativity consciousnand other creative attitudes. As a sample activity, sdents are given an improbable situation and asked consequences: "What would happen if there were such thing as darkness or night''' (p. 2). Follow-uptivities include asking students for improbable sittions for which classmates can think of consequencThe activities are intended to elicit humor and plfuln ess- - Iegitimate parts of creativity. (For furtinformation, visit www.creativelearningpress.coImplementation Chartingimplementation charting helps gifted children see iplementation as a realistic next step in creative thiing, following the generation of ideas and the selectof one or more workable solutions. With implemention charting, students prepare a chart specifying bthe persons responsible for implementing componeof the ideals) and a completion deadline. For exampif the best idea for increasing school spirit were toschool sweatshirts, then an implementation chart suas the one in Table 9.2 might be suitable.

TABLE 9.2 Implementation Chart for Selling School SweatshirtsTime forActivity Person Responsible Implementation

1. Ask permission for project Ron March 102. Design sweatshirt Lateisha, Ruth March 15-203. Approve design Student Council March 224. Review possible sweatshirt sellers Ana. John March 15-205. Make recommendation to Student Council Student Council March 226. Order sweatshirts Ana. John March 247. Organize student sales campaign Tomas, Maria & Allan March 22-31

a. Posters Bob, Andy March 25b. Article in school newspaper Alice March 25-31c. Article in community newspaper Allan March 28

8. Actual beginning of sales Tomas, Maria & Allan April 109. Student Sweatshirt Day Ron, Lateisha & Ruth April 12

10. Evaluation of success of project Original Brainstorming Group April 20
http:///reader/full/www.creativelearningpress.comhttp:///reader/full/www.creativelearningpress.com


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238 Chapter 9 Creativity IINote that there is more than one role of

evaluation in creative problem solving. In the presentexample, the initial ideas were evaluated in an evaluation matrix (Table 9.1). After one or more ideas areselected and the project implemented, a later evaluation can determine whether the project was successful and whether it should be continued.

INVOLVING STUDENTSIN CREATIVE ACTIVITIESThe most logically sound answer to the question"How can we teach creativity?" is this: Involve students in activities that intrinsicaiJy require creativethinking and problem solving. It is virtually assuredthat creative attitudes, abilities, and skills will bestrengthened in the course of this creative involvement. It is no accident that Renzulli's Type IIIEnrichment (Renzulli and Reis, 1997; see Chapter 7)focuses on developing creativity via individual orsmall group projects and investigations of realproblems. Appendix 7.1 lists topics in art, science,literature, and so on, that will stimulate creativethinking and problem solving. We particularly recommend the Future Problem Solving and Odysseyof the Mind programs , which were designed toteach creativity through involvement with realproblems and projects.

The G/T teacher-coordinator should be con tinually alert for opportunities to exercise creativethinking and problem solving in content areas.Available opportunities also might be expanded. Aremusic, science, and art programs adequate? Are students encouraged to become involved in scientificand aesthetic activitie s? Are community resourcesand mentors being used to good advantage?A KNOWLEDGE BASE As a consideration, on theone hand-and contrary to some strong opinionsit is possible to think creatively "in the abstract." Onedoes not need a great fund of specialized knowledgeto brainstorm ideas for improving local traffic conditions, making parents ' night more exciting, ormaking Wanda the guinea pig a little happier. Manysuch problems were posed, and solutions suggested,earlier. On the other hand, one does need a goodknowledge base for making creative contributions in

a specialized area, which happens with indepent research projects and with real-world crinnovations, for which the inspiration growseducation and experience. Although there issiderable research that supports effectiveneteaching creative thinking strategies or incrdivergent thinking, Hunsaker (2005) reminthat the missing piece is that there is nothingcreative thinking research which assures usstudents transfer their skills to their world outhe classroom.

CREATIVE TEACHINGAND LEARNING

Torrance (1977) stated that "people fundamenprefer to learn in creative ways." These wayclude exploring, manipulating, questioning, eimenting, risking, testing, and modifyingSaid Torrance, learning creatively takes placeing the processes of sensing problems, deficienor gaps in information; formulating hypothesguesses about a problem; testing, revisingretesting the hypotheses; and then communicthe results. He explained that problems aroussion, thus motivating the learner to ask quesmake guesses, and test the adequacy of the gucorrecting errors and modifying conclusionecessary.

Some recommendations for creative teacpartly from Torrance (1995), include the follow

Maintain high teacher enthusiasm .Accept individual differences-for examppreferred ways of learning, learning rfaults, and so forth.Permit the curriculum to be different foferent students.Communicate that the teacher is "for" rthan "against" the child.Encourage and permit self-initiated proSupport students against peer conforpressures.Allow or encourage a child to achieve suin an area and in a way possible for him o


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Do not be blinded by intelligence test scores;they do not tell the whole story.Do not let pressure for eva luation get theupper hand .Encourage divergent ideas; too many "right"ideas are stifling.Teach how to test each idea systematically.Create necessities for creative thinking.Create "thorns in the flesh."Encourage the habit of working out the fullimplication of idea s.Try to be "adventurous of spirit."Do not be afraid to wand er off the teachingschedule and try something different.Torrance ( 198 Ja, J98 Jc, 1995; see also Mill ar,

1995; Hebert et al., 2002) summarized so me signsthat creative learning is taking place, which partlyrepresent benefits of creative teaching and learning.These include improved motivation, alertness, curiosity, concentration , and achievement; a chargedatmosphere "tingling with excite ment"; the combining of activities that cut across curriculum areas; improved communication of ideas and feelings; a boldness in ideas, drawings, stories, and so on; improvedself-confidence; improved creative growth and creative express ion; a reduction in unproductive behav- 'ior, behavior problems, hostility, vandalism , and apathy; and an increase in enthusiasm abo ut school,learning and improved career aspirations.

Piirto (2004) recommends) 3 practical guidelines for how parents and teachers can enhance creativity both at home and at sc hool:

1. Provide a private place for creative work to bedone.

2. Provide material s (e.g., musical instruments,s.ketchbooks),

3. Encourage and display the child's creativework, but avoid overly evaluating it.

4. Do your own creative work, and let the childsee you doing it.

5. Set a creative tone .6. Value the creative work of others.7. Incorporate creativity values into your family

mythology.

Cha pter 9 Creativity II8. Avoid emphasizing sex-role stereotypes .9. Provide private lessons and special classes.

10. If hardship co mes into your life, use it tively to teach the child expressio n thrometaphor.

11. Emph asize that talent is only a small pacreative production, and that disciplineprac tice are important.

12. Allow the child to be "odd"; avoid emphing socialization at the expense of creex pression .

13. Use humor, and ge t creativity training.

Fostering Academic CreativityChapters 8 and 9 have provided quantities of imation on the creative personality, the creprocess, and creative thinking and problem-soltechniques. Teaching students to apply theseniques to their real world is surely the lifetimebut within the classroom it is important for chilto learn to apply these techn iq ues to their acadsubjec ts such as math, sc ience, history and En(Ca rlson, 2002; Meador & Granada , 20 02; Smu2002; Torrance & Goff, 1990).

An example given by Torrance and Goff (1makes it clear. Children can be asked to memthe date Columbus discovered America, or theybe as ked how history would have been differeColumbus had landed in Ca lifornia. Which queis more engaging?

Shallcross (1981) created exercises that cbe integrated into specific subject matter. As sexamples, consider the following:

1. Sculpt something, using leaves, rocks, pand a paper bag (art).

2. List ways to get children to enjoy brustheir teeth (health).

3. Invent a one-step "meal-i n-one" (home a4. Plan a mystery or soap opera ser ies , using

morphological synthesis approach (langarts; described in next section ).

5. Think of new ways to measure time, wateror height (math ).

6. Have someone strike three notes on a piUse them as the basis for a melod)' (m usic


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240 Chapter 9 . Creativity II7. Invent stretching exercises for joggers (physical

education).8. Brainstorm ways that endangered species

might be preserved (science).9. Brainstorm ways that different cultures could

learn to understand each other better (socialstudies).

Are you thinking that there isn't enough timwasn't that listed as an idea squelcher earlierchapter?

Creativity training and creative teachimake a difference for gifted, normal, and evebled students. And yes, indeed, creative teachitake more time.

SummaryCreative thinking can be measurably increased. Manyteachers incorporate creativity training activities into theirclassrooms.

Goals of creativity training include increasing creativity consciousness and creative attitudes and personalitytraits, helping students understand creativit)', strengthening creative abilities, teaching creativity techniques, involving students in creative activities, and fostering academiccrea tiv i Y.

Creativity consciousness Jnd creative attitudes include an awareness of creativity, valuing creativity, a predisposition to think creatively, a willingness to make mistakes,and others. A teacher can reinforce creative personaliry traits(e.g., con6dence, curiosity, risk taking, playfulness, artistic interests); promote independent learning, self-evaluation, andfantasy and imagination; help students cope with failure andwith peer pressure to conform; establish a creative atmosphere; and raise awareness of blocks to creative thinking.

Creative persons accept personality traits stereotypically associated with the opposite sex, such as autonomy,confidence, and toughness (masculine), along with sensitivit)" intuition, and res ponsibility (feminine) .

Helping students understand creativity can involvelessons on the importance of creativity, characteristics ofcreative people, creative abilities, theories of creativity, creativity tests, creativity techniques, blocks and barriers tocreativity, and important principles of creativity.Many types of exercises exist for strengthening creative abilities such as fluency, flexibility, originality, sensitivity to problems, problem defining, visualiza tion, analogicalthinking, and others. Stanish's workbooks include simpleand complex (e.g., poetry writing, inventing) exercises .

Personal creativity techniques-usually analogicalare used by every creatively productive person. Examplesof these techniques were cited from science, art, music, political cartooning, political satire, theater, moviemaking,and comedy.

Teachers may help students to develop persoativit), techniques , by explaining the techniques others, teaching such problem-solving strategies asfor analogica lly related solutions, working backwaan i d ~ a l goal, encouraging involvement in creativeties, and arranging for instruction from creative sionals who use such techniques.

Standard creative thinking techniques armonl)' taught in creativity courses and workshops.

Brainstorming is based on deferred judVariations include reverse brainstorming, stop-brainstorming, the Phillips 66 procedure, nominastorming groups, and brainwriting. Brainstormingled by trained leaders performed better.

Students may be taught idea eva lu ationevaluation matrix.The attribute listing technique takes twomodifying important problem attributes and tranattributes from one situation to another, which iscal thinking.

Morphological synthesis, an extension of alisting, is a matrix approach to generating ideas.

Osborn's "73 Idea-Spurring Questions" ischecklist designed for creative problem solving.

Four synectics methods include direct analooking for ways that similar problems have been snature; personal analogy, in which ideas are foundcoming a problem object or process; fantasy anawhich the thinker looks for far-fetched, perhaps idetions to problems; and symbo lic analogy, in whiword conflicts are used to stimulate new perspectiv

Implementation charting includes assigningsibilities and deadlines. Project success can be evalu

Involving students in creative activities- sucdependent research projects, Future Problem SolviOdyssey of the Mind-is a sound way to develop ski lls, abilit ies, attit udes, and awarenesses.


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thcresults.

A deep knowledge ba se is important for creativecontributions in a spec iali zed area, but not for classroomcreativity exercises .

According to Torrance, creat ive teaching and learning includes exploring , questioning , experiment ing, testingideas, and other activities. Creative learning includes sensing a problem; formulating hypotheses or guesses; testing,revising and retesting the hypotheses; an d co mmunicating

Some recommendations for creative teaching in duded maintaining hi gh enthus iasm, accepti ng individualdifkrenc es . encouraging se lf- initiated projects, looking

Chapter 9 Creativity IIbeyond IQ scores, encouraging divergent thinking, cing necessities for creative thinking, providing resofo r working ou t ideas, avoiding sex-role stereo types, aing ch ild ren to be odd. an d using humor.

Teaching children to apply creative thinkingniques is surely a lifetime goal, but within the classrois important for children to apply these techniques toacademic subjects. Shallcross suggested exercises thatied to specific subject areas .

Creative le arning can resu lt in improved motion, ach ievement, creativity. self-confidence, schooltudes, an d others.

Education of the Gifted and Talented CH 9

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