Educating Language Minority Learners in the U.S.

Seminar 1February 4, 2008

Jeannette Mancilla-MartinezHarvard Graduate School of Education

Gutman 303

Seminar 1:Educating L2 Learners

in the U.S.

Seminar 2:Pedagogical Models

Seminar 3:Reading Words &

Comprehending Text

Seminar 4:Vocabulary &

Academic Language

Seminar 5:Spelling, Grammar, &

Writing

Seminar 6:Disability vs. Exposure

Language Minority (LM) LearnersRefers to individuals from homes where a language other than a societal language is actively used, who therefore have had the opportunity to develop some level of proficiency in a language other than a societal language. A language-minority student may be of limited second-language proficiency, bilingual, or essentially monolingual in the second language.

August & Hakuta, 1997

Terminology

Societal/national/official language

ESL: English as a Second Language

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ELL: English Language Learners

LEP: Limited English Proficient

L1: First Language

L2: Second Language

Societal/national/official languageSocietal language

One, often one of several, of the languages used in a country

National languageA language considered to be the chief language in a country

Official languageA language mandated for use in official government transactions and communications, in courts of law, and in laws and regulations governing the nation as a whole

August & Shanahan, 2006

English as a Second Language (ESL)

Students whose native language is not English and are learning English as a second language in an English speaking country

English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

Students whose native language is not English and are learning English in a non-English speaking country

English-language Learners (ELL)

Students whose native language is not English

Limited English Proficient (LEP)

Term often used in state and federal regulations to refer to English Language Learners (ELLs)

Background Characteristics

Some have strong academic preparation; others arrive with limited formal schooling20% of all ELLs at the high school level and 12% at the middle school level have missed 2 or more years of schooling since age 6 (Ruiz deValesco & Fix, 2000)

Not necessarily literate in their first languageGaps in educational background; school routines, expectations

Immigrant Children vs. Children of Immigrants

Immigrant ChildrenBorn outside the U.S.

Children of ImmigrantsU.S.-born to immigrant parents

61% live in households where one or both parents are non-citizens

Growing Population of Immigrant Families

5 states with most rapid growth between 1990-2000:

North Carolina (270%)

Nebraska (269%)

Arkansas (244%)

Nevada (236%)

Georgia (210%)

4th Grade Reading: Non-ELLs vs. ELLs

50th %ile

18th %ile

8th Grade Reading: Non-ELLs vs. ELLs

50th %ile

14th %ile

BICS and CALP

BICS = Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (2 years)

CALP = Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (at least 5 years)

Essentially underscoring the distinction between conversational fluency and grade-appropriate academic proficiency

Cummins, 1979

Threshold Hypothesis

Aspects of bilingualism which might positively influence cognitive growth are unlikely to come into effect until the child has attained a certain minimum (or threshold) level of competence in the L2

Cummins, 1978

Developmental Linguistic Interdependence

A child’s L2 competence is partly dependent on the level of competence already achieved in the L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins

Believes there is a common underlying cognitive/academic proficiency which is common across languages, and which makes transfer of literacy-related skills from L1 to L2 possible

Experience with EITHER can promote development of the other, given adequate motivation and exposure

Cummins, 1978

Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)

Cummins, 1984

Political IssuesDemographic change

immigration, ethnicity, language

shift in political power

Increasing enrollment of ELLs

More than doubled in the past decade

Power relations: Societal languages, colonial languages, indigenous languages

Finances

Quality of education

literacy of the population

Policy and Practice

Influencing Factors:Political leadership

Immigration patterns

Supreme court rulings

Language debates

Research

1850-99 1900-09 1920-29 1940-49 1960-69 1970-79

Bilingual Education state laws

German Bilingual Education; from 1910-1919 = anti-German sentiment & language restrictions

English only laws in 15 states after the war

Adult/child ESL classes Bilingual

Research; Bilingual Education Act signed into law

Lau v. Nichols; Office of Civil Rights Task Force Visits

1980s 1984 1990-99 2000-present day

Demographic shifts; Population of L2 speakers = 40% in US

Ron Unz; Prop 227

English-only programs accepted under mandate of bilingual education; U.S. English & English First groups

Prop 203;Question 2;NCLB

Policy & Practice Today

Phase of English-only activisme.g. English for the Children

• Based on concerns about bilingual education

• ‘Rights’ of children associated with English learning

• Length of time vs. quality of English learning

Policy & Practice Today

Class sizes

Native language proficiency

Shortages of bilingual teachers

Overall academic performance

Demographics

Community goals

Resources

Banning Bilingual Education

California (1998)

Arizona (2000)

Massachusetts (2002)These states account for more than one-half of non-native English speakers

California

The way it was

Bilingual education implemented for nearly 30 years in CA

California

The battle beginsThe 1990s

1992: Governor Wilson vetoes new bilingual education bill, arguing it would limit the flexibility of local school boards1996: Four school districts granted “waivers” by State Board of Education exempting them from compliance with the provisions of the Bilingual Education Act

California

1998

“English for the Children” (Proposition 227) wins with 61% of vote

All children in CA public schools to be taught in English to learn English

Sheltered English immersion for English learners should not exceed 1 year during the transitional period

CaliforniaMost recently

1999: State Board of Education eliminates the redesignation criteria so each of the 1,000 districts required to set own criteria for classifying students as Fluent English Proficient (FEP)Proportion of ELLs receiving bilingual instruction dropped from 30% to 8%, proportion receiving SDAIE increasedLittle or no evidence of differences in EL performance by model of instruction across all analyses in 2003-2004

Likelihood of ELL meeting linguistic and academic criteria needed to reclassify them to fluent English proficient status after 10 years is less than 40%

Arizona

The way it was

16% ELLs

Only 30% of students eligible for language services were involved in true bilingual education programs

Arizona

2000

“English for the Children” (Proposition 203) wins with 63% of vote

One year of English immersion instruction

Massachusetts

The way it was

MA first state in nation to enact bilingual education (1971)

3% of ELLs in K-12 students served by bilingual classes

Bilingual program “trigger” = 20 students of a single language group district-wide

Massachusetts2002

English Immersion- English only (Question 2) wins with 68% of vote

Non-English speakers in English immersion classes for 1 year, then mainstreamsTeachers can use ‘minimal amount’ of student’s native languageTeacher can be sued for ‘willfully and repeatedly’ violating Question 2Students can sign waivers if they are 10 years or older or for other ‘academic needs

MassachusettsMost recently

MA Legislature voted to allow two-way bilingual programs to continue under English immersion mandate.

Two-way immersion classes allow English and non-English speaking children to learn each other’s languages simultaneously.Program popular, but serve a very small fraction of the 51,000 ELL in the state.Gov. Romney vetoed this legislation, but House and Senate overrode his vetoes.This legislation counters Question 2’s intention of limiting bilingual ed to older students.