Case Studies Guidance Notes

Early Cinema

1: Editing in Early Cinema

In early cinema, many filmmakers seemed hesitant to splice different shots from separate locations together, assuming this would confuse audiences. However, it soon became apparent that audiences would enjoy an entirely different experience at theatres, and so new techniques and styles were adopted. Certain individuals such as Thomas Edison and the Lumiere Brothers are famous for pioneering the essential aspects of producing a motion picture. The first time films were ever screened to an audience was during the late 1800’s, and one such film, “Arrival of a Train at a Station” was presented in 1895.

It was the Lumiere Brothers who produced this series of films. They referred to them as ‘actualities’. The camera remained static and the flow of action went uninterrupted all the way through. There was a mixture of fascination and horror within the audience who had never seen anything like it before. However, because editing techniques were only just being discovered, filmmakers were highly limited to how they could develop their movies.

Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat (The Lumiere Brothers, 1895)

Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat (28th December 1895) is considered the first public exhibition of a motion picture in modern history. Even though it only shows the arrival of a train at a passenger station, this short film was enough to send the paying audience fleeing in terror on its first showing (according to urban legend). There is no intentional camera movement whatsoever; the film consists of one continuous shot. This particular motion was enough to satisfy audiences back then in a dramatic way. Because motion picture had only just being discovered, the film featured a single, long and static shot of the train with no editing or dialogue.

2: Continuity

Continuity is the act of creating transitions between the shots of a film so the whole thing appears to follow an uninterrupted flow of action and is coherent towards the audience. Continuity editing would have become the dominant form of editing in early cinema because it enabled development of separate, simultaneous scenes in movies. But there were disadvantages:

For the Audience: Continuity editing can have a negative impact on the way people perceive the structure of events in a narrative film. Discontinuities in action, which is often the result of continuity, can have an impact on the behaviors of the audience due to a sense of discontinuity in space and time.

For the Filmmaker: Filmmakers use continuity editing to engender a sense of continuity or discontinuity within their films. They may experience great difficulties while attempting to maintain a continuous flow of action in the face of discontinuities due to use of continuity editing. Filmmakers might also intend to depict a narrative event in a matter of seconds (whilst using continuity editing techniques) which would take a long period of time to produce.

Current editing styles in movies are much better than traditional editing styles. This is because there are lots of techniques which can be used in films today and technology is more advanced than it was at earlier time periods. One such style is cutting on action where two different shots of the same subject e.g. a person walking are placed together so there are two different-length shots on the same visual axis. These editing styles make films look a lot more appealing than traditional editing styles would.

3: Georges Melies

George Melies explored different types of techniques and styles, combining traditional theatrical elements to motion pictures so he could present spectacles that were never even thought possible. He is a very important individual as he made a big contribution to cinema. He is the one who discovered the apparently endless capacities of cinema, which had the ability to manipulate and distort time and space. George Melies explored surreal editing, as well as editing in camera techniques. Through these techniques, he found ways to achieve simple special effects through editing and methods to produce films if the overall production could not be edited.

In 1902, Georges Melies created “A Trip to the Moon”, where he used many innovative techniques to create special effects. Melies appeared interested in certain styles e.g. mise en scene, which was one of his biggest innovations. This stylistic choice appeared in “A Trip to the Moon”. The film provides good examples of the techniques used during the 19th century. The sequences of the film are dramatic and uninterrupted by visual editing techniques, proving that Melies’ finished production was unable to be edited and that he approached a theatrical style to fit the film.

A Trip to the Moon (1902)

4: Edwin S. Porter

Edwin S. Porter was another key individual in early cinema. He discovered new ways to tell stories in films and attempted to emulate the trick photography introduced by Georges Melies. Porter had great skill with editing techniques and projection in films and he combined his own footage to produce documentary films. He pioneered ways to make movies more dramatic by adding tension and release with combined footage. Porter had an excellent use of editing. He explored techniques such as workbench cutting and areas of continuity editing. Workbench cutting involved taking reels of films apart and placing them back together. Continuity Editing involved creation of coherent transitions between shots of films.

The Great Train Robbery was written, directed, and produced by Porter in 1903. The film used techniques e.g. composite editing and cross cutting, which were also techniques explored by Porter. His film also included the innovative style of continuity editing, which resulted in highly continuous footage throughout. The Great Train Robbery is considered a milestone in filmmaking.

The Great Train Robbery (1903)

Technological Developments

1: Evolution of Editing

Linear Editing: Linear editing is the process of selecting, arranging and modifying images and sounds in a pre-determined, careful, and ordered manner to make the overall product more effective.

Non-Linear Editing: Non-Linear editing involves random access to any clip desired instantly. This form of editing allows for any segment of the project to be worked on at any time, rather than following a set order. Flexible editing of the project is enabled, allowing for a quick and easy process which doesn’t require the need to start all over again during any changes.

Editing has evolved over time. Linear editing techniques were employed before digital editing was introduced and involved editing analogue video tape and placing frames together to make a sequence. Traditional editing techniques e.g. tape-to-tape were simple, inexpensive, quick and easy, but over time new techniques were adopted until linear editing became obsolete in films. Non-Linear editing became the dominant form of editing and the new techniques that came with it were almost impossible to ignore. A whole new world of possibilities was opened up. Non-Linear editing computers became available, along with new methods which allowed any frame in a digital video clip to be accessed.

Pros of Linear Editing: It is simple and inexpensive. There are hardly any complications regarding things like hardware conflicts. It is quicker and easier than non-linear editing and it is able to increase knowledge and versatility of those who use it.

Cons of Linear Editing: It is impossible to change or delete scenes from a tape without having to redo the whole thing, meaning there would be no going back from any mistakes. Different clips cannot be too long or too short together or the image quality will degrade.

Pros of Non-Linear Editing: Any frames or scenes can be accessed at any time. The original footage will remain intact while being edited and flexibility of editing is offered. Scenes can be edited without requiring the need to redo the entire project and it is possible to edit the quality of the video quickly.

Cons of Non-Linear Editing: The only disadvantage to non-linear editing is the cost of the digital computers and hardware required for this form of editing. It is very high (£5,000- £10,000), and much higher for systems that approach broadcast quality.

Equipment/ Technology/Software

Linear Editing: Linear Editing involved editing analogue video tape and cutting and sticking frames together. The equipment required for linear editing consisted mainly of two VCRs, two video monitors, and connecting cables. Analogue video tapes will have also been required, some of which to be edited and one to edit onto (which would become the master tape). During an earlier time period, technology was not as advanced as it is today. Images and sound were often captured using devices such

as video cameras or tapeless camcorders and the content recorded was required to be accessed sequentially, an example of linear editing. Linear editing was replaced with video editing software. Adding, deleting, or replacing segments would have been very complicated with linear editing, where everything needed to be assembled in the right order the first time.

Non-Linear Editing: Non-linear Editing performs non-destructive and quick and easy techniques to edit source material using different systems. Files on video servers and hard drives are used instead of recordings on reels and tapes, the latter of which was used in earlier time periods. Video servers and hard disks are the equipment required to access digital clips and video frames. Improvements in technology, especially the introduction of computerized systems during the 1960’s, allowed for non-linear editing systems to replace linear editing techniques. Video editing software was adopted and this allowed for systems that had the ability to digitally record and edit simultaneously.

Other Editing Methods

Tape to Tape: Linear Editing was the original method of editing electronic video tapes. In this method, video was selectively copied from one tape to another in the correct order (a linear fashion). Only the sections desired to be kept were recorded, and if any mistakes were made or the editor changed their mind, there was no going back.

Digital/Computer: Video footage is edited using specialized software following its capture onto a computer hard drive. The finished product is recorded back to either tape or an optical disk. Non-Linear editing is a flexible method where changes can be made to sections of a video without having to edit in a linear fashion.

Purposes of Editing

Various editing techniques are able to control rhythmic succession, change dimensions of time, and alter the creation of space to create meaning and understanding.

Time: Editing is able to manipulate the perceived flow of time. Time can be presented in different ways in a film or a video. It can be expanded e.g. slow-motion to increase the length of certain scenes, especially fight scenes. Time can also be compressed to fit the acceptable duration of a movie. For example, a story taking place over months or years can be compressed so it fits into only several hours of film time. When the time in a video is exactly the same as the time it was recorded in, it is known as real time.

Space: Editing is able to create a logical and believable space between characters and objects. The 180-degree rule and the 30-degree rule are good examples of this. In the 180-degree rule, the cameras do not cross the line of editing, allowing for space between the cameras and the characters. This technique also allows for an expansion of the frame. The camera is required to be kept on one side of the action.

The 30-degree rule is used to create continuity between shots by ensuring the camera moves at least 30 degrees between shots of the same subject.

Rhythm: Editing is also able to alter the length of shots to change the emotional responses of the viewers. This is where pacing occurs. It can be either rapid or slow; the former of which suggests intensity and excitement, and the latter of which is relaxing. In sequences of film, rhythm requires that length of shots should always vary.

Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat: This film uses continuity editing, meaning the flow of action goes uninterrupted. This short film uses real time; there is no slow or accelerated motion, the film time is exactly the same as the time it was initially recorded in. The audience is provided with a view of all the space in which the action is occurring, including the oncoming train, the platform, and the many people. This is an establishing shot and it lasts for the entirety of the video, making it difficult for the audience to become confused when the entire scene is presented to them in one shot. There are no varying shots within the film which would have provided rhythm; it is only made up of a single shot.

The India Rubber Head: This film appears to use temporal continuity, meaning the characters and objects within do not change positions during time. Nothing appears to move around on its own. This is a two minute-long video which is shown to have had the time within it compressed to fit an appropriate duration. The characters move around quickly and their movements are rapid. It is clear that the producers accelerated the recorded footage. Just like “Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat”, this film maintains a single, establishing shot that provides a view of all the space to the audience. All the story space is presented before them. There are no varying shots within the film which could evoke emotion within the audience.

Charlie Brooker’s Screenwipe: Reality TV Editing: This five minute-clip follows spatial continuity. For example, in the living room sequence, nothing seems to move around between shots e.g. the sofas or objects on tables e.g. bottles. This film uses real time (the time in the film is the same as the time it was recorded in), with some areas of compressed time. All individual scenes were clearly edited together in a manner so that the appropriate time duration would have been met. This film uses many different shots other than one establishing shot, which is different from the aforementioned two videos. There are several establishing shots which provide the audience with a view of the entire space in the scene, close-ups, long shots, medium shots, three shots, and tracking shots.

This video has clearly followed both the 180 degree rule and the 30 degree rule, which provides different shots and distance between cameras and characters. The film has lots of rhythm within it; many of the shots and transitions have been edited to change the emotional responses of the audience. There is a mixture of both rapid transitions and slow transitions between shots, which do well to evoke different reactions within the audience. Rapid shots suggest excitement, whereas slow shots appear relaxing.

Clip Analysis 1

Classic Continuity Techniques

The following techniques feature in the duel scene from The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly (1996).

Cuts: There are lots of sections in this video which feature instant transitions from one shot to another, from start to finish. These cuts are abrupt and very common throughout the scene. The speed of the cuts increases to build tension and suspense between the characters towards the end. The increased speed could also evoke adrenaline within the audience. Cuts are also useful for conveying the skill of the producers to the audience, as well as

Cut-in: There are many cut-ins throughout the scene that are used to emphasize something happening to a character. A good example of this is the fatality of one of the characters who is shot and hits the ground. Another example is the transition of a medium long shot of one of the characters to a close up to show his determined expression. A cut-in immediately switches to a point of focus, enabling the importance of a plot device to be shown. At one point, there is a cut-in on a rock to convey its importance to the audience.

Match on Action: In this video, the shots are edited in and around the action sequences. One shot cuts to another shot, and each one portrays the exact same actions of the subject(s), creating a sense of continuity throughout the video which draws the attention of the viewer. An example of this in the video is the shot of characters readying their guns; each shown individually.

Eye-Line Match: This scene also features areas with two different shots (one showing a character glancing to the side, and another showing what he is looking at) which also creates a sense of continuity. This technique does well to depict the levels of concern for each character during the tense buildup which creates suspense for the audience. Extreme close-ups are used to depict the expressions of the characters. This technique is also useful for showing a character’s reaction to something.

Shot-Reverse-Shot: This video features cutaways from one shot to another, and then back again. This technique is often used to show conversations between characters in films, where one character is shown looking at a second character, and then the second character is shown looking at the first. It is easily assumed that the characters in this scene are looking at each other. Action and tension is built up towards the end as cuts between characters increase, and shoulder shots and high angle shots are used to create suspense.

180 Degree Rule: The 180-degree-rule is a guideline regarding action taking place behind an imaginary line which the cameras do not cross. The characters in this scene would have been connected by an imaginary line which had cameras positioned on one side of it. The 180-degree-rule is essential for continuity editing, and breaking the line of action can result in disorientation within the audience. An example of the 180-degree-rule in the fight scene is the long wide shot showing all three characters and the whole circle to create suspense; but this was only shot from one direction, suggesting that the producers obeyed the 180-degree-rule.

30 Degree Rule: The 30-degree-rule is another editing guideline in filmmaking. The camera should move so that separate shots of the same subject differ by at least 30 degrees each time they are shown to avoid jump cuts. This scene does follow the 30-degree-rule as each shot is shown to differ from the previous one, and cutting rates change dramatically. If this scene didn’t follow the rule, more attention would have been paid on the filming techniques rather than the action that was taking place.

Clip Analysis 2

Alternative Editing Style Techniques

The following alternative editing techniques appear in The Shining (1980), Breathless (1960), and the Pasadena Fight Scene from Kill Bill: Volume 1 (2003).

Limited Use of Close-Ups: The scene from The Shining only uses wide long shots and doesn’t switch to focus on a particular facial expression or object. When a medium shot suddenly cuts to an extreme-close up to focus on something, visual juxtaposition is created with the two shots next to each other immediately, which could shock the audience. Without use of close-ups, audiences are likely to become confused with the identity of the characters. In this scene, audiences may assume both characters are the same person.

Breaking the 180 Degree Rule: The Shining clip purposefully disobeys the 180-degree-rule, which is one of the basic guidelines in continuity editing. In the bathroom, the two characters are shown from both directions in two long wide shots, proving that the producers intentionally crossed the imaginary line of action in the scene to create disorientation within the audience. Because this rule is broken, it seems as if the two characters within the scene have switched places, and this could confuse the audience.

Use of Red and White: The colours red and white are shown during this scene. The bathroom has red walls and white floor and ceiling. Out of the two characters, one wears a jacket with red on it, and the other wears a black and white suit. Because the location and characters share the same colours, audiences might assume that the characters are part of the hotel they are staying in, or that the hotel possesses equivalent importance to the characters in the story. These colours also hint at the struggle between good and evil within the characters; white is a positive colour and red is a negative colour.

Slow Cutting Rate: In this scene, there is also use of slow cutting rates around the action taking place. This is another guideline of continuity editing that is disobeyed. Audiences are used to fast-paced editing in films which is essential for action sequences, but in this scene, the cutting rates are slow. This could make the audience feel uncomfortable because of what they are used to seeing in movies today.

Jump Cuts: In the car scene from Breathless, there are many jump cuts (with the first occurring at 0:14). At this particular point of the video, the subject (someone in the passenger seat) appears to ‘jump’ abruptly. This could create meaning as it communicates the passing of time to the audience and suggests the length of the character’s journey. A jump cut is the result of two shots of the same subject taken with the camera position varying only slightly, resulting in a ‘jarring’ effect which could confuse audiences. Continuity editing uses a guideline called the 30-degree-rule to avoid jump cuts, which the producers of Breathless clearly didn’t follow. Shots are cut together in such a way that there is a sense of discontinuity which could ruin the overall clip and affect the way audiences perceive the passing of time within it.

Superimposition: Superimposition is the placement of an image or video clip on top of an already-existent image or video clip. During the Pasadena Fight Sequence in Kill Bill: Volume 1, there is superimposition, with a video clip placed upon the extreme-close up shot of one of the character’s faces to show her past thoughts, right before she attacks the other character. This secondary video clip is highlighted in orange, which is associated with determination. This highlights the thoughts and feelings of the character. The audience is presented lots of information through this method of superimposition; it is obvious that the woman desires revenge. Because of this short sequence, audiences do not need to be informed about the woman’s goals in the dialogue of this film as they are displayed to them at the start.