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Accelerating!Transition!of!Girls!to!Secondary!Education!!

!!A!Call!for!Action!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2013!!!!!Washington,!D.C.!!

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Website:!www.globalpartnership.org!!EBMail:!info@globalpartnership.org!!Facebook:!www.facebook.com/GlobalPartnership!!!Twitter:!twitter.com/gpforeducation!!Office!Location:!900!19th!Street,!N.W.!Suite!600!Washington!D.C.,!20006,!USA!!Mailing!Address:!Global!Partnership!for!Education!!c/o!World!Bank!MSN!P6K600!1818!H!Street!NW!Washington!D.C.,!20433,!USA!!!The!author!of!this!report!is!responsible!for!the!selection!and!the!presentation!of!the!facts!contained!in!this!report!and!for!the!opinions!expressed!therein,!which!are!not!necessarily!those!of!The!Global!Partnership!for!Education.!Overall!responsibility!for!the!views!and!opinions!expressed!in!the!report!is!taken!by!the!author.!!Report!Cover!and!Layout!Design:!Macro!Graphics!!!Cover!Photo!Credit:!!!GPE!(Global!Partnership!for!Education)!2013.!Accelerating!Transition!of!Girls!to!Secondary!Education.!(March).!Washington,!DC:!GPE.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Acknowledgments!!!The! Report!Accelerating! Transition! of! Girls! to! Secondary! Education! Call! for!Action! was! produced! under! the! guidance! of! Robert! S! Prouty,! Director,! Global!Partnership! for! Education! and! Luis! Crouch,! Coordinator! of! the! Global! Good!Practices,!Global!Partnership!for!Education.!!!!The! author! of! this! Report! is! Sudhanshu! Joshi,! Consultant,! Global! Partnership! for!Education.!!!The!author!is!grateful!to!Robert!S!Prouty,!Director,!Global!Partnership!for!Education,!for!his!valuable!direction!and!advice!toward!grounding!this!work!in!the!institutional!capacities!of!the!local!education!groups!and!their!countryKled!processes.!The!author!is!truly!grateful!for!his!patience!and!continuous!faith!in!this!exercise.!!!!The! author! would! like! to! thank! Luis! Crouch,! Team! Coordinator,! Global! Good!Practices! and! Lead! Education! Specialist,! Global! Partnership! for! Education,! for! his!confidence!in!him,!and!support!at!all!times,!that!helped!take!this!work!forward.!!!The! author! sincerely! appreciates! the! very! useful! comments! received! on! earlier!drafts! of! this! report! from! Kevin! Watkins,! Senior! Fellow,! Center! for! Universal!Education,! The!Brookings! Institution,!Washington!D.C.!!He! allowed! the! author! the!liberty!to!draw!from!his!genius,!offering!clarity!and!vision!at!each!turn.!!!The! author! is! grateful! to! Anju! Saigal,! Executive! Director,! Center! for! Equity! and!Quality! in! Universal! Education,! Mumbai,! India! who! has! contributed! in! numerous!ways!through!her!insights!and!critically!challenging!assumptions!through!the!course!of! this!study.!She!helped!with!bringing!method!and!organization! to! this!study!and!also!with!editing!of!several!drafts.!The!author!owes!her!a!big!thank!you.!!Finally,!for!any!shortcomings!or!omissions!in!the!report,!the!author!remains!solely!responsible.!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Foreword!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Contents!!Acknowledgments!!Abbreviations!&!Acronyms!!Chapter!1!!!!!!!!Introduction! !!Chapter!2! Girls’!Participation!in!Secondary!Education:!A!Global!Overview!!! !Chapter!3! Barriers!to!Girls’!Transition!to!Secondary!School!!Chapter!4! Strategies!to!Improve!Schooling!Participation!of!Adolescent!Girls!!Chapter!5! Recommendations!!!!Annexures!!Bibliography!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!List!of!Figures!Figure'1:'Gross'intake'ratio'to'the'last'grade'of'primary'education'and'adjusted'gender''''parity'index,'2009''Figure'2:'Trends'of'school@age'population'growth'and'gross'enrollment'ratio'in'secondary'education,'by'region'for'1970@2009''Figure'3:'Gross'graduation'ratio'for'lower'secondary'education'programs,'2009''Figure'4:''Out@of@school'children'of'lower'secondary'school'age'by'region,'2009''Figure'5:'Average'out@of@school'rate'by'individual'and'household'characteristics'(in'31'countries)''Figure'6:'Percentage'of'lower'secondary'school@age'girls'who'are'in'and'out'of'school,'for'selected'countries'–'most'recent'year'available''Figure'7:'Educational'attainment'of'lower'secondary'school'age,'out@of@school'adolescents'who'have'ever'attended'school,'by'wealth'quintile'and'gender,'most'recent'year'available''Figure'8:'Activity'status'of'children'7@14'years'in'sub@Saharan'Africa''Figure'9:'Percentage'of'adolescent'girls'15@19'married'currently''Figure'10:'Percentage'of'20@24'year@olds'first'married'before'15'and'18'regionally''Figure'11:'Median'age'of'marriage'for'women'aged'20@24:'selected'countries''Figure'12:'Age'at'first'marriage'in'selected'countries''Figure'13:'Distribution'of'girls'aged'15'–19'in'union,'by'level'of'education''Figure'14:'Number'of'Births'per'1000'women'aged'15@19'years''Figure'15:'Top'20'countries'with'the'highest'prevalence'of'early'childbearing''Figure16:'How'distance'affects'primary'attendance'in'four'sub@Saharan'African'countries''Figure'17:'How'distance'affects'secondary'attendance'in'four'sub@Saharan'African'countries''Figure'18:'Rates'of'school'attendance'and'labor'force'participation''!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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List!of!Tables!'Table'1:'Girls’'enrollment'and'persistence'in'primary'level,'and'transition'to'secondary'school''Table'2:'Rate'of'female'out@of@school'adolescents'for'selected'countries,'2009'or'latest'year'available''Table'3:!School'attendance'in'sub@Saharan'Africa'by'gender'(%),'children'7@14'years''Table'4: Impact'of'CCTs'on'school'enrollment'and'attendance,'various'years''Table'5:'Various'types'of'in@service'training'and'support'received'by'teachers''Table'6:'Teachers’'education'level'before'and'after'working'in'program''!!!List!of!Boxes!!Box!1:!Ameena’s!School!Experience!in!Malawi!!Box!2:!Glimpses!of!Teacher!Girl!Interactions!in!a!Kenyan!Classroom!!Box!3:!Typical!Everyday!School!Experience!of!Young!Girls!in!Kenya!!!!!! !! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Abbreviations!&!Acronyms!!!!BDH!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Bono!de!Desarrollo!Humano!(Ecuador)'!BESP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Balochistan!Education!Support!Project!!BRAC!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Bangladesh!Rural!Advancement!Center!!CCT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Conditional!Cash!Transfers!EPDF!!ESP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Education!Sector!Plan!FSSSAP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Female!Secondary!School!Stipend!Assistance!Programme!!GABLE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Girls!Attainment!in!Basic!Literary!and!Education!!GAC!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Gender!Appropriate!Curriculum!Unit!GOM!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Government!of!Malawi!IF!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Indicative!Framework!LDG!LEG!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Local!Education!Group!NER!!NKKRP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!NationalKlevel!Key!Resource!Person!!PfEAG!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Plan!for!Educating!Adolescent!Girls!!PROGRESA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Programa!de!Educación,!Salud!y!Alimentación!PRSP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Poverty!Reduction!Strategy!Paper!PSNP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Productivity!Safety!Net!Programme!SCT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Social!Cash!Transfer!(Kalomo,!Zambia)!SRMP!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Social!Risk!Mitigation!Project!!UCT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Unconditional!Cash!Transfer!VBS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!VillageKBased!School!program!WBKGPE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!World!BankKGlobal!Partnership!for!Education!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Chapter!1!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Introduction!

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1.1!Introduction!!Schooling! brings! higher! economic! returns! to! girls! and! women,! increases! their!options,! and! facilitates! their!participation! in! civic! life! and!overall! decisionKmaking!(Lloyd! et' al! 2000,! 2010).!With! the! relative! success! in! universalization! of! primary!education,! there! is! a! serious! effort! to! bring! similar! national! and! international!commitments! toward! completion! of! secondary! education! for! girls.! This! issue! is!increasingly!becoming!a!fundamental!area!of!attention!in!the!national!efforts!toward!mobilizing! a! skilled,! higherKquality! labor! force! in! many! countries,! in! order! to!significantly!contribute!to!the!national!development!process.!!!The! recently! approved! Strategic! Plan! for! the! Global! Partnership! identifies! gender!equity! in! secondary!education!as!one!of! the! critical! issues! to!be! addressed!by! the!Partnership! over! the! period! 2012K2015.! ! In!most! lowKincome! countries,! girls! are!less! likely! to!be! sent! to! school! than!boys.! !Once! in! school,! they!are!more! likely! to!drop! out! early! for! a! range! of! reasons! including! early! marriage,! household!responsibilities,!and!a!perceived!lack!of!job!opportunities.! !There!is!some!evidence!to! suggest! that! girls’! learning! levels! are! lower! than! those! of! boys! in! lowKincome!countries,!but!the!general!lack!of!reliable!learning!data!makes!this!hard!to!evaluate.!!The!Partnership!has!recently!adopted!the!transition!of!girls!to!secondary!education!as!a!core!indicator!of!its!success!in!countries!where!it!currently!works.!!This!reflects!the!recent!recognition!that! it! is! the!completion!of!secondary!education!that!brings!most! of! the! positive! externalities! associated! with! girls’! education—from!dramatically!increased!lifetime!earnings!to!similarly!dramatic!decreases!in!fertility!and! mortality! rates.! For! developing! a! coherent! response! to! improving! girls’!transition! to! secondary! schooling,! the! Partnership! seeks! to! develop! a! deeper!understanding!of!the!barriers!to!girls!transitioning!to!secondary!schooling.!It!further!intends!to!learn!from!the!various!strategies!adopted!in!different!cultural!contexts!in!addressing!some!of!these!barriers,!to!facilitate!and!accelerate!girls’!secondary!school!education.!The!current!study!has!been!undertaken!from!this!perspective.!!!The! Global! Partnership! for! Education! aims! to! use! the! outcomes! of! the! study! to!facilitate! countryKlevel! consultations! on! genderKbased! inequities! within! the!education!system,!and!work!to!help!countries!develop!analyses!and!a!clear!national!response!to!be!integrated!in!the!national!Education!Sector!Plans.!!!!1.2!Higher!economic!returns!accrue!to!girls’!secondary!education!!There!is!strong!evidence!from!all!regions!of!the!world!demonstrating!that!increasing!investments! in!women's! human! capital,! especially! education,! should! be! a! priority!for! countries! seeking! to! increase! both! economic! growth! and! human!welfare.! Low!investment! in! girls’! human! capital! is! not! simply! an! option! for! many! of! the!

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developingKworld!countries.!Keeping!girls!uneducated! is! like!creating!selfKinflicted!injuries!for!these!countries.!The!returns!to!girls’!education!are!particularly!high!for!developing! countries,! which,! in! most! cases,! exceed! those! observed! in! developed!countries,! and! those! of! boys.! Each! additional! year! of! schooling! boosts! longKrun!growth!by!0.58!percentage!points!per!year.!The!effects!are!quite!large,!particularly!for!regions!where!gender!inequality!is!sizable,!such!as!South!Asia!or!the!Middle!East!and!North!Africa!(Hanushek!and!Woessmann!2007).!A!World!Bank!study!covering!100! countries! demonstrates! that! increasing! the! secondary! education! of! girls! by!1percent! results! in! an! annual! income! increase! of! 0.3percent! per! capita.! Such! an!increase! is! substantial! for! many! developing! countries.! The! study! concludes! that!societies!that!have!a!preference!for!not!investing!in!girls!pay!a!price!for!it!in!terms!of!slower!growth!and!reduced!income!(Dollar!and!Gatti!1999,!pK18K19).! If!South!Asia!and!subKSaharan!Africa!had!more!balanced!educational!achievements!for!boys!and!girls! in! the!1960’s,! their! economic! growth! could!have!been!0.9%!higher!per! year,!faster! than! it! turned! out! to! be,! and! the! effects! in! subKSaharan! Africa! would! be!stronger;!female!education!payKoff!appears!higher!in!that!region!than!anywhere!else!(Klassen,!1999,!pK23).!!!Over! time,! girls! and!women! receive! higher! returns! to! their! schooling! investment.!Referring! to! this! as! gender! premium! in! education,! Psacharopoulos! and! Patrinos!(2004,!pK113)!estimate!that!their!return,!on!average,!is!9.8!percent,!compared!with!8.7! percent! for! men.! Whereas! the! returns! on! primary! education! are! lower! for!women! as! against! men! (13! percent! versus! 20! percent! respectively),! women!experience! higher! returns! to! secondary! education! (18! percent! versus! 14! percent!respectively).!!These!estimates!vary!from!country!to!country.!!The!returns!to!female!secondary!education!are!15!to!25!percent!higher!for!women!than!men!in!Thailand,!Ghana!and!Côte!d’Ivoire!(Schultz!2002).!Examples!from!India!show!that!if!girls!finish!additional! years! of! secondary! education,! additional! earnings! accruing! to! girls! are!7percent,!while!for!boys!it!is!only!4!percent!(Reilly!andDutta!2005).!!!Recent! evidence! suggests! an! economic! advantage! of! secondary! schooling! over!primary!schooling.!Girls!are! likely! to!reap!the!economic!benefits!of!education!only!with! the! completion! of! secondary! school,! unlike! boys! who! will! continue! to! be!absorbed!into!the!labor!force!much!earlier!in!life,!often!at!the!primary!school!stage!itself.!Evidence!emerging!from!several!developing!countries,! including!Bangladesh,!Pakistan!and!India!suggest!this.!For!example,!in!Bangladesh,!in!2005!the!returns!to!primary!education!were!approximately!4!percent!compared!to!9!percent!for!higher!education.! But! the! returns! to! primary! education! declined! by! 2! percentage! points!with!much!larger!declines! for!women.!The!decline! in!returns!to!primary!schooling!has!largely!happened!owing!to!the!increase!in!supply!of!higher!educated!women!in!the!labor!market.!(Al!Samarrai!2006,!pK16).!!!The! relationship! between! girls’! schooling! and! economic! benefits! is! convex,! rather!than!concave,! as!was!assumed!earlier.!The!conventional!assumption! that!earnings!increased!with!education!at!a!decreasing!rate!has!been!challenged!by!recent!studies!which!reveal! that! the! return! to!an!extra!year!of!education!progressively! increases!

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with!the!education!level!(Aslam,!2008;!Aslam,!Kingdon!and!Soderbom,!2008,!Aslam,!Bari,!Kingdon,!2008,!Colclough!2010).!Evidence!from!a!conspectus!of!18!studies!on!schooling! returns,! covering! 26! countries! spanning!Asia,! Africa! and! Latin!America,!shows! that! the! return! to! postKprimary! education! in! wage! employment! is!significantly! higher! than! that! of! primary! education.! The! studies! show! that! "in!general! the! return! to! an! extra! year! of! education! increases! with! the! level! of!education:!while!returns!do!not!increase!monotonically!with!the!level!of!education!in! some! countries,!a! generally! convex! pattern! of! returns! is! observed! across!most!countries"!(Colclough!et'al.!2010,!pK2).!!!In!India,!Pakistan!and!Sri!Lanka,!between!the!early!1990s!and!early!2000s,!rates!of!return! to!higher! secondary!and! tertiary!education! increased! in! all! three! countries!(Riboud,! Savchenko! and! Tan! 2006,! pK32).! The! educationKearnings! relationship!became!more!convex!in!Thailand,!Philippines!and!India!over!the!1990s!(Mehta!et'al.!2007).! Studies! from! Mexico! between! 1984! and! 1994!!! showed! that! the! marginal!return!to!primary!education!(i.e.!the!return!to!each!extra!year!of!primary!education)!fell! by! 3.1! points! (from! 16.9! to! 13.8! percent)! and! marginal! returns! to! both!secondary!and!higher!education!rose,!with! the! latter!nearly!doubling!(from10.3! to!19.9!percent)!(Lachler!1998).!!!1.3!Social!returns!to!schooling,!especially!at!the!secondary!level,!are!high!!The! social! benefits! of! women’s! schooling! are! significant! in! developing! countries.!(Herz! and! Sperling,! 2004).! Research! suggests! that! girls! have! a! higher! marginal!return! to! education,! which! is! even! higher! if! the! impact! of! female! education! on!fertility!and!education!of!the!next!generation!is!included!(Hill!and!King!1995;!World!Bank!2001;!King,!et'al!2008).!These!gains!are!reflected!in!reduced!female!fertility,!in!improved!nutrition!for!pregnant!and!lactating!mothers!and!infants!and!in!containing!early! child! marriages,! among! others! (Smith! and! Haddad! 1999,! Schultz! 2000).!Research!reveals!that!a!year!of!schooling!for!girls!reduces!infant!mortality!by!5!to!10!percent! (Schultz! 1993).!Children! of!mothers!with! five! years! of! primary! education!are! 40! percent!more! likely! to! live! beyond! the! age! of! five! years! (Summers! 1994).!Educating!girls!results!in!a!43%!decline!in!malnutrition!(Smith!and!Haddad!1999).!When!the!proportion!of!women!with!secondary!schooling!doubles,!the!fertility!rate!is! reduced! from! 5.3! to! 3.9! children! per! woman! (or,! 29! percent)! and! the! infant!mortality!rate!from!81!to!38!infants!per!1000!births!(or,!64!percent!)!!(Subbarao!and!Raney! 1995).! Similarly,! Summers! (1994)! finds! that! in! Africa,! females! with! more!than!7!years!of!education!have,!on!average,!two!fewer!children!than!women!with!no!education.! In! fact,! girls’! continuation! and! meaningful! engagement! in! schools! is!suggested!as!the!most!appropriate!vaccine!against!early!childbearing!among!young!adolescent! girls! (Sandefur! and! McLanahan! 1990,! Rosenzweig! &! Evenson! 1977,!Lloyd!2012).!!!!There!is!a!marked!difference,!by!level!of!education,!in!the!prevalence!of!the!Female!Genital!Cut.!Those!with!primary!or!no!education!are!more! likely! to!have!been!cut!than! those!who!along!with!primaryKlevel! education!have! received! secondaryKlevel!

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instruction! too.! As! the! Population! Reference! Bureau! (2001)! reports,! “The! most!marked! differences! exist! in! Central! African! Republic! (CAR)! (48! percent! for! nonKeducated!women!as!opposed!to!45!percent!for!women!with!primary!education!and!23! percent! for! women! with! secondary! education),! Kenya! (51! percent! versus! 40!percent! and! 27! percent),! and! Tanzania! (23! percent! versus! 17! percent! and! 7!percent)”!(pK15).!!More! productive! farming!methods! are! attributable! to! increased! female! schooling!(Smith!and!Haddad!1999).!Educating!women,!rather!than!only!educating!men,!also!has! a! greater! impact! on! children’s! schooling! (Filmer! 2006).! Evidence! from! India!suggests! that!women!with! formal!schooling!are!more! likely! to!resist!violence!(Sen!1999).!In!Bangladesh,!educated!women!are!three!times!more!likely!to!participate!in!political! meetings,! thereby! enhancing! civic! and! political! participation! by! women!(UNESCO!2000).!!!While!the!evidence!on!the!social!and!economic!returns!to!girls’!secondary!schooling!is!compelling,!the!challenge!lies!in!creating!the!opportunities!for!girls’!transition!to!secondary! schooling,! and! ensuring! their! participation! and! completion.! This! is!particularly! true! for! countries! that! have! low! rates! of! girls’! schooling!participation!and! large! disparities! in! educational! outcomes! between! girls! and! boys.! In! those!countries!the!effort!needs!to!be!directed!at!evolving!a!multifaceted,!countryKspecific!social! policy! response! to! meet! the! growing! demand! for! increasing! girls’!participation! in! secondary! schooling.! It! is! toward! this! end! that! the! Global!Partnership!for!Education!will!seek!to!contribute.!As!part!of!the!process,!this!Report!will! help!define! the!pressing! issues! in! girls’! transition! to! secondary! schooling!and!the!recommendations!will!form!the!basis!of!the!GPE’s!response!on!the!issue.!!1.4!The!report!!This!report!reviews!the!current!situation!of!girls’!transition!to!secondary!schooling.!It! sheds! light! on! the! interplay! between! gender! and! other! factors! that! affect! the!likelihood! of! persistence! in! schooling,! including! poverty,! geographic! isolation,!disability!and!child!labor.!It!draws!lessons!from!the!experience!of!countries!such!as!Bangladesh!that!have!rapidly!increased!secondary!school!coverage,!as!well!as!from!those!countries!where!schooling!opportunities!for!girls!have!remained!persistently!low.!!The!study!analyzes!a!range!of!factors!that!have!the!potential!to!improve!girls’!transition! to! secondary!education,! including! teaching!materials,!opportunity! costs,!and! cultural! expectations.! It! identifies! strategies! to! accelerate! and! enable! girls’!transition!and!completion!of!secondary!schooling.!!!The!report!is!structured!along!the!following!lines:!!!Chapter!1!lays!out!the!scope!of!work!and!the!purpose!of!the!report.!It!discusses!the!importance! of! educating! girls! and! shares! the! various! perspectives! on! social! and!economic! returns! from!educating!girls.! It! also!discusses!and! reviews! the! evidence!

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from! literature! on! comparative! benefits! across! several! countries! accruing! from!educating!girls!up!to!primary!and!secondary!level.!!!Chapter! 2! provides! a! global! overview! of! the! problem,! its! scope! and! magnitude,!specifically! with! respect! to! regions! where! girls’! transition! to! and! persistence! in!secondary!schooling!is!a!challenge.!!!Chapter! 3! investigates! the! various! barriers! to! girls’! transition! to! secondary!schooling,! with! particular! emphasis! on! the! interplay! between! gender! and! other!factors!that!affect!the!likelihood!of!persistence!in!schooling.!These!include:!!!!

• The! effect! of! marriage! and! early! childbearing! on! girls’! education,! primary!school!completion!and!transitioning!to!secondary!education.!

• Distance!to!schools!and!availability!of!schools!in!close!proximity!• Direct! and! indirect! costs! of! schooling! and!households’! ability! to! contribute!

toward!this!• The!mutually! reinforcing! impact!of! the!school!and!home!environments!and!

menstrual!hygiene!management!on!girls’!experience!of!secondary!schooling!and!the!impact!of!these!factors!on!their!participation!!

• The! barriers! in! labor! market! participation! for! females! and! the! critical!influence! of! these! factors! on! the! perceived! benefits! of! schooling! for!adolescent!girls!!!

!Chapter!4!considers!the!impact!of!a!range!of!strategies!that!have!been!adopted!to!promote!girls’!retention!and!completion!of!primary!schooling!and!transition!to!secondary!schooling,!and!the!difference!that!these!have!made!in!creating!an!enabling!environment!for!girls’!higher!educational!attainment.!!!The!final!Chapter!offers!key!recommendations.!!It!is!followed!with!a!comprehensive!checklist!of!actions!required!at!the!country! level.!This! is!to! illustrate!specific!steps!and!processes!required!to!move!forward!in!mobilizing!the!political!commitment!of!the!national!governments!and! local! stakeholders.! It!points! to!various!efforts! to!be!directed! toward! realization! of! accelerating! girls’! continuing! education! until!completing! secondary! schooling.! It! considers! the! comparative! advantage! of! the!Partnership!in!addressing!some!of!the!challenges!to!girls’!transitioning!to!secondary!schooling! and! clearly! delineates! the! way! forward! in! addressing! these! through.! It!suggests!a!clear!set!of!Action!Points!to!be!considered!by!the!national!Governments!and!Local! Education!Groups!within! the! scope!of! the! country! led!Education! Sector!Plan!process!to!accelerate!girls!transitioning!to!secondary!education.!!!

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!Chapter!2!

!Girls’!Participation!in!Secondary!Education:!A!Global!Overview!

!2.1!Introduction!!Many!more!girls!attend!schools!today—either!primary!or!secondary!–!than!they!did!three! decades! ago.! In! most! countries,! even! the! poorest,! girls! up! until! early!adolescence,! are! attending! formal! primary! school.! Enrollment! drops! later,! in!adolescence;! however,! in! most! countries! (with! some! notable! exceptions)! among!those! that! are! enrolled,! girls! are! mostly! attending! secondary! schools! (Lloyd! and!Young!2009,!p.!20)!!These! are! impressive! gains;! however,! they! have! been! uneven! within! and! across!regions! in! the!developing!world.!Mapping! the!gains!and!challenges!across! regions!and! countries! in! girls’! secondary! school! participation,! this! chapter! provides! an!overview! of! the! current! status! of! girls’! transition! to! and! enrollment! in! secondary!education,!and!also!considers!how!they!fare!with!regard!to!its!completion.!!!While! there! have! been! rapid! increases! in! girls’! primary! school! enrollment,!completion!remains!a!daunting!challenge.!Only!56!percent!of!the!162!countries!are!poised! to!graduate!equal!number!of!boys!and!girls! from!the! last!grade!of!primary!school.!In!half!of!the!subKSaharan!countries,!girls!are!less!likely!to!complete!primary!education,!eliminating!the!possibility!for!them!to!attend!secondary!school.!Further,!as! this! chapter! notes,! in! a! number! of! countries,! which! have! high! primary! school!completion! rates,! girls! are! unable! to! transition! to! secondary! schooling.! The! gains!made! at! the! primary! school! level! are! not! correspondingly! transferred! to! the!transition! of! these! girls! to! the! secondary! level.! Girls’! completion! of! secondary!schooling! overall! also! remains! at! low! levels,! particularly! among! the! poorest!countries.!!!2.2.!Despite!significant!gains,!girls!less!likely!to!attend!secondary!school!!!!!Significant!gains!have!been!achieved!with!respect!to!girls!transitioning!to!secondary!schooling.! In! their! recent! analysis! of! 162! countries,! the! UNESCO! Institute! of!Statistics! found! that! the! GIR! (gross! intake! ratio)! to! the! last! grade! of! primary!education! is!80%!or!above.!Girls!and!boys!have!equal! chances!of!graduating! from!primary! education! in! 91! countries! (56! percent! of! the! 162! countries! presented),!which! have! GPIs! (gender! parity! index)! ranging! from! 0.97! to! 1.03.! However,!significant!disparities!persist!within!countries!across!all!of! the!regions!(see!Figure!1).! While! there! are! countries! where! girls! are! more! likely! to! complete! primary!education!than!boys,!the!majority!of!cases!with!a!gender!imbalance!are!against!girls!(UIS!2011).!!!

! 15!

Figure!1:!Gross!intake!ratio!to!the!last!grade!of!primary!education!and!adjusted!gender!parity!index,!2009!!

12

S E C T I O N 1 / Global perspective on student progression in secondary education G L O B A L E D U C A T I O N D I G E S T 2 0 1 1 / Comparing education statistics around the world

In 47 countries, girls are less likely than boys to enter the last grade of primary education. The most extreme situations are found in the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Yemen, where between 57 and 69 girls enter that grade for every 100 boys. Nearly one-half of the countries where girls are less likely to complete primary education than boys are in sub-Saharan Africa, although girls also face serious barriers in Iraq (adjusted GPI of 0.74) and Sudan (0.88) in the Arab

States and the Maldives (0.88) and Pakistan (0.79) in South and West Asia.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, boys are less likely to complete primary education than girls in 24 countries. The most acute challenges are found in Lesotho, Nicaragua and Suriname, where the adjusted GPI is 1.10 or higher. The adjusted GPI also shows high values for the GIR in Namibia (1.09), Bangladesh (1.08) and Bhutan (1.08).

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Do boys and girls have equal chances of completing primary education?Gross intake ratio to the last grade of primary education and adjusted gender parity index, 2009

FIGURE 2

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Statistical Table 4. !!In! 47! countries,! girls! are! less! likely! than! boys! to! enter! the! last! grade! of! primary!education.!The!most! extreme!situations!are! found! in! the!Central!African!Republic,!Chad,!the!Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!and!Yemen,!where!between!57!and!69!girls! enter! that! grade! for! every! 100! boys.! Nearly! oneKhalf! of! the! countries!where!girls! are! less! likely! to! complete! primary! education! than! boys! are! in! subKSaharan!Africa,! although! girls! also! face! serious! barriers! in! Iraq! (adjusted!GPI! of! 0.74)! and!Sudan!(0.88)!in!the!Arab!States!and!the!Maldives!(0.88)!and!Pakistan!(0.79)!in!South!and!West!Asia!(UIS!2011).!!Global! trends! indicate! significant! growth! in! secondary! schooling,!with! enrollment!growing! from! 196! million! in! 1970! to! 531! million! in! 2009.!This! represents! an!increase!in!the!secondary!Gross!Enrollment!Ratio!(GER)!from!43!percent!to!!68!percent!of! the! total! secondaryKschoolKage!population.! ! In!addition,! the!share!of!girls!in!total!secondary!enrollment!grew!from!43!percent!to!48!percent!during!this!period.! (Global Education Digest 2011: Comparing Education Statistics Across the

! 16!

World. Focus on Secondary Education. Canada: UNESCO Institute for Statistics). However,!there!is!considerable!variation!across!and!within!regions.!!Arab!States!witnessed!an! increase! in!GER! from!22!percent! to!68!percent!between!1970! and! 2009.! !While! girls! continue! to! face! some! barriers! in! terms! of! access! to!secondary!education,!yet!real!progress!was!made!with!the! female!GER!rising! from!14! percent! to! 65! percent! since! 1970.! In! absolute! terms,! the! largest! gains! in!enrollment!were!observed!in!Egypt,!Algeria!and!the!Syrian!Arab!Republic,!where!the!number!of!secondary!students!grew!by!5.2,!4.3!and!2.3!million,!respectively.!Other!countries,! such! as! Iraq,!Morocco,! Sudan! and!Tunisia,!were! each! able! to! add!more!than!1!million!pupils!to!their!secondary!schools!during!the!same!period.!!In! Central! and! Eastern! Europe! the! GER! decreased! from! 37!million! in! 1970! to! 31!million! in! 2009,! with! the! decline! in! schoolKage! population.! However! it!maintained!equal!access!to!secondary!education!for!both!boys!and!girls.!!Turkey!was!the! only! country! in! this! region! that! had! positive! growth! in! secondary! enrollment!from! 1971! to! 2008.! The! country! was! able! to! stretch! its! education! system! to!accommodate!6.7!million!secondary!students!by!2008!in!comparison!to!1.3!million!in!1971.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! 17!

Figure!2:'Trends!of!school@age!population!growth!and!gross!enrollment!ratio!in!secondary!education,!by!region!for!1970@2009!spelling!of!enrolment!to!be!changed!to!enrollment'!

S E C T I O N 1 / Global perspective on student progression in secondary education

17

G L O B A L E D U C A T I O N D I G E S T 2 0 1 1 / Comparing education statistics around the world

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How does enrolment in secondary education compare with school-age population growth over time?Trends of school-age population growth and gross enrolment ratio in secondary education, by region for 1970-2009

FIGURE 5

Note: Note that the scale for the y-axis may differ across regions. Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics database.

!!In!Central!Asia,!secondary!enrollment!grew!from!9!million!to!11!million!since!1980,!with!the!GER!at!96!percent!in!2009.!Gender!parity!has!been!a!reality!in!the!region!throughout! this! period.! Based! on! available! statistics,! Uzbekistan! witnessed! the!biggest! expansion! in! absolute! secondary! enrollment,! which! increased! from! 2.9!million! to! 4.5!million! during! the! period! 1980K2009.! The! region! has! recently! seen!stagnation!in!enrollment!due!to!the!declining!population!level.!

! 18!

!In!East!Asia!and! the!Pacific,!enrollment! in!secondary!education! increased! from!96!million!to!163!million!from!1990!to!2009.!The!GER!rose!from!45!percent!in!1990!to!78!percent!in!2009!across!East!Asia!and!the!Pacific.!In!addition,!the!participation!of!young!women!grew!significantly!during!this!time,!with!the!secondary!GER!reaching!80!percent!compared!to!76!percent!for!young!men.!At!the!national!level,!China!–!the!most!populous!country!in!this!region!–!doubled!its!education!system’s!capacity!over!this! period.! It!was! able! to! accommodate! 100!million! secondary! students! in! 2009,!compared!to!52!million!in!1991.!Indonesia!and!Viet!Nam!also!increased!secondary!enrollment!by!9!million!and!6!million,!respectively.!!In!Latin!America! and! the!Caribbean,! enrollment! in! secondary!education! increased!from!11!million!in!1970!to!60!million!in!2009,!increasing!the!GER!from!28!percent!to!90!percent,!over!the!period.!Historically,!gender!parity!in!secondary!education!has!been!common!for!most!countries!in!Latin!America!and!the!Caribbean.!Nevertheless,!since! the! midK1980s,! girls! have! had! greater! access! to! secondary! education! than!boys.!In!2009,!the!secondary!GER!for!girls!(93!percent)!exceeded!that!of!boys!(86%).!!!At!the!national!level,!Brazil!witnessed!the!biggest!expansion!of!secondary!education!in! absolute! terms! since! 1970.! In! 2009,! this! country! alone! accommodated! 23.6!million!students,!compared!to!4.6!million!in!1971.!A!similar!expansion!took!place!in!Mexico,!where!the!number!of!secondary!students!grew!from!1.6!million!in!1971!to!11.5!million!in!2009.!!In!North!America!and!Western!Europe,! the!GER!grew! from!80!percent! in!1970! to!100!percent! in!2009,! the!highest!participation!rate!among!all! regions.!Since!1970,!the!region!has!maintained!gender!parity!in!secondary!education.!!In!South!and!West!Asia,! total!enrollment!at! the!secondary! level! increased! from!26!million!to!136!million,!bringing!the!GER!to!56!percent! in!2009!from!23!percent! in!1970.! Substantial! progress! has! been!made! since! 1970! in! bridging! the! gender! gap!when!the!participation!of!girls!in!secondary!education!was!less!than!oneKhalf!that!of!boys! (13! percent! for! girls,! as! compared! to! 31! percent! for! boys).! However,!enrollment!for!girls!still!lags!behind!that!of!boys.!In!2009,!the!GER!for!girls!was!52!percent,!as!compared!to!59!percent!for!boys!in!2009.!!!The!most!populous!country! in!the!region,! India,!accounts! for!threeKquarters!of! the!regional!leap!in!enrollment.!From!1970!to!2009,!enrollment!in!secondary!education!increased!from!21!million!to!102!million!in!this!country!alone.!Many!other!countries!in! the! region!also! expanded! the! capacity!of! their! education! systems.! For! example,!there!was!strong!growth!in!enrollment!at!the!secondary!level!in!the!Islamic!Republic!of! Iran! (from!1!million! to! 8!million),! Pakistan! (from!1.4!million! to! 9!million)! and!Bangladesh!(from!2!million!to!10!million).!!Since!1970,!total!enrollment!in!secondary!education!grew!nineKfold!in!subKSaharan!Africa,! expanding! from! 4.3!million! to! 39!million.! This! spectacular! result! must! be!

! 19!

considered!in!relation!to!the!growth!of!the!secondary!schoolKage!population,!which!tripled!over!the!same!period.!As!a!result,!the!GER!rose!from!11percent!to!36!percent!between!1970!and!2009.!Despite!this!progress,!the!region!still!has!the!lowest!rate!of!participation! in! secondary! education! and! the! most! severe! gender! disparities.! In!2009,! the!GER! for!boys! exceeded! that! of! girls! by!9!percentage!points! (41!percent!versus! 32!percent).!Nevertheless,!many! countries! in! this! region! have! significantly!expanded! their! secondary! education! systems.! In! absolute! values,! the! biggest!increase!took!place!in!Nigeria,!where!the!number!of!students!enrolled!in!secondary!education! grew! from! just! 400,000! in! 1970! to! more! than! 6! million! in! 2007.! In!Ethiopia,!enrollment!grew!from!135,000!to!3.9!million!students!between!1971!and!2009.! Secondary! education! systems! also! expanded! significantly! in! Tanzania,!Burkina! Faso,! Burundi,! Chad,! Côte! d'Ivoire,! Democratic! Republic! of! the! Congo,!Kenya,!Nigeria!and!Niger!(see!Table!1).!!2.3!Girls’!persistence!at!the!primary!level!and!transition!to!the!secondary!level!remains!a!challenge!!!Exclusion!of!girls!from!secondary!education!occurs!as!a!cumulative!effect!of!gender!disparities!at!the!primary!level,!as!well!as!girls!being!unable!to!make!the!transition!from! primary! to! secondary! education.! For! girls! to! enter! into! secondary! school! a!necessary! preKcondition! is! to! have! a! higher! level! of! enrollment! and! a! higher!percentage!of!girls!having!completed!primary!schooling.!In!several!countries,!higher!level! of! girls’! enrollment! is! not! translating! into! a! higher! level! of! primary! school!completion! rate.!Available!evidence!also!points! to! challenges! in!girls’! transition! to!secondary! education:! girls! are! completing! primary! school! in! higher! numbers,! but!are!not!enrolling!for!secondary!level!at!a!corresponding!level!(see!Table!1).!!Over! the! past! decade,! significant! strides! have! been! made! in! terms! of! girls’! net!enrollment!at!the!primary!level.!However,!their!retention!in!primary!schooling!and!as! well! as! their! transition! from! primary! to! secondary! schooling! still! remain! a!challenge,!particularly!in!poorer!countries!(see!Table!1)!However,!retention!of!girls!at! the! primary! level! is! a! significant! challenge! for! many! countries.! For! example,!Bangladesh!has!an!NER!of!93.3!percent!but!a!persistence!rate!at!the!Grade!5!level!of!only!66.1percent;!Nicaragua!has!an!NER!of!93.8!percent,!but!only!55.2!percent!girls!of!those!enrolled!in!Grade!1!persist!until!Grade!5;!Malawi!has!an!NER!of!92.7percent,!!but!a!mere!42.5!percent!!survive!until!Grade!5.!According!to!the!Global!Campaign!for!Education!and!RESULTS!Educational!Fund!(2011,!p.!14),!there!are!some!47!out!of!54!African! countries! where! girls! have! less! than! 50! percent! chance! of! completing!primary!school.!!!!!!!!

! 20!

Table!1:!Girls’!enrollment!and!persistence!in!primary!level,!and'transition!to!secondary!school'Country! Adjusted!

NER!for!girls!(%)!

Girls’!transition!from!primary!to!secondary!(%)!

Girls’!survival!Grade!5(%)!

Change!in!girls’!primary!NER!over!last!decade!(%!change)!

Change!in!girls’!transition!from!primary!to!secondary!enrollment!(%!change)!

Bangladesh! 93.3! 100! 66.1! ! !Pakistan! 60.2! 71.9! 59.5! 31.5! !India! 88! 81.1! 70! 14.1! K4.3!Nepal! ! 81.4! 63.6! ! 10.8!Cambodia! 86.7! 78.6! 64.8! 9.2! 10.5!Lao!PDR! 80.7! 76.9! 67.7! 8.9! 7.8!Thailand! 89.4! 88.8! ! ! !Myanmar! ! 72.8! ! ! 10.5!Indonesia! ! 92.7! 89.3! ! 14.9!TimorKLeste! 81.8! 87.5! 79.4! ! !Philippines! 93.2! 98.1! 82.5! 3.5! 0.7!Egypt! 93.4! ! 96.5! 10.2! !Yemen! 66! ! ! 58.9! !Eritrea! 34.4! 81! 72! 11.2! 1.9!Ethiopia! 81! 87.3! 48.8! 169.9! !Guinea! 67.8! 40.2! 64.3! 90.6! K33.9!Kenya!! 84.2! ! ! 32.6! !Niger! 51.3! 62.1! 66.3! 147! 51.9!Central!African!Republic!

56.8! 44.7! 48.5! ! !

Chad!! ! 65.4! 33.6! ! 33!Congo,!Dem!Rep!

! 75.7! 76.7! ! !

Côte!d’!Ivoire! 52! 45.1! 66! 7.2! 18.5!Nigeria! 59.6! 44.1! ! 7.9! !Togo! 89! 57.8! 50.5! 18.2! K7.6!Burundi! 99.8! 22.6! 75.9! 203.2! 16.8!Ghana! 76.6! 91.6! 77.6! 29.7! 9.5!Lesotho! 75.5! 66.4! 69.2! 23.8! 20.9!Senegal! 76.3! 57.1! 70.8! 52.1! 35.2!Tanzania! 97.3! 32.3! 89.2! 93.8! 40.7!Burkina!Faso! 60.5! 50.7! 77.6! 109.8! 31.4!!!

! ! ! ! !

! 21!

Country! Adjusted!NER!for!girls!(%)!

Girls’!transition!from!primary!to!secondary!!

Girls’!survival!Grade!5(%)!

Change!in!girls’!primary!NER!over!last!decade!(%!change)!

Change!in!girls’!transition!from!primary!to!secondary!enrollment!(%!change)!

Malawi! 93.7! 74! 42.5! K4.1! K0.7!Mali! 69.8! 68.2! 85.1! 87.7! 31.1!Mauritania! 78.8! 30.8! 83.5! 27.1! K16.7!Mozambique! 89.8! 54.7! 53.3! 93.9! 27.2!Rwanda! 97! ! 50.5! 27! !Swaziland! 83.7! ! 87.9! 16.9! !Gambia! 71.9! 83.2! 72.1! 0.6! 23.9!Uganda! 93.7! 55.3! 59.4! ! 22.4!Zambia! 93.8! 67.4! 70.4! 36.9! 25.9!Cameroon! 85.6! 45.5! 79.2! ! 44.1!Congo!Rep! 61.6! 62! 79.3! ! 18!Bolivia! 92.3! 94.1! 84.6! K3.6! 5.2!Ecuador! 100! 76.9! 83.1! 0.3! 11.6!El!Salvador! 96.5! 91.8! 81.6! 7.8! 4.7!Honduras! 98.3! 86.2! 80.3! 10.6! !Guatemala! 94.9! 89.7! 69.8! 19.1! K2.8!Nicaragua! 93.8! 95.7! 55.2! 16.1! K2.8!Source:'Excerpted'from'Global'Campaign'for'Education'and'RESULTS'Educational'Fund'(2011),'p.'12@13'!Many!countries!that!demonstrate!higher!persistence!rates!at!the!primary!levels!are!unable! to! transfer! these!gains! toward! transitioning!of!girls! to! the!secondary! level.!Tanzania!is!a!case!in!point!here,!where!despite!achieving!near!universal!enrollment!for!girls!at!the!primary!level!and!a!retention!rate!of!89.2!percent,!girls’!transition!to!the!secondary!level!is!a!mere!32.3!percent.!Similarly,!in!Burundi,!the!primary!school!completion!rate!is!nearly!80!percent,!but!transition!to!secondary!schooling!is!a!mere!22.6! percent.! As! UIS! (2011)! reports,! in! Burundi! one! in! two! boys! transition! from!primary!school!to!secondary!school!but!not!even!one!in!four!girls!transition!to!the!secondary!level.!In!Guinea!and!Tanzania!boys!are!five!times!more!likely!to!transition!to!secondary!education.!!!2.4!Girls!are!less!likely!to!complete!secondary!education!in!poorer!countries,!with!completion!being!particularly!rare!in!the!poorest!!While!graduation!ratios!for!secondary!education!have!increased,!interestingly,!many!countries!show!higher!completion!rates!for!girls!than!for!boys.!SubKSaharan!Africa,!

! 22!

followed!by!South!and!West!Asia,!has!the!highest!gender!disparities!in!completion!rates,!favoring!boys!(Figure!3).!!In!the!Arab!States,!East!Asia!and!the!Pacific,!oneKhalf!of!countries!with!available!data!have! lower! secondary! education! graduation! ratios! exceeding! 70! percent! for! girls.!!Girls!appear! to!be!doing!exceedingly!well! in!Palestine!with!98!percent!completing!lower! secondary.! Qatar! has! graduation! rates! of! 100! percent,! Emirates! and! Oman!have!rates!of!90!percent!and!Jordan!a!rate!for!girls!of!80!percent.!Girls!in!China!have!an! over! 80! percent! graduation! rate! followed! by! Philippines! with! 78! percent.! In!Myanmar! the! girls’! graduation! rate! is! only!43!percent,! followed!by!Laos!with! less!than!40!percent.!!!In!Latin!America!and!the!Caribbean,!girls!have!higher!graduation!rates!than!boys!in!25!of!the!28!countries.! ! In!Central!Asia,!the!situation!is!mixed,!with!oneKhalf!of!the!eight! countries! reporting! graduation! ratios! for! the! lower! secondary! level! that! are!higher! for! female! students! (Armenia,! Kazakhstan,! Kyrgyzstan! and! Mongolia).!Georgia!and!Tajikistan!report!higher!graduation!rates!for!boys!as!compared!to!girls,!whereas!Azerbaijan!and!Uzbekistan!report!equal!ratios!for!both!sexes.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! 23!

!!Figure!3:!Gross!graduation!ratio!for!lower!secondary!education!programs,!2009!

S E C T I O N 1 / Global perspective on student progression in secondary education

23

G L O B A L E D U C A T I O N D I G E S T 2 0 1 1 / Comparing education statistics around the world

In the Arab States and East Asia and the Pacific, one-half of countries with available data have lower secondary education graduation ratios exceeding 70%. Nonetheless, low graduation ratios are observed in Cambodia, Djibouti, Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Sudan, with ratios below 40%. In South and West Asia, ratios are also low for Bangladesh (45%) and Pakistan (35%). The highest ratio in that region is observed in the Islamic Republic of Iran (81%).

With increasing graduation ratios for lower secondary education in most regions, the gap between sub-Saharan Africa and much of the rest of the world is widening. Graduation ratios are below 70% in 16 out of 17 countries with available data in sub-Saharan Africa, and three-quarters of them are below 40%. In this region, boys are more likely to graduate than girls in 13 of the 15 countries reporting data by gender.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140 D

jibou

ti

Sud

an

Syr

ian

Ara

b R

ep.

Leba

non

Tuni

sia-1

Jord

an-1

Qat

ar

Om

an

Pal

estin

ian

OT-1

UA

Em

irate

s-1

Alb

ania

Rep

. of M

oldo

va

Ser

bia

Ukr

aine

Bel

arus

-2

Kyr

gyzs

tan

Mon

golia

Geo

rgia

Tajik

ista

n

Aze

rbai

jan

Uzb

ekis

tan

Arm

enia

Kaz

akhs

tan+1

Cam

bodi

a-1

Laos

-1

Mya

nmar

Sam

oa

Tim

or-L

este

Phi

lippi

nes-2

Thai

land

Indo

nesi

a

Chi

na, M

acao

Mal

aysi

a-1

Chi

na

Chi

na, H

ong

Kon

g

Bru

nei

Gro

ss g

rad

uatio

n ra

tio (%

)

Arab States Central and Eastern Europe

Central Asia East Asia and the Pacific

Guy

ana

Hon

dura

s G

uate

mal

a N

icar

agua

B

eliz

e C

osta

Ric

a El

Sal

vado

r P

anam

a Ec

uado

r P

arag

uay

Bra

zil

Vene

zuel

a A

rgen

tina

Dom

inic

an R

ep.

Aru

ba

Bol

ivia

C

olom

bia

Cay

man

Isla

nds

Uru

guay

A

ntig

ua/B

arbu

da

Per

u S

aint

Luc

ia

Ang

uilla

C

uba

St K

itts/

Nev

is

Gre

nada

S

t Vin

cent

/Gre

nad.

D

omin

ica

Pak

ista

n B

angl

ades

h B

huta

n Ira

n

Nig

er

Bur

kina

Fas

o B

urun

di

Moz

ambi

que

Mad

agas

car

Sen

egal

M

alaw

i M

ali

Cam

eroo

n Et

hiop

ia

Nig

eria

S

outh

Afri

ca

Eritr

ea

Zam

bia

Mau

ritiu

s G

hana

K

enya

South and West Asia

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Gro

ss g

rad

uatio

n ra

tio (%

)

Latin America and the Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa

Total Male Female

What proportion of students complete lower secondary education?Gross graduation ratio for lower secondary education, all programmes, 2009

FIGURE 9

Notes: -1 Data refer to 2008; -2 Data refer to 2007; +1 Data refer to 2010. Data on graduates at the lower secondary level are not collected in the UNESCO/OECD/Eurostat (UOE) data collection. Therefore, no data are presented for North America and Western Europe and some countries in Central and Eastern Europe.

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Statistical Table 7. !!!In! subKSaharan! Africa,! graduation! ratios! are! below! 70! percent! in! 16! out! of! 17!countries!with!available!data,!and!threeKquarters!of!them!are!below!40!percent.! In!this! region,! boys! are!more! likely! to! graduate! than! girls! in! 13! of! the! 15! countries!reporting!data!by!gender.!In!particular,!Niger,!Burkina!Faso,!Burundi!and!Senegal!all!have!abysmally!poor!rates!of!graduation!–!under!10!percent!for!girls.!(See!also!Lloyd!and!Young!(2009,!p.!23!K24).!!!South! and!West! Asia! also! have! low! completion! rates! for! girls.! For! instance,! girls’!graduation! rates! in! Bangladesh! and! Pakistan! are! 45! percent! and! 35! percent!respectively.!The!highest!ratio!in!that!region!is!observed!in!the!Islamic!Republic!of!Iran! (81! percent).! Bhutan! has! made! rapid! progress! with! the! graduation! rate! far!exceeding!boys!–!close!to!70!percent.!

! 24!

!!2.5!In!nearly!all!regions,!girls!of!secondary!school!age!are!more!likely!to!be!out!of!school!than!boys!!In! 2009,! 67.2!million! children! of! primary! school! age! (31.8!million! boys! and! 35.4!million!girls)!and!71.6!million!children!of!lower!secondary!school!age!(34.2!million!boys!and!37.4!million!girls)!were!out!of!school,!which!means!that!they!were!enrolled!neither!in!primary!nor!secondary!school.!These!children!represent!10!percent!of!the!global!primary!schoolKage!population!and!17!percent!of!the!global!lower!secondary!schoolKage!population.!Among!children!of! lower!secondary!school!age,! the!highest!outKofKschool!rates!in!2009!were!reported!in!subKSaharan!Africa!(37!percent),!South!and!West!Asia!(21!percent),!the!Arab!States!(16!percent),!East!Asia!and!the!Pacific!(13!percent),!and!Central!and!Eastern!Europe!(11!percent)!(Figure!4).!!!'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''

! 25!

Figure!4:!!Out@of@school!children!of!lower!secondary!school!age!by!region,!2009!

40

S E C T I O N 1 / Global perspective on student progression in secondary education G L O B A L E D U C A T I O N D I G E S T 2 0 1 1 / Comparing education statistics around the world

11.819.5

15.610.111.110.6

4.25.7

5.0

13.912.813.4 

5.45.35.3

2.52.82.6

18.723.4

20.933.1

40.436.7

15.918.7

17.2

0 10 20 30 40 50

WORLD WORLD

Sub!Saharan Africa

South andWest Asia

North America andWestern Europe

Latin America andthe Caribbean

East Asia andthe Pacific

Central Asia

Central andEastern Europe

Arab States

0 10 20 30 40

1.42.2

3.5

1.01.1

2.1

0.20.20.4

7.76.4

14.1

1.01.0

1.90.40.4

0.8

12.714.4

27.1

9.811.8

21.6

34.237.4

71.6

Sub!Saharan Africa

South andWest Asia

North America andWestern Europe

Latin America andthe Caribbean

East Asia andthe Pacific

Central Asia

Central andEastern Europe

Arab States

Male Female Total

Percentage of out-of-school children of lower secondary school age (%)

Number of out-of-school children of lower secondary school age (in millions)

North America and Western Europe

Central Asia

Latin America and the Caribbean

Central and Eastern Europe

East Asia and the Pacific

Arab States

WORLD

South and West Asia

Sub!Saharan Africa

4.1

13.3

11.1

20.0

30.4

24.2

54.8

2.6

5.0

5.3

13.4

15.6

17.2

36.7

6.6 10.6

20.9

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Percentage of out-of-school children of lower secondary school age (%)

Where do the world’s out-of-school children live?Percentage and absolute number of out-of-school children of lower secondary school age by region, 2009

Which regions have made progress in reducing their share of out-of-school children?Percentage of out-of-school children of lower secondary school age by region, 1999 and 2009

FIGURE 17

FIGURE 18

Note: East Asia and the Pacific and South and West Asia: UIS estimates based on data with limited coverage for the reference year, produced for specific analytical purposes.

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Statistical Table 5.

Notes: The start and end points of the arrows indicate the values in 1999 and 2009, respectively. For South and West Asia, the percentage of out-of-school children is only available for 2009. East Asia and the Pacific and South and West Asia: UIS estimates for 2009 are based on data with limited coverage, produced for specific analytical purposes.

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics database and Statistical Table 5.

!As! shown! in! Figure! 4,! in! absolute! terms,! the! highest! number! of! children! out! of!school! was! reported! for! South! and!West! Asia:! 27.1! million,! or! 38! percent! of! the!global!outKofKschool!population!of! lower!secondary!school!age.!SubKSaharan!Africa!was!home!to!21.6!million,!or!30!percent,!of!all!lower!secondary!schoolKage!children!who!are!out!of! school,!worldwide.! In!East!Asia! and! the!Pacific,! 14.1!million! lower!secondary!schoolKage!children!were!out!of!school!in!2009.!!In!almost!all!regions!(except!North!America!and!Western!Europe,!Latin!America!and!the! Caribbean,! and! East! Asia! and! the! Pacific),! outKofKschool! rates! for! lower!secondary! age! were! higher! for! girls! than! for! boys.! Gender! disparity! is! generally!greater! among! outKofKschool! children! of! lower! secondary! school! age! than! among!those!of!primary! school! age.!For!example,! in! subKSaharan!Africa,!40!percent!of! all!lower!secondary!schoolKage!girls!and!33!percent!of!all! lower!secondary!schoolKage!boys!were!out!of!school,!compared!to!25!percent!of!all!primary!schoolKage!girls!and!21!percent!of!all!primary!schoolKage!boys.!

! 26!

!Table!2!shows!the!percentage!of!outKofKschool!girls!for!select!countries.!Almost!oneKthird!of! the!countries!have!at! least!15!percent!of!girls!of! lower!secondary!age!not!enrolled!in!school.!Another!third!of!the!countries!(32!percent)!have!an!outKofKschool!rate! of! less! than! 5! percent.! Although! countries! with! low! rates! of! female,! outKofKschool! adolescents! can!be! found! in!most! regions!of! the!world,! the!majority!of! the!countries!with!high!rates!are!concentrated! in! subKSaharan!Africa.! (UNESCO!World!Atlas!2012).!!Table!2:!Rate!of!female!out@of@school!adolescents!for!selected!countries,!2009!or!latest!year!available!

see below

LebanonCyprus

Israel

Maldives

Gambia

Tunisia

Sierra LeoneLiberia

Ireland

Jordan

Bhutan

Rwanda

Lesotho

Guinea-Bissau

Seychelles

Comoros

Djibouti

Armenia

BruneiDarussalam

Timor-Leste

Burundi

Swaziland

Kuwait

Singapore

Trinidad and TobagoGrenadaSt. Vincent & GrenadinesBarbadosSt. LuciaDominica

St. Kitts and NevisAntigua and Barbuda

El Salvador

JamaicaHaiti

Papua New Guinea

Uganda

Georgia

Gabon

CentralAfrican

Republic

Palau

Bangladesh

Iceland

Guatemala Honduras

Panama

Senegal

NicaraguaCosta Rica

Mauritius

Democratic People’sRepublic of Korea

SriLanka

Republicof Korea

Belize

Bahamas

CapeVerde

Dominican Republic

Cuba

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

Cambodia

Greece

13245

67 891011

121314

Ecuador

UnitedKingdom

Afghanistan

Thailand

Zimbabwe

Germany

Botswana

Philippines

SouthAfrica

NewZealand

Madagascar

Mexico

Colombia

Côted’Ivoire

Guinea

Uruguay

Myanmar

Finland

Namibia

Venezuela

Mauritania

Nigeria

Bolivia

United Statesof America

SyrianArab Rep.

SpainPortugal

LiechtensteinSwitzerland

SanMarino

MonacoAndorra

Luxembourg

Belgium

EstoniaDenmark

Malta

LatviaLithuania

France

Morocco Iraq

Kenya

PolandUkraine

Egypt

Yemen

EthiopiaSouthSudan

Malaysia

United Republicof Tanzania

Angola

IslamicRepublic of Iran

Saudi Arabia

Chad

DemocraticRepublic of theCongo

India

Zambia

Turkey

KazakhstanMongolia

Libya

Niger

Indonesia

Mali

Brazil

Sudan

Australia

China

Canada

QatarBahrain

Azerbaijan

Algeria

United Arab Emirates

BurkinaFaso

São Tomé and PríncipeEquatorial Guinea

Belarus

MarshallIslands

Fed. States ofMicronesia

LaoP.D.R.

Netherlands

Italy

Russian Federation

Congo

GuyanaSuriname

Peru

Chile

Argentina

Paraguay

NorwaySweden

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

Pakistan

Oman

Eritrea

Nepal

Japan

Ghana

BeninTogoCameroon Somalia

Malawi

Mozambique

Viet Nam

Tonga

Tuvalu

NauruKiribati

Fiji

Samoa

Vanuatu

SolomonIslands

British Virgin Islands

Macao SAR, China

Aruba (Neth.)

Cayman Islands

(UK)WesternSahara

Greenland(Denmark)

Jammu and Kashmir*Bermuda (UK)

Anguilla (UK)

Turks andCaicos Is.

(UK)

Gibraltar (UK)

Puerto Rico(USA)

Hong Kong SAR, China

Montserrat (UK)

Faroe Islands(Den.)

Niue (NZ)Cook Islands(NZ)

Tokelau (NZ)

* Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties.

Final boundary between the Republic of Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined.

1. The FYR of Macedonia2. Albania3. Montenegro4. Serbia5. Bosnia and Herzegovina6. Croatia7. Slovenia

8. Hungary9. Austria10. Czech Republic11. Slovakia12. Republic of Moldova13. Romania14. Bulgaria

Less than 1%

[1% to 5%[

[5% to 15%[

[15% to 20%[

Greater than 20%

No data

Map 4.4.1 presents data on the females of lower secondary age who are not enrolled in school. It shows that in almost one-third (32 percent) of the countries this proportion is at least 15 percent. Another third of the countries (32 percent) have an out-of-school rate of less than 5 percent.Table 4.4.1 illustrates how great the variations are among countries by listing some of the countries with the lowest and highest rates of female out-of-school adolescents. Although countries with low rates of female out-of-school adolescents can be found in most regions of the world, the majority of the countries with high rates are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa.

Source: UNESCO Institute for StatisticsNote: +1 refer to 2010 data; -1 refer to 2008 data; -2 refer to 2007 data; -3 refer to 2006 data; -4 refer to 2005 dataSource: UNESCO Institute for Statistics

4. Out-of-school adolescents a continuing problem

Map 4.4.1 High rates of out-of-school female adolescents detected in certain regions

Rate of female out-of-school adolescents(lower secondary education)

CHAPTER 4 Enrolment and gender trends: secondary education

Australia -1

Kazakhstan -4

Finland -4

Japan -4

Croatia -1

United Kingdom -1

Denmark -2

Greece -3

HungaryIceland

0.00.20.20.20.30.50.60.70.80.8

Country Rate

Burundi -2

Burkina Faso +1

United Republic of TanzaniaGuineaEritreaPakistanDjibouti -1

Central African Republic +1

Senegal -3

Niger -2

58.158.760.260.762.764.265.368.871.383.4

CountryRate

Table 4.4.1 Rate of female out-of-school adolescents for selected countries, 2009 or latest year available

72 73

!Source:'UNESCO'Institute'for'Statistics'cited'in'World'Atlas'on'Gender'Equality'in'Education,'2012,'p@72'!!!2.5.1!Linkages'with'wealth'and'location!!!!There!is!a!clear!link!between!household!wealth!and!location!and!the!probability!of!girls!not!being!in!school.!As!shown!in!the!Figure!6,!girls!from!rural!areas!and!from!the!poorest!households!are!the!least!likely!to!be!in!school.!!Compared!to!children!from!the!richest!20!percent!(quintile)!of!households,!children!from! the! poorest! quintile! are! nearly! four! times! as! likely! to! be! out! of! school.! The!probability! of! being! out! of! school! decreases! steadily! with! increasing! household!wealth.!Within!each!wealth!quintile,!girls!are!always!more!likely!to!be!out!of!school!than! boys,! but! the! gap! shrinks! with! increasing! household! wealth.! Overall,! the!highest! percentage! of! children! out! of! school! is! observed! among! girls! from! the!

! 27!

poorest!household!quintile! (40!percent).!Boys! from!the!richest!household!quintile!are!the!least!likely!to!be!out!of!school!(9!percent).!!!!Figure!5:!Average!out@of@school!rate!by!individual!and!household!characteristics!(in!31!countries)!!

UIS/FS/2011/12 6

Figure 5. Average out-of-school rate by individual and household characteristics (in 31 countries)

1019

2532

409

1823

2936

3115

2814

1018

2430

38

2915

2624

25

0 10 20 30 40%

Richest femaleSecond richest female

Middle femaleSecond poorest female

Poorest femaleRichest male

Second richest maleMiddle male

Second poorest malePoorest male

Rural femaleUrban female

Rural maleUrban male

Richest quintileSecond richest quintile

Middle quintileSecond poorest quintile

Poorest quintile

RuralUrban

FemaleMale

Total

Source: Household survey data from 31 countries, 2003-2010. Note: Mean values are unweighted.

Box 1. Global Initiative on out-of-school children

In 2009, UNICEF and the UIS launched a global initiative to provide the data required to inform policies aimed at reducing the number of out-of-school children. The specific objectives of the project are to:

• improve information on and statistical analysis of data on out-of-school children and develop complex profiles of these children that reflect the multiple deprivations and disparities they face in relation to education; and

• analyse existing interventions related to enhanced school participation, identify bottlenecks and develop context-appropriate policies and strategies for increasing enrolment and attendance of excluded and marginalised children.

Twenty-five countries from seven regions are currently engaged in the initiative. It will result in country and regional studies, a global report on out-of-school children and a methodological document. The aim is to support education sector planning and reform efforts, as well as annual sector and budget reviews within the framework of the EFA Fast-Track Initiative.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics P.O. Box 6128, Succursale Centre-Ville, Montreal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada

Tel: (1 514) 343-6880 / Fax: (1 514) 343-5740 / Email: information@uis.unesco.org

!!!In!addition,!girls!from!rural!areas!are!more!likely!to!be!out!of!school!than!boys!from!rural!areas!and!children!of!either!sex!from!urban!areas.!The!biggest!disparity!exists!between!rural!girls!and!urban!boys.!!!2.5.2'School'exposure'of'out@of@school'adolescent'girls''!The!UIS! Fact! Sheet! (April! 2011,! Number! 11)! categorizes! outKofKschool! adolescent!girls!as:!a)!those!who!have!entered!school!and!dropped!out;!b)!those!who!will!never!enter;!c)!those!who!are!currently!out!of!school!but!are!expected!to!enter!at!a! later!age.1!The!idea!here!is!to!understand!the!very!different!needs!of!the!three!categories!of!outKofKschool!adolescent!girls!so!that!tailorKmade!solutions!can!be!suggested!for!their!return!to!schools.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 See UNESCO-UIS and UNICEF (2005)

! 28!

The! school! exposure! of! outKofKschool! adolescent! girls! for! 13! selected! countries! is!shown!in!Figure!7.!!The!share!of!adolescent!girls!who!are!out!of!school!ranges!from!81!percent!in!Niger!to!3!percent!in!Brazil.!!!Figure!6:!Percentage!of!lower!secondary!school@age!girls!who!are!in!and!out!of!school,!for!selected!countries!–!most!recent!year!available!!

Figure 1. Percentage of lower secondary school-age girls who are in and out of school, for selected countries, most recent year available

10

9

70

11

16

18

57

8

26

15

44

14

32

15

47

6

37

16

6

32

9

35

28

1

27

8

25

46

23

6

20

53

8

19

15

59

13

13

58

23

4

16

50

33

111

6

53

34

67

10

86

3

0

20

40

60

80

100

Low

er

seco

nda

ry a

ge g

irls

in a

nd

out

of

scho

ol (

%)

Nig

er

Mal

i

Sen

egal

Gu

ine

a

Eth

iopi

a

Pak

ista

n

Nig

eria

Ban

gla

desh

Indi

a

Ca

mb

odia

Ne

pal

Gh

ana

Bra

zil

OOS: left school earlyOOS: expected to never enterOOS: expected to enterIn secondary school or higherIn primary school

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics based on household survey data: Bangladesh Multiple Indicator Cluster

Survey (MICS) 2006, Brazil Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) 2009, Cambodia Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2005-2006, Ethiopia DHS 2005, Ghana DHS 2008, Guinea DHS 2005, India DHS 2005-2006, Mali DHS 2006, Nepal DHS 2006, Niger DHS 2006, Nigeria DHS 2008, Pakistan DHS 2006-2007, and Senegal DHS 2005.

Adolescent girls who left school: How far along the education path did they make it?

When do most early adolescents leave school? Figure 2 assesses whether, on average, adolescents make the transition to lower secondary education before dropping out. It contrasts the average years of education achieved by adolescents who drop out with the duration of primary and lower secondary education in their respective countries. The figure shows that Brazil is the only country where adolescent girls and boys usually leave school at the lower secondary level. In two countries, India and Nigeria, it generally occurs after the completion of primary education. For the remaining countries, the average educational attainment of early school-leavers shows these adolescents make it about halfway through primary education before leaving school.

Figure 2 also reveals disparities in education attainment linked to sex and household wealth. Adolescent boys complete more years of education than girls before dropping out in Ethiopia, Guinea, Nepal and Pakistan. These four countries also have the lowest average total educational attainment. The reverse is true in Bangladesh, Brazil, Cambodia, Ghana and Nigeria, where adolescent girls finish more years of schooling than boys before they leave school.

The educational attainment gap between early adolescent girls from the richest and poorest wealth quintiles also varies among countries. The disparity between rich and poor is less than one year of school in Guinea, Mali, Nepal, Niger and Senegal. However, the gap is greater than one year in Brazil, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Nigeria and Pakistan. In fact, the education gap is greater than 3 years in Brazil and Nigeria, representing a striking disadvantage for the poorest girls. While the gender disparity in educational attainment may favour boys or girls, depending on the country, the richest adolescent girls always complete more education on average than the poorest girls before leaving school.

!!At!86!percent,!Brazil!has!the!highest!number!of!girls!among!these!selected!countries!at! an!ageKappropriate! grade! in! lower! secondary! level! or!higher,! followed!by! India!(59!percent),!Bangladesh!(53!percent),!Nigeria!(46!percent);!however!in!Niger!only!9!percent!girls!are!in!an!appropriate!grade!level.!!!There!is!a!significantly!large!number!of!girls!who!are!out!of!school:!70!percent!girls!in!Niger!are!never!expected!to!enter!the!classroom;!in!Mali!this!figure!is!57!percent,!in! Guinea! 47! percent! and! Senegal! it! is! 44! percent.! In! Niger,! socioKcultural! and!religious!beliefs!and!practices,! including!early!marriage!(half! the!girls! in!Niger!are!married! before! the! age! of! 15),! and! practical! issues,! such! as! security! and! long!distances! between! home! and! school,! keep! girls! out! of! school! (Action! Health!Incorporated,!2011).!In!Mali,!25!percent!of!girls!are!married!by!age!15,!and!nearly!twoKthirds!of!girls!are!married!by!age!18!(MDHS!2001).!Child!marriage!is!extremely!common! in! some! regions,! such! as! in!Kayes! in!Mali,!where! 39! percent! of! girls! are!married! by! age! 15,! and! 83! percent! are! married! by! age! 18.! EightyKsix! percent! of!married! girls! have! received! no! education,! compared! to! 62! percent! of! unmarried!girls!(Child!Marriage!Briefing!Mali,!Population!Council,!2004,!pK1).!Interestingly,!as!

! 29!

Lloyd!and!Young!(2009)!note! in!their!study!based!on!DHS!data!from!45!countries,!the!majority!of!outKof!school!girls!in!their!early!adolescence!(ages!10!–!14!years)!are!unlikely! to! have! ever! received! formal! schooling;! however,! in! most! countries,! the!majority!of!outKofKschool!girls!in!later!adolescence!(ages!15–19!years)!have!received!some!formal!schooling.!!!Household! wealth! also! makes! a! substantial! difference! to! the! number! of! years!completed! before! dropping! out.! Girls! from! the! richest! quintile! complete! more!number! of! years! of! schooling! before! dropping! out! than! girls! from! the! poorest!quintile!(Figure!8).!For!instance,!in!Brazil!and!Nigeria,!girls!from!the!richest!quintile!achieve!at!least!3!more!years!of!schooling!than!those!from!the!poorest;!in!Pakistan!and!Cambodia,!girls!from!the!richest!quintiles!attain!over!2!years!more!of!schooling!before!dropping!out,!than!those!from!the!poorest!quintiles.!!!!!Figure!7:!Educational!attainment!of!lower!secondary!school!age,!out@of@school!adolescents!who!have!ever!attended!school,!by!wealth!quintile!and!gender,!most!recent!year!available!

Figure 2. Educational attainment of lower secondary school-age, out-of-school adolescents who have ever attended school, by wealth quintile and gender, most recent year available

Duration of primary school

Duration of lower secondary school

2.4

2.9

2.7

4.8

3.4

3.4

2.6

4.3

2.7

3.9

3.5

4.1

3.4

4.2

3.0

5.5

4.0

4.5

4.3

5.3

2.9

6.2

4.7

7.8

4.9

8.2

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Avera

ge y

ears

of

edu

catio

n

Ne

pa

l

Eth

iopia

Gu

ine

a

Pakis

tan

Sen

eg

al

Mali

Nig

er

Ca

mb

od

ia

Ban

gla

de

sh

India

Gh

an

a

Bra

zil

Nig

eri

aRichest OOS adolescent girlsAll OOS adolescent girlsAll OOS adolescent boysPoorest OOS adolescent girls

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics based on household survey data: Bangladesh Multiple Indicator

Cluster Survey (MICS) 2006, Brazil Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD) 2009, Cambodia Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 2005-2006, Ethiopia DHS 2005, Ghana DHS 2008, Guinea DHS 2005, India DHS 2005-2006, Mali DHS 2006, Nepal DHS 2006, Niger DHS 2006, Nigeria DHS 2008, Pakistan DHS 2006-2007, and Senegal DHS 2005.

Making the transition from primary to lower secondary education Gender disparities in lower secondary education are a result of the cumulative effect of disparities in primary education along with those disparities associated with the transition from primary to lower secondary education. As shown in Figure 2, many adolescent girls out of school actually are excluded from education because they never had a chance to enter primary education. As well, in countries with high numbers of early adolescent girls out of school, disparities are also found in the transition to lower secondary education. Figure 3 compares transition rates from primary to lower secondary education in the countries with the highest numbers of early adolescent girls out of school. With limited access to secondary education, girls who complete primary education in Burkina Faso, Burundi, Guinea, Niger and Tanzania are more likely to face obstacles in entering secondary education than boys. Thus, the disparities found in primary education are further reinforced. In Burundi, every second boy completing primary school moves onto secondary education, but not even one in four girls do so. In Guinea and Tanzania, girls have one-fifth the chance of boys of moving to secondary education. However, in Ghana, Indonesia, Malawi, Myanmar and Pakistan which have higher overall transition rates, girls and boys have similar chances to enter secondary education. The situation is exceptional in Ethiopia and Mozambique, where girls are more likely to make the transition to secondary education than boys.

!!!!

! 30!

2.6!Schooling!and!child!labor!linkages!!!There!is!a!clear!link!between!girls’!exclusion!from!school!and!child!labor!in!most!of!the!countries!affected!with!widespread!poverty.!SubKSaharan!Africa!has!the!highest!share,!worldwide,!of!child! laborers.! In!the!18!countries! in!this!region!with!data!on!child!labor,!38!percent!of!all!children!between!7!and!14!years!of!age!are!engaged!in!work!that!can!be!considered!harmful!to!their!development!(Figure!9).!Among!these!children,! slightly!more! than!half! (20!percent!of! the! total)!also!attend!school!while!another! 18! percent! are! only! engaged! in! labor.! Overall,! 60! percent! of! all! children!between! 7! and! 14! years! attend! school;! 21! percent! of! all! children! are! neither! in!school!nor!do!they!engage!in!labor.!Among!girls,!19!percent!are!not!attending!school!and!are!working!as! child! laborers.!Another!19.2!percent!of! the!girls! are!attending!school!and!are!also!working.!!!Gibbons!et'al! (2005)!note!that!children!in!the!richest!20!percent!of!the!population!are!much!more!likely!to!be!in!school!and!not!working!than!those!in!the!poorest!20!percent;!children! from!the!richest!households!are!approximately! twice!as! likely! to!be!in!school!only,!and!the!gap!between!the!two!groups!of!children!is!31!percentage!points.!Further,!a!child!from!the!richest!quintile!is!almost!half!as!likely!to!be!working!as!a!child!from!the!poorest!quintile.!Children!from!the!poorest!quintile!have!a!fiftyKfifty!chance!of!not!being!in!school!at!all.!At!the!same!time,!even!among!the!richest!20!percent!of! the!population,!oneKfifth!of!all!children!do!not!attend!school.!This!could!be!due!to!lack!of!access!to!school! !(even!for!the!richest),!poor!quality!of!education!(leaving!parents! to!believe! school! is! a!waste!of! time! for! their! children),! or! simply!that! in! poor! countries! only! the! top!5! percent! of! families! have! the!wherewithal! to!fulfill!their!children’s!right!to!an!education.!!The!International!Labor!Organization!(ILO)!estimates!that!nearly!30!percent!of!the!50K100!million! people! employed! as! domestic!workers!worldwide! are! children.! In!countries!as!diverse!as! Indonesia,!Morocco,! India!and!Nigeria,! it! is!not!uncommon!for! young! girls! to! be! working! more! than! twelve! hours! a! day! for! less! than! the!minimum!wage.!Many!of!these!girls!are!facing!acute!risks.!!!In!Bangladesh,!more!than!421,000!children,!mostly!girls,!work!as!domestic!servants.!70!percent!of!girls!involved!in!domestic!service!experienced!physical!abuse!and!systematic!beatings!and!just!11!percent!of!domestic!laborers!reported!attending!school!at!the!time!of!a!2006!survey!(Brown,!2012,!pK8K9).!!In!1998!in!Egypt,!approximately!886,000!girls!between!the!ages!6–14!(14!percent)!did!not!attend!school,! and!approximately!513,000!girls! regularly!engaged! in! labor!force!work,!while!another!2.2!million!girls!(37.7!percent)!spent!time!on!household!chores!and!uncounted!hours!engaged!in!childcare!(Zibani!2002).!In!another!study!in!Egypt! authors! find! ‘a! substantial! effect! of! work! (broadly! defined,! with! a! 14Khour!threshold)! on! girls’! school! attendance:! a! 10! percentage! point! increase! in! the!probability! of!work! results! in! a! 6! percentage! point! decrease! in! the! probability! of!school!attendance.!Their!estimation!method!allows!us!to!determine!the!net!impact!

! 31!

of! work! on! schooling,! correcting! for! both! observable! and! unobservable!characteristics!of! the!child!and!the!household.!The!results! indicate!that!many!girls!who!work!would!have!been!in!school!had!they!not!been!expected!to!work!14+!hours!per! week.! Thus,! work! seems! to! have! a! direct! and! detrimental! effect! on! girls’!schooling!(Assad!et'al.!2010,!pK42).!!!!Figure!8:!Activity!status!of!children!7@14!years!in!sub@Saharan!Africa!!

!!Source:'Elizabeth'D.'Gibbons'Friedrich'Huebler'and'Edilberto'Loaiza,'UNICEF'2005'!School! attendance! tends! to! be! low! in! countries! with! a! high! proportion! of! child!laborers.! In! their! 18Kcountry! sample! in! subKSaharan! Africa,! Gibbons! et' al! (2005)!found! boys’! attendance! rate! being! 4! percentage! points! higher! than! that! of! girls!(Figure!10).!The!gender!disparity!was!greatest!in!the!Central!African!Republic,!Côte!d’Ivoire,!Mali,!and!Niger,!with!about!12!percentage!points!difference!between!boys’!and!girls’!school!attendance!ratios.!In!a!few!countries,!girls!are!more!likely!to!be!in!school! than! boys,! including! Lesotho! (9! points! difference)! and! Tanzania! (3! points!difference).!Swaziland!has!a!school!attendance!rate!of!78!percent!and!a!child!labor!rate! of! 10!percent,!while!Niger! has! a! school! attendance! rate! of! 30!percent!with! a!child! labor! rate! of! 72! percent;! Uganda! and! Somalia! appear! to! be! two! outliers.! In!Uganda,!43!percent!of!all!children!are!laborers!and!yet!88!percent!of!all!children!are!

! 32!

in! school.! Somalia! has! the! lowest! school! attendance! rate! of! all! countries,!with! 13!percent,!but!with!a!share!of!42!percent!child!laborers!(Gibbons!et'al!2005).!!!!Table!3:!School!attendance!in!sub@Saharan!Africa!by!gender!(%),!children!7@14!years!

15

Table 6: School attendance in Sub-Saharan Africa by gender (%), children 7-14 years Country Total Male Female Male-

Female Burundi 47.3 51.2 43.8 7.4 CAR 49.8 55.7 44.0 11.7 Comoros 35.9 35.5 36.3 -0.8 Congo (DRC) 61.7 66.0 57.6 8.4 Côte d'Ivoire 61.7 67.6 55.3 12.3 Gambia 52.7 56.5 49.2 7.3 Guinea-Bissau 43.3 46.7 39.9 6.8 Kenya 81.3 80.7 81.8 -1.1 Lesotho 75.3 71.0 79.6 -8.6 Malawi 83.4 82.6 84.2 -1.6 Mali 38.7 45.0 32.7 12.3 Niger 30.2 36.2 24.2 12.0 Senegal 47.0 51.1 42.9 8.2 Sierra Leone 43.2 45.9 40.4 5.5 Somalia 13.4 14.2 12.7 1.5 Swaziland 77.8 77.7 78.0 -0.3 Tanzania 51.1 49.6 52.6 -3.0 Uganda 87.8 87.8 87.7 0.1 Total 60.3 62.4 58.3 4.1

Note: Averages are weighted by country population.

The regression analysis confirms that, controlling for all other factors, girls are less likely to attend school than boys in 10 of the 18 countries. In 2 of the other 8 countries (Lesotho and Malawi), boys are at a disadvantage compared to girls, and in the remaining 6 countries being a boy or a girl does not have a significant effect on the likelihood of school attendance (Comoros, Kenya, Somalia, Swaziland, Tanzania, and Uganda).

However, when we examine the regressions to select only countries where there were significant gender disparities in school attendance, we find a much stronger correlation between child labour and school attendance than in the sample as a whole. While overall, in 10 out of 18 countries child labour has a strong negative effect on school attendance, 7 of these 10 countries (Burundi, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Mali, Niger, and Senegal) are among the 10 countries that also have school attendance rates favouring boys (in the Central African Republic and Guinea-Bissau the impact of child labour on school attendance is not significant, and in Lesotho girls are more likely to be in school). Without further analysis at the country level it is not possible to say with certainty why child labour tends to affect school attendance more in countries with significant gender disparities. We can say, however, that child labour and gender are important determinants of school attendance, as shown in Table 5, although their net effects may be in the opposite direction of the conventional wisdom.

Delving further into the question of gender, we divided the samples for the 18 countries and ran separate regressions for boys and girls. The results for the individual countries are shown in tables A2 and A3 in the appendix, and summaries are presented in tables 7 and 8. In the 9 countries in which child labour has a negative and statistically significant effect on school attendance, a girl engaged in child labour is on average 11 percentage points less likely to attend school (table 7), while a boy in the same

!Source:'Gibbons'et'al'2005'!The! study! also! found! that! child! labor,! as! a! constraining! determinant! of! school!attendance,! is! significant! in! over! half! the! countries! (10! of! 18).! The! strongest!negative!effect!of!child!labor!was!observed!in!Mali!and!Senegal!where!the!likelihood!of!attending!school!reduced!by!14!percentage!points!for!child!laborers.!The!average!among! the! countries! in!which! child! labor! has! a! negative! and! significant! effect! on!school!attendance! is! K9!points,! ranging! from! K14!points! to! K4!points! in!Lesotho.! In!other!words,! in!and!of! itself,!being!a! laborer!would,!on!average,!decrease!a!child’s!likelihood!of! attending! school!by!9!percentage!points,! compared! to! a! child!who! is!not!working.!!For!girls,!sibling!care!and!household!responsibilities!also!represent!major!barriers!to!education.!As!Brown!(2012)!notes,! ‘In!most!cultures!across!South!Asia!and!subKSaharan!Africa,!girls!traditionally!provide!a!greater!share!of!sibling!care!than!boys.!When!the!time!demands!of!that!care!collide!with!the!time!demands!of!education,!all!too! often! the! latter! loses! out.! There! is! also! evidence! that! the! 15! million!predominantly! female! children! involved! in!domestic! service!have!particularly! low!school! attendance! rates.! In! Bangladesh,! just! 11! percent! of! domestic! laborers!reported!attending!school!at!the!time!of!a!2006!survey’!(pK9).!!

! 33!

Naules! and! Strand! (2011)! report! that! in! Ghana,! waterKhauling! affects! girls’!schooling.!Their!study,!based!on!four!rounds!of!the!DHS!(Demographic!and!Health!Surveys)!in!1993K94,!1998K99,!2003!and!2008!in!countries!with!a!high!proportion!of!child! labor,! uses! GPS! coordinates! and! builds! an! artificial! panel! of! clusters,!identifying! the! closest! neighbors! within! each! round.! Correcting! for! potential!endogeneity! of! communities! and!household! characteristics! they! estimate! a! strong!negative! relation! between! girls’! schooling,! with! a! 15Kminute! reduction! in! waterKfetching!time!increasing!girls’!school!attendance!by!8K12!percent.!!There! is,! however,! a! likelihood! of! gross! underKreporting! of! girls’! participation! in!work.! In! their! study!on!Yemen,!Guarcello!and!Rosati! (2007)!point!out! that! twelve!percent! of! children! in! the! age! range! 6! –! 14! years! are! involved! in! some! forms! of!economic! activity,! of! these! 15! percent! are! from! rural! areas! and! 2.8! percent! from!urban! areas.!While! in! urban! areas! the! difference! in! school! attendance! is! little,! in!rural! areas! there! is! a! large! genderKbased! disparity.! In! fact,! only! 35%! of! female!children!are!attending!school!against!65!percent!of!male!children.!The!actual!gender!gap! in!work! involvement! is!probably!greater,!as!girls!are!almost! twice!as! likely!as!boys! to!be! reported!as! involved! in! ‘no!activities’! (49!percent!versus!21percent),! a!category!which!also! likely!captures!unreported!work!or! involvement! in!household!chores!(p.!9K10).!!!

! 34!

!CHAPTER!3!

!Barriers!to!Girls’!Transition!to!Secondary!School!

!3.1!Introduction!While! the! scope! and!magnitude! of! girls’! participation! in! secondary! schooling! has!been! delineated! in! Chapter! 2,! this! chapter! specifically! examines,! inKdepth,! the!particular! reasons! that! inhibit! girls’! successful! transition! to! secondary! schooling.!Investigating! both! demandKside! and! supplyKside! factors,! it! suggests! that! the! issue!assumes! further! complexity! because! of! the! age! of! the! girl! child! at! the! particular!stage!of!transition.!Given!that!the!girl!child!has!entered!adolescence!at!the!time!she!is! expected! to! transition! to! secondary! schooling,! the! challenges! she! faces! are!integrally!linked!with!issues!of!female!health,!the!socioKcultural!values!and!practices!associated!with!puberty!and!her!transition!into!adulthood.!This!theme!permeates!all!the!themes!analyzed!in!this!chapter.!!!The!chapter!is!organized!around!the!themes!of!‘Marriage!and!Pregnancy’,!‘Distance!to!Schooling’,! ‘Schooling!Costs’,! ‘Girls’!experience!of!Schooling’,! ‘Menstrual!Hygiene!Management! and! Schooling’! and! ‘Gender! Equity! and! Labor! Markets’.! Individually!and!together,!these!themes!analyze!the!interKlinkages!between!both!‘pull’!and!‘push’!conditions! that! act! as! disincentives! to! girls’! continuation! to! or! completion! of!secondary! schooling! (cf.! Birdthistle! et' al.,! 2011).! Home! and! community!environments! in! many! cultural! contexts! view! the! continuation! of! girls! into!secondary! schooling! unfavorably,! creating! ‘pull’! conditions! away! from! school.!Schooling!factors,!whether!in!terms!of!distance,!costs!or!environment,!create!a!set!of!‘push’!conditions,!which!discourage!girls’!successful!transition!to!and!completion!of!secondary!schooling.!Unfavorable! labor!market!conditions! for! female!participation!interact! closely! with! those! of! home/community! and! schools,! contributing! to! the!‘push’! and! ‘pull’! factors! negatively! influencing! girls’! secondary! schooling!participation.!In!contexts!where!girls’!schooling!at!the!secondary!level!is!particularly!challenging,! it! is! a! result! of! strong! ‘push’! and! ‘pull’! factors! acting! together.!Hence,!solutions!for!girls’!successful!transitioning!to!and!completion!of!secondary!schooling!need! to! necessarily! address! both! these! factors! in! order! to! make! a! significant!difference!in!the!positive!direction.!!!3.2!Early!marriage!!Estimates! suggest! 10!million! child! marriages! take! place! each! year! –! or! 19! every!minute!of!every!day!(Brown!2012,!pK9).!Among!girls!in!the!age!group!15!–!19!years,!nearly!one!in!every!five!adolescent!girls!in!the!developing!world,!and!nearly!one!in!three!girls!in!the!least!developed!countries,!are!currently!married!or!in!union.!This!percentage!is!the!largest!in!South!Asia!and!in!West!and!Central!Africa,!where!nearly!one! in!every! three!adolescent!girls! is!married!or! in!union,! compared! to!1! in!14! in!Central! and! Eastern! Europe! and! the! Commonwealth! of! Independent! States.! (See!Figure!11)!(UNICEF!2012).!!

! 35!

!Similar!trends!are!observed!with!respect!to!girls’!age!of!marriage!in!the!age!group!20K24!years!(Figure!12).!Of!the!married!adolescent!girls,!most!appear!to!get!married!between! the!ages!15K19.!However,! a! sizable!percentage!of! girls! are!married!by!or!before! the! age! of! 15! years.! Among! the! least! developed! countries,! 17percent!were!already!married!by!the!age!of!15!years,!and!47!percent!by!the!time!they!were!18.!In!comparison,!in!the!developing!countries,!12!percent!were!married!by!the!time!they!were!15,!and!a!total!of!35!percent!by!18!years.!!In!South!Asia,!West!and!Central!Asia!and!subKSaharan!Africa,!18!percent,!14!percent!and!12!percent!of!girls!respectively,!were!married!by!the!time!they!were!15!(Unicef!2012).!!!!Figure!9:!Percentage!of!adolescent!girls!15@19!married!currently!Figure!10:!Percentage!of!20@24!year@olds!first!married!before!15!and!18!region@wise!!Figure!9!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!10!!

10 Progress for Children

South Asia

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

21

24

26

27

28

14

18

12

11

12

3

8

1

4

17

14

10

23

30

Sub-Saharan Africa

West andCentral Africa

Least developedcountries

Developing countries(excluding China)

Eastern andSouthern Africa

Latin Americaand the Caribbean

Middle East andNorth Africa

East Asia and thePacific (excluding China)

CEE/CIS

15 Married or in union between the ages of 15 and 18

Married or in union before age 15

Nearly one third of adolescent girls in South Asia are married or in union Percentage of adolescent girls 15–19 years old who are currently married or in union, by region

FIGURE 2.9

Developing countries(excluding China)

Least developedcountries

CEE/CIS

East Asia and the Pacific(excluding China)

Middle East andNorth Africa

Latin America andthe Caribbean

Eastern andSouthern Africa

Sub-SaharanAfrica

West andCentral Africa

South Asia

0% 10% 20% 30%

30

28

24

19

18

15

11

7

29

22

More than one third of young women in the developing world were married as childrenPercentage of women 20–24 years old who were first married or in union before ages 15 and 18, by region

FIGURE 2.10

Note: Estimates based on a subset of 104 countries, covering 92% of the 15–19-year-old female population of the developing world (excluding China, for which comparable data are not available). Regional estimates represent data from countries that cover at least 50% of the regional population. Data coverage was insufficient to calculate an average for industrialized countries.

Source: UNICEF global databases, 2011, based on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) and other national surveys, 2000–2010.

Note: Estimates are based on a subset of 105 countries, covering 90% of the 20–24-year-old female population of the developing world (excluding China, for which comparable data are not available). Regional estimates represent data from countries that cover at least 50% of the regional population. Data coverage was insufficient to calculate an average for industrialized countries.

Source: UNICEF global databases, 2011, based on DHS, MICS and other national surveys, 2000–2010.

third of these married by age 15 (see Figure 2.10). In the least developed countries, nearly half of women aged 20–24 were married before the age of 18.

Negative consequences of child marriage abound, particularly for girls. They may be cut off from their families, their formal education left behind. Their development – and the fulfillment of their human rights – may be compromised. There are also health concerns associated with child marriage, which often leads to adolescent childbearing. In developing coun-tries, more than 90 per cent of births to adolescents occur within marriage10 (see ‘Adolescent childbear-ing’, in Chapter 5, page 24).

Data for several countries suggest that women who marry as children are at risk of domestic violence (see Chapter 6, on violence).

Many adolescent girls who marry or enter into union do so, often against their will, with men who are much older. A 2005 analysis of Demographic and Health Sur-vey data indicates that the age difference between the spouses tends to be greater when women marry early

than when they marry at an older age.11 Available data show that in the Gambia and Sierra Leone, more than half of girls aged 15–19 who are currently married or in union are with a man who is at least 10 years older.12

Marriages of girls to much older men are most prevalent in West African countries, but they also occur in other regions. Survey data from Bangladesh (2006), for example, indicate that 32 per cent of girls aged 15–19 are married or in union with a man 10 or more years their senior.13 (The actual percentage may be higher; in some surveys, large proportions of girls said they did not know their husband’s or partner’s age.)

A large age difference between spouses may affect the power relations within the marriage and make the young wife more vulnerable to violence and abuse. In addition, women with much older hus-bands are more likely to become widows, which may create economic instability and negatively affect their social status. Marrying older partners can also increase girls’ risk of HIV in countries with generalized HIV epidemics.14

!!!!!!!!!!!!

! 36!

!Figure!11:!Median!age!of!marriage!for!women!aged!20@24:!selected!countries!

10

Com

batin

g ch

ild m

arri

age

thro

ugh

educ

atio

n

15.716.0

16.4 16.5

16.9

17.4 17.5

17.9 17.9 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.2 18.3 18.3 18.318.5

19.0 19.1 19.2 19.219.5

19.7 19.820.0

14.0

15.0

16.0

17.0

18.0

19.0

20.0

21.0Figure 1: Median age of marriage for women aged 20-24: selected countries

Source: ICF International, MEASURE DHS, Demographic Health Surveys (most recent survey)

Figure 2 looks beyond the median age of marriage. It ranks countries on the basis of the share of the population married by the age of 18, identifying sixteen countries in which over half of the young women fall into this category. On a regional basis, West Africa has the highest incidence of child marriage, with Mali, Chad and Niger recording rates in excess of 70 per cent. But the practice is widely spread across sub-Saharan Africa, with countries such as Burkina Faso, Guinea, the Central African Republic, Mozambique and South Sudan registering rates of over 50 per cent. In South Asia, Bangladesh has the highest rate of child marriage (and the second highest in the world), though India has by far the largest population of child brides because of population-size effects. The highest reported

rate of child marriage in the Arab States is in Yemen, where just over half of girls are married by the age of 18.

As striking as the data is on under-18 marriage, it understates the problem. Because it is illegal in most countries, the practice tends to go under-reported. Moreover, the ‘under-18’ category does not capture the age profile of child brides. In many countries with high rates of early marriage, a significant proportion of young children are married by the age of 15. That proportion is highest in Niger, where 36 per cent were in wedlock by their fifteenth birthday. One in every seven 20-24 year-old women in India is married by 15. There is a large group of countries in sub-Saharan Africa – including Chad, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, and Sierra Leone – where

!!Figure!13! identifies! twentyKfour! countries! in!which! the!median!age!of!marriage! is!less!than!20.!In!nine!of!these!countries,!the!median!age!is!below!18!(Brown!2012,!pK10).!Niger! tops! this! list!with!15.7,! followed!by!Chad!at!16.0.!Bangladesh!with!16.4!and!Nepal!with!median!age!of!17.9!are!the!two!countries!from!South!Asia.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! 37!

!Figure!12:!Age!at!first!marriage!in!selected!countries!

11

Source: ICF International, MEASURE DHS, Demographic Health Surveys (most recent survey)

between 19 and 37 per cent of girls are

married by this age. We estimate, on the basis of Demographic and Health Survey data for twelve countries with a combined population of over two billion, that some 1.5 million girls globally are marrying below the age of 15 every year.

It should be emphasised there are gaps in our

data, which are drawn from recent

Demographic and Health Surveys. We have

no recent nationally representative surveys

from Afghanistan, which probably has one of

the highest rates of child marriage in the

world. UNICEF puts the adolescent birth rate

at 150 for every 1,000 girls aged 15-18.

Anecdotal evidence points in a similar

direction. The child marriage problem also

extends beyond the poorest countries.

Research in Egypt has documented high levels

of child marriage in rural areas and Upper

Egypt, with one village-level study finding 44%

of children married before the age of 16.

The age profile for child marriage is important

because in most countries the younger the

bride, the larger the age difference between

her and her husband. In Nigeria, the mean age

difference between spouses is 12 years if the

wife marries before 15, compared to 8 years

if she marries after 20. For child-brides in

polygamous marriages the age difference is 18

years.

National data do not capture sub-national

variations in patterns of very early marriage;

the incidence of early marriage is higher, for

example, in rural areas than in urban ones

(Figure 3).

National survey data can sometimes obscure

large variations across regions. Child marriage

is common across much of India, but

prevalence rates are highest in northern

states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and

Rajasthan. According to the ICRW, 68 per

cent of girls in the Indian state of Rajhastan

are married by 18. In the western Malian

region of Kayes the incidence of early

marriage has been estimated at over 80 per

cent. Northern Nigeria has some of the

highest rates of child marriage in the world.

Nationwide, the share of young women who

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Figure 2: Age at first marriage: selected countries

Married before 18

Married before 15

!!Figure!14!ranks!countries!on!the!basis!of!the!share!of!the!population!married!by!the!age!of!18,! identifying!sixteen!countries!in!which!over!half!of!the!young!women!fall!into! this!category!(Brown!2012,!pK10).!Niger,!Chad,!Mali,!Bangladesh!and!Ethiopia!remain!the!biggest!violators!of!the!minimum!age!at!marriage!law!applicable!in!most!countries.! The! Demographic! and! Health! Survey! data! for! twelve! countries! with! a!combined! population! of! over! two! billion! (excluding! Afghanistan),! estimates! that!globally!about!1.5!million!girls!are!marrying!below!the!age!of!15!every!year.!One!in!every!seven!20!–!24!yearKold!women!in!India,!and!between!19!–!37!percent!of!girls!in! Chad,! Ethiopia,! Guinea,! Mali,! and! Sierra! Leone! are!married! by! age! 15.! (Brown!2012,!pK11).!!!In!most!countries,!while!the!majority!of!the!girls!married!by!18!years!belong!to!rural!areas,! a! fairly! large! number! also! belong! to! urban! areas,! indicating! that! early!marriage! is! not! solely! a! rural! phenomenon.! Senegal! has! a! significantly! higher!number! of! rural! girls! (53.1! percent)!married! by! age! 18! years,! as! against! those! in!urban!areas!(15.4!percent).!In!Burkina!Faso,!nearly!70!percent!of!girls!married!early!belong! to! rural! areas! and! the! rest! belong! to! urban! areas.! In!Bolivia! and! in!Brazil,!35.1! percent! and!30.1! percent! of! the! girls! respectively! come! from! the! rural! areas!whereas!16.8!percent! and!22.2!percent! of! the! girls! respectively! come! from!urban!areas.! Kazakhastan! and! Kyrgystan! do! not! show! much! ruralKurban! variance;! in!Turkmenistan!and!Rwanda!the!girls!in!urban!areas!marry!in!more!numbers!than!in!rural!areas!by!age!18!years!(Table!2!–!Annex).!!Poverty!and!the!prevalent!cultural!practices!determine!the!age!of!marriage!for!girls.!For!instance,!in!Peru,!of!the!women!in!the!age!group!20K24!years,!who!were!married!before! the! age! of! 18,! 45.4! percent! belonged! to! the! poorest! quintile,! as! against! 5!percent!from!the!richest!20!percent.!Similarly!in!Ghana,!42!percent!belonged!to!the!

! 38!

poorest!quintile!as!compared!to!only!8.1!percent!from!the!richest.!In!Nigeria,!out!of!the!girls!married!by!the!age!of!18,!65.8!percent!were!from!the!poorest!quintile!and!only! 11.8! percent! from! the! richest.! In! India,! 74.1! percent! are! from! the! poorest!quintile!and!15.5!percent!are!from!the!richest!quintile.!All!these!countries!show!that!the!girls!from!families!in!the!poorest!quintiles!are!more!vulnerable!to!early!marriage!than! girls! from! the! richest! quintiles.! Similar! observations! can! be! made! about!Burkina!Faso,!Côte!d’Ivoire,!Dominican!Republic,!Bolivia!and!Guatemala.!Conversely,!in! some! countries! (such! as! Philippines,! Indonesia,! Kazakhstan,! Haiti! and! Central!African!Republic)! there!does!not! seem! to!be!much!difference!between! the! richest!and!poorest!quintiles!(Table!2!Annex).!!'3.2.1'Early'marriage'and'education'linkages''!The!educational!backgrounds!of!girls!that!are!married!vary,!especially!from!country!to! country.! As! Figure! 15! demonstrates,! in! over! a! third! of! the! countries,! over! 40!percent! of! the!married! adolescent! girls! in! the! age! group! 15–19! years! have! never!entered!the!education!system.!!In!countries!like!Niger,!Guinea!and!Senegal,!over!80!percent!of!girls!who!are!married!never!attended!school.!Bangladesh!(27.3!percent),!Niger!(27.3!percent),!Guinea!(20.2!percent)!have!the! largest!number!of!girls!being!married!by!the!age!of!15!years.!In!Malawi,!Mozambique!and!Tanzania,!a!majority!of!married!girls!in!the!age!group!15–19!years!have!completed!primary!education,!and!in! countries! like!South!Africa,!Gabon,!Peru!and!Brazil,! the!majority!has! completed!secondary! education.! Kyrgyzstan! is! the! only! exception! with! over! 90! percent! of!married!adolescent!girls!having!completed!secondary!education.!!!Figure!13:!Distribution!of!girls!aged!15!–19!in!union,!by!level!of!education!

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

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Mracsagada

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Mozambique and Nigeria. A good deal of variationis seen in the gap in education between partners forgirls who are married.

In the countries analysed (with the exception ofBangladesh, Comoros, Indonesia and Mozambique),more than 50 per cent of girls aged 15–19 currentlyin union know how to protect themselves fromHIV/AIDS (see Figure 16 below).

In most countries, more than 25 per cent of girlsaged 15–19 who are in union have never usedany form of contraception. Exceptions to this trendare Brazil, Colombia, Gabon and Nicaragua. InMozambique, 96 per cent of girls in union havenever used contraception of any kind. Most notablefor programmatic purposes are those countrieswhere a significant portion of girls in union are usingfolkloric or traditional methods of contraception.

Kyrgyzstan

Indonesia

Philippines

South Africa

Peru

Brazil

Gabon

Malawi

Namibia

Uganda

Guatemala

Bangladesh

Cameroon

Tanzania, United Republic of

Mozambique

Eritrea

Comoros

India

Yemen

Côte d'Ivoire

Benin

Senegal

Guinea

Niger

No education Primary education Secondary education Higher education

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Per cent

FIGURE 15: Distribution of girls aged 15–19 in union, by level of education

FIGURE 16: Proportion of girls aged 15–19 who are in union and know how to prevent HIV/AIDS

16 EARLY MARRIAGE: A Harmful Traditional Practice

!Source:'Unicef'2012'

! 39!

!It!is!hard!to!discern!a!clear!pattern!on!the!status!of!girls’!education!to!poverty!and!linkages! to! early!marriage.! However,! it! is! important! to! note! that! –! Niger,! Guinea,!Senegal!and!Bangladesh!–!have!poor!HDI!ranking,!are!the!poorest!in!the!region!and!have!more!than!50!percent!of!their!population!below!the!poverty!line!(UNDP!2011).!When! the! multiKdimensional! poverty! head! count! is! taken! into! account! then! the!situation!appears!much!worse.!This!is!an!important!point!to!keep!in!the!backdrop!of!the! data! in! Figure! 15! to! understand! why! a! large! percentage! of! girls! are! being!married! without! education! and! at! a! relatively! early! age.! These! three! countries,!followed! by! Benin,! Côte! d’Ivoire,! Yemen! and! India,! again! have! significantly! large!numbers! of! poor! people! and! persistent! deprivation.! In! this! sense,! girls! being!married!away!at!a!very!young!age,!suggests!feminization!of!poverty.!!!It! is!reported!that!Bangladesh!has!the!second!highest!rate!of!child!marriage! in!the!world,!with!an!estimated!75!percent!married!before!18!years!of!age.!The!Bangladesh!Bureau!of!Statistics!reports!that!nearly!50percent!of!adolescent!girls!are!married!by!the! age! of! 15! years,! and! 60! percent! become!mothers! by! the! age! of! 20! years.! The!1996! Matlab! Health! and! SocioKeconomic! Survey! data! from! rural! Bangladesh!confirmed! this,! indicating! that! 70! percent! of!marriages! occur!within! two! years! of!menarche.!With!the!high!risk!to!reputations!of!girls!through!unwanted!attention!and!their! perceived! vulnerability! in! the! public! sphere,! marriage! is! seen! as! a! safe!alternative!to!sexual!attention!and!unsanctioned!sexual!activity.!Early!marriage,! in!almost!every!instance,!ends!the!education!of!girls!and!could!act!as!a!barrier!to!their!inclusion!in!broader!society!(Schurmann!2009,!pK509).!!Efforts!were!made!to!analyze!the!influences!on!the!timing!of!girls’!marriages!from!the!standpoint!of!a!combination!of!economic,!social!and!cultural!factors,!especially!at!the!nexus!between!poverty!and!gender!inequality.!For!example,!several!studies!from!India!and!Bangladesh!report!that!parents!often!view!daughters!–!who!generally!move!to!their!husband’s!home!and!are!not!considered!potential!sources!of!support!during!parents’!old!age!–!as!an!additional!burden!(Cain!1981;!Das!Gupta!1987).!In!Bangladesh,!a!conditional!cash!transfer!program!giving!parents!financial!incentives!to!keep!their!adolescent!daughters!in!school!succeeded!in!increasing!secondary!school!enrollment,!but!had!no!impact!on!marriage!timing.!The!key!in!many!places!may!be!the!promotion!of!schooling!–!particularly!secondary!schooling!–!combined!with!meaningful!prospects!of!positive!livelihood!opportunities!(Amin!and!Lynch,!2011).!!Grueling!poverty!and!an!inherent! interest! in!brideKprice!are!also!probable!reasons!for!daughters!being!married!early.!!MuthengiKKarei!and!Erulkar!(2012)!found!that!in!rural! Tabora! in! Tanzania! 13! percent! of! girls! are! married! by! the! age! of! 15! and!47percent!are!married!by!the!age!of!18.!Roughly,!half!of!these!early!marriages!were!arranged!by!families,!and!the!others!were!of!the!girls’!choosing.!SeventyKone!percent!of!marriages!included!brideKprice.!Girls’!families!received!an!average!of!eight!cows!and!over!TSH!300,000,!or!about!US$200,! in!marriage!transactions.!Most!marriages!are!monogamous,!but!one! in! seven! (15!percent)!girls!was! in!a!polygamous!union.!

! 40!

Girls! were! also! married! to! older! spouses.! The! average! age! difference! between!spouses!was!8!years!among!girls!aged!10!to!14,!and!6!years!among!girls!aged!15!to!17.!The!brideKprice!the!girls’! family!received!was!critically! linked!to!the!age!of! the!girl.!Older!men!interested!in!marrying!younger!girls!paid!a!relatively!higher!brideKprice.!The!study!cites!a!village!elder!woman:!"First,!life!is!very!hard.!You!might!find!that![a!girl’s]!family!is!going!through!very!hard!times;!they!do!not!even!have!food...!They!will!decide!to! let!her![the!daughter]!go!and!start!her! life!so!that!they!can!get!something!small.!Also!the!greed!of!the!parents!sometimes!plays!a!role!here.!!Maybe!there!is!someone!offering![a!girl’s!parents]!ten!cows!so!they![the!parents]!prefer!to!take!them!in!exchange!for!the!girl.!The!girl!will!be!forced!to!get!married!whether!she!likes! it! or! not,! so! that! the! parent! gets! the! cows."! (Female! village! elder,! Tabora!region,!age!53,!cited!in!MuthengiKKarei!and!Erulkar,!2012).!!!Educational!enrollment!and!attainment!were!low!among!girls!in!Tabora,!particularly!those!who!were!married.!Overall,!one!in!eight!girls!in!rural!Tabora!had!never!been!to! school,! with! married! girls! four! times! more! likely! to! have! no! education! as!compared! to! unmarried! girls! (10! percent! unmarried,! 41! percent! married).! The!main!reasons!cited!for!never!having!been!to!school!were!parents!not!approving!or!seeing! the! benefit! (46! percent! unmarried,! 50! percent! married)! and! families’!inability! to! afford! schooling! (24! percent! unmarried,! 40! percent! married).! On!average,!girls!in!rural!Tabora!achieved!few!years!of!schooling:!5!years!among!neverKmarried! girls! and! 3! years! among! married! girls.! Likewise,! 23! percent! of! neverKmarried!girls!and!52!percent!of!married!girls!are!reported!to!be!illiterate.!Contrary!to!popular!assumptions,!only!a!minority!of!girls!dropped!out!of!school! in!order! to!get!married!(12!percent).!This!is!partly!because!only!a!minority!of!married!girls!ever!went! to! school! in! the! first! place.! That!most!married! girls! have! so! little! education!highlights! the! limited! capabilities! with!which! girls! enter!marriage! and! undertake!adult!roles.!!!At! the! secondary! level,! over! half! of! the! girls! reported! their! cessation! of! schooling!was!due!to!marriage,!a!reason!cited!by!only!2!percent!of!boys.!Boys’!departure!was!more! likely! to! be! due! to! the! necessity! for! incomeKearning! for! their! families! (44!percent),!a!reason!much!less!frequently!cited!for!girls!drop!out!(Nath,!et'al.,!2008,!pKxxxii).! In! Bangladesh! the! “reasons! parents! marry! off! daughters! at! young! ages! is!often!strongly!related!to!the!economic!circumstances!of!the!family.!Younger!brides!can! typically! attain! higher! status! husbands! with! lower! dowries,! in! addition! to!directly! lowering! the! family’s! economic! burden! of! providing! for! their! daughter.!Hence,!families!who!would!otherwise!choose!this!path!may!be!exactly!those!that!are!unable!to!provide!for!their!daughters.!Marrying!off!a!young!girl!relieves!the!family!of!costs! from! which! they! see! no! return! accruing,! as! she! will! be! leaving! for! her!husband’s! family.!They!do!not!want! to!make!an! investment! in!girls’!education,! the!benefits!of!which!they!cannot!harvest.!Marrying!girls!off!early!is!driven!by!the!sheer!fact!that!delay!in!the!marriage!of!the!girl!will!invite!a!bigger!dowry,!and!as!the!years!pass! the!marriage!of! the!girls!becomes!difficult!as! there! is!a!strong!preference! for!younger!girls!for!marriage”!(Bajracharya!and!Amin!2010).!!!

! 41!

Parents! fear! that! daughters! will! not! be! accepted! as! brides! if! they! are! educated!beyond!a!few!years!in!school.!If!the!girl!is!educated!then!it!is!hard!to!find!an!equal!match! for! her! in! the! groom.! The!more! educated! the! girl,! the! bigger! the! problem!finding! a! groom.! Further,! the! demand! for! dowry! increases! significantly! with! the!growing!age!of!girls.!Families!are!thus!encouraged!to!marry!off!their!daughters!early!in! order! to! avoid! a! larger! future! investment! that! would! likely! be! required! if! she!were! to! marry! when! she! is! older! (Dyson! and! Moore! 1983;! Mathur! et' al.,! 2003;!Mensch!et'al.,!2005).!!!Furthermore,! the! perceived! risk! associated!with! keeping! adolescent! daughters! in!school!and!unmarried! is! seen!as!a!grave!potential! risk! to! family!honor.!Observing!this! in! the! context! of! Bangladesh,! Schuler! (2006)! notes:! “Sex! outside!marriage! is!considered!immoral!and!shameful! in!Bangladeshi!society,!especially! for!girls.!Once!girls! reach! menarche,! they! are! seen! as! dangerously! seductive! and! vulnerable! to!men’s!predations.!Even!unsubstantiated!gossip!regarding!a!sexual!liaison!can!harm!a!girl’s!marriage!prospects!and!result!in!increased!dowry!demands.!Poor!parents!see!themselves! as! less! able! than! wealthier! parents! to! protect! their! daughters! from!premarital!sex!and!scandal.!The!scarcity!of!employment!opportunities,!especially!in!rural!areas,!reinforces!the!social!dependence!of!women!on!marriage”!(pK28K29).!!The! MICS! data! for! Bangladesh! (2009)! best! illustrates! the! intersecting! factors! of!poverty! and! cultural! values,! which! lead! to! girls’! early! marriage! and! limits! their!educational!opportunities.!The!data!shows!that!in!the!lower!grades,!the!dropout!rate!is!relatively!low!and!quite!similar!for!both!boys!and!girls.!“This!is!probably!linked!to!the!lower!opportunity!cost!of!labor!for!very!young!children.!As!these!children!grow!up! and! transition! to! higher! school! grades,! dropout! rates! increase.! From! grade! 8!onward,! the! dropout! rate! for! girls! is! much! higher! than! that! of! boys.! This! too! is!probably! linked! to! early! marriage.! Early! marriage! limits! girls'! opportunities! for!social! interaction! and! selfKassertion.! They! start! their! life! as! new! brides! who! are!expected! to! work! in! their! husband’s! household! and! can! be! exposed! to! hazards!similar!to!those!of!the!young!female!domestic!worker”!(UNICEF!Bangladesh!2011,!pK28K29).!!As! such! then,! parents! desire! only! a! nominal! education! for! their! daughters! to! the!extent! that! they!do!not!appear! too!smart! in! the!eyes!of! the!potential! families!who!are!looking!for!brides.!This!stems!from!the!perception!that!if!the!girl!is!educated!it!is!hard!to!manage!and!mold!her!to!the!requirements!of!the!spouse’s!family.!Education!gives! to! the! young! girl! a! mind! of! her! own! and! she! starts! applying! her! mind! to!everything!that!is!being!suggested!to!or!expected!from!her.!Such!a!situation,!it!is!felt,!would!make! it!difficult! for! the!bride! to!be! flexible!and!accommodating! in! the!new!environment!of!her!spouse’s!family.!!The!perceptions!of!the!parents!are!the!same!in!most! of! these! cultural! contexts!when! it! comes! to! girls’! education.! ! “Young! brides!were!likened!to!small!wild!birds!to!be!tamed,!or!parrots!which!if!taken!in!and!raised!from!a!young!age!would!naturally!imitate!what!they!were!taught”!(Schuler!2006,!pK2829).!!

! 42!

3.3!Early!childbearing!!Across!the!developing!world,!women!are!having!fewer!children.!But!even!in!some!of!the! regions! where! overall! fertility! has! declined,! adolescent! fertility! remains!relatively!high2.!!About!16!million!adolescent!girls!aged!15K19!give!birth!each!year,!roughly!11!percent!of!all!births!worldwide!(Temin!and!Levine,!2009)3!

. Almost!95!percent!of!these!births!occur!in!developing!countries.!!

. They!range!from!about!2!percent!in!China!to!18!percent!in!Latin!America!and!the!Caribbean.!!

. Half!of!all!adolescent!births!occur!in!just!seven!countries:!Bangladesh,!Brazil,!the!Democratic!Republic!of!Congo,!Ethiopia,!Nigeria,!India!and!the!United!States!(Population!Division!2008).!!

. The!adolescent!fertility!rate!worldwide!was!estimated!to!be!55.3!per!thousand!for!the!2000K2005!period,!meaning!that!on!average!about!5.5!percent!of!adolescents!give!birth!each!year.!!

. Adolescent!birth!rates!in!the!less!developed!countries!are!more!than!twice!as!high!compared!to!rates!in!more!developed!countries,!and!these!range!from!less!than!1!percent!per!year!in!places!like!Japan!and!the!Republic!of!Korea,!to!over!20!percent!per!year!in!the!Democratic!Republic!of!Congo,!Liberia!and!Niger.!

!Countries! of! subKSaharan! Africa! and! Latin! America! and! the! Caribbean! have! the!highest!proportion!of!adolescent!births!(See!Figure!16).!In!both!regions,!around!one!in! five! babies! is! born! to! an! adolescent! mother.! Approximately! 95! percent! of!adolescent!births!occur!in!lowK!and!middleKincome!countries.!Bangladesh,!India!and!Nigeria! alone!account! for!one! in! every! three!of! the!world’s! adolescent!births.!The!only!industrialized!country!among!the!top!10!countries!with!the!highest!number!of!adolescent!births!is!the!United!States.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2 United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011, p 31 3 WHO, MPS Notes, Volume 1, No.1, October 2008, page 2

! 43!

Figure!14:!Number!of!!births!per!1000!women!aged!15@19!years'

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

G!"# $: I%&'!() %"*)'+"# ,)"#*, | 31

Since 1990, the proportion of women receiving antenatal care has increased substantially in all regions. Across all developing regions, the share of pregnant women attended at least once during pregnancy increased from 64 per cent in 1990 to 81 per cent in 2009.

Not enough women receive the recommended frequency of care during pregnancy

0 20 40 60 80 100

1990 2009

3551

Developing regions

2610

Southern Asia (excluding India)

4443

Sub-Saharan Africa

2344

Southern Asia

3254

Western Asia

5720

Northern Africa

6946

South-Eastern Asia

7259

8469

Latin America & the Caribbean

Proportion of women (15-49 years old) attended fouror more times by any provider during pregnancy,1990 and 2009 (Percentage)

Note: Data for Eastern Asia are not available.

A minimum of four antenatal care visits is recommended to ensure that pregnant women receive the interventions they need to prevent and manage complications. The proportion of women receiving the recommended number of visits in developing regions remains low, though progress is being made, increasing from 35 per cent in 1990 to 51 per cent in 2009.

Gains made during the 1990s to reduce adolescent pregnancies have stalled in many regions

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

5665

54

2634

24

615

6

2845

29

3343

30

4440

54

5253

64

5359

89

6163

83

6977

81

8288

92

122123124

1990 2000 2008

Developing regions

Developed regions

Eastern Asia

Caucasus & Central Asia

Northern Africa

South-Eastern Asia

Western Asia

Southern Asia

Oceania

Caribbean

Latin America

Sub-Saharan Africa

Number of births per 1,000 women aged 15-19,1990, 2000 and 2008

Very early childbearing brings with it heightened risks of complications or even death. In almost all regions, the adolescent birth rate (the number of births per 1,000 women aged 15 to 19) decreased between 1990 and 2000 and then slowed its decline or even

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Source:'The'Millennium'Development'Goals'Report,'2011'!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Figure!15:!Top!20!countries!with!the!highest!prevalence!of!early!childbearing!

! 44!

!

Adolescent sexual behaviour, childbearing and maternal health, and HIV 25

The prevalence of births among adolescents is high in developing countriesBirths among adolescent girls 15–19 years old as a percentage of total births, 2000–2010

Note: This map is stylized and not to scale. It does not reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any country or territory or the delimitation of any frontiers. The dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the Parties. The final boundary between the Republic of the Sudan and the Republic of South Sudan has not yet been determined. The final status of the Abyei area has not yet been determined.

Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2010 revision, CD-ROM edition, 2011, and ‘2011 Update for the MDG Database: Adolescent Birth Rate’ (POP/DB/Fert/A/MDG2011), reanalysed by UNICEF.

Top 20 countries with the highest prevalence of early childbearing Percentage of young women 20–24 years old who gave birth before age 15 and before age 18, in the 20 countries (of those with available data) with the highest prevalence of early childbearing

Source: UNICEF global databases, 2011, based on DHS and other national surveys, 2005–2010.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Niger

Mali

Guinea

Bangladesh

Sierra Leone

Liberia

Madagascar

Uganda

Zambia

Côte d’lvoire

Congo

Ethiopia

United Republic of Tanzania

Swaziland

Nigeria

Honduras

Kenya

Sao Tome and Principe

Dominican Republic

Democratic Republic of the Congo

9

36

35

32

27

31

28

29

30

23

25

23

25

26

21

23

21

24

22

19

10

9

8

13

7

8

6

4

6

4

5

3

2

7

3

51

3

4

42

Before age 15

Between ages 15 and 18

FIGURE 5.3

FIGURE 5.4

!Source:'UNICEF'global'databases,'2011,'based'on'DHS'and'other'national'surveys,'2005–2010.'!Among!the!top!20!countries!with!the!highest!prevalence!of!early!childbearing,!Niger,!Mali! and! Guinea! have! over! 40! percent! of!women! becoming! pregnant! before! they!turned! 18.! Sierra! Leone! has! the! largest! percentage! of!women!who! had! their! first!pregnancy!before!they!turned!15.!Most!pregnancies!however!take!place!between!the!ages!of!15!and!18!(Figure!17).!!!Becoming!a!teenage!mother!brings!myriad!social!and!economic!consequences!on!the!families.!In!some!cases,!this!is!a!natural!transition!from!adolescence!to!becoming!an!adult;! in! some! cases! it! can! bring! the! burden! of! caring! for! the! new! born,! social!ostracism!and!economic!hardship!to!the!mother,!discontinuation!of!schooling,! loss!of! mobility! and! work! opportunities,! besides! frailty! for! the! mother! if! she! is! not!physically! in! good! health.! Adolescent! pregnancy! can! lead! to! poor! socioKeconomic!outcomes! such! as! quitting! school,! lost! productivity,! and! the! interKgenerational!transmission! of! poverty! (McQueston,! Silverman! and! Glassman! 2012).! Also,!pregnancy!may!disrupt!girls’!schooling!and!limit!their!human!capital!accumulation,!incrementally! affecting! future! job! opportunities! and! earning.! (Madhavan! and!Thomas,!2005)!!The! conventional! assumption! is! that! women! are! forced! to! discontinue! their!education,! especially! if! childbearing! begins! at! a! young! age! (Makinson,! 1985).!However,! recent! evidence! suggests! that! early! childbearing! is! perhaps! likely! to!disrupt!schooling,!but!need!not!necessarily!present!a!permanent!endpoint!to!a!girl’s!education,!or!even!present!an!immediate!disruption,!if!the!pregnancy!is!in!its!early!stages.!Contextual!factors!might!strongly!influence!the!longKterm!impact!of!teenage!motherhood!on!the!likelihood!of!school!continuation!(Kate!Mcqueston!et'al.,!2012).!!!

! 45!

However! it! should! be! noted! that! there! are! many! other! serious! complications! in!countries!where!anemia!and!malnutrition!are!common,!and!where!access!to!health!care! is! poor,! childbearing! among! 18K! or! 19KyearKolds,! whose! physical! growth! is!incomplete,! may! bring! disproportionate! health! risks! (Singh! 1998).! ! Very! early!childbearing!heightens!the!risks!of!complications!or!even!death.!!!3.3.1'Pregnancy@related'school'dropout'!In! 23! subKSaharan! countries,! teenage! pregnancies,! on! average,! account! for! 18!percent! of! all! female! dropouts! in! secondary! school,! and! is! over! 20! percent! in! the!case!of!nine!other!countries!(DHS!2003).!Within!secondary!school,!pregnancies!are!the!leading!cause!of!girls!dropping!out!of!school!in!three!countries!–!Central!African!Republic!(37!percent),!Mozambique!(25.8!percent),!and!South!Africa!(36.1percent)!and!the!second!leading!cause!in!another!six!countries!Cameroon!(22!percent),!Chad!(20!percent),!Gabon!(29.8!percent),!Kenya!(30.8!percent),!Uganda!(28percent),!and!Zambia!(25.9!percent).!!!There! are! very! few! studies! focusing! on! the! linkages! of! girls’! pregnancy! and! their!quitting! school.! EloundouKEnyégué! (2004)! discusses! the! pregnancyKrelated! and!nonKpregnancyKrelated!dropping!out!at!different!grade!levels!contributing!to!gender!inequality!in!the!completion!of!secondary!schooling!in!Cameroon.!The!study!found!that! although! pregnancy!was! not! the! reason! for! all! dropouts,! it! was! the! greatest!contributor! to! the! gender! gap! in! educational! attainment,! particularly! at! the!secondary! level.! It! claims! that! reducing! the! incidence! of! pregnancyKrelated! school!dropouts! would! significantly! close! the! country's! gender! gap! in! the! completion! of!secondary!school.!He!further!adds!that!its!impact!will!be!stronger!if!all!other!forms!of! discriminatory! forces! that! operate! before! the! onset! of! puberty! and! outside! the!realm!of!pregnancy!are!addressed!comprehensively.!!!Grant! and!Hallman! (2006)! found! that! young! South!African!women!who! are!more!interested! in! their! education! are! less! likely! to! become! pregnant! while! attending!school,! and,! if! they!do!become!pregnant,! are! less! likely! to!drop!out! of! school! as! a!result!of!the!pregnancy.!Teen!mothers!were!less!likely!to!return!to!school!with!each!subsequent! year! out! of! school,! and! if! they! had! dropped! out! of! school! while! in! a!higher!grade.!TwentyKnine!percent!of!14!to!19K!year!olds!who!dropped!out!of!school!in! the! year! of! their! pregnancy! had! returned! by! the! time! of! the! survey;! that!proportion!grew!to!51.8!percent!for!those!between!age!20!and!24!years.!!!The!study!reported! that!a!significant!proportion!of!pregnant!school!girls! in!South!Africa!either!remained!in!school!or!reKenrolled!shortly!after!the!birth!of!their!child.!Prior! poor! school! performance,! measured! as! grade! repetition! or! temporary!withdrawal!from!school,!was!highly!predictive!of!which!young!women!will!drop!out.!The!authors!further!point!out!that!the!incentive!to!return!to!schooling!was!based!on!the!assessment!of!potential!employment!opportunities.!LaborKmarket!incentives!for!young!black!South!African!women!aged!15–24!to!complete!secondary!school!are!not!high!and!may!even!be!declining.!In!the!face!of!joblessness!the!child!support!grant!for!

! 46!

raising!children!until! the!age!of!14!years! is!available! to!poor!households,!and! this!appears!to!be!an!incentive!to!have!children.!!!Marteleto,!Lam!and!Ranchhod! (2008,!pK360),! in! their! study!on!South!African!girls!living!in!urban!areas,!found!that!African!women!who!were!pregnant!at!the!age!of!15,!achieved!the!completion!of!two!more!years!of!additional!school!grades!between!the!ages!of!15!and!20.!Colored!women!(Colored!population!includes!descendants!from!indigenous! Khoisan! people! and! slaves! from!Malaysia! and! elsewhere! imported! to!Cape!Town!by! the!Dutch)! however,!were!much!more! likely! to! drop! out! of! school!after!becoming!pregnant!and!gained!little!additional!schooling!thereafter;!however,!they!also!became!sexually!active!much!later.!In!the!age!group!of!22–25!yearKolds,!19!percent!of!colored!women!and!15!percent!of!African!women!reported!having!been!pregnant! by! the! time! they! reached! the! age! of! 17.!More! than! 95! percent! of! these!pregnancies! resulted! in! teen! childbearing.! African!women!were!much!more! likely!than! colored! women! to! combine! pregnancy! and! schooling.! Of! the! girls! who!experienced!a!pregnancy!by! the!age!of!17,!more! than!60!percent!of!Africans!were!enrolled! in!school!while!pregnant,!compared!with!only!35!percent!of!colored!girls!who!were!pregnant!at!the!same!age.!!The!study!points! to! important! issues! for!policy!consideration.! It! indicates! that! the!quitting! of! school! is! rooted! deeper! around! issues! of! poverty,! systemic!disadvantages,!social!conditions!of! the!communities!and!groups,!and!also!the!poor!experience!of! early! schooling! years.! !Those!who!become!pregnant!while! in! school!were! reporting! lower! enrollment! rates! and! lower! grade! attainment! several! years!before!the!pregnancy!took!place,!suggesting!that!even!in!the!absence!of!a!pregnancy!they!were! unlikely! to! achieve! the! same! level! of! schooling! as! those!who!were! not!pregnant!as!teenagers.!!Recent! studies! from! around! the! world! reveal! that! pregnancyKrelated! quitting! of!school!is!minimal!and!not!significant.!Lloyd!and!Mensch!(2008,!pK5),!in!their!study!covering!20!subKSaharan!African!countries,!note!that!of!young!women!who!reported!pregnancy!as!the!main!reason!for!dropping!out!of!school!ranged!from!1!percent!in!Niger!to!31!percent!in!South!Africa;!however,!the!proportion!was!no!more!than!10!percent! in! 15! countries! and! no! more! than! 5! percent! in! nine.! Similarly,! the!proportion!of! those!who!cited!marriage!as!their!primary!reason!for! leaving!school!ranged! from!3!percent! in!Côte!d'Ivoire! and!Togo,! to!28!percent! in!Chad;! again,! in!most! countries,! the! proportion!was! no!more! than! 10! percent.! The! countries!with!higher!rates!of!dropouts!due!to!marriage!were!generally!not!the!same!as!those!with!higher! rates! due! to! pregnancy.! In! fact,! the! countries! were! moreKorKless! evenly!divided! between! those! citing! marriage,! and! those! citing! pregnancy! –! which! was!reported! relatively!more! frequently! –! as! the! reason! for! leaving! school.! The! study!concludes!that!for!young!women!in!FrancoKphone!Africa,!"the!risks!of!leaving!school!during! adolescence! for! reasons! other! than! childbirth! or! marriage! far! exceed! the!risks!associated!with!these!demographic!events"!(p!10).!!!!

! 47!

The! results! of! another! study! from! South! Africa! suggest! that! unmarried! young!mothers! were! 3.61! times! more! likely! to! return! to! school! than! those! that! were!married!(Madhavan!and!Thomas!2005).!Moreover,!girls!who!had!their!children!at!an!older!age!were!less!likely!to!be!enrolled!in!school!for!each!additional!year!of!age,!but!had!completed!slightly!more!years!of!cumulative!schooling!per!each!additional!year!of!age,!at!the!time!of!pregnancy.!The!study!points!to!the!fact!that!the!ability!of!the!teenage!mothers!to!return!to!schooling!depends,!in!some!measure,!on!the!economic!security! and! assurance! that! childKcare! facilities! will! be! available! to! the! young!mother.! It! suggests! formulating! clear! policy! guidelines! regarding! the! provision! of!financial! support! and! childKcare! assistance! simultaneously,! to! ensure! that! young!teenage!mothers! can! return! to! schools.! In! the! study,! all!mothers!who! returned! to!school!depended!on!support!from!their!own!mothers!or!their!sisters!in!looking!after!their! children.! Their! mothers! were! around! in! the! household! because! the! fathers!were!employed.!Out!of!the!15!girls!with!children!who!were!currently!enrolled,!all!of!them!had!fathers!in!some!form!of!steady!employment.!In!most!cases!they!also!had!fullKtime!coKresident!mothers.!Additionally,!some!of!them!also!had!financial!support!from! their! children’s! fathers,! which! could! help! free! some! financial! resources! for!paying!school!fees.!Conversely,!out!of!the!eight!mothers!who!were!not!able!to!return!to! school,! seven!were!either! facing!severe! financial! constraints!as!a! result!of! their!fathers’! unemployment! or! they! lacked! adequate! childKcare! assistance! because! of!their!mothers’!absence,!or!a!combination!of!the!two.!!!Lloyd!and!Mensch!(2008)!concede!that!early!marriage! limits! the!girls’!educational!horizons!more! than!early! childbearing,! at! least! in! the! case!of! Francophone!Africa.!Although! adolescent! girls! becoming! pregnant! is! assumed! to! be! a! key! reason! for!many! young! women! in! developing! countries! to! drop! out! of! school! without!completing!schooling,!an!analysis!of!Demographic!and!Health!Survey!data!indicates!that!early!pregnancy!and!marriage!generally!account! for!only!about!20!percent!of!school! dropouts! among! female! adolescents! in! subKSaharan! Africa.! The! study! also!points!out!that!in!a!majority!of!the!subKSaharan!African!countries,!the!proportion!of!adolescent! girls! aged! 15K17! who! are! sexually! experienced! is! much! lower! among!currently!enrolled!students!than!among!those!who!never!went!to!school,!or!are!no!longer! in!school.! !Drawing!upon!the!data!from!another!study!in!Kenya,! it!also!says!that! school! environment! is! a! critical! factor! in! determining!whether! an! adolescent!will!engage!in!sex.!!!The!study!argues!that!it! is!poverty!and!the!overall!school!experience!of!the!female!adolescent! that!pushes!her! to!have!preKmarital!sex!or! to!marry!early,!which! is! the!prime! reason! for! her! dropping! out! of! school.! The! school! experience! of! the!adolescent! is!underpinned!on!the!perceived!value!of!education,!distance!to!school,!treatment! of! girls! and!boys!differentially! by! school! teachers,! safety! and!quality! of!school! and! school! performance.! It! adds! that! schooling!may! be! a! protective! factor!against!pregnancy!and!early!marriage,!because!despite!recent!declines!in!the!age!of!puberty! and! increase! in! the!proportion!of! females! attending! school! after! puberty,!the!risk!of!schoolKleaving!because!of!pregnancy!has!diminished.!!The!result!suggests!that! the! reproductive! health! community! should! view! early! marriage! as! a! central!

! 48!

area!of!concern!for!reproductive!health!since!schoolgirl!pregnancy!rarely!accounts!for!more!than!a!relatively!small!percentage!of!girls!who!leave!school.!!!3.4!Distance!to!school!!The! UN! Report! on! Women! (2012)! reports! that! a! halfKkilometer! increase! in! the!distance!to!school!will!decrease!girls’!enrollment!by!20!percent.!In!addition,!a!recent!Population! Council! study! in! Pakistan! suggests! that! a! primary! school! within! one!kilometer!raises!predicted!school!attendance!to!73!percent!for!five!to!nine!yearKolds!and!to!65!percent!for!10!to!14!yearKolds,!if!a!middle!or!high!school!is!nearby.!If!the!primary! school! is! more! than! four! kilometers! away,! the! probability! of! attendance!falls! to! three! percent! and! in! the! case! of!middle! school! to! 54! percent! (Zaidi! et.al.,!2012,! pK35).! In! Mauritania! and! Senegal,! the! average! journey! time! to! the! closest!secondary! school! is! eighty! minutes! in! rural! areas.! The! average! distance! to! the!closest! lower! secondary! school! in! Senegal!is! twentyKfive! times! farther! than! to! the!nearest!primary!school!(Glick!and!Sahn,!2009).!!!The!absence!of!middle!or!a!secondary!school!could!negatively! impact!parents!and!girls’!motivation!to!pursue!secondary!education,!and!also!to!complete!primary!level!education!(Lavy!1996;!Tansel!1997).!Distance!to!school!can!compound!the!effects!of!poverty,!with!poor!households!often!unable!to!cover!the!cost,!either!of!transport!or!of!attending!a!boarding!school.!In!addition,!distance!is!associated!with!opportunity!costs:!more!time!spent!traveling!to!and!from!school!implies!greater!loss!of! income!or!output!from!a!child’s!work!contribution!in!domestic!chores,!working!in!the!family!farm! or! in! other! types! of! productive! labor! as! child! labor.! Moreover,! girls! face! a!distinctive!set!of!barriers:!longer!distances!may!reinforce!security!concerns!and,!in!some! contexts,! early! marriage! prevents! them! from! progressing! beyond! primary!school! (UNESCO! GMR! 2010,! pK75).! ! Alderman,! et'al.,(2001)! note! “School! distance!may! affect! learning! in! school! to! the! extent! that! travel! to! and! from! school! is! not!productive.!More! important! is! the!disutility! associated!with!having!a! child! farther!from!home.!This!disutility!may!be!particularly!important!in!the!case!of!girls!because!of! cultural! prohibitions! against! girls! being! out! in! public! and/or! outside! the!protection!of!male!household!members”!(p.7).!!Tansel! (1977)! examines! the! effect! of! distance! to! the! nearest! schools,! and! the!differential! of! this! effect!by! gender,! in!Ghana!and!Côte!d’! I’voire.! !He! finds! that! in!both! the! countries,! secondary! school! distance! costs! reduced! primary! school!enrollments! and!middle! school! attainments.! Lavy! (1996)! finds! supply! constraints!such! as! difficult! access! to! schools,! the! distance! to! the! nearest! school,! high! travel!costs,! boarding! fees! –! as! all! being! very! real! for!many! rural! households! in! Africa,!especially!with!regard!to!postKprimary!schooling.!These!factors!thus!represent!real!supply!constraints!on!the!level!of!schooling!attained.!!A! study! in! Kenya! finds! the! distance! to! school! in! the! northeastern! part! of! Kenya!responsible! for! lower! enrollment! when! compared! to! the! situation! in! the! eastern!part!of!Kenya.!As!compared!to!4000!public!primary!schools!in!the!Eastern!Province,!there!were! only! 250! public! primary! schools! in! Northeastern! Kenya.! In! 2007,! the!

! 49!

gross! enrollment! rate! in! the! Northeast! was! approximately! 35! percent,! as! against!about!125!percent!in!the!Eastern!province!(Ministry!of!Education,!2009).!Data!from!the! 2009! Fin! Access! Survey! show! that! only! about! 40! percent! of! residents! in!Northeastern!Province!and!Coast!Province!reported!to!be!within!walking!distance!of!a!secondary!school,!compared!to!almost!80!percent!in!Central!province!(Glennerster!et'al.,!2011).!Previous!research!has!shown!that!distance!is!an!impediment!to!school!enrollment,! with! some! researchers! arguing! that! female! schooling! may! be! more!sensitive! to! the!physical!distance! to! school!due! to! safety! concerns! (Alderman!and!King,!1998!cited!in!Glennerster!et'al.,!2011).!!In! Pakistan,! various! studies! have! identified! serious! implications! to! girls!transitioning! to! secondary! education! in! the! light! of! the! absence! of! sameKsex!secondary! schools! in! close! proximity! to! the! community! settlement,! with! greater!distance! to! schools!posing! risks! to!parents! and!girls! in! transitioning! to! secondary!education! (Sathar! et' al.,! 2001K2002,! Hazarika! 2001;! Lloyd! et' al.,! 2002! and! 2005,!Zaidi!et'al.,!2012;!Andrabi!et'al.,!2007).!These!studies!point!to!the!growth!in!private!schooling!at!primary!and!middle!levels,!but!also!highlight!the!poor!infrastructure!of!public! secondary! schools! and! the! inability! of! the! private! sector! in! expanding! the!facilities!for!secondary!schooling!for!girls.!!!3.4.1!Effect'of'distance'on'girls’'school'attendance'and'attainment!!!Figure16:!How!distance!affects!primary!attendance!in!four!sub@Saharan!African!countries!!

Distance to school and attendance: Secondary

Nigeria

Uganda

Malawi

Zambia

0

20

40

60

20

0

40

60

Seco

ndar

y gr

oss a

ttend

ance

rate

(%)

<1 km 1 km 2–3 km 4–5 km 6+ km <1 km 1 km 2–3 km

Distance to secondary school (km)4–5 km 6+ km

Source: Malawi 2002 DHS EdData survey, Nigeria 2004 DHS EdData survey, Uganda 2001 DHS EdData survey and Zambia 2002 DHS EdData survey

Total Male Female

Figure 8.4.2 How distance affects secondary attendance in four sub-Saharan African countries

Distance to school and attendance: Primary

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

20

40

0

60

80

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Prim

ary

gros

s atte

ndan

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te (%

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<1 km 1 km 2–3 km

Nigeria

Uganda

Malawi

Zambia

4–5 km 6+ km <1 km 1 km 2–3 km 4–5 km 6+ km

Distance to primary school (km)

Source: Malawi 2002 DHS EdData survey, Nigeria 2004 DHS EdData survey, Uganda 2001 DHS EdData survey and Zambia 2002 DHS EdData survey

Total Male Female

Figure 8.4.1 How distance affects primary attendance in four sub-Saharan African countries

105

!!Source:'Malawi'2002'DHS'EdData'Survey,'Nigeria'2004'DHS'EdData'Survey,'Uganda'2001'DHS'EdData'Survey,'Zambia'2002'DHS'EdData'Survey'cited'in'UNESCO'World'Atlas'on'Gender'2012,'p@105'!!!!

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Figure! 17:! How! distance! affects! secondary! attendance! in! four! sub@Saharan! African!countries!

Distance to school and attendance: Secondary

Nigeria

Uganda

Malawi

Zambia

0

20

40

60

20

0

40

60

Seco

ndar

y gr

oss a

ttend

ance

rate

(%)

<1 km 1 km 2–3 km 4–5 km 6+ km <1 km 1 km 2–3 km

Distance to secondary school (km)4–5 km 6+ km

Source: Malawi 2002 DHS EdData survey, Nigeria 2004 DHS EdData survey, Uganda 2001 DHS EdData survey and Zambia 2002 DHS EdData survey

Total Male Female

Figure 8.4.2 How distance affects secondary attendance in four sub-Saharan African countries

Distance to school and attendance: Primary

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

20

40

0

60

80

100

120

Prim

ary

gros

s atte

ndan

ce ra

te (%

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<1 km 1 km 2–3 km

Nigeria

Uganda

Malawi

Zambia

4–5 km 6+ km <1 km 1 km 2–3 km 4–5 km 6+ km

Distance to primary school (km)

Source: Malawi 2002 DHS EdData survey, Nigeria 2004 DHS EdData survey, Uganda 2001 DHS EdData survey and Zambia 2002 DHS EdData survey

Total Male Female

Figure 8.4.1 How distance affects primary attendance in four sub-Saharan African countries

105

!!Source:'Source:'Malawi'2002'DHS'EdData'Survey,'Nigeria'2004'DHS'EdData'Survey,'Uganda'2001'DHS'EdData'Survey,'Zambia'2002'DHS'EdData'Survey'cited'in'UNESCO'World'Atlas'on'Gender'2012,'p@105'!The!UNESCO!World!Atlas!on!Gender!(2012)!has!compared!the!impact!of!distance!to!school!on!girls’!education!at!both!primary!and!secondary!levels!in!Nigeria,!Malawi,!Uganda!and!Zambia.!The!study! finds! that!distance! to!school!has!a!negative! impact!for!both!sexes!and!but! it! is!a!serious!barrier! to!girls’!education,!particularly!at! the!lower! secondary! level.! Figure! 18!presents! data! on! the! relation!between! the! gross!attendance!rate!and!the!distance!to!school!at!the!primary!level!for!the!four!African!countries.!In!three!of!the!countries!–!Nigeria,!Uganda!and!Zambia!–!attendance!rates!decline!as!the!distance!increases!for!both!sexes,!with!the!decline!particularly!steep!in! Nigeria.! In! both! Nigeria! and! Uganda,! the! negative! impact! of! distance! on!attendance!is!slightly!higher!for!girls!than!for!boys.!The!exception!is!Malawi,!where!attendance! remains! relatively! steady! for! both! sexes! as! the! distance! to! school!increases.!Figure!19!also!indicates!the!negative!impact!on!school!attendance!as!the!distance!increases!in!the!secondary!level,!even!higher!than!in!the!primary!level!for!girls!and!boys!both.!In!Malawi,!girls!are!affected!relatively!more,!than!boys!(pK104K105).!!!Studies!in!Pakistan!have!also!reported!that!low!enrollment!has!little!to!do!with!child!labor!but!a!lot!to!do!with!distance,!particularly!for!girls,!as!every!additional!increase!of! 500! meters! in! the! distance! to! the! closest! school! results! in! a! large! drop! in!enrollment,!and!more!so! for!girls.!Girls! living!at!a!distance!of!500!meters!or!more!from!school!are!15!percentage!points! less! likely! to!attend!school! than!those! living!next! door.! The! dropout! rate! is! much! smaller! for! boys;! in! fact,! distance! to! school!accounts! for! the! bulk! of! the! gender! differential! in! enrollment! in! Pakistan.! The!magnitude!of! this!decline! is! similar!among!rich!and!poor!households,! teenage!and!younger!girls,!and!girls!with!literate!or!illiterate!mothers.!Solving!the!distance!issue!

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is!thus!the!key!to!increasing!enrollment,!particularly!for!girls,!and!it!has!little!to!do!with!incomes!(Andrabi,!et'al.,!2007,!pK20).!!!Tansel! (1997)! investigates! the!determinants!of! the!human!capital! investments! for!male! and! female! children! in! Côte! d’Ivoire! and! Ghana! in! relation! to! their! parents’!education,!household!income,!and!proximity!to!schools.!The!middle!and!secondary!school! distance! costs! in! Côte! d’Ivoire! reduce! primary! school! attendance! and! the!middle! and! post–middle! schooling! attainment.! In! Ghana,! middle! and! secondary!school!distance!costs!were!important!in!reducing!the!probability!of!primary!school!attendance!and!postKprimary!school!attainment.!!!The!study!shows!that!if!communities!in!Ghana!that!did!not!currently!have!a!middle!school! (which! accounted! for! 27! percent! of! the! sample)! could!move! one! standard!deviation! closer! to! a! middle! school,! the! middle! and! postKmiddle! school!achievements!would!rise!by!about!a!year!for!girls!and!less!than!a!year!for!boys.!With!a! similar! move! in! Côte! d’Ivoire,! communities! that! did! not! have! a! middle! school!(accounting! for!54!percent!of! the!sample),!proximity! to!a! secondary!school!would!increase!the!middle!and!postKmiddle!school!achievements!by!about!a!third!of!a!year!for!boys!and!girls.!Thus,!while!boys!and!girls!benefit!equally!from!a!move!closer!to!schools! in! Côte! d’Ivoire,! girls! benefit! more! than! boys! do! in! Ghana.! The! school!distance!effects!were!somewhat!larger!for!females!than!for!males!in!Ghana,!implying!that!distance!is!a!greater!deterrent!for!girls!than!for!boys!in!that!country.!Improved!supply! of! schooling! in! Côte! d’Ivoire! would! benefit! females! more! than! males,!particularly! at! the!middle! school! level,!while! in! Ghana!males!would! benefit!more!than!females,!particularly!at!the!postKmiddle!school!level!(Tansel!1997,!pK842).!!!!Lavy!(1996),!notes!that!in!Ghana,!rural!residence!reduced!the!schooling!attainment!of!girls!only!at!the!middle!and!postKmiddle!school!levels.!The!distance!to!middle!and!secondary!schools!influences!primary!school!attendance,!because!primary!schooling!by! itself! does! not! generate! a! large! return! in! Ghana,! and! it! is! only! valued! as! an!intermediate!step!to!attending!middle!and!secondary!schools4.!The!value!of!primary!schooling! is! realized!only!when!one! can! expect! to! continue!beyond! it;! the!market!treats!this!level!of!schooling!as!not!consequential,!as!there!are!no!clear!advantages!or!derivatives! in! the! labor!market.!If!middle!or! secondary! schools! are! far,!parents!are!also!complacent!about!children!starting!school!in!time,!as!children!will!have!to!be!of!a!certain!age!to!endure!the!commute!(pK312).!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4 Ghana Living Standard Survey revealed that 85 percent of the sample had a primary school in the community within a radius of less than half a mile. On the other hand, only 46!percent had a middle school in the community; the rest had to travel at least 5 miles to reach such a school. The scarcity of and difficult access to secondary education is even more dramatic: only 8! percent had a secondary school in the community, and the distance to the nearest school for the majority was in most cases 15 miles or more. These scarcities are aggravated by a lack of roads (in a third of the communities), by roads being impassable for many months of the year (in more than two thirds of the communities), and by lack of public transportation (in 40!percent of the communities) (Lavy 1996, p.292). !

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While!distance!to!primary!schools!is!likely!to!directly!impact!learning!by!increasing!the! time! required! for! travel! and! thus! reducing! time! for! schoolwork,! proximity! to!secondary! schools! is! expected! to! act! primarily! as! an! inducement! to! complete!primary! school! and! continue! to! the! secondary! level.! In! Senegal,! Glick! and! Sahn!(2007)!note!that!direct!(negative)!effects!of!secondary!school!distance!on!a!child’s!skills!are!likely!to!be!small!for!the!14K!to!17KyearKolds!because!few!have!progressed!beyond!a!year!or!two!of!lower!secondary.!Among!testKtakers,!mean!years!of!primary!education! is! 5.4! while! mean! years! of! any! secondary! level! education! is! just! 0.8,!signifying! that! the! current! burden! of! travel! time! for! those! attending! secondary!school!probably!does!not!have!a!large!effect!on!the!stock!of!human!capital,!which!is!formed!over!the!child’s!entire!schooling!career.!The!authors!found!that!distance!to!school! is! a! greater! barrier! to! girls’! attainment! than! boys;! distances! to! both! the!nearest!primary!and!lower!secondary!schools!had!strong!significant!negative!effects!on!girls’! grade!attainment.! Primary! school!distance!had!no!effect! on!boys! and! the!estimate!of!secondary!distance!effect!for!boys!was!half!that!for!girls!(pK7).!'3.4.1.1!Cultural!values!!Social! and! cultural! values! associated!with! girls’!mobility! after! puberty! affect! their!chances!of!continuing!with!their!education,!if!the!school!is!at!a!distance.!In!western!Uttar!Pradesh!in!India,!parents!explicitly!articulated!that!they!did!not!wish!to!send!their! girls! to! the! schools,! which! are! not! in! proximity! to! their! place! of! living.! The!study! noted! that! school! distance! was! integrally! linked! with! cultural! values!concerning! girls’! mobility! and! future! role,! and! was! the! most! commonly! stated!!reason! for! girls’! dropping! out! of! school.! ! As! Siddhu! (2011),! puts! it:! “There! is! a!general! fear! for! the!security!of!girls!when! they! leave! the!confines!of! the!home! for!schooling,! which! is! exacerbated! where! distances! are! greater.! Socially! it! is!considered! undesirable! for! girls,! particularly! as! they! reach! puberty,! to! travel!unaccompanied,! and! other! ‘social! reasons’! include! the! general! attitude! to! girls’!education;!‘she!will!belong!to!her!husband’s!house.!It!is!good!for!her!to!learn!some!things!which!can!help!her!in!life,!but!she’s!not!going!to!become!a!doctor,!is!she?’!as!one!father!stated.!Indeed!some!girls!dropped!out!because!they!were!to!be!married!that! year.! Current! rural! attitudes! to! girls’! schooling! dictate! that! girls! should! have!some!education,!but!that!they!should!be!kept!close!to!the!home,!as!far!as!possible,!and!that!higher!levels!of!education!are!not!necessary!when!marriage!is!the!ultimate!goal”!(pK397).!!!In!contexts!where!girls’!unrestricted!mobility!is!an!issue,!parents!are!perhaps!more!likely!to!send!their!daughters!to!the!primary!school!in!the!first!place!if!they!can!see!the!possibility!of!attaining! the!desired!secondary!education!within! the!community!itself.! In! their!work!on!access,!distance! to!school!and!mobility! in!Pakistan,!Callum,!Sathar! and! Haque! (2012)! point! out! that! that! having! a! secondary! or! higherKlevel!school! in! the! community! or!within! proximity! enhances! educational! opportunities!the!most,!boosting!enrollment!and!reducing!attrition.!It!shows!that!even!after!taking!school!availability!into!account,!girls!in!households!allowing!unrestricted!mobility!to!school!had!1.5!times!higher!odds!of!ever!being!enrolled!than!those!who!required!an!

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escort.! Once! in! school,! the! need! for! an! escort! implied! 1.6! times! higher! odds! of!dropping!out.!The!paper!concludes!that!while!investment!in!girls’!schools!up!to!the!secondary! level! is! paramount! for! girls’! enrollment! and! persistence! in! school,! the!potential! benefits! will! only! be! fully! realized! with! accompanying! measures! that!facilitate!rural!girls’!mobility.!!!3.4.1.2!Security!concerns!!In!Tanzania,!3!out!of!every!10!Tanzanian!females!aged!13!to!24!had!been!victims!of!sexual! violence;! of! these,! almost! 1! in! 4! reported! an! incident! that! occurred!while!travelling! to! or! from! school,! and! 15! percent! reported! that! at! least! one! incident!occurred!at!school!or!on!school!grounds!(Colclough!et'al.,!2000,!p!19K20!with'ref'to'Guinea'and'Ethiopia;!UNICEF!2011,!cited!in!Warner!et'al.,!2012,!pK5!on'Tanzania).!!A!recent!study!among!students!in!Bangladesh!illustrated!that!12!percent!of!girls!rarely!felt!safe!in!school!(Chisamya!et'al.,!2011,!cited!in!Warner!et''al.,!2012,!pK5).!!!!Parents,! too,! may! consider! sending! girls! to! school! as! dangerous,! especially! if! the!school! is!at!a!distance! from!home,!and!perceive!keeping!them!at!home!as!the!best!option! for! their!protection!(Warner!et'al.,!2012,!pK5).! In!Bangladesh!86!percent!of!girls!reported!that!they!faced!harassments!on!the!way!to!school,!and!97!percent!of!boys!reported!that!they!harassed!girls!on!the!way!to!school.!SeventyKeight!percent!of! the! girls! reported! being! intimidated!while! 54! percent! stated! that! it! would! not!prevent! them!from!attending!school.!SeventyKthree!percent!parents!said! that! ‘eveKteasing’!was!reason!enough!to!stop!the!education!of!their!daughters!(Karim!2005,!pK35! cited! in! Schurmann!2009).!Household! data! from!Education!Watch! 2005! found!that!4!percent!of!dropouts!among!rural!girls!are!due!to!security!concerns.!Moreover,!if!the!distance!to!school!is!too!far,!or!the!route!too!public,!a!girl!may!not!be!allowed!to! attend! (Schurmann! 2009,! pK508).! Additionally,! studies! in! Bangladesh! report!parental!concern!about!adolescent!girls! facing!acid!attacks!during!the!commute!to!the! school! (Chisamya,! G.,! et' al.,! 2012).! When! inK! and! outKofKschool! girls! in!Bangladesh!were!asked!what!they!were!most!concerned!about!related!to!abuse!and!violence,! the! most! common! theme! was! acid! throwing.! ! One! explanation! for! this!violence!is!that!men!find!the!women’s!act!of!going!to!school!as!challenging!(Schuler!2007).!This!is!viewed!as!defying!the!existing!authority!structure!between!men!and!women.!Schools!are!viewed!as!radicalizing!the!minds!of!young!girls!(Schuler!2007).!Distance!to!the!school!thus!matters!to!parents!when!it!is!the!question!of!the!security,!respect!and!honor!of!the!family!which!is!at!stake.!A!school,!primary!and!secondary,!close! to! the! community! assures! parents! that! their! daughters! are! in! a! safe!environment!where!they!have!some!measure!of!control.!!!Mack!(2009)!shows!that!many!of!the!girls!in!Tanzania!face!real!and!tough!challenges!in!traveling!to!and!from!school,!which!negatively!impacts!their!access!to!secondary!education.! In! recent! years,! Tanzania! has! seen! a! massive! expansion! in! secondary!schooling,!with!the!newlyKopened!schools!classified!as!‘community!schools’.!In!fact,!93! percent! of! government! secondary! schools! in! Dar! e! Salaam! are! community!schools,!which!means!that!most!of! these!schools!are! located! in!periKurban!or!nonK

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urban! areas.! Students! attending! these! schools! should! belong! to! the! community!where!the!school!is!located.!However,!the!findings!by!Mack!(2009)!contradict!these!official!estimates.!The!study!reports!that!only!9!percent!of!the!girls!surveyed!were!able! to! attend! school!without!having! to! take!a!daladala! (local!buses)! and!over!86!percent! of! students! reported! needing! to! use! two! or!more!daladalas! just! to! get! to!school!in!the!morning.!This!indicates!that!these!girls!live!rather!far!from!the!school!in!which!they!are!enrolled.!From!the!girls!surveyed,!27!percent!reported!that! they!needed!to!use!the!ferry!to!attend!school,!indicating!that!they!lived!on!the!other!side!of!the!bay!from!the!school!which!they!attend.!!!Girls!reported!that!it!took!them!two!or!more!hours!to!get!to!school!and!for!them!to!return! home,! that! means! that! 4! or! more! hours! of! the! student’s! day! is! spent! in!commuting.! There! is! a! high! prevalence! rate! of! harassment! and! mistreatment! of!female!students,!some!of!whom!are!also!victims!of!genderKbased!violence.!Over!2/3!of! the! respondents! reported! that! they!had! experienced!mistreatment!during! their!commute.!Nearly!half!of!the!girls!surveyed!reported!that!they!were!not!allowed!to!board! the!daladala!by! the!driver!and!hence!missed!school.!Even!more!alarming! is!the!estimated!incidence!rate!at!which!the!girls!suggest!that!this!happens.!Eighteen!percent!of!the!girls!reported!that!they!have!been!refused!access!to!transportation!at!least! 5! times! or! more! in! a! month.!FortyKsix! percent! of! the! girls! reported! being!physically!abused!–!either!hit!and/or!pushed.!Fifteen!percent!of! the!girls!reported!being!sexually!harassed!or!even!sexually!grabbed.!One!girl!described!this!abuse,!“I!was!told!by!a!bus!driver!that!I!am!a!girl!and!it!isn’t!proper!for!me!to!attend!school.!What!I!am!meant!to!do!is!get!married,!not!study.!He!wouldn’t!allow!me!to!board!his!bus!and!he!said!he!wouldn’t!allow!me!to!board!his!bus!unless!I!have!sex!with!him."!(Mack!2009,!pK14).!!!In!Ethiopia,!Emirie!et'al.,!(2008)!found!that!school!distances!mattered!to!the!parents!because! of! the! specter! of! violence! during! the! commute! to! the! school.! The! study!reports! that! 80!percent! of! parents! living! in! urban! areas! thought! there! is! violence!against!the!girls!on!the!way!to!and!from!school,!as!compared!to!58!percent!in!rural!areas.!Whether!there!is!more!violence!or!not!in!the!urban!areas!is!hard!to!say,!but!the! fact! is! that! the! parents’! perception! in! the! urban! areas! is! of! a! high! level! of!violence.! This! is! a! cause! of!major! concern! to! parents.! The!main! perpetrators! are!older! boys! (inKschool! as! well! as! outKofKschool)! as! well! as! adult! men! from! the!community.!A!lot!of!the!violence!is!physical!and!sexual!–!related!to!snatching!of!the!girls’! property,! insult! or! direct! sexual! harassment! –! and! happens! on! the! way! to!school.! Girls,! by! continuing! their! education! at! the! age!when! they! are! supposed! to!have!been!married,!are!exposed!to!a!lot!of!risk!on!the!way!to!school,!while!marriage!would!have!offered!them!a!sort!of! formal!protection! from!such!abuse.! In!Ethiopia,!abduction!of!young!girls!on!the!way!to!school!also!happens!regularly,!and!travel!to!school!increases!the!vulnerability!of!girls.!(Emirie,!Chalchisa!and!Berhanu,!2008,!pK53).!!!!!

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3.5!Schooling!costs!!The!cost!of!schooling!comprises!two!elements:!The!direct!costs!of!schooling,!which!include! tuition! fees,! uniforms! and! transport! costs,! and! the! opportunity! cost! of!children’s!time,!which!typically!includes!the!value!of!the!time!spent!attending!school!and! missing! work! –! either! outside! the! house! or! inside! the! house.! ! For! girls! this!would!commonly!involve!time!away!from!household!chores,!and!for!boys,!who!work!mostly! outside! the! house,! it! would! be! farming! activities! or! herding! animals! and!petty! trading.! ! It!may!appear!that!girls!working!more!hours!at!home!might!have!a!higher! opportunity! cost! for! schooling;! however,! since! boys! are!more! likely! to! be!allowed! to! venture! alone! outside! the! home,! they! are! able! to! take! advantage! of!market!opportunities!(Alderman!et'al.,!2001,!pK6K7).!!!It! is! important! to! understand! that! there! are! potential! tradeKoffs! that! households!make!when! they! choose! to! send! their! children! to! school.! The! opportunity! cost! of!schooling! has! different! determinants! for! boys! and! girls! because! boys! and! girls!engage!in!different!activities!away!from!school.!Households!are!understood!to!weigh!the!costs!and!benefits!of!sending!their!children!to!school.!In!resourceKpoor!settings,!the!benefits!of!education!usually!tilt!in!favor!of!boys.!This!could!be!on!account!of!the!expected! private! rates! of! return! of! educating! boys! versus! girls,! or! evaluating! the!extent! to! which! parents! stand! to! personally! benefit! from! these! gains.! In! some!cultures,! such! as! those! in! South! Asia,! sons! are! customarily! responsible! for!supporting!their!parents!in!old!age!and!daughters!are!not!(Schultz!2002,!pK25).!!!Glick! (2008)! argues! that!household! school! expenses! –! which! rise! with! each!schooling!level!–!increase!from!primary!to!secondary!because!of!the!direct!costs!of!school!fees,!textbooks!and!transportation,!especially!in!the!case!of!secondary!school!for!girls!with!the!schools!being!at!a!distance.!This! implies!travel! time,!opportunity!cost,! transportation! costs,! and! sometimes! boarding! costs.! The! marginal! costs!increase! for! the! girls,! comparably!more! than! for! boys,! especially! as! benefits! from!schooling! are! expected! to! be! higher! for! boys.! This! leads! to! girls! being! at! a!disadvantage.! The! marginal! benefits! for! girls! are! below! the! secondary! school!marginal! costs! after! six! years! of! primary! schooling.! Girls! therefore! have! lower!continuation!rates!in!secondary!schooling.!!!!However,! he! suggests! that! any! effect! of! a! genderKneutral! fall! in! costs! with! a!reduction! in! fees!or!other!direct! costs!–! implying! reduced!marginal! costs!–!draws!positive! investments! in! girls’! schooling! and! also! brings! positive! outcomes! in!marginal! benefits.! The! gain! in! girls’! schooling! is! visibly! much! larger! than! boys,!especially!where! the! initial!gender!gap! itself! is!considerable.! !Further,! increases! in!household!resources!also!have!larger!positive!effects!on!girls’!schooling,!as!has!been!corroborated!by!many!studies!(Glick!2008,!pK12K13).!'3.5.1'Direct'costs'The!costs!toward!secondary!education!make! it!difficult! for!the!poor!households! in!many!developing!countries!to!pay!for!education.!Households!in!subKSaharan!Africa!

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contribute! up! to! 49! percent! and! 44! percent! toward! lower! and! upper!secondary!education,! respectively,! as!opposed! to!30!percent!and!22!percent! for!primary!and!tertiary!levels,!respectively.!In!the!Caribbean,!as!well!as!in!East!Asia!and!the!Pacific,!household!contributions!range! from!25!percent! to!41!percent!of! total!expenditure!for!secondary!education.! In!contrast,!household!contributions!are!relatively! low!in!North! America! and! Western! Europe,! as! well! as!in! Central! and! Eastern! Europe,!where! contributions! from!students’! families! account! for!7!percent! to!8!percent!of!total!expenditure!on!education!(UNESCOKUIS,!2011,!pK75K76).!!!

• It!is!important!to!underline!that!even!when!schooling!is!free,!there!are!many!other! costs! that! are! still! applicable,! such! as! schoolKbuilding/development!contributions,!school!maintenance!contributions,!teachers’!day!celebrations,!sporting,! national! days! and! cultural! eventsKrelated! expenses! in! which!children!are!supposed!to!buy!things!for!the!school,!for!their!performance,!or!for!their!presentations.!Then!there!are!everyday!supplies!for!school!such!as!stationery,!notebooks,!project!work!and!clothing.!In!addition,!there!are!costs!that! are! associated! particularly!with! the! security! needs! of! adolescent! girls,!such!as!needing!to!have!someone!to!escort!them!to!school!as!well!as!proper!transport! facilities.! In! different! cultures,! transport! facilities! can! be! varied!depending!on!the!safety,!regularity!and!dependability!of!the!public!transport!system!against!private!transport!in!the!form!of!arranging!a!manual!rickshaw!or! an! auto! rickshaw,! and! all! of! this! costs! money! (Colclough! et' al.,! 2000,!Ground!Work!Inc.!2002,!Bangladesh!Education!Watch!2005).!!

!In!many! countries,! parents! are! unable! to! support! these! costs! because! of! extreme!poverty.! The! bulk! of! school! dropout! is! reported! as! being! on! account! of! grueling!poverty.!In!Mozambique,!a!World!Bank!study!points!to!the!high!fees!charged!as!the!reason! for! the! lower!demand! for!secondary!schools!among! lower! income! families.!Even!though!the!parents!report!that!since!2004,!direct!school!costs!had!decreased!because! of! the! abolition! of! fees! and! the! provision! of! textbooks! and! other! school!material! at! the! lower! and! upper! primary! level,! the! National! Panel! Survey! (NPS)!education!data!reveals!that!the!school!parentKteacher!organization!is!charging!fees!under! the!pretext!of! replacing!broken!windows,! to!pay! for! the! services!of! guards,!extra!pay! for! teachers,!or!supplemental!materials.!Regarding!calculation!of! fees,! in!2002–03!obligatory!fees!included!propina!e!matricula!(tuition!and!registration!fee).!In! 2008,! they! included! propina! (tuition),! matricula! (registration! fee),! and! other!mandatory! fees! (worksheets,! exam! fee,! and! so! on).!For! lower! income! families,!especially!at!the!lower!primary!level,!the!study!reveals!that!the!majority!of!the!fees!reported! were! labeled! “voluntary,”! indicating! awareness! at! the! local! level,! of! the!burden!that!fees!may!pose!for!some!households.!Thus,!demandKside!barriers!clearly!keep!lower!income!households!and!parents!of!girls!from!even!trying!to!compete!for!the!few!quality!secondary!school!places!available!(Louise!Fox,!et'al.,!2012,!pK19K20).!!A!study! in!Guinea!and!Ethiopia! finds! the!direct!costs! in!schooling!were!one!of! the!reasons! for! the! dropping! out! of! children.! !Those! who! had! dropped! out! of! school!most! frequently! cited! as! an! important! reason,! a! lack! of! money! to! pay! for! school!

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expenses,!and!a!similar!pattern!of! reasons!appeared! in!responses! from!those!who!had!never!attended! school.!The! study! reports! that! in!one!of! the!Ethiopian! regions!surveyed,! school! fees! was! still! charged,! even! though! it! was! abolished! in! other!regions.!Parents!claimed!difficulty!in!paying!them,!especially!since!they!became!due!in!September,!when! family! income!was!at! its! lowest,!prior! to! the!harvest.!Parents!also!complained!that,!because!they!were!unable!to!buy!exercise!books,!pens!and!the!necessary! clothing! for! school,! they! were! not! able! to! enroll! their! children.! Some!parents! also! mentioned! that,! even! when! their! children! did! enroll! in! school,! they!often! had! to! dropout! because! of! the! difficulty! in! meeting! the! direct! costs!involved.!The! problem! of! meeting! the! direct! costs! of! schooling! was! found! to! be!equally! prevalent! in! Guinea.!Parents! were! expected! to! pay! GF! 2000! ($2)! for!registration,!and!to!buy!the!necessary!textbooks,!exercise!books,!stationery,!and!the!prescribed! uniforms! for! their! children.! In! Guinea,! textbooks! were! the! most!expensive! item! of! direct! costs,! followed! by! uniforms.! Also,! to! arrange! for! the!certified! true! copies! of! a! child’s! birth! certificate! as! a! requirement! for! school!admission!costs!money!in!rural!areas!(Colclough!et'al.,!2000,!pK7!&!14).!!!In!Malawi,! 26!percent! of! primary! school! dropouts! leave! school! because! of! lack! of!money,! 28! percent! because! they! need! to! work,! 43.5! percent! because! they!considered! to! have! had! enough! of! school,! 17.6! percent! because! of! disability! or!illness,! and! 14! percent! because! they! failed! or! had! to! repeat! a! grade! (Malawi,!National! Statistics! Office! 2003,! cited! in! Avenstrup,! et' al.,! 2004,! pK15K16).!The! fact!that!in!Malawi,!a!third!of!nonKattenders!did!not!attend!school!at!all!because!of!lack!of!interest! suggests! a! problem! of! quality;! however,! as! per! the! researchers! a! bigger!persistent! problem! is! schooling! costs.! A! domestic! household! survey! in! Malawi!revealed! that! families! continue! to! pay! for! primary! education;! 80! percent! of!households!pay! for! school!materials,!70!percent!pay! for!uniforms,!60!percent!pay!for!school!development! funds,!and!33!percent!pay! for!meals!at!school.!The!almost!18! percent! gap! in! school! attendance! between! the! lowest! and! highest! income!quintiles!suggests!that!the!direct!cost!of!primary!education!remains!an!obstacle!for!the!very!poor!(Avenstrup,!et'al.,!2004,!pK16).!!!Similarly! in! Bangladesh! the! CAMPE! (2005)! study! for! Education!Watch! points! out!that! the! children! of! households! with! “surplus”! food! availability! have! more! than!double! the! chance! of! being! in! school! than! children! in! “deficit”! households.! On!reasons! for! nonKparticipation! in! schooling,! two! responses! stand! out! –! “scarcity! of!money”! or! poverty,! and! children’s! “dislike! of! school.”! The! third! most! frequent!response!was! the! need! for! the! child! to!work,!which! is! linked! to! poverty.! Poverty!appears!to!be!the!predominant!cause!of!nonKparticipation!in!secondary!education.!A!survey!conducted!by!the!Academy!for!Educational!Development!identified!five!main!factors! that! constrain! female! secondary! enrollment! in! Bangladesh,! four! of! them!being!related!to!costs;!42!percent!of!the!surveyed!families!cited!tuition!and!another!20! percent! cited! book! expenses! as! key! obstacles.! Most! households! that! have!disposable! incomes! allotted! about! 73! percent! of! education! expenditures! to! sons,!who!were!seen!as!economic!assets!(Valad!1995).!!

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Schuler! (2007)! found! that! significant! barriers! remain! in! achieving! greater! gender!and! economic! equity! in! educational! participation! and! achievement! in!Bangladesh.!Even!with!secondary!school!stipends,!many!of!the!poorest!families!found!it!difficult!to! bear! the! full! costs! of! their! daughters’! education,! especially! as! their! daughters!entered!their!middle!and! late!adolescence.!Many!girls,!as!well!as!boys,!drop!out!at!the! primary! school! level,! despite! the! incentive! for! parents! to! keep! daughters! in!school!long!enough!to!benefit!from!the!secondary!school!stipends.!The!report!from!CAMPE!documents! that! even! “free”!education! costs!money.!The!average!parent! in!that!study!paid!nearly!as!much!annually!per!student!as!did! the!government.!Their!costs! included! textbooks! and! notebooks,! private! tutors,! examinations,!admission/readmission,!and!other!fees.!!'3.5.2'Opportunity'costs'!Parents! evaluate! the! costs! of! schooling! of! the! girl! or! the! boy! child! in! view! of! the!perceived! returns! from! schooling! and! the! costs! incurred! in! the! form! of! tuition,!clothing,! transport! costs,! accompaniment! cost! for! the! girls,! any! academic!enrichment!that!is!required!for!further!complementing!classroom!learning,!and!the!opportunity!costs!accrued!on!account!of!the!labor!of!the!boy!or!the!girl.!As!most!of!the!boys!work!outside!the!house!and!the!girls!work!inside!the!house,!there!is!a!much!clearer!perception!on! the!costs!and!returns! to!boys!pursuing!education!as!against!the!girls!as!they!work!at!home!and!there!is!no!cost!valuation!of!their!contribution.!Many! researchers! (eg.! Glick! 2008;! Degnet! et' al.,! 2008;! Kim! et' al.,! 1999;! Hazarika!2001)! suggest! that! parents! make! these! investment! choices! for! boys! and! girls’!education!based!on!the!future!earning!potential!and!the!incremental!loss!of!income!with! the! discontinuation! of! work.! Parents! calculate! against! current! earnings,! the!future!estimated!wages! that!boys!and!girls!would!receive! in! the!market,!based!on!their!continuation!in!the!work!and!accumulating!talent/skills.!!!Opportunity!costs!include!not!only!the!loss!of!work!in!the!labor!market,!but!also!the!work! for! nonKwage! domestic! chores.!While! the! economic! value! of! girls’! domestic!work! is! invisible! since! the!work! is! nonKremunerative,! it! also! has! economic! value.!This!is!because!it!is!part!of!the!household!aggregate!labor!availability,!both!in!terms!of!direct! contribution!of! self! labor!or! freeing! another!household!member! to! enter!the! labor! market,! formal! or! informal,! and! contributing! to! the! household! income.!Bray!(1999)!calculates!the!cost!of!foregone!labor!for!boys!and!girls!if!they!abstained!from!work!in!Cambodia.!The!foregone!opportunity!costs!per!month!were!estimated!in!consultation!with!the!parents.!This!was!estimated!at!US!$!75!for!boys!and!US!$!47!for!girls!during!the!rainy!and!the!dry!season.!The!girls!were!also!supposed!to!make!additional! income! by! weaving! scarves! and! raising! pigs.! However,! as! the! author!points! out,! the! probability! is! that!many! girls! are!withdrawn! from! school! because!they!are!perceived! to!be!more! suited! for!domestic! chores.! It! is! apparent! from! the!data! on! school! enrollment! and! school! dropouts! that! there! is! certainly! an!opportunity!cost!involved!in!a!household’s!decisions!weighing!in,!when!deciding!to!send!children!to!school!in!Cambodia!(p.!63).!!!

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Investigating! the! determinants! of! timeKuse! of! boys! and! girls! between! school! and!work! in! Peru,! Ilahi! (2001)! suggests! that! policymakers! need! to! be! aware! of!household!factors!that!can!also!constrain!the!demand!for!schooling,!and!especially!so!in!the!case!of!girls.!It!argues!that!the!traditional!approach!of!defining!the!debate!on!child! labor!by! focusing!on!the!choice!between! incomeKgenerating!activities!and!schooling!is!likely!to!have!a!genderKbias,!since!girls!tend!to!work!primarily!at!home!and!boys!outside.!It!therefore!argues!for!the!inclusion!of!housework!in!the!broader!definition!of!child!labor!and!forewarns!that!in!not!doing!so,!one!runs!the!risk!of!not!taking!note!of!the!effects!of!predominant!domestic!chores!that!unduly!fall!upon!girls,!and!their!contribution!to!the!household!economy.!!This!leads!to!the!low!valuation!of!the!work!they!do,!while!consequently! losing!out!on!schooling,!and!bringing!undue!disparity! with! respect! to! girls’! educational! opportunities! and! labor!contribution.!The! study! concludes! that! while! overall! educational! attainment! may!not! be! very! different! between!boys! and! girls,! the! demand! for! girls’! schooling! and!their! labor! activities! responds!more! strongly! to! household!welfare,! demographics!and! adult! female! employment! than! that! of! boys.! Providing! safety! nets! to! protect!household!incomes!from!employment!shocks!and!sickness,!and!childcare!programs!that!would!allow!adult!women!to!work,!would!therefore!make!it!less!likely!for!girls!to!be!pulled!out!of!school!(pK23).!!In!their!study!on!Ethiopia!and!Guinea,!Colclough!et'al.!(2000)!similarly!suggest!that!household!welfare!has!an!important!role!to!play!in!determining!whether!or!not!girls!attend!school.!In!the!two!countries,!parents!considered!the!direct!costs!of!schooling!similar! for! boys! and! girls.! However,! boys! could! earn! in! petty! trading! and! pay! or!contribute! some! costs,! whereas! girls! could! not,! as! the! nature! of! their! work! was!domestic!and!farmKbased,!to!help!the!family,!predominantly.!!However,!in!Guinea,!it!is! common! in! the! villages! and! towns! to! see! young! girls! carrying! large! trays! of!groundnuts,!fruits!or!other!food!items!for!sale.!They!also!help!their!parents!manage!food! stalls! in! the!market! place.! Girls! in! both! countries! are! sometimes!withdrawn!from!school!and!sent!to!work!in!urban!areas!as!housemaids.!However,!rather!than!being!able! to!use! the!money!they!earn!as!a!contribution!towards!school!expenses,!girls!are!usually!obliged!to!give!the!income!to!their!parents.!As!the!authors!claim,!for!girls! to! continue! schooling! in! Guinea! and! Ethiopia,! the! family!income! and! assets!needed!to!be!of!a!higher!level,!though!this!was!not!the!case!for!boys’!continuation!of!education!(pK15).!!!!Changes!in!household!welfare!thus!appear!to!affect!the!schooling!of!girls!more!than!boys!(Tilak!2002!and!Lavy!1996,!Ilahi!2001).!As!adult!female!employment!increases,!children!have!to!spend!more!time!on!housework,!with!a!stronger!effect!on!girls!than!boys.!However,! increases! in!welfare! also! decrease! the! incomeKgenerating!work! of!rural!girls!and!housework!of!urban!ones.!!!Studies! on! opportunity! costs! have! also! examined! the! phenomenon! of! school!distance!from!the!perspective!of!the!loss!of!income!for!boys!and!girls!in!commuting!to!school!(eg.!Colclough!et'al.,'2000,!Glick!2008).!Proximity!to!the!school,!they!find,!reduces! opportunity! costs! for! girls,! saving! their! time! for! domestic! chores! or! for!

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study.!Glick!(2008)!finds!that!the!effect!of!an!increase!in!school!distance!raises!the!marginal!cost!of!schooling!for!girls!and!boys!via!a!reduction!in!the!time!available!for!work,! hence! in! current! consumption.! Conversely,! a! decrease! in! distance! reduces!marginal!costs!and!increases!schooling!time!for!both!boys!and!girls.!He!argues!that!the!impact!of!a!change!in!school!distance!might!differ!by!gender,!more!so!than!the!impact!of!a!change!in!monetary!costs,!e.g.,!a!fee!reduction,!which!may!have!an!equal!impact!on!the!school!participation!of!both!boys!and!girls.!Parents!may!be!reluctant!to!allow!girls!to!walk!long!distances!to!school!on!their!own,!and!sending!daughters!to!school!would!either!entail!transportation!costs,!or!psychological!costs!or!the!cost!of! accompaniment,! as! has! been! reported! in! many! countries.! These! costs! are! not!admissible! for! boys,! but! only! for! girls.! Having! a! school! in! close! proximity! would!reduce! the! effective! costs! of! girls’! school! attendance,! while! having! no! effect! or! a!smaller! effect! on! costs! for! boys.! He! indicates! that! school! construction! programs!aiming! to! reduce! the! average! distance! between! home! and! school! will! have!disproportionate! benefits! for! girls’! education.! !Providing! evidence! from! various!studies! examining! the! processes! of! urbanization,! he! argues! that! these! processes!generally! bring! households! in! closer! proximity! to! public! services! such! as! schools!and!tend!to!have!larger!relative!positive!effects!for!girls’!education.!!!3.6!Girls’!experience!of!schooling!!Gendered! beliefs! and! practices! in! the! home/community! and! school! environments!mutually! reinforce! and! impact! girls’! persistence! in! school! and! their! potential! to!learn.!Girls! face! specific! adversities! in! the! school! environment! each!day.!Teachers!and! the! male! students! perceive! girls’! abilities! and! interact! with! female! students!through!the!same!gendered!constructs!prevailing!in!their!socioKcultural!milieu.!As!a!result,! girls! experience! disadvantages! at! both! ends!with! respect! to! their! learning!opportunities.!!Schools! systemically! reflect! and! promote! society's! low! expectations! of! schooling!outcomes!for!girls.!The!quality!of!learning!opportunity!is!not!the!same!for!the!girls!as!for!the!boys.!It!is!a!tough!environment!for!girls!to!understand!and!defy!negative!stereotypes! of! their! learning! potential! in! a! classroom! situation.! School! and!classroom! environments! affect! girls'! access! to! schools,! their! quality! learning,!achievement! and! level! of! accomplishment.!Teachers!hold!negative! attitudes! about!the! academic! potential! of! female! students! and! project! the! wider! communities'!gender! biases! into! classrooms.! School! cultures! are! generally! relatively! hostile! to!girls! and! rarely! offer! equal! learning! opportunities! for! learning.! Moreover,! sexual!harassment! and! violence! within! educational! institutions! creates! a! formidably!uncomfortable!atmosphere!for!learning.!The!negative!images!of!women!in!textbooks!and!other!learning!materials!further!reinforce!society's!view!of!women!(Odaga!and!Heneveld!1995).!!!!!!!

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3.6.1!‘Unfriendly’'school'environment'for'girls'!Recent!literature!has!increasingly!drawn!attention!to!how!discriminatory!behavior!toward!girls! and! the! resultant! school! experience! sets! the! stage! for! their!dropping!out!of!school!(Erulkar!2001,!Mensch!et'al.,!2001,!Obura!1991;!IRBD!and!World!Bank!1996,! Lloyd,! et' al.,! 2000,! Davison! and! Kanyuka! 1992,! Chimombo! et' al.,! 2000,!Kadzamira! and! Chibwana! 2000,! Chisamya! et' al.,! Lucas! 2012,!Emirie! et' al.,! 2008,!FAWE!News,!2001).!The!differential! treatment!meted!out! to!young!girls! in!school,!stemming!from!biased!views!about!girls’!achievement!ability!as!against!that!of!boys,!is!being!explored!as!a!major!deterrent!to!the!girls’!persistence!in!school.!Critiquing!the! popular! perception! that! girls! withdraw! from! secondary! school! primarily! on!account! of! pregnancy,!Mensch! et'al.! (2001)! note! that! “pregnancy!was! probably! a!much! less! common! reason! for! dropping! out! than! it!was! assumed! to! be.! Indeed,! a!much! larger! contributing! cause! to! drop! out! was! a! ‘girlKunfriendly’! school!environment.!Rather!than!becoming!pregnant!and!then!dropping!out,!it!appears!that!girls!often!drop!out!and!then!become!pregnant”!(cited!in!Erulkar!2001,!p.78).!Thus,!any!social!policy,!which!does!not!address!issues!of!the!schooling!environment,!is!not!going! to! be! effective! in! ensuring! that! girls! complete! their! primary! and! secondary!schooling!with!equal!opportunities!as!boys.!'!!The!perception!of!what!girls!can!do!or!not!do!as!compared!to!boys!with!respect!to!schooling! and! academic! participation! becomes,! a! serious! barrier! to! girls’!continuation! and! completion! of! secondary! schooling.! These! perceptions! result! in!‘girlKunfriendly’! school! environments! and! dayKtoKday! practices,! which! wean! girls!away! from! school.! These! perceptions! extend! from! textbooks! to! attitudes! and!behavior!toward!girls!in!school.!!!!For!example,!research!notes!that!not!only!do!images!of!men!far!outnumber!those!of!women!in!textbooks,!but!that!men!and!women!are!often!portrayed!very!differently.!Men! are! portrayed! as! active,! energetic,! and! situated! in! highKstatus! jobs,! while!women!as!weeping,!holding!babies,!or! transporting!water! (Obura!1991;! IRBD!and!World!Bank!1996).!Such!representations!effectively!send!the!message!to!girls! that!they!are!less!capable!than!boys!and!that!they!belong!to!the!domestic!sphere.!!Differential! treatment!of!boys!and!girls!extends!across! the! spectrum! in! the! school!environment,! ranging! from! the! various! curricular! opportunities! available,!perception! and! treatment! by! individual! teachers! of! the! boys! and! girls,! and!application! of! rules,! regulations! and! administrative! practices! in! the! conduct! of!various!interactions!(Lloyd,!et'al.,!2000).!For!instance,!in!Malawi,!teachers!described!girls!as!being!less!‘‘serious’’!and!‘‘capable’’!(Davison!and!Kanyuka!1992)!and!favored!less! than! boys! (Chimombo! et' al.,! 2000).! Boys! were! perceived! as! intelligent,!hardworking,!motivated! and! coKoperative,!while! girls! are! perceived! to! be! easy! to!control,!passive,!calm,!and!submissive!(Davison!and!Kanyuka’s!1992).!Teachers!see!girls’! participation! in! class! as! a! poor! use! of! time,! as! they! are! better! utilized! in!domestic! chores! (Kadzamira! and! Chibwana! 2000).! [See! Box! 1! on! Malawi]! In!Bangladesh,!Chisamya!et'al.! (2012)! found!that!girls!could!not!participate! in!school!

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because!of!the!beating!or!harsh!punishment!by!the!teachers!and!teasing!from!boys!on! the!way! to! or! in! school.! Teachers! and! students! held! biased!beliefs! about! girls’!capacity! from!the!start!of!primary!school.!Some!teachers!and!parents!claimed!that!girls! were! smarter! and! better! students! than! boys! in! the! early! primary! grades,!because!boys!did!not!sit!still!and!concentrate!as!well!as!girls.!Further,!as!girls!grew!older,!the!perception!of!their!right!and!capacity!to!participate!in!schooling!declined.!From!being!called!names!for!being!‘‘too!old’’,!to!being!mocked!if!they!tried!to!return!to! school! after! dropping! out! for! marriage! or! pregnancy,! to! increasing! family!demands!on! their! time! for!household!chores,!girls! reported! that! they!received! the!message! that! once! they! were! physically! mature,! they! were! no! longer! ‘‘good’’!students.!!!Research!suggests!that!it!is!the!girls’!and!boys’!experience!of!schooling!in!their!early!teen!years!that!determines!the!difference!in!their!enrollment,!retention!and!school!outcomes.!!In!their!threeKdistrict!study!in!Kenya,!Lloyd,!et'al.!(2000)!report!that!girls!cited! the! lack! of! a! supportive! environment! in! their! transition! to! puberty! and!adolescence,!and!from!primary!to!secondary!school,!as!a!reason!for!dropping!out!of!their!last!year!of!primary!school.!The!study!notes!that!girls!face!severe!vulnerability!because! of! the! societal! view! of! adolescent! girls,! their! need! for! learning! and! their!potential! contribution! to! the! household!with! education.! There! is! uncertainty! that!once!the!adolescent!girl!is!at!the!home!of!her!spouse!she!might!face!greater!barriers!to! mobility! and! be! unable! to! utilize! her! education.! If! the! adolescent! girl! is!unmarried,! parents! are! worried! anyway.! There! is! greater! restriction! on! her!movements.! There! is! also! little! notice! of! the! fact! that! the! adolescent! girl! has! to!assign!time!to!study!at!home,!if!she!is!in!school.!!!The!study!findings!are!along!the!expected!lines!that!the!school!experiences!of!girls!were!marred!because!of! the!gendered!perspective!of! the! teachers!about!girls.! “An!average!of!approximately!20!percent!of!teachers!express!an!explicit!preference!for!teaching! boys! (versus! no! preference! or! a! preference! for! teaching! girls),! and! 32!percent!on!average!do!not! think!math! is!an! ‘‘important’’! subject! for!girls! to! study.!Teachers!often!used!adjectives!such!as! ‘‘weak,’’! ‘‘lazy,’’! and! ‘‘blind’’! to! characterize!the!girls!in!their!classrooms.!Although!almost!all!teachers!thought!that!girls!should!be! allowed! to! resume! their! education! after! giving! birth! to! a! child,! only! a! slight!majority!felt!that!the!action!against!a!teacher!who!has!had!sex!with!a!student!should!be! ‘‘severe’’! (i.e.,! dismissal,! charged! in! court,! or! made! to! marry! the! girl).! Head!teachers’! attitudes! on! this! point! were! more! consistently! severe.5”! The! authors!observe!that!the!school!environment!is!harsh!for!both!boys!and!girls!but!particularly!so! for! girls,! because! of! the! negative! attitudes! toward! them! and! discriminatory!behavior!in!all!types!of!schools.![See!Boxes!2!&!3!for!Kenya]!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5 From Lloyd, Cynthia, Barabara Mensch and Wesley Clark, (2000): “The Effects of Primary School Quality on School Dropout on Kenyan Girls and Boys. Comparative Education Review, vol. 44, no. 2, P 113=147, p. 126

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!!!Box!1:!Ameena’s!School!Experience!in!Malawi!

!!!!!!

‘Amina!walks!the!2!km!from!home!to!school,!arriving!at!7:15!A.M.!on!one!of!the!days! we! are! observing! her.! She! enters! the! burntKbrick! classroom! quietly,!noticing!that!two!girlfriends!are!already!busy!sweeping!the!veranda!outside!the!standard!6!and!7!classrooms.!Mr.!Ntoka,!the!standard!5!teacher,! is!displeased.!He! confronts! Amina! with! her! tardiness.! She! hangs! her! head! and,! on! his!command,!holds!out!her!hands,!palms!up.!She!tries!not!to!wince!as!the!teacher!beats! her! outstretched! palms! with! a! wooden! ruler.! Then! he! tells! her! to! go!sweep!out!the!girls'!toilet!(pit! latrine)!as!further!punishment.!Amina!walks!off!slowly!toward!the!latrine!while!the!rest!of!her!classmates!hurry!to!the!opening!morning!assembly!in!the!school's!cleared!yard.!Once! settled! in! her! form,! Amina! takes! a! blue! ballpoint! pen! from! her! plastic!"book! bag"! and! puts! the! end! in! her! mouth.! She! pulls! out! an! exercise! book!labeled!"Arithmetic"!and!places!it!on!her!lap.!The!teacher!asks!a!question,!and!a!girl! in! another! row! stands!up! to! give! the! answer.! It! is!wrong.!Amina! and!her!classmates!laugh!at!the!girl's!failure.!!She!begins! talking! in! low! tones!with! two! friends!next! to!her.!Mr.!Ntoka! turns!from! the! board! and! sees! the! three! girls! talking! and! calls! them! to! him.! They!come! forward! and! kneel! down! on! both! knees.! He! orders! them! to! go! out!immediately!and!bring!a!bundle!of!grass!each!(for!thatching!pit!latrines)!to!the!yard!in!front!of!the!classroom.!Amina!rises!and!walks!out!slowly!with!her!two!friends.!She!has!missed!another!lesson.!!The!best!part!of!school,!according!to!Amina,!is!the!English!lesson!and!seeing!her!friends.! The! part! she! likes! least! is! "doing! punishments."! She! feels! she! often!spends! as! much! time! "doing! punishments"! as! she! spends! in! class.! Amina! is!reaching!the!point!in!school!where!many!of!her!peers!will!drop!out.!Will!she!be!among!them?’!!(Cited'from'Davison'and'Kanyuka'1992,'p.'451).''!

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!!!!Box!2:!Glimpses!of!Teacher!BGirl!Interactions!in!a!Kenyan!Classroom

!1.! The! Team! observed! classroom! dynamics;! they! reported! that! the! teacher! told!girls!that!they!could!never!be!household!heads.!2.!Most! questions! were! directed! to! boys! and! not! the! girls! in! the! classroom!interaction.!!3.!The!teacher!constantly!told!the!class!that!the!girls!do!not!use!common!sense!and!that!is!why!they!might!not!make!good!sales!persons.!4.!When!girls!gave!wrong!answers,!the!teacher!was!very!unhappy!and!pointed!out!that!“girls!do!not!use!their!heads”.!5.!The!boys’!dormitory!in!the!school!used!to!be!opened!by!the!watchmen!as!early!as!four!in!the!morning,!sometimes!earlier.!They!went!to!the!classroom!to!study.!The!girls'!dorm!would!be!opened!at!six!by!the!matron.!At!night,!the!girls!were!supposed!to!be!in!bed!by!10:30!pm,!while!the!boys!studied!up!to!midnight!or!later.!The!boys!used!to!jeer!at!the!girls!thus:!Haya,!haya,!saa!imefika!mbuzi!waende!wakalale!(Now,!now!it!is!time,!the!goats!can!go!to!sleep).!6.!More! than! 40! percent! of! women! teachers! in! poorKperforming! schools! in! the!study!preferred!teaching!boys!to!girls.!In!highKperforming!schools!a!slight!tendency!was!found!to!think!that!math!is!more!important!for!boys!than!for!girls.!It!was!the!same!in!lowKperforming!schools.!In!keeping!with!conventional!stereotypes,!not!one!teacher!in!any!of!the!36!schools!said!math!is!easy!for!girls.!7.!In! the! class,! the! teacher! discourages! the! girls! so! much.! If! you! do! not! answer!correctly,!the!teacher!tells!you,!"If!you!are!not!ready!to!learn,!go!get!married."!8.!During!school!functions!such!as!parents'!day!or!harambee,!the!boys!are!the!ones!asked!to!draw!the!welcome!banners!and!write!the!messages!because!the!teachers!believe!they!are!better!artists.!!9.!The!girls!are!asked! to!go! to! the!dining!hall!or!wherever! the!meeting! is! to! take!place! and! dust! and! set! the! tables.! Days! prior! to! the! function! it! is! the! girls! who!spend!study!time!to!practice!singing!or!dancing!to!entertain!the!guests.!The!boys’!learning!is!not!disturbed.!10.!Girls!are!usually!sent!in!the!afternoon,!skipping!one!or!two!last!lessons,!to!the!market,!to!buy!some!items!and!then!take!them!to!the!teacher’s!home.!11.!Tasks!assigned!to!girl!students!typically!include!running!errands!for!teachers,!cooking!for!them,!assisting!teachers!with!younger!pupils;!girls!are!never!exposed!to!leadership!roles!to!become!the!head!girl!in!the!school.!!12.! Any! type! of! cleaning! job! in!the! school! –! be! it! scrubbing! floors,! cleaning! the!school!compound!or!washing!latrines!–!is!assigned!to!girls.!!Reported'in'FAWE'newsletter'(Volume'9'Number'1'January'@'March'2001)'by'Mumbi'Risah'based'on'the' study' done' in' 36' Kenyan' schools' by' Barbara' S.' Mensch' and' Cynthia' B.' Lloyd,' titled' Gender'Differences'in'the'Schooling'Experiences'of'Adolescents'in'Low'income'Countries:'The'Case'of'Kenya'in'1998.''

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!3.6.2'Physical'and'sexual'abuse'of'girls''!School!is!an!unsafe!place!in!many!contexts,!especially!for!adolescent!girls.!Physical!and! sexual! abuse! is! rampant! in! several! countries’! contexts! and! is! most! often!perpetrated! by! male! teachers.! This! abuse! is! systemic.! Perpetrators! are! either!reprimanded! mildly! or! worse,! their! behaviors! toward! female! students! are!considered! ‘normal’,! reflecting! the! derogatory! attitudes! toward! girls! and! women!pervasive!across!the!school!system.!!When!investigating!early!pregnancy!in!Togo,!Plan!International’s!researchers!found!that!16!percent!of!the!interviewed!children!named!a!teacher!as!responsible!for!the!pregnancy! of! a! classmate.! This! figure! was! 15! percent! in! Mali! and! 11! percent! in!Senegal.!In!Ghana,!75!percent!of!children!cited!teachers!as!the!main!perpetrators!of!violence!in!school;! in!Senegal!the!figure!was!80!percent!(Lucas!2012,!pK15!cited!in!Plan!UK!2012).!!Leach! et' al.,! 2003! report! in! Zimbabwe! that! about! oneKfifth! of! the! sample!respondents! had! been! propositioned! by! teachers! for! sex.! The! respondents! also!reported!unsolicited,!provocative!or!intimidating!physical!contact,!and!verbal!abuse!from!teachers,!and!that!this!behavior!was!tolerated!as!normal.!The!study!reported!similar! trends! in! schools! in! Ghana:! 32! out! of! the! 48! girl! respondents! claimed!teachers! used! abusive! language! towards! them.! They! used! words! such! as! twerp,!esisiefo! (useless!people),!nkurasefo! (villagers/bush!people),!ehiafomba! (children!of!the! poor)! and!many! others.!FortyKfive! of! the! 48! girls! reported! that! a! teacher! had!beaten! them! on! at! least! one! occasion.! Poverty,! poor! quality! of! teaching,! teacher!absenteeism,! sexual! demands! from!male! teachers! and! being! accosted! by! strange!men!were!also!relatively!common!vulnerabilities!for!girl!students!in!Ghana!schools.!The!cumulative!impact!of!all!this!appeared!in!the!form!of!low!enrollment!and!poor!attendance!of!girls!on!the!days!of!the!visit!of!the!research!team!and!the!visibly!poor!quality!of!learning!environment.!(pK4!&!46).!!!!Sexual!misconduct!is!viewed!as!a!mild!misdemeanor!within!the!system,!with!little!or!no! action! taken! against! the! male! teachers.! Leach! (2003)! reporting! on! Ghana!observed! that! 12! girls! out! of! 48! in! a! school! had! been! propositioned! for! sex! by! a!teacher! in! the! school,! 5! knew! of! a! girl! in! their! class! who! was! having! sex! with! a!teacher,!and!3!knew!of!a!girl!in!the!school!who!had!become!pregnant!by!a!teacher.!It!was! found! that! the! head! teacher! of! this! school! had! been! abusing! schoolgirls! for!several! years.! After! an! investigation! by! the! district! education! office,! his! only!punishment!was!to!be!transferred!to!an!all!boys’!school!(Leach!2003,!pK40K41).!!In!Malawi,!Leach!(2003)!provides!evidence!in!the!three!schools!that!were!involved!in! the!study!of! teachers!engaging! in!sexual!misconduct!with!students,!and!of! little!disciplinary!action!being!taken!by!the!authorities!to!deal!with!it.!“Over!80!percent!of!girls!in!the!three!schools!reported!that!they!had!been!beaten!by!at!least!one!teacher,!even! though! this!practice! is!not!permitted! in!Malawi! schools.!There!was!evidence!

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that! fear! of! excessive! corporal! punishment! discouraged! participation! in! class! and!led! to! absenteeism.!A! sizable!majority! thought! that!male! teachers!beat!more! than!female!teachers.!Fifty!percent!of!the!girls!said!that!teachers!also!used!verbal!abuse,!in!particular,!terms!that!were!insulting!of!girls”!(pK82K84).!!!Another!study!from!Malawi!by!Chisamya!(2012)!confirms!that!girls!and!boys!agreed!that! boys! received!more! punishments! and!were! often! treated!more! harshly! than!girls!at!school!because!male!teachers!wanted!to!engage!in!sexual!relationships!with!the! girls;! they! treated!girls!better! so! that!when! they!proposed! ‘‘love’’! to! them! the!girls! should! not! refuse.! ! It! was! believed! that! the! teachers! treated! boys! and! girls!unfairly,! and! in! cases! where! teachers! treated! girls! favorably,! it! was! for! sexual!purposes.! “This! denigrated! girls’! educational! achievements,! relegated! female!students! to! the! role! of! possible! sexual! partner,! and! placed! boys! and! teachers! in!competition!for!girls.!Likewise,!when!teachers!diminished!girls,!parents!and!pupils!reported! that! it!was! usually! done! in! a! sexual!manner,!while! for! boys! it!was! not.”!Focus! group! discussions! with! parents! and! students! reported! that! teachers! made!comments!to!older!girls!such!as!“!‘you!are!very!dull,!why!can’t!you!just!get!married?’,!‘Look!at!her!body,! like! a!mother’,! and! called!older! girls!names! like! ‘grandmother’,!‘mother’,! and! ‘postpartum! woman’,! that! were! meant! to! degrade! their! status! as!students”!(pK8).!!!In!a!study!undertaken!in!Ethiopia,!schoolgirls!accused!schoolteachers!of!humiliating!them! in! front! of! their! classmates! for! giving! a!wrong! answer! to! a! question.! In! the!discussions,!participants!confirmed!that!instead!of!asking!them!the!reason!why!they!failed!to!do!homework!they!tended!to!use!abusive!terms!and!phrases!such!as:!‘”You!are! the! first! person! to! roam! around! the! village,”’! so! as! to! imply! their! being!irresponsible!or!of! loose! character.!This! abuse!was! sharper! if! the! girls!were! good!looking!and!the!teachers!carried!ideas!about!the!girls.!(Emirie,!et'al..!2008,!p.28).!!!Female!teachers!appeared!no!different!as!they!called!older!girls!coming!to!school!as!"Mofer! Sekay"! which! means! a! girl! who! dropped! a! plough! and! joined! a! school.!Similarly,! the! interviews!held!with!key! informants!and!participants! in! the! focused!group!discussions!with!groups!in!North!Shoa,!West!Shoa,!and!Gurage!Zone!revealed!that! older! girls! in! the! classes!were! addressed!by! smaller! boys! as!mother! or!were!taunted!as!coming!to!school!just!to!look!for!potential!husbands.!!Girls!also!expressed!embarrassment! if! they! had! to! ask! for! leaving! during!menstruation.!(Emirie,! et'al.,!2008,!pK28)!!Girls!also!reported!not!feeling!safe!during!the!commute!to!the!school!and!reported!a!series!of!psychological!violence!from!older!schoolboys,!boys!outKofKschool!as!well!as!other! members! of! the! local! community.! The! latter! group! humiliated! girls! for!attending! school.! Participating! girls! from! Jimma! and! Gomma! woredas! report!taunting! remarks! such! as! ”a! woman! gives! birth! to! a! knowledgeable! person! but!herself!is!not!knowledgeable.”!Other!reported!comments!from!community!members!were,!“an!educated!girl!does!not!reach!anywhere”,! implying!that!her!destination!is!to! be! a! housewife! and! a! child! bearer.! Or! “you! are! going! to! bring! an! illegitimate!

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child.”!The!Oromos!say!“one!cannot!have!a!pride!or!confidence!with!a!girl”!and!“you!get!rid!of!an!old!mule!and!a!girl!with!the!assistance!of!relatives,”!implying!that!you!must! not! keep! a! grownKup! girl! at! home! as! she!may! bring! embarrassment! to! the!family.!(Emirie,!et'al.,!2008,!pK28)!!Box!3:!Typical!Everyday!School!Experience!of!Young!Girls!in!Kenya!

!

!The! most! frightening! nightmare! for! a! schoolgirl! may! be! the! onset! of! menstrual!flow,!but! the! swelling!of! breasts!occasions! constant!public! embarrassment.! Lucy,!Erica,! Judy,!Mary!and! Irene!told!me! the!most! insensitive!are! the! teachers,!mostly!males.!They!taunt!you!like!this!“....!I!can!see!some!of!you!are!growing!plums!on!your!chests,”!said!Irene!who!attended!a!city!primary!school.!!When!a!girl’s!bust!is!on!the!heavy!side,!she!is!called!names!such!as!Tuzo!(the!brand!name!of!a!Kenyan!dairy),!Dashboard!and!others!by!her!fellow!pupils,!both!boys!and!girls.!!"When!a!girl!realizes!her!breasts!are!starting!to!show,"!said!Mary,!a!standard!eight!girl! in! a! school! in! Ongata! Rongai,! ”She! starts! wearing! big! sweaters,! sometimes!more!than!one,!or!adopts!a!stooping!posture.!She!devises!all!means!to!skip!games!because!the!PE!tee!shirts!are!very!revealing.!If!you!have!big!boobs,!you!become!a!laughing! stock,! especially! if! you! are! supposed! to! run.! So! you! pretend! to! be! sick.!When!you!are!in!your!periods!you!don’t!want!to!wear!the!PE!kit!or!run."!!

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!

A!girl’s!physical!appearance!is!often!used!to!describe!her,!but!this!is!never!done!for!the!boys.!"A!girl!with!thin!legs!is!called!hockey!sticks!and!one!with!fat!ones!is!called!Michelin,"!said!Irene.!!Boys! often! harassed! girls! using! the! toilets.! "When! I!was! in! primary! school,! boys!used! to!go! to!our! toilets!and!write!naughty! things!on! the!walls!or!doors!or!draw!bad!pictures!and!sometimes!write!some!girls’!names!against!them.!If!you!reported!the!matter!to!the!discipline!master,!a!male!of!course,!he!most!of!the!time!dismissed!it! and! quipped,! ‘boys! will! be! boys’"! said!Monica,! a! form! one! student! at! a! rural!school!in!Nakuru.!!At! Lucy’s! school! in! Komothai! in! Kiambu,! many! girls! dreaded! Wednesday.!Wednesday! was! cleanliness! inspection! day.! Girls! were! supposed! to! lift! their!dresses! in! the!parade! to! show! if! their! petticoats!were! clean.! She!knows!of!many!girls!who! refused! to! come! to! school! on! such! days! to! avoid! embarrassment.! The!boys,!adds!Lucy,!were!never!asked!to!show!their!underwear.!!"Some!teachers!read!our!letters.!If!you!got!a!letter!from!a!boy,!sometimes!it!could!be!your!cousin,!it!became!the!talk!of!the!whole!school!and!the!teachers!would!refer!to!you!as!Mrs.!so!and!so.!It!was!very!embarrassing,"!said!Njeri,!a!form!two!girl!who!attended!a!mixed!boarding!school!in!Eastern!Province.!!One!teacher!told!me!if!a!girl!suddenly!becomes!fat!she!is!suspected!to!be!pregnant!and!she!is!sent!to!a!clinic!to!be!checked.!If!a!girl!stops!being!active!in!sports!she!is!also! suspected! and! is! checked! at! a! local! clinic,! or! if! it! is! a! boarding! school,! by! a!matron.!If!she!has!a!fever!going!on!for!days!she!is!also!suspected!and!checked.!Woe!befall!the!one!who!is!proven!positive.!She!is!taunted!by!teachers!and!called!names,!and!other!students!ostracize!her.!It!is!hard!to!learn!in!a!hostile!environment.!Judy!says! in!her!school!a!girl!became!pregnant! in! the! fourth! form.!The!majority!of! the!girls! were! sympathetic,! but! teachers! including! females,! were! very! insensitive.!When!she!was!about!to!have!her!baby,!she!was!sent!home.!When!she!came!back!the!whole!school!had!a!new!name!for!her;!kamami!(young!mother).!She!came!to!learn!about! it! and! according! to! Judy! this! affected! this! aboveKaverage! student! so! badly!that!in!the!exam!she!only!managed!a!CK!grade.!!Extracted'from'FAWE'Newsletter'Volume'9'Number'1,'Nairobi,'Kenya,'January'@'March'2001'article'If'You'are'Not'Ready'to'Learn'Go'Get'Married........By'Mumbi'Risah'

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In! sum,! the! school! experience! of! girls! is! disenchanting.! Girls! continuously! face!remarks! in! the! classroom! about! their! inability! to! follow! subjects! like! math! and!science,!they!are!constantly!being!told!that!they!are!dumb,!that!their!place!is!in!the!home! and! that! they! need! to! get! married.! They! face! constant! sexual! abuse,!derogatory! remarks! and!made! to! run! errands! for! teachers,! both! at! school! and! at!home,!besides!doing!menial!work!in!the!school.!Girls!are!assigned!roles!and!duties!in!school,!which!reinforce!their!gendered!roles!in!the!society.!As!Davison!and!Kanyuka!(1992)!note,! ‘Girls!who! enter! school! have! to! cope!not! only!with! societal! attitudes!that! perceive! them! as! less! intelligent,! less! achievementKoriented,! and! less!academically! capable! than!boys,! but! also,!with! the! gender! stereotypes! that! school!staff! have! about! female! pupils! that! reinforce! these! attitudes,! making! it! doubly!difficult!for!girls!to!overcome!negative!perceptions!and!achieve!excellence!in!school’!(p.463).!!!!Adolescent! girls’! schooling! experiences! are! marred! with! systemic! and! persistent!discrimination.! Schools! fail! to! create! an! environment! for! girls! to! receive! quality!education!and!equal! learning!opportunity.!Teachers!and!school!administrators!are!part!of! the! systemic!discrimination!and! flagrant! abuse!of! the!girls! at! the!hands!of!their!own!colleagues!and!boy!students.!Girls!remain!victims!of!circumstances!where!their!aspirations!to!learning!and!a!healthy!learning!environment!are!both!denied!to!them.!!3.7!Menstrual!hygiene!management!!!Several!studies!have!examined!the!role!of!menstruation!in!limiting!adolescent!girls’!school!attendance!and!attainment,!and!in!their!dropping!out!of!school!(World!Bank,!2005;!Beyene,!1989;!Herz!et'al.,!1990;!Mehrah,!1995).!While!there!is!no!conclusive!evidence!linking!menstruation!with!dropping!out!of!school!(Glynn!et'al.,!2010)!many!studies! identify! poor! menstrual! hygiene! management! in! schools! as! a! reason! for!girls’!staying!away!from!school!or!having!a!disruptive!experience!while!at!school.!!!!!!Estimates! of! how!many! school! days! are!missed! on! account! of!menstruation! vary.!World!Bank!(2005)!estimates!suggest!that!between!18!and!36!days!are!missed!in!a!180Kday! school! year.! Other! estimates! based! on! national! research! and! surveys! in!South! Africa! suggest! that! approximately! 30! percent! of! girls! do! not! attend! school!during!menstruation;!on!average,!about!4!days!per!month!can!be!lost,!which!can!add!up! to! 528! days! of! schooling! across! the! years! that! a! girl! should! be! in! school.! This!roughly!accounts!for!10!–!20!percent!of!her!school!days.!!!Contrary! to! these! estimates,! two! recent! studies! in!Malawi! and!Nepal! respectively!suggest! a! negligible! or! nonKimpact! of!menstruation! on! absenteeism! (Grant,! Lloyd!and! Mensch,! 2012;! Oster! and! Thornton! 2009).! Oster! and! Thornton! (2009)! for!instance!argue,!based!on!their!randomized!evaluation!study!in!Nepal,!that!girls!are!only!2.4!percentage!points!less!likely!to!attend!school!on!days!that!they!have!their!period.!They!estimate! that!girls!miss!about!0.35!days! in!a!180Kday!school!year!on!account! of! menstruation.! Further,! the! study! finds! that! better! sanitary! technology!

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has! no! impact! on! reducing! this! gap.! Other! studies! attempting! to! quantify!absenteeism! on! account! of! menstruation! similarly! report! a! low! prevalence! (see!Birdthistle,!et'al.,!2011,!p.!26).!!

In! instances! where! absenteeism! is! evidenced,! menstruation! can! serve! both! as! a!‘pullKout’!and!‘pushKout’!factor.!As!Birdthistle,!et'al.!(2011,!p.!26),!who!suggest!these!terms,!explain:!!!!!

• “PullKout!factor,!when!girls!do!not!attend!school!because!of!menstrual!pain!or!family/! cultural! expectations! to! stay! at! home,! or!where!menarche! leads! to!early!sex,!pregnancy!and/!or!marriage…!

• PushKout! factor,!whereby! girls! avoid! or!miss! school! because! of! inadequate!facilities!to!manage!their!menstruation.”!

Where! the! latter! is! concerned,! it!would!be! of! interest! to! see! if! facilities! at! school,!specifically!separate!toilets!for!girls!reduce!absenteeism.!Recent!evidence!from!the!analysis!of!a!longitudinal!data!set!on!school!quality!in!Malawi!found!no!association!between! girls’! school! attendance! and! female! toilet! availability! (Grant,! Lloyd! and!Mensch,! 2012).! However,! no! other! studies! have! been! found! that! empirically!investigate!this!relationship.!In!their!extensive!review,!Birdthistle!et'al.!(2011)!note!that!they!were!unable!to!identify!any!credible!studies!which!“showed!an!impact!of!separate!toilets!on!menstrual!management!(and!consequently!kept!girls!in!schools)”!(p.! 26).! They! do! identify! two! studies,! which! claimed! the! benefit! of! their! WASH!intervention.!One!evaluative!study!of!the!SSHE!in!Kerala,!India,!reported!that!girls!in!the!control!schools!were!more!likely!than!girls!in!the!intervention!schools!to!report!problems! using!water! sanitation! facilities! during! their! periods.! The! second,! a! sixKcountry!pilot!study!of!UNICEF’s!SSHE!reported!that!in!one!country!“girls,!who!used!to! be! absent! during! their! menstrual! period! seem! to! show! improved! school!attendance! “(UNICEF/! IRC,!2006,! cited! in!Birdthistle,!et'al.,!2011).! !However,!hard!data!on!either!of!these!studies!was!missing.!!

While! varied! estimates!on! the! impact! of!menstruation!on! girls’! absenteeism!exist,!the!evidence!appears!consistent!on!how!menstrual!hygiene!management!in!schools!affects!girls’!experiences!of!schooling.!Sommer!(2010),!in!her!study!on!the!social!and!health!impact!of!girl’s!experiences!of!menstruation!and!schooling!in!the!Kilimanjaro!region! draws! attention! to! the! “collision”! when! girls’! bodies! mature! in! school!environments! that!continue! to!be!gender!discriminatory;! this!disrupts!girls’!active!school!participation!and!attendance.!!!Several!studies!conducted!in!other!country!contexts!corroborate!Sommer’s!view.!A!Unicef! supported! study! undertaken! in! India,! Nepal,! Bangladesh! and! Bhutan! on!overcoming! exclusion! and!discrimination! in! South!Asia,! concludes! that! adolescent!girls! face! huge! disadvantages! in! all! the!four! countries! for! lack! of! toilet! and!water!facilities!at!schools.!During!the!time!they!are!menstruating,!girls!frequently!have!to!leave!school!or!abstain!for! lack!of!proper!facilities,!sanitary!cloths!or!to!dispose!of!

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their! sanitary!pads.!The!existing! facilities!were! such! that! it! embarrassed! the!girls,!offering!them!no!privacy!and!dignity!(Unicef!Rosa!2009).!!Another! study! undertaken! by! WaterAid,! Nepal! reported! that! 53! percent!respondents! missed! school! once! due! to! menstruation.! Those! who! did! not! miss!school!were!unable!to!perform!well!and!lacked!concentration!due!to!constant!worry.!Over! 40!percent! reported! they!did!not! have!privacy! for! cleaning! and!washing! for!lack!of!water,!missing!doors!and!locks!in!the!toilet!facility!(WaterAid,!Nepal!2009).!!!!Providing!“evidence!from!the!field”!Pillitteri!(2011),!who!conducted!a!study!in!five!secondary! schools! in! Malawi,! notes:! "Girls! reported! multiple! problems! with!menstrual! cloths!smelling!or! falling!out!at! school.!Boys!consistently! taunted! them,!shouting! that! they! had! ‘killed! a! chicken’.! Menstrual! cloths! were! bulky,! rapidly!became! soaked! through,! caused! rashes! and! could! be! seen! through! uniforms!bringing!the!girls!‘shame’.!In!establishments!where!girls!sat!on!the!floor,!they!were!afraid!to!get!up!for!fear!of!a!leak!and!stayed!there!until!everybody!else!had!departed.!They! missed! school! on! their! heaviest! day! or! went! home! when! their! cloth! was!soaked!through.!Day!scholar!girls!estimated!a! loss!of!one! to! three!school!days!per!menstrual!period.!In!boarding!schools,!girls!had!to!attend!classes!but!left!lessons!to!wash!and!change!in!the!dormitory,!drying!their!cloths!under!their!beds.!They!often!wore!them!damp!which!caused! itching,!possibly!due!to!mold,!and!hated!the!smell.!Inability!to!concentrate!on!lessons!due!to!anxiety!about!leaking!and!smelling!was!a!perpetual!worry! for! all! girls”! (p.10).!All! 104! girl! respondents! in! the! study!missed!school!because!of!menstrual! issues! for! a! total!of!85!days! in! the! school! term.!Girls!dreaded! anyone! seeing! their! menstrual! blood! in! the! toilet.! “Even! when!menstruating,!5!percent!of!girls!used!the!bush;!with!25!percent!admitting!to!using!places! outside! at! other!times,! rather! than! unsuitable! or! dirty! school! toilets.!More!than! half! the! girls! were! off! school! for! one! or! two! hours! when! they! had! their!menstrual! period,! taking! time!out! for! body!washing,! changing! stained! skirts,! pain!control! and! general! malaise;! 15! percent! were! absent! for! more! than! three! days”!(p.11).!!!These! studies! draw! attention! to! the! menstrual! hygiene! management! challenges!within!school!environments,!which!range!from!girls!having!to!miss!school!days,!to!a!disruptive!experience!while!at!school.!The!findings!highlight!the!gendered!nature!of!the!school!environment!for!adolescent!girls,!emphasizing!the!unique!needs!of!girls!postKpubescence.!!!In! an! attempt! to! devise! pragmatic! ways! in! which! schools! can! become!more! girlKfriendly! through! girlKderived! solutions,! Sommer! (2009)! suggests! tangible!improvements!to!the!school!environment.!Her!findings!reinforce!the!challenges!girls!face!in!hiding!their!menses!in!current!school!environments!that!place!a!demand!for!latrines,!water!supply!inside!latrines,!cleaning!equipment,!and!incinerators!to!create!a! friendly,! empowering! and! enabling! environment! for!maturing! girls! to! transition!through! puberty! in! school.! Girls'! recommendations! for! a! more! useful! puberty!curriculum,!both! in! content!and!delivery,! also!provides!direct!guidance!on!how! to!

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overcome!some!of!the!negative!reactions!to!menstrual!and!pubertal!onset!that!girls!currently!experience.!!!3.8!Labor!market!participation!!Education!improves!employability!and!opportunities! for!women,!strengthens!their!autonomy!and!empowers!them!(Goldin1990).!However,!educational!discrimination!reflects! wider! social! biases! against! girls! and! women! and! is! both! a! cause! and! a!consequence! of! women’s! discrimination! in! the! labor! market.! This! discrimination!extends,! reflects!and!perpetuates! itself! in! the! labor!market!and!becomes!mutually!reinforcing.!The!most!marked!educational!and! labor!market! inequalities!are! found!in! countries! and! regions! where! there! is! prevalence! of! grueling! poverty,!regimentation! and! entrenched! cultural! biases! against! girls! (Colclough! et'al.,! 2000!and!2003).!!The! last! four! decades! have!witnessed! increasing! female! labor! force! participation,!consequently! narrowing! the! gender! gap! in! the! labor! market! (Lloyd! 2010.!Adolescent! girls’! school! attendance! and! labor! sector! participation! has! risen!significantly!as!compared!to!boys!in!the!16K19Kyears!and!20K24Kyears!age!group.!In!low!income!countries,!there!has!been!an!increase!of!59!percent!in!the!percentage!of!girls! completing! four! or! more! years! of! schooling;! the! corresponding! increase! for!boys!during! the! same!period!was! only!20!percent.! Female! to!male! ratios! in! labor!force! participation! rates! have! increased! in! most! settings! among! youth.! However,!this!increase!has!been!slower!than!their!rise!in!the!school!attendance.!This!growth!in! women! labor! force! participation! is! also! visible! in! traditional! societies! such! as!Pakistan,!which!had!very!low!female!participation!rates!(Buvinic!et'al.,!2007!pK13).!!!The! increase! in! female! labor! force! participation! has! occurred! in! the! conflicting!context!of!traditional!gender!expectations!and!the!changing!contours!and!demands!of! women’s! roles! as! economic! actors! (Buvinic! et' al.,! 2007)! Boys! entering!adolescence! tend! to! increasingly! become! focused! on! utilizing! time! in! economic!activity.! Girls! in! the! similar! age! group! increasingly! spend! more! time! in! taking!enhanced!responsibilities!in!domestic!chores,!as!well!as!seeking!a!role!in!the!labor!market.! However,! female! labor! force! participation! has! not! kept! pace! with! the!increases!in!school!attendance,!thereby!suggesting!difficulties!in!the!transition!from!school!to!work!for!adolescent!females.!!!Buvinic,! Guzman! and! Lloyd! (2007)! have! compared! school! attendance! rates! and!labor! market! participation! by! sex,! regionKwise! (Figure! 20).! Across! all! regions!(except! subKSaharan!Africa),! female! labor! force!participation! in!varying!degrees! is!less!than!that!of!males.!This,!despite!the!fact!that!school!attendance!rates!by!age!and!sex,!are!similar!or!close.!For!example,! in!Latin!America,!school!attendance!appears!similar! for! boys! and! girls! but! the! labor!market! appears! to! be! strongly! in! favor! of!boys.!There!is!a!difference!of!20!percentage!points!in!the!participation!of!girls!and!boys,!favoring!the!latter,!after!the!age!of!18.!The!sharpest!inequity!is!seen!in!South!Asia,!where!while!boys!have!a!higher!school!attendance!than!girls,!the!participation!

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of!boys! in!the! labor!market! is!disproportionately!higher.!SubKSaharan!Africa! is! the!only! region! with! similar! low! school! attendance! and! low! moderate! labor! force!participation!rates!for!both!boys!and!girls.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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Figure!18:!Rates!of!school!attendance!and!labor!force!participation!!

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In! a! sixKcountry! study! (covering! Brazil,! Cameroon,! Guatemala,! Nepal,! Turkey! and!Yemen)! on! the! transition! from! school! to! work,! Biggeri,! et' al.! (2003)! provide!evidence!of!girls!‘idling’!as!compared!to!boys.!They!are!missing!from!the!school!and!also!do!not!appear!to!be!engaged!in!any!form!of!‘measured!economic!activity’!by!age!14,!when!technically!they!should!be!in!school.!This!range!is!6!percent!in!Nepal!to!44!percent! in! Yemen! (cited! in! Buvinic! et'al.,! 2007,! p.13).! This! ‘disappearance’! of! the!girls! can! be! attributed! to! the! young! girls’! domestic! responsibilities,! or! simply!working!as!child!labor!in!either!remunerated!or!nonKremunerated!work.!!!3.8.1'Gendered'segmentation'of'labor'markets'and'effect'on'schooling'!Various!country!studies!illustrate!the!structural!inequities!inherent!in!labor!markets!that!determine!the!nature!and!scope!of!female!labor!force!participation!(Al!Samarrai!2007;! Kapsos! 2008;! Aslam,! Kingdon! and! Söderbom! 2007;! Coclough,! Rose! and!Tembon!2000).!Labor!market!inequities!reinforce!the!gendered!roles!of!women!and!men! and! consequently! strengthen! negative! cultural! perceptions! about! educating!girls.!Women!more!often! than!not! end!up! in! jobs! that! pay! less! and! require! fewer!skills!(Chen!et'al.,!2004).!!!Appleton! (1999)! and! Kingdon! (1998)! report! that! an! additional! year! of! schooling!results!in!a!smaller!improvement!in!hourly!wages!for!women!than!for!men!in!three!African! countries! (Ethiopia,! Uganda! and! Côte! d'Ivoire)! and! India,! respectively.!However! in! these! countries! !! girls! had! received! less! education! than! boys.! Schultz!(2002)! attributes! the! smaller! increase! for!women! to! lower!mean! levels! of! human!capital! measured! by! education! and! experience.! He! says! women! will! have! less!motivation! to! acquire!more! education! and!will! have! less! incentive! to!work! in! the!labor!market!for!as!many!hours!as!men,!till!the!time!this!negative!substitution!effect!is! overwhelmed! by! the! positive! income! effect! of! a! higher! wage.! There! is!discrimination! in! hiring! of! women! in! specific! sectors,! because! of! their! various!domestic!responsibilities!which!can!cause!interruptions!at!work.!In!such!a!situation!most!women!end!up! in!unremunerative!or!unrewarding!occupations!or! sectors!of!the! labor!market,! causing! serious! crowding! effect.! The! gendered! segmentation! of!labor! markets,! high! barriers! to! female! entry! into! wellKpaying! occupations! and!offering!higher!remuneration!to!men!than!women!with!similar!qualifications!reflect!the! lower!value!attached!to!girls’!contribution! in! the! labor!market!as!compared!to!that! of! boys.! This! critically! influences! the! perceived! benefits! of! schooling! for!adolescent!girls!(cited!in!Glick!2008,!pK35).!!!Poor! facilities! for! skills! development! of! the! female! labor! force,! stemming! from! a!significant! disconnect! between! the! secondary! school! curriculum! and! the! labor!market!skills!requirement,!creates!a!formidable!barrier!for!girls!transitioning!to!the!job!market,!affecting! in!turn!the!rates!of!return!to!girls’!schooling.!For!example,! in!Iran,! while! girls! are! highly! educated,! they! are! unable! to! transition! to! the! labor!market.! For! instance,! in! the! age! group! 15K24! years,! female! youth! unemployment!rate! is! 59! percent! in! urban! areas! and! 71! percent! in! rural! areas;! the! overall!employment!rate!for!women!is!only!20!percent.!Women!face!protracted!problems!in!

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transitioning! from! school! to! employment,!which! include! entrenched! labor!market!discrimination,!labor!segmentation!and!a!mismatch!between!labor!market!demands!and! the! skills! developed! in! schools! (SalehiKIsfahani! and! Engel! 2007).! A! major!complaint!from!the!private!sector!in!Iran!has!been!the!lack!of!practical!skills!among!recent!high!school!graduates.!It!suggests!onKtheKjob!training!programs!may!be!more!effective!than!classroom!training!(Lloyd!and!Young!2009).!!!Conversely,!evidence!suggests!that!acquiring!relevant!skills!for!the!labor!market!can!reap!higher!returns! to!schooling.!For!example,!evidence!suggests! that!a!secondary!school! graduate! with! fluency! in! an! international! language! can! expect! to! earn!considerably! more! than! a! graduate! with! fluency! in! a! local! language.! In! Mumbai,!lower!caste!young!women!are!responding!to!growing!job!opportunities!by!switching!from!primary!and!secondary!schools!teaching!in!Marathi!to!primary!and!secondary!schools! teaching! in! English! and,! as! a! result,! realizing! a! substantial! premium! in!earnings!(Munshi!and!Rosenzweig!2003,!cited!in!Lloyd!and!Young!2009).!!However,! labor!market! opportunities! for!women,!where! they! exist,! are!mostly! in!genderKsegmented!and! feminized!spaces.!For! instance,! in!Philippines,! the!majority!of!women!with!no!degrees!(55!percent)!and!with!elementary!degrees!(67!percent)!are!employed!in!the!service!sector,!as!against!men!with!no!degrees,!who!are!mostly!employed!in!the!agricultural!sector!(55!percent).!On!the!face!of!it,!this!appears!to!be!a!positive!indication!for!women’s!labor!participation.!However,!data!shows!that!45!percent!women! in! the! service! sector! comprise!domestic!help! in!private!homes!on!wages!that!are!far!lower!(129!PHP)!than!the!average!daily!wage!for!females!in!the!services!sector!(193!PHP)!(Luo!and!Terada!2009,!pK8).!!!Bangladesh! is! another! case! in! point! toward! understanding! segmentation! and!feminization!of!the!labor!market.!Girls! in!Bangladesh!have!a!better!primary!school!completion! rate! and! have! also! surpassed! males! in! the! lower! secondary! school!transition.! Yet,! there! is! no! evidence! that! this! correspondingly! reflects! in! the!expansion! of! the! labor! market! for! girls,! in! the! reduction! of! wage! disparities,! or!moving!girls!belonging!to!the!poorest!sections!from!informal!sector!employment!to!formal!wage! labor!(Al!Samarrai!2007).!Kabeer!and!Mahmud!(2004)!note! that! that!returns! to! “female! labor! continues! to! be! even! lower! because! in! the! absence! of!productive!opportunities!women!end!up!crowding!the!labor!market.!The!availability!of!an!apparently!unlimited!supply!of!female!migrant!labor!willing!and!able!to!work!the!long!hours!demanded!for!little!pay!until!it!has!to!be!replenished!by!fresh!recruits!from!the!countryside.!As!long!as!there!is!this!reserve!pool!of!labor!willing!to!put!up!with! the! exploitative! conditions! associated! with! a! strategy! of! primitive!accumulation,!employers!have!few!incentives!to!change!their!strategy.”!(pK146K147)!!The!increase!in!the!labor!market!for!women!has!not!benefitted!the!poor.!Since!2000,!there!has!been!an!increase!of!only!4!percentage!points!among!employed!women!in!the!poorest!40!percent!of!the!population!compared!to!19!percentage!points!among!the! richest! 40! percent! of! the! population,! suggesting! that! the! changes! in! female!employment!have!not!had!a!large!impact!on!poverty.!Whereas!previous!increases!in!

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wage! employment! opportunities! associated!with! the! rise! of! the! garment! industry!concentrated!on!poor!women,!the!increase!from!25!percent!to!34!percent!in!female!salaried! employment! between! 2000! and! 2005! has! largely! been! in! more! skilled!occupations.!Fifty!percent!of!the!increase!has!been!in!the!teaching!sector!and!15K20!percent! in! the! nursing! and! paraKmedic! health! sector! (Kapsos! 2008).! Most! of! this!employment! generation!has!been! in! the! space!of! the! government! and! therefore! it!cannot! be! regarded! as! a! positive,! generative!marketKled! growth,! showing! signs! of!maturity!when!it!comes!to!hiring!girls!and!women.!In!fact!most!of!these!women!are!entering!wage! employment! of! higher! order! skills! but! overall! under! the! expanded!government! or! in! sectors! of! the! labor! force! that! are! occupations! stereotypically!associated!with!women.!!!Women!in!the!rural!areas!of!Bangladesh!earned!45!percent!less!than!men,!while!in!urban! areas! they! earned! 31! percent! less! than! men,! calculated! on! daily! wages!(Rahman! and! Islam! 2003).! Hossain! and! Tisdell! (2005)! examine! wages! across! 16!manufacturing!industries!and!find!that!women!earn!an!average!of!approximately!20!percent! less!per!year!than!men,!with! lower!yearly!earnings!observed!across!all!16!sectors.!They!conclude!that!the!lower!average!educational!attainment!by!women!is!likely! to! explain! part! of! the! observed! gender! wage! differentials,! though! the!educational!gap!narrowed!substantially!in!the!country!over!the!period.!!There!are!a!number!of!factors!that!influence!the!relative!low!wages!for!women,!but!an!important!reason!is!that!the!labor!market!is!flooded!with!female!labor.!There!is!widespread! unemployment,! underKemployment! and! high! poverty! rates! among!female!wageKworker!households!which!reduces!their!relative!bargaining!position.!In!addition,! on! account! of! job! segmentation! (occupational! segregation)! along! gender!lines,! women! are! forced! to! work! and! compete! in! the! same! market.! This! limits!women’s! choice! of! incomeKearning! activities,! whereby! women! are! relegated!disproportionately!to!jobs!viewed!as!less!important,!requiring!lower!skills,!and!with!lower! earnings.! This! situation! creates! an! oversupply! of! available! female! labor,!which,! in! the! context! of! industrial! and! occupational! segregation,! tends! to! depress!female!wages!(ILO!2006).!!!Women!face!gendered!labor!markets!where!opportunities!are!determined,!defined!and! limited! to! segregated! employment! options.! This! is! particularly! so! if! domestic!labor! is! included.!Even!where! their! labor!participation! rates!are! similar,!boys!and!girls!often!specialize!in!different!sorts!of!work.!For!example,!in!Ethiopia,!Guinea!and!the! United! Republic! of! Tanzania,! studies! report! that! girls! specialize! in! domestic!work,! preKdominantly! nonKmonetized! chores,! whereas! boys! work! more! in! the!outside!world!on!farms,!with! livestock!and!in! incomeKearning!activities!(Colclough!et' al.,! 2003).! Mostly! the! work! universe! of! women! is! situated! in! the! realm! of! the!house,!homestead!cultivation!and!tending!the!animals;! it!will!not!include!generally!herding!the!animals!for!grazing,!or!rarely!so.!!Cheap! labor! creates! a! conspiracy! of! circumstances! with! persistent! demand! for!women!in!jobs!that!pay!less!and!require!minimal!skills.!In!the!informal!sector!men!

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are! often!more! likely! to! be! employers! and! ownKaccount!workers,!with! better! pay!than!women,!who!are!more!likely!to!be!informal!wage!earners!and!home!workers.!There! is! strong! evidence! that! the! discrimination! in! labor! markets! in! terms! of!employment! opportunities! and! differential! returns! for! girls! and! boys! impacts! the!overall!premium!attached!to! investments! in!schooling.!This!weakens! the! incentive!of!parents!to!let!girls!continue!studying!in!secondary!schools,!and!further!reinforces!gender! inequalities! in! the! labor!market! (Fiszbein,! A.! et'al.,! 2009;! Colclough! et'al.,!2000).!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Chapter!4!

!!!!!!!!!!!Strategies!to!Improve!the!Schooling!Participation!of!Adolescent!Girls!!4.1!Introduction!!For!about!two!decades,!policies!have!directed!that!cash!assistance!be!made!available!to!families,!either!conditionally!or!unconditionally,!or!even!directly,!as!child!support!grants! or! scholarships,! to! underwrite! costs! –! specifically! for! girls’! enrollment! and!continuation! in! schools.! Most! of! these! programs! aim! at! compensating! parents! or!students,! for!opportunity! costs,! so! that! students! can! stay! in! school.! Some!of! these!programs! focus!on! retaining!girls! in! school! so! that! they!are!not!pushed! into!early!marriage.!Research!has!explored!the!impact!of!these!programs!with!respect!to!their!direct! and! indirect! benefits! to! households,! on! the! education! of! siblings,! health,!nutrition!practices,! behavior,! livelihoods! and! general!wellKbeing! (See! for! example,!Duflo!2000!&!2006,!Baird!et'al.,!2009,!Milazzo!2009,!Saavedra!et'al.,!2012,!Rawlings!and!Rubio,!2005,!Fiszbein!and!Schady!2009,!Riddell!2003).!The!substantial!body!of!evidence!reveals!the!efficacy!of!these!strategies!on!improving!grade!progression!and!completion!of!primary!and!secondary!education!for!girls.!Some!of!the!programs!are!discussed!here!with!the!knowledge!of!their!scale!and!the!relative!success!achieved!in!order!to!draw!important! learning!outcomes.!This! latter!part!of!this!chapter!also!reviews! successful! programs! from! four! countries! –! Malawi,! Bangladesh,! Pakistan!and!Turkey,!and!presents!the!learning!offered!by!these!programs.!!!!In! about! a! hundred! odd! countries! various! cash! transfer! programs! are! being!experimented!with,!to!confront!a!broad!range!of!developmental!issues.!Conditional!cash!transfer!(CCT)!programs!are!one!kind,!which!have!two!objectives:!(1)!poverty!alleviation;!and!(2)!increasing!poor!children’s!stock!of!human!capital!to!ensure!their!future!wellKbeing! (Glewwe!et'al.,! 2010,! pK1).! The! first! objective! is!met!when!poor!families!receive!program!payments.!There! is!sufficient!empirical!evidence!to!show!that!CCTs! improve! schooling!outcomes! in! the!developing!world! (Schultz!2004;!de!Janvry!et'al.,!2006;!Filmer!and!Schady!2010;!many!other! researchers!are!studying!the! various! programs! in! several! countries,! with! Bangladesh,! Brazil,! Cambodia,!Colombia,!Mexico,!Malawi,!Nicaragua!and!Turkey!being!the!more!prominent!ones.!!!!There!are!only!a!few!programs!which!target!enhancing!girls’!enrollment,!retention!and!completion!of!primary!and!secondary!school.!These!programs!provide!support!to!girls!in!middle!school,!by!increasing!the!supply!of!secondary!schools!and!bringing!them!closer!to!communities.!They!also!provide!scholarships!to!cover!full!or!partial!school!costs!or!opportunity!costs,!and!strive!to!improve!the!school!environment!and!create! a! policy! environment! for! recruitment! of! female! teachers.! ! Some! of! these!strategies! have! been! successful! in! accelerating! girls’! transitioning! to! secondary!schools!and!making!a!dramatic!difference!with!bold!policy!reforms!in!favor!of!girls’!education.! These! programs! have! been! particularly! successful! in! Bangladesh!(Khandker!et'al.,!2003,!Mahmud!2003,!Shamsuddin!2012,!Raynor!2006,!World!Bank!

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2008,!Liang! 1996),!Pakistan! (Kim! et'al.,! 1999)! and!Cambodia! (Filmer,! D.,! and!N.!Schady.!2006,!Population!Council!2005;!Tietjen!2003).!!!Programs! aimed! at! not! just! improving! girls’! human! capital,! but! that! of! school!children!in!general,!have!been!implemented!in!Turkey!(Ahmed!et'al.,!2007,!Adato!et'al.,!2007a),!Mexico!(Skoufias,'Davis,'and!Behrman'1999,'Skoufias!2001,!Skoufias!and'Parker! 2001,! Schultz,! 2001,! 2004,! Behrman,! Sengupta,! and! Todd! 2000,! Behrman!and'Hoddinott! 2000,! Adato,! Coady,! and!Ruel! 2000,),!Brazil! (Glewwe! and!Kassouf!2010,!Chapman!2006,!Soares!et'al.,!2010,!Murao!and!Jesus!2012,!Cardoso!and!Souza,!2003;! de! Janvry! et' al.,! 2006),! Nicaragua! (Moore! 2009,! Maluccio! and! Flores!2005,!Lacayo! 2005)! and! Colombia! (Attanasio! et' al.,! ! 2005,! Rawlings! and! Rubio,!2005,! Chapman! 2006).! These! programs! offered! cash! to! the! families! with! the!purpose!of!improving!health,!nutrition!and!immunization.!The!participants’!families!were! supposed! to! meet! fully! all! expected! obligations! toward! mother! and! child!health! care,! particularly! in! relation! to! pregnant! and! lactating! mothers! and! their!growth!monitoring!visits!to!the!health!center,!meeting!mandatory!requirements!of!attending! health! education! workshops! scheduled! from! time! to! time,! as! well! as!meeting!the!obligation!of!school!attendance!for!each!child!beneficiary!as!stipulated!in!the!conditions.!!!Unconditional!cash!transfer!programs!are!another!kind,!provided!as!a!social!safety!net!for!the!poorest!in!targeted!population!groups.!They!aim!at!providing!social!and!economic!protection!to!adults!and!their!dependent!family!members!against!hunger!and! malnutrition.! There! are! no! expectations! of! any! desirable! behavior! from! the!recipients!on!either!attending!healthcare!facilities!or!spending!the!cash!receipts!on!the!education!of!their!offspring!or!dependent!children!in!the!household.!The!money!they! receive! is! to! enhance! their! consumption.! These! programs! have,! directly! or!indirectly,!influenced!household!decisions!on!spending.!Studies!on!the!consumption!pattern! of! households! have! observed! that! surplus! cash! is! spent! on! clearing! debt,!building!livelihoods!assets,!or!on!educating!children.!!This!chapter!brings!examples!from!countries!on!unconditional!cash!transfers!(UCTs)!in!the!form!of!child!support!grants!and!pension!funds!for!the!poor.!It!examines!the!impact!of!UCTs!on!schooling!enrollment,!retention!for!boys!and!girls,!primary!school!completion!and!transition!to!secondary!schooling.!Available!evidence!suggests!that!UCTs!make! a!minimal! difference! to! girls’! education,! that! too,! only!when! the! cash!transfers!are!made!to!women!or!the!elderly.!!!Experiences!from!Brazil,!Colombia,!Mexico!and!Nicaragua!illustrate!the!utilization!of!Conditional!Cash!Transfers! (CCTs).!These!have! addressed! issues!of! poverty,! along!with!creating!a!focus!on!maternal!and!child!healthcare!and!enhancing!human!capital!formation!of! all! children.! In! this! study,!our! focus! is!on! the! impact,! if! any,!on!girls’!education! from! the!primary! level! to! secondary!education! in! terms!of! enrollments,!attendance! and! grade! progression.! In! addition,! the! effort! is! also! to! document! any!visible! externalities! on! delaying! girls’! marriage! and! protecting! girls! from! teen!pregnancies.!!

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!Finally,!we!will!reflect!on!the!scholarship!programs!running!in!Bangladesh,!Pakistan!and! Cambodia! to! discover! how! these! CCTs! have! accelerated,! in! a! very! targeted!manner,!girls’!completing!primary!school!education!and!continuing!their!education!at! the!secondary! level.!Also,!how!scholarships!and!other!policy! interventions!have!created!an!enabling!environment!facilitating!girls’!continued!education.!The!attempt!in!all!of! this!will!be!to! learn!from!the!various! interventions!and!strategies!used!by!governments!in!achieving!a!measure!of!success!overcoming!stiff!cultural!barriers!to!educating!girls,!by! judicious!use!of! the!power!of!good!social!policy!embedded!and!rooted! in! the! cultural! traditions! of! the! communities,! and! respecting! their! worldKviews!on!girls’!education,!mobility!and!family!honor.!The!experiences!in!Bangladesh!and! Pakistan! are! significant! from! the! point! of! defining! strategies! grounded! in!finding! smart! local! solutions! to!overcome!barriers! to! girls’! education! in! a!difficult!and!challenging!cultural!context!of!adolescent!girls.!!In!the!section!on!recommendations,!very!clearly!an!attempt!has!been!made!to!build!a!series!of!pragmatic!initiatives!which!are!likely!to!address!some!of!the!systemic!key!barriers!within!the!context!of!the!national!education!sector!plans!and!anchored!by!the!Local!Education!Groups.! It! is!expected! that! the!recommendations!will!escalate!the!discourse!to!a!higher!level!of!government!priorities.!!!4.2!Impact!of!Unconditional!Cash!Transfer!–!child!support!grant!and!pensions,!on!girls’!education!!In! most! situations,! pensions,! social! funds! and! cash! grants! are! given! to! the!households! as! risk! mitigation! measures! against! intimidating! poverty,! such! as! in!Zambia!(Schubert!2004,!MCDSS!and!GTZ!2007,!Wietler!2007,!Tembo!and!Freeland!2008),!Malawi! (USAID! 2002,! Bernbaum! et' al.,! 1999,! Kendall! 2003,! Anzar! et' al.,!2004,!Kadzamira!and!Rose!2001,!Baird!et'al.,!2009,!MCDSS!and!GTZ!2007,!Miller!et'al.,!2008)!and!South!Africa!(Samson!2004!and!Duflo!1999!&!2003).!Typically!UCTs!are! seen! to! increase! household! consumption! expenditures.! However,! these!programs! have! benefitted! girls!minimally! and! only! indirectly;! the! impact! on! boys!has! been!more! noticeable.! It! is! observed! that! any! additional!money! available! has!been!spent!on!the!education!of!younger!children!in!the!household.!More!often!this!expenditure! has! been!made! on! the!male! offspring.! The! expenditures! on! girls! are!made!only!when! there!are!additional! savings!or! if! any!additional! cash! resource! is!available!to!the!household.!!!Most!UCTs!make! cash!available! in! small! amounts! that! is! just! good!enough! for! the!main!cause!for!which!the!transfer!is!made!–!poverty!alleviation!and!building!some!measure! of! food! security! for! the! household! members.! ! In! some! cases,! recipients!have! stretched! the! money! to! build! modest! productive! assets! for! the! households.!They! have! also! invested! money! in! clearing! old! debt.! The! money! available! is! not!sufficient! for! the! girls! to! complete! primary! education! and! transition! to! pursue!secondary!education.!In!most!of!the!cases!the!cost!of!secondary!education!is!beyond!the!means! and! ability! of! the! households! living! in! extreme!poverty.! There! is! some!

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evidence!on!the!impact!of!UCTs!on!improving!girls’!primary!school!completion,!but!no! visible! impact! in! improving! secondary! schooling! on! the! strength! of! the! small!amount!of!cash!available.!Probably,!expecting!cash!transfers!to!improve!secondary!education!is!not!part!of!the!vision!of!the!government!and!the!institutions!involved!in!the! design! of! the! UCT.! The! examples! of! UCTs! implemented! in! Ethiopia,! Zambia,!Malawi!and!South!Africa!reviewed!in!this!study!fall!in!this!category.!!Ethiopia’s!Productivity!Safety!Net!Programme!(PSNP)!provides!food!security!to!the!predictable! foodKinsecure! households! by! providing! them! cash! or! food! transfers! –!either! ‘cash! or! food! for! work’! or! ‘for! free’! –! on! a! regular,! predictable! basis! for! a!period! of! five! years.! ! Of! these,! 15! percent! of! participants! spent! some! of!their!unconditional! transfer! receipts! on! education.! ThirtyKtwo! percent! of! the!households!reported!that!they!were!able!to!enroll!more!children!in!school!the!year!of!the!study!than!in!the!previous!year,!and!43!percent!could!keep!the!children!longer!in!school!that!year.!However!there!is!no!gender!disKaggregated!data!available!on!the!impact!specifically!on!educating!girls!(Devereux!et'al.,!2006).!!!In!KwaZulu!Natal!in!South!Africa!the!Child!Support!Grant!was!an!Unconditional!Cash!Transfer!program!targeted!at!poor!children!under!the!age!of!7.!Parents!or!primary!caregivers,!whose! total! income!was! under! R1100! per!month! ($470! per!month! in!purchasing!power!parity!dollars),!received!R110!per!eligible!child.!The!program!has!since!been!extended!from!children!younger!than!7!years!to!those!younger!than!14.!Monthly! payments! have! been! increased! periodically;! in! 2005,! they! stood! at! R180!per!month.!In!2002,!an!8.1!percentage!point!increase!in!school!enrollment!among!6!year!olds!and!a!1.8!percentage!point!increase!among!7!yearKolds!were!found!among!recipient!families.!For!both!6!and!7!yearKolds,!the!association!between!grant!receipt!and! school! enrollment! was! significant.! The! higher! enrollment! rate! among! the!households! receiving! grants! appears! encouraging,! as! these! households! are! on!average!poorer,!measured!using!household!assets,!parents’!educational!attainment!and! employment.! It! is! expected! that! the! child! support! grant! recipients! have! the!ability!to!improve!children’s!health!and!nutrition,!afford!school!fees!and!uniforms!–!contributing! to! their!schoolKreadiness!(Case!et'al.,!2005,!pK477K479).!As!Case!et'al.!(2005)! note:! “Older! brothers! and! sisters! of! grant! recipients,! when! they! were!observed! at! younger! ages,! were! less! likely! than! other! children! to! be! enrolled! in!school!–!perhaps!reflecting!the!greater!poverty!in!grantKreceiving!households.!Thus!the! grant! appears! to! help! overcome! the! impact! of! poverty! on! school! enrollment.”!(p.467).!Again!in!this,!specifically,!the!impact!on!girls!is!not!reported!separately.!!The! cash! transfer! program,!Bono'Solidario!in! Ecuador,! did! not! require! children! of!recipient! families! to! attend! school.! This! program! started! as! a! safety! net! to!compensate! poor! families! for! the! elimination! of! gas! and! electricity! subsidies.!Initially! the! program! used! a! selfKtargeting! strategy! directed! at! mothers! with!earnings!below!USD!40,!people!with!disabilities!and!senior!citizens.!At!the!time!that!the!program!started,!mothers!received!about!USD!15!per!month,!and!senior!citizens!and! people! with! disabilities! received! USD! 7.50.! On! average,! the! share! of! Bono!income! in! total!household!expenditures!was!11!percent! in!1999.!During!2000,! the!

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program!reached!around!1.2!million!beneficiary!households,!representing!about!45!percent!of!Ecuadorian!households.!!!Assessment!of!the!impact!of!this!program!varies.!While!Vos!et'al.!(2001)!reported!a!positive!impact!of!around!5!percentage!points!on!school!enrollment,!Oosterbeek!and!Ponce!(2007)!report!zero!effect!of!eligibility!on!school!enrollment.!!The!estimate!of!a!zero!effect! is!not!an!estimate!of!the!average!effect!of!the!program,!but!rather!is!an!estimate!of! the!effect!on!children! from!families!close! to! the!40th!percentile!cutoff.!The!results!for!the!restricted!sample!reveal!that!receipt!of!the!cash!transfer!leads!to!more! food!expenditures!and!more!schoolKrelated!expenditures.!Food!expenditures!go!up!by!25!percentage!points,!school!expenditures!by!73!percentage!points.!While!the!cash!transfer!does!not!increase!school!attendance,!it!better!equips!those!who!do!attend.! Part! of! the! cash! transfer! is! thus! spent! in! a! way! that! potentially! raises!children’s!human!capital.!!Examining! the! impact!of! the!pension!on! the! educational! attainment!of! children! in!South!Africa,!Hamoudi!and!Thomas!(2005)!looked!at!children!aged!6!to!19!years!and!estimated! their! total! years! of! schooling! based! on! the! current! or! last! grade.! Their!findings! suggest! that! a!pension! income! has! a! greater! beneficial! impact! on! girls’!education!than!on!boys’!education.!They,!however,!report!that!for!the!older!children!aged! 13! to! 19! years,! a!male! pension! has! higher! probability! to! increase! education!among!boys!and!decrease!education!among!girls.!They!report! that! female!pension!has!a!positive!effect!on!younger!girls!between!the!ages!of!6K12!years,!but!no!effect!on!boys.!Further,! in! the!age!group!of!13K19!years,! female!pension!has!no!effect!on!either! boys! or! girls.! !It! also! shows! that! overall! boys! aged! 6! to! 15! years,! when!residing!with! their!mothers,! are! further! ahead! in! school! than! those!who! are! not.!Boys!living!in!pensioner!households!are!less!likely!to!go!far!in!education!if!they!are!coKresident!with!mothers.!The!same!pattern! is! found!among!girls,! although!not!as!markedly.!!Another! study! from! South! Africa! –! receipt! of! State! Old! Age! Pension! is! associated!with!a!reduction!of!approximately!twenty!to!twentyKfive!percent!in!the!school!nonKattendance! gap.! Likewise,! a! household’s! receipt! of! a! Child! Support! Grant! is!associated!with!a!reduction!of!approximately!twentyKfive!percent!in!the!school!nonKattendance! rate.! There! is! no! gender! disKaggregated! data! available! to! conclusively!evaluate!the!impact!on!girls’!education!(Samson!et'al.,!2004).!!!The! reduction! in! school! nonKattendance! is! about! oneKthird!when! income! is! in! the!hands!of!women,!but!if!the!recipient!is!male!then!there!is!no!statistically!significant!impact!visible.!As!more!income!is!available!at!hand!in!the!household,!the!greater!the!likelihood!that!children!will!attend!school.!!!Children! in! households! headed! by! women! are! significantly! more! likely! to! attend!school.! Likewise,! the! presence! of! elderly! household! members! is! associated! with!higher!rates!of!school!attendance!(Samson!et'al.,!2004!pK63).!!!

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Similarly,!girls!in!households!receiving!R500!of!government!pension!are!six!percent!more! likely! to!be!enrolled! in!school.!This!effect! is! twice!that!of! the!effect! for!boys.!The!household!size!has!a!significantly!negative!impact!on!school!attendance!by!girls.!This! is! consistent!with! the! knowledge! that! poor! households! spend!money! for! the!education!of!boys! rather! than!girls.!This!explains! that! social! grants!have! far!more!ability!to!benefit!girls’!education!(Samson!et'al.,!2004,!pK67).!!!!State!Old!Age!Pensions!give!a!stronger!boost!to!the!school!attendance!rates!for!girls!–!who!among!the!poor!tend!to!have!lower!rates!of!schooling!than!boys.!One!hundred!Rand!of!pension!receipts!raises! the! likelihood!that!a!boy! in! the!poorest!quarter!of!the! population! will! attend! school! by! 4! percent.! The! same! one! hundred! rand,!however,!increases!the!probability!by!11!percent!for!the!girl!to!attend!school.!Girls!living!in!pensioner!households!are!7!percent!more!likely!to!attend!school,!compared!with!2.7!percent!for!boys!(Samson!et'al.,!2004,!pK72K73).!!!This! is! further! corroborated! by! Duflo! (2000,! pK398)! that! the! Old! Age! Pension!program! in!South!Africa!has! led! to!an! improvement! in! the!health!and!nutrition!of!children,! especially! for! girls.! This! effect! is! entirely! due! to! pensions! received! by!women.! The! effects! are! large.! The! presence! of! a! woman! eligible! for! the! Old! Age!Pension!results!in!an!increase!in!girls’!(but!not!boys’)!weightKforKheight!and!heightKforKage! scores.! She! finds! no! effect! on! either! boys’! or! girls’! nutritional! outcomes!when!pensions!are!received!by!men.!Her!finding!is!significant,!as!it!points!to!the!fact!that!the!effects!differ!by!the!gender!of!the!person!who!receives!the!transfer.!!!As! compared! to! South! Africa,! in! Zambia! the! Kalomo! Social! Cash! Transfer! (SCT)!scheme!(Schubert!2004,!MCDSS!and!GTZ!2007,!Wietler!2007,!Tembo!and!Freeland!2008)!was! set! up! as! a! social! protection!mechanism!without! any! conditionality,! in!reaction! to! the!HIV/AIDS! pandemic! in! Zambia.! It! delivers! a! small! amount! of! cash!every!month!in!the!form!of!grants!to!reduce!extreme!poverty,!hunger!and!starvation!in! the!10!percent!most!destitute!and! incapacitated! (nonKviable)!households! in! the!pilot!region!of!Kalomo!District.!Targeted!households!with!children!get!an!additional!child!bonus!(Schubert!2004,!pK5K6).!!!No!discernible!difference!was!observed!with! respect! to! the!additional! child!bonus!given!per!family,!which!was!aimed!at!improving!the!educational!attainment!for!girls.!The! results! indicate! that! enrollment! rates! rose! by! only! a! nominal! 3! percentage!points! to! 79.2! percent! from! 76.1! percent! at! the! time! of! the! evaluation.! While!enrollment! rates! for! girls! remained! stable,! enrollment! rates!went! up! for! boys,! in!particular! those! between! 11! to! 13! years! of! age.! The! authors! did! not! observe! a!greater! increase! in! enrollment! rates! due! to! the! fact! that! enrollments! rates! at! the!baseline!are!already!comparatively!high.!However,!in!certain!rural!areas!in!Zambia!access! to! schooling! remains! a! challenge! and! the! cash! transfer! value! is! not! able! to!meet! the!cost!of! school! fees!at! the!secondary! level.! !The!cash! transfer!scheme!has!not! enhanced! secondary! school! participation! for! girls.! Secondary! education! costs!are!prohibitive!for!most!households!because!of!the!school!fees!and!boarding!costs.!While! the! number! of! households! who! do! not! send! at! least! one! of! their! children!

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(between!7!–!18!years)!to!school,!decreased!from!41.4!percent!to!33.8!percent,!there!is!probably!only!one! child,! preferably! the!male! son,! attending! school,! because! the!cash!transfer!amount!is!modest!(MCDSS!and!GTZ,!pK38).!Student!absenteeism!in!the!previous!3!months!decreased!marginally!by!one!percentage!point!at!the!time!of!the!evaluation.!The!average!absence!from!school!went!up!from!2!days!at!the!baseline!to!2.4!days!at!evaluation.!Girls’!absenteeism!remained!consistent;!for!boys!it!increased!by!almost!0.8!day.!This!negative!trend!could!be!an!effect!of!the!drought!that!forced!many!of!the!boys!to!go!for!searching!jobs!(MCDSS!and!GTZ,!pK34).!!!Overall,!studies!point!to!the!fact!that!children!in!households!headed!by!women!are!significantly!more!likely!to!attend!school,!besides!households!with!elderly!members,!which! also! post! higher! rates! of! school! participation.!Girls! in! households! receiving!government! pensions! are!more! likely! to! be! enrolled! in! school.! Girls’! schooling! is!highly! factored! on! the! economic! wellKbeing! of! households! and! available! extra!resources.! ! Social!grants!have!a!higher!ability! to!benefit!girls’! education.!State!Old!Age!Pensions! give! a! stronger!boost! to! the! school! attendance! rates! for! girls! –!who!among!the!poor!tend!to!have!lower!rates!of!schooling!than!boys.!The!direct!income!transfers!do!certainly!contribute!to!building!human!capital.!!Men!pensioners!are!not!associated!with!an!improvement!in!the!nutritional!status!of!either!girls!or!boys.!!!!It! is! important! that! the! UCTs! are! handed! over! to! women! or! the! elderly! in! the!household,! because! then! they! will! have! a! larger! impact.! It! is! also! important! to!recognize! that! the! cash! transfers! do! not! seem! to! have! the! scope! to! make! any!measure!of! significant! impact!on! the!primary!school!completion!of!girls,!or!seeing!them! transition! to! secondary! school.! Secondary! schooling! costs! for! girls! are!significant.! It! is! important! that! any! calculation! of! the! cash! grants! toward! girls’!secondary!school!education!should!essentially!include!all!direct!and!indirect!costs!to!determine!the!appropriate!amount!of!cash!grant.!!One!thing!is!clear!though,!that!any!impact!on!schooling!outcomes!of!girls!will!happen!only!when!the!money!received!is!in!addition!to!the!various!cash!grants!and!assigned!specifically!for!girls’!education!in!middle!school!through!secondary!school.!Girls’!schooling!is!highly!dependent!on!the!availability!of!extra!cash!with! the!households!besides! their!own!consumption.!For!any!cash!grant!to!have!a!measure!of!impact!on!girls’!schooling!and!outcomes,!it!has!to!provide!for!the!various!costs!associated!with!the!school!and!compensate!for!lossK!ofKopportunity!costs.!!!4.3!Conditional!Cash!Transfers!and!its!impact!on!girls’!education!!For! the! most! part,! CCTs! have! been! most! widely! implemented! in! Latin! American!countries.!Their!program!strategies!have!primarily!evolved!and!are!modeled!around!Bolsa'Familia!(Brazil)!and!PROGRESA!(Mexico).!Since!Bolsa!there!have!been!a!spate!of! social! assistance!programs! in!Latin!American! countries,!which!have! focused!on!the!poorest!sections.!Bolsa!was!initially!critiqued!on!the!grounds!that!the!targeted!beneficiaries!were!not!necessarily!poor!enough!to!deserve!the!social!assistance!and!that! the! really! deserving! ones! were! being! left! out! (Rocha! 2004).! Progressively,!however,! the! identification! of! beneficiaries! has! becomes! very! systematic! and! the!

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most! developed! form! of! targeting! can! be! seen! in! the! case! of! Bono' de' Desarrollo'Humano'(BDH),!Ecuador.!!(See!Table!at!Annex!III).!!CCTs!have!very!specifically!included!girls’!education!as!a!special!feature!over!time,!and!more!specifically!the!education!of!girls!at!the!higher!secondary!level!(except!in!the! case! of! Nicaragua).! For! instance,! in!Mexico,! PROGRESA’s! focus! on! girls! at! the!secondary!school!level!is!specific!to!the!very!high!dropout!rates!of!girls!at!that!level.!The!transfer!amount!for!girls!at!the!higher!secondary!school!level!is!relatively!more!as! compared! to! boys.! In! all! of! these! programs! the! obligation! to! meet! the!conditionality!is!assigned!to!the!mother.!!CCTs! have! consistently! delivered! higher! returns! in! girls’! middle! school! and! even!higher! returns! in! secondary! school! enrollment! and! school! attendance! (Brazil,!Mexico!and!Colombia,!Nicaragua).!They!have!been!most!effective!in!reaching!out!to!the!poorest! and!most!disadvantaged!girls.! The!programs!have! also! contributed! to!significant! improvement! in! achieving! and! establishing! overall! schooling! gains!among! these! population! segments.! They! have! reduced! dropout! rates,! grade!repetition!and!consistently!shown!grade!progression.!The!programs!benefited!older!children!returning!to!the!classrooms!and!at!the!same!time,!considerably! improved!the!regularity!of!school!attendance!of!those!in!the!school!who!attended!irregularly.!In!fact!in!Mexico,!at!the!Grade!7!level!where!the!highest!dropout!rate!is!expected!for!girls! in!transition!from!middle!to!secondary!school,!PROGRESA!showed!the!largest!impact!of!14.8!percentage!points.!!!Bolsa!had!higher!enrollments!in!postKprimary!education.!Although!the!amount!of!the!subsidy!is!less!than!the!expected!income!from!child!labor,!its!dependability,!together!with!the!reduction!in!violence!and!health!problems!associated!with!working!in!the!informal! sector,! outweighs! the! loss! of! income! for! most! families! (UNESCO! GMR!2003/04).!!Bolsa! has! delivered! an! increase! of! 6! percentage! points! in! grade!progression!and!has!delivered!significant!effects!in!keeping!children!in!school!after!the!age!of!14!years.!Among!beneficiary!families,!a!15!yearKold!girl!is!21!percentage!points!more! likely!to!attend!school!(de!Brauw!et'al.,!2011).!Bolsa’s!positive! impact!on! enrollment! is! stronger! for! girls! and! for! disadvantaged! children! (Glewwe!et'al.,!2010,!pK28K31).!!!Mexico's!Programa'de'Educación,'Salud'y'Alimentación! (PROGRESA)!had!a!barely!5!percentage!points!increase!in!primary!school!enrollment,!which,!however,!compares!well!with! that! of!Bolsa’s! 5.5!percent! increase! in! grades!1K4! (Glewwe!et'al.,! 2010).!Mexico!already!had!preKexisting!higher!enrollment!at!the!primary!level!at!the!outset!of! the! program! launch.! It! had! an! approximately! 12! percentage! point! increase! in!enrollment!for!grades!6!through!8!(Glewwe!et'al.,!2010).!However,!at!the!secondary!school! level,!where!enrollment!started!out! low,! impacts!were!high:!9.3!percentage!points! for!girls! and!5.8!percentage!points! for!boys! (transfer!amounts!were!higher!for!girls!to!encourage!their!enrollment).!It!was!the!Grade!7!level!–!a!transition!level!which! always! had! the! highest! dropouts! –! that! reported! the! largest! impact;! girls’!enrollment! increased! by! 14.8! percentage! points! at! this! level.! (Schultz,! 2001,!

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2004).!PROGRESA! delivered! a! 23! percent! aggregate! increase! in! secondary! school!enrollment! during! 1997! to! 2002! in! rural! areas,! and! 6.5! percent! in! urban! areas,!showing! stronger! effects! for! girls! than! boys! (Parker,! 2003).! The! program! impact!was!greater!for!girls!than!boys.!!!In! the! Bolsa! program,! children! of! ages! 6K17! years! saw! an! increase! in! school!attendance! by! 3.7–4.4! percentage! points! overall.! Among! girls! of! ages! 15K17! years!the!increase!reported!was!at!9.2!percentage!points!and!in!rural!areas!the!same!age!group!reported!an!increase!of!9.3!percentage!points.!The!poorer!northKeastern!part!reported!an!increase!of!11.7!percentage!points!among!girls!in!the!age!group!in!the!ages!of!6K17!years.!!!In!Nicaragua!the!effect!of!Red'de'Protección!on!current!attendance!was!even!larger,!with! an! average! program! effect! of! 20! percentage! points! for! children! between! the!ages!of!7–13!years.!The!effect!was!significant!for!all!age!groups!except!12KyearKolds.!The! gains! were! substantial,! and! the! poor! (23! percent)! and! extremely! poor! (33!percent)!benefitted!the!most.!The!nonKpoor!also!improved!attendance!(12!percent).!Boys!(23!percent)!benefited!slightly!more!than!girls!(17!percent).!!There!have!been!positive! effects! even! for! those! children! who! were! attending! school! prior! to! the!program,!as! they!were!now!attending!school!with!regularity!(Maluccio!and!Flores,!2004,!pK39).!The!program!also!saw!an!overall! increase! in!grade!progression!at! the!average! rate! of! 7.3! percentage! points.! The! program! saw! large! effects! on! those!making! the! transition! from!third!and! fourth! to! fifth!and!sixth!grades,!even! though!the!education!transfer!came!to!an!end!after!grade!four.!The!largest!gain!was!for!the!poor! (9.6! percent),! extremely! poor! (5.5! percent)! and! nonKpoor! (6.4! percent)! as!compared! to! the! control! area.! Finally,! as! with! the! other! results,! the! effects! were!similar!for!boys!and!girls!(Maluccio!and!Flores,!2004,!pK43).!!!The!Nicaragua!program!was!able!to!reduce!the!incidence!of!child!labor;!there!was!a!4.6!percentage!point!decrease!in!the!percentage!of!children!working!in!2001!and!a!5.6!percentage!point!decrease! in!2002.! In!both!the! intervention!and!control!areas,!the! percentage! of! children! working! declined! significantly! in! 2001.! The! effect! on!education!outcomes!was!the!same!for!boys!and!girls.!However!in!Bolsa,!as!Kassouf!(2001)! observes,! for! 17! percent! of! rural! households! in!Brazil,! the! contribution! to!family! income!from!working!children!aged!5! to!14!years!represents!more!than!40!percent!of!the!family!income.!Cavalieri!(2003)!argues!that!child!labor!could!be!part!of! the! reason! why! children! in! Brazil,! chiefly! in! the! northeast,! perform! poorly! in!school.! !PROGRESA!in!Mexico!had!a!positive!effect!in!reducing!wage!and!nonKwage!child! labor! for! both! boys! and! girls.! LaborKforce! participation! for! boys! shows!reductions!as! large!as!15! to!25!percent! relative! to! the!probability!of!participating!prior!to!the!program.!For!girls!too,!in!spite!of!their!overall!lower!participation!level!prior! to! the! program,! there! are! significant! reductions! in! child! labor.! The! lower!incidence!of!child!work!due! to! the!program!is! found!to!account! for!65!percent! (in!November! 1999)! to! 82! percent! (in! November! 1998)! of! the! increase! in! the!enrollment!of!boys!in!school!(Skoufias!and!Parker!2001)!!!

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While! conditions! are! stated! in! most! CCTs,! they! are! not! followed! up! effectively.!Results!show!that!compliance!is!very!high!when!effective!monitoring!is!installed!in!place!(Colombia,!Mexico,!Nicaragua,!and!Jamaica).!In!Mexico!the!compliance!was!99!percent! (Behrman!and!Todd!1999).!However,! enforcing! conditionality! took!up!20!percent! of! the! program! cost.! In! Jamaica! compliance! was! up! to! 94! percent!(Mathematica! Policy! Research! 2005).! !On! the! contrary,! in! the! Honduras,! women!were!required!to!deposit!a!barKcoded,!certified!attendance!slip! in!an!urn!for!every!time!they!visited!the!health!center,!but!no!beneficiary!ever!was!asked!to!explain!the!reasons!for!nonKcompliance.!In!addition,!payments!were!also!irregular!and!may!be!responsible! for! the! absence! of! observed! effects! (Morris,! et' al.,! 2004,! cited! in!Glassman,!et'al.,!2009)!!!There!is!not!much!research!to!conclusively!say!if!UCTs!or!the!CCTs!are!better.!The!bulk! of! CCTs! in! Latin! America! have! delivered! comprehensively! in! increasing! the!health,!nutrition!and!visits!to!clinics!by!pregnant!and!lactating!mothers.!It!has!also!shown! positive! results! in! health! and! nutrition,! growth!monitoring,! immunization!coverage! for! infants,! in! reducing! overall!morbidity,!mortality! and! fertility,! and,! in!general,! in! harnessing! human! capital! formation.! An! impact! research! comparing!Mexico’s!PROGRESA!program!and!an!unconditional! transfer! to!poor! farmers! finds!that!although!overall!increases!in!food!consumption!were!comparable,!the!effects!on!health! and! schooling!were! significantly! greater! under! PROGRESA,! suggesting! that!conditionality!makes!a!difference!(Davis,!et'al.,!2002).! !On!education,!it!is!clear!that!CCT! programs! have! led! to! substantial! increases! in! school! enrollment! overall,! and!especially! for! girls! at! the! secondary! school! level,!with!more!modest! effects! at! the!primary!level.!The!programs!have!also!led!to!increases!in!school!attendance,!grade!progression! and! in! several! contexts,! positively! contributed! to! reductions! in! child!labor.!!!Schady!and!Araujo!(2006)!found!in!Ecuador!the!cash!transfers!made!by!the!Bono'de'Desarrollo'Humano'(BDH)!program!had!large,!positive!effects!on!school!enrollment,!and!large,!negative!effects!on!child!work.!!The!BDH!effects!on!enrollment!appear!to!be!approximately!twoKandKaKhalf!times!as!large!as!those!found!in!PROGRESA.!This!is!significant!as!the!enrollment!required!was!not!enforced.!In!terms!of!magnitude,!the!estimated! BDH! program! effects! are! two! and! a! half! times! larger! than! in! the!PROGRESA! program! in! Mexico.! The! results! are! significant! as! the! BDH! transfer!amount!is!much!smaller!in!value.!!The!enrollment!requirement!was!never!explicitly!enforced!or!monitored! in!Ecuador.!Ecuador! is!a! substantially!poorer! country! than!Mexico! and! school! enrollment! rates! are! lower,!which!explains! the! larger!program!effects!visible!with!the!BDH!program!as!compared!to!PROGRESA.!!!However,! the!Schady!and!Araujo! (2006)!study!points!out! that! significant!program!effects!on!enrollment!are!only!discernible!among!households!who!believed!that!the!enrollment!requirement!was!mandatory!with!the!receipts!of!cash.!This!suggests!that!this! unenforced! condition! was! vital! in! households! imagining! that! enrollment!requirement!was!mandatory.!For!example,!monitoring!is!much!more!stringent!in!the!PROGRESA!programs!in!Mexico!than!in!the!Bolsa!Escola@Bolsa'Familia!programs!in!

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Brazil.! The! authors! suggest! that! results! for! the! BDH! program! point! that! cash!transfer! programs! can! have! large! effects! on! schooling! and! child! labor! outcomes!even! when! enrollment! requirements! are! not! monitored.! However,! this! has! to! be!viewed!in!the!light!of!the!TV!commercials!aired!in!Ecuador!which!made!schooling!of!the!child!appear!linked!to!the!receipt!of!the!transfer.!It!is!thus!difficult!to!say!that!the!program! results! would! have! been! same! if! there! was! widespread! knowledge! that!there!is!no!condition!linked!with!the!receipt!of!the!transfer.!!!!!4.4!Integrated,!contextBspecific!girls’!schooling!initiatives!!!Many! countries! have! innovated! with! a! combination! of! contextKspecific! strategies,!both! demandKside! and! supplyKside,! to! enhance! girls’! participation! in! secondary!schools.!These!interventions!have!directly!targeted!the!girl!students!to!benefit!them,!which!was!not!the!case!earlier.!Simultaneously!the!strategies!have!aimed!at!bringing!positive! genderKsensitive! changes! to! the! school! environment! linking! them! to!improving!girls’!educational!outcomes.!!!On!the!one!hand,!the!programs!have!provided!incentives!to!parents!to!send!girls!to!school!where!there!was!little!scope!to!educate!girls!(Cambodia).!In!some!cases!the!effort!was,! in!some!measure,!to!compensate!for!the!opportunity! loss!with!the!girls!attending!fullKtime!school!instead!of!contributing!fullKtime,!working!either!at!home!or! !elsewhere,! to!meet! the!survival!needs!of! the!household,!even!though!the!work!girls! did! was! not! monetized! (Bangladesh).! In! other! cases,! the! governments! were!providing! partial! costs! toward! covering! school! expenses! for! girls,! and! some!combined! this! with! infrastructure! development! for! girls’! easy! access! to! school!(Pakistan).!!!Side!by!side,!these!programs!have!tried!to!bring!genderKpositive!changes!in!terms!of!school! and! classroom! environment,! strengthening! inKservice! teacher! training,!improving! school! infrastructure,! reducing! the! distance! to! school! and! hiring!more!female! teachers.! Cultural! perspectives! have! been! kept! central! in! the! design! of!measures! to! prepare! the! school! environment! such! that! it! ensures! girls’!participation.!Such!measures! include! reducing! the!distance! to! school!and!bringing!schools! within! the! boundaries! of! communities,! providing! safeguards! against! the!exposure!of!girls!to!men,!recruitment!of!women!teachers!from!the!same!community,!even!if!it!implied!lowering!benchmarks!for!teacher!recruitment!and!building!teacher!support!structure!for!improving!quality!and!learning!outcomes.!In!most!cases,!this!approach!has!had!a!high!impact!in!terms!of!meeting!its!objective!(See!table!3).!!!!!!!!!!

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Table!!4:!Impact!of!CCTs!on!School!Enrollment!and!Attendance,!Various!Years!!

C O N D I T I O N A L C A S H T R A N S F E R S : R E D U C I N G P R E S E N T A N D F U T U R E P O V E R T Y

18

Country ProgramAge/Gender/Grade

Baseline enrollment (%) Impacta

Transfer (% of PCE)b

Evaluation method Reference

Non–Latin American and Caribbean countriesBangladesh Female Secondary

School Assistance Program

Ages 11–18 (girls)

44.1 12.0**(5.1)

0.6 FE Khandker, Pitt, and Fuwa (2003)

Cambodia Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction

Grades 7–9 (girls)

65.0 31.3***(2.3)

2–3 DD Filmer and Schady (2008)

Cambodia Cambodia Education Sector Support Project

Grades 7–9 65.0 21.4***(4.0)

2–3 RDD Filmer and Schady (2009c)

Pakistan Punjab Education Sector Reform Program

Ages 10–14 (girls)

29.0 11.1***(3.8)

3 DDD Chaudhury and Parajuli (2008)

Turkey Social Risk Mitigation Project

Primary school

87.9 –3.0* n.a.

6 RDD Ahmed et al. (2007)

Secondary school

39.2 5.2n.a.

Source: Authors’ compilation.Note: DD = difference-in-differences; DDD = difference-in-difference-in-differences; FE = fixed effects; IV = instrumental variables;

n.a. = not available; PCE = per capita expenditure; PSM = propensity score matching; RDD = regression discontinuity design. This table contains unweighted means for the coefficients for Colombia ages 8–13 and 14–17, Chile ages 4–5 and 6–15, and Mexico grades 0–5 and 7–9. The standard errors in each case are the square roots of the averaged variances of these estimates.

a. The column for “impact” reports the coefficient and standard error (in parentheses); the unit is percentage points, with the excep-tion of the Jamaican PATH program, where the unit is days.

b. The transfer amounts as a proportion of per capita expenditures (or consumption) are not the same across all tables in the report because of differences in the surveys used, including their coverage and year.

c. Impacts were measured in Jamaica only for student attendance over a 20-day reference period. The baseline enrollment rate prior to PATH was 96 percent.

* Significant at the 10 percent level.** Significant at the 5 percent level.*** Significant at the 1 percent level.

Table 4 continued

effect on the use of preventive health services, although the evidence is less clear-cut than with school enrollment.

Moreover, because CCT program effects on utilization are con-centrated among households who were least likely to use services in the absence of the intervention, CCTs have contributed to substantial

!!Source:'Excerpted'from'Ariel'Fiszbein'and'Norbert'Schady'&'others'2009,'p@18'!Note:'dd'='difference@in@differences;'ddd'='difference@in@difference@in@differences;''fe'='fixed'effects;'iV'='instrumental'variables;'n.a.'='not'available;''pCe'='per'capita'expenditure;'psm'='propensity'score'matching;''rdd'='regression'discontinuity'design'!a.'the'column'for'“impact”'reports'the'coefficient'and'standard'error'(in'parentheses);'the'unit'is'percentage'points''b.' the'transfer'amounts'as'a'proportion'of'per'capita'expenditures'(or'consumption)'are'not'the' same'across'all' tables' in' the' report'because'of'differences' in' the' surveys'used,' including'their'coverage'and'year.!!*'significant'at'the'10'percent'level.''''**'significant'at'the'5'percent'level.''***'significant'at'the'1'percent'level!'4.5!Successful!programs!from!–!Malawi,!Bangladesh,!Pakistan!and!Turkey,!and!the!learning!offered!by!these!programs!!'4.5.1!Malawi:'Dramatic'increase'in'girls’'primary'school'enrollment,'secondary'school'transition'and'introducing'enhanced'expenditures'on'education'by'the'government!'Supported!by!USAID,!the!Girls!Attainment!in!Basic!Literary!and!Education!(GABLE)!programme! in!Malawi!was! initially! intended! to! improve! the! relevance! of! primary!education!for!girls!through!gender!appropriate!teacher!training,!gender!appropriate!curricula,!a!scholarship!program!for!secondary!school!girls!and!the!introduction!of!

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improved! classroom! techniques! to! enhance! girls’! achievement! (USAID! Summative!Evaluation! report,! 2002,! pK6).! Its! components! included! (i)! measures! to! increase!access!and!persistence!of!girls!in!primary!education,!such!as!schoolKfee!waivers!for!nonKrepeating! girls! from! standards! 2! to! 8,! and! encouragement! of! timely! entry! to!standard! 1;! (ii)! a! social! mobilization! campaign! to! change! attitudes! and! elicit! the!support!of!parents!and!communities!to!educate!girls;!(iii)!increasing!the!number!of!schools! through! the! establishment! of! communityKbased! schools;! (iv)! revising! the!primary! school! curriculum! to!make! it! more! genderKsensitive! through! the! Gender!Appropriate! Curriculum! (GAC)! Unit,! (v)! establishing! a! girls’! scholarship! fund! for!eligible! secondary! school! girls;! and! (vi)! improving! girls’! scores! on! the! Primary!School!Leaving!Exams!through!the!foregoing!qualityKrelated!inputs!(USAID!2004,!pK!9).!!GABLE!was!subsequently!extended!to!improve!girls’!secondary!school!participation!(referred! to! as! GABLE! II).! Under! GABLE! II,! in! addition! to! the! aforeKmentioned!components,! the! VillageKBased! School! (VBS)! program!was! introduced! to! increase!access!and!quality!of!secondary!schools.!Further,! the!social!mobilization!campaign!was!broadened!to!increase!community!awareness!through!community!participation!techniques! in! the! research,! generation,! and!dissemination!of!messages! focused!on!girls’!education.!The!program!expanded!to!include!(i)!developing!functional!school!committees! that!would! facilitate! twoKway!communication!between! the! school! and!the! community,! (ii)!mobilizing! communities! to! participate! in! school! development!activities,!and!(iii)!community!monitoring!of!teacher!and!pupil!behavior!as!well!as!classroom!performance!(USAID!2004,!pK9).!!In! 1990,! a! year! before! GABLE! began,! annual! school! fees! amounted! to! 3.5!Malawi!Kwacha!(about!1.30!US!dollars)!while!uniforms!cost!over!6!Malawi!Kwacha,!almost!double!the!school!fees!amount!per!child!KK!a!large!amount!for!subsistence!farmers!in!country! whose! average! annual! per! capita! was! 170! US! dollars.! Bernbaum,! et' al.!(1999)!note! that! fee!waivers! largely! contributed! to!nearly!doubling!girls’! primary!enrollment!and!persistence.!Girls’!enrollment!rose!from!772,000!in!1990K91!(when!the!program!began)! to!1,528,000! in!1995–96.!Girls’! enrollment!as!a!proportion!of!the!overall!enrollment!increased!from!45!percent!to!47!percent.!Further,!girls!made!up! 36! percent! of! grade! 8! enrollments! in! 1990–91,! and! 39! percent! in! 1995–96,!suggesting! improved! persistence.! “Reducing! schooling! costs! for! girls! (by! waiving!fees! and! eliminating! uniforms),! as! well! as! promoting! social! marketing! and! comK!munity!mobilization,!appears!to!have!contributed!to!the!sharp!increase”!(Bernbaum!et'al.,!1999,!pK2).!!!The! Malawi! Government! increased! expenditure! in! education! from! 12! percent! in!1991!to!23!percent! in!1998!and!28!percent! in!2000.!The!primary!education!share!increased!from!52!percent!in!1992/93!to!62!percent!of!the!government’s!recurrent!budget!in!1999;!this!dropped!back!to!58!percent!in!2000.!However!the!effect!of!this!increase!in!expenditure!was!neutralized!as!student!numbers!swelled.!The!per!capita!expenditure! on! students! of! USD! 16! is! lower! than! that! of! other! countries! in! the!

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region!which!are!at!USD!24!(see!Muluzi!2000,!pK!22,!cited!in!USAID!evaluation!2002,!pK4).!!!According!to!USAID,! in! the!1996K97!schoolKyear,!some!42,000!girls!benefited! from!the!scholarship!program!–!over!40!percent!of!all!girls!that!were!in!secondary!school.!As!per!the!closing!evaluation!of!USAID,!dropout!rates!have!been!reduced!from!1997!to!2000!and!gender!parity!is!apparent!through!Standard!4.!However,!by!Standard!5!through!Standard!8,!the!rates!are!the!same!for!boys!(6!percent!per!Standard)!but!the!dropout!rate!for!girls!increased!to!9!percent!in!Standard!5,!increasing!to!11!percent!by!Standard!8.!Grade!repetition!rates!have!declined!from!18!percent!in!1994!to!15!percent!according!to!Government!of!Malawi!2000!education!statistics;!the!repetition!rates! by! gender! are! almost! similar! for! all! primary! students.! Since! 1997,! the!percentage!of!girls!repeating!courses!has!dropped!from!49.8!percent!to!47.8!percent!(MOEST! 2000).! The! overall! repetitionKrate! for! primary! education! students! has!remained! fairly! consistent! for! boys! and! girls.! Girls’! enrollment! as! a! proportion! of!standard! 8! enrollments! had! increased! from! 36! percent! in! 1991! to! 39! percent! by!1996.! This! increase! was! facilitated! because! of! the! fee! waivers! offered! to! nonKrepeating! girls! from! standard! 2! onward.! GABLE! was! caught! in! the! rising! tide! of!children! in! schools! –! inability! of! the! system! to!meet! the! supportive! demands! for!increased! schools,! teachers,! furniture,! trained! teachers! –! overall! affecting! quality!and!impacting!girls!schooling!experience.!!!!The! USAID! report! observes:! “The! vision! of! quality! in! GABLE! I! was!more! indirect!than!direct,!with!an!emphasis!on!girls’!attendance!and!successful!completion!of!the!eight! years! of! primary! education.! However,! since! girls’! success! and! attainment! in!school! are! heavily! dependent! on! quality! of! education,! quality! was! part! of! the!supportive! environment! that! GABLE! I! sought! to! build;! for! example,! through!constructing! classrooms! in! needy! districts,! increasing! the! number! of! textbooks!available! through! competitive! delivery,! reducing! teacherKpupil! ratios! through! the!introduction! of! double! shifts! and! multiKgrade! classrooms! in! some! areas,! and!encouraging! increase! in!GOM! spending! for! primary! education.!Although,! by!1994,!when! free! primary! education! was! introduced,! quality! and! efficiency! within! the!system! were! declining”! (2004,! pK8).! ! There! was! a! clear! dilution! of! the! various!proposed!interventions!aiming!at!improving!the!school!environment!and!quality!of!teaching! as! the! feeKwaiver! from! the! government! for! all! children! and! the! positive!policy! environment! resulted! in! large!numbers!of! students! entering! the! classroom.!The!government!announcement!on!fee!waiver!did!not!account!for!a!scenario!where!fee! waiver! would! bring! in! its! wake! a! requirement! for! meticulous! planning! for!increased!classrooms,!teachers!and!school!supplies.!The!absence!of!all!this!led!to!an!overall! decline! in! the! school! environment,! schooling! quality! and! the! overall!schooling! experience! of! the! girls.! This! also! resulted! in! per! capita! decline! in!government!spending!per!student!even!though!the!government!budget!on!primary!education!increased!to!almost!65!percent!of!the!total!education!sector!outlay.!!!However,! GABLE! II! contributed! significantly! to! quality! factors! such! as!collaboratively! working! to! improve! teaching,! getting! more! learning! materials! to!

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pupils,! and! producing! genderKappropriate! curricula! –! all! of! which! proved! to! be!immensely! helpful.! ! GABLE! I! had! already! contributed! by! building! community!awareness! and! effectively! mobilizing! girls’! schooling,! and! also! by! taking!responsibility,!in!some!measure,!for!improving!the!schooling!environment,!engaging!with!the!teachers!on!the!quality!of!instruction.!The!creation!of!a!social!mobilization!campaign! to! create! awareness! led! to! a! stronger! community! role! in! school!management.!All!of!this!resulted!in!enhancing!the!quality!of!classroom!interaction.!Where! the! social! mobilization! campaign! and! VillageKBased! Schools! Programs!operated,! program! implementers! took! steps! to! improve! schools.! For! example,!communities! became! involved! in! schools,! female! teachers! were! recruited,!interactive!learning!methodologies!were!tried,!and!sanctions!were!imposed!against!male!teachers!who!abused!girls!(CDIE!1999,!pp!15K16).!!Discussing! the! positives! emerging! from! the! program,! Kadzamira! and! Rose! argue!that,! the! waiver! of! school! fee! for! the! nonKrepeating! girls! from! Standard! 2K8!motivated! parents! to! send! their! children! to! school! in! large! numbers,! but! another!important! factor!was!the!overall!optimism!around!the!new!policy!reform!that!was!unleashed!in!the!education!sector.!The!most!significant!was!the!nonKenforcement!of!school!uniform,!which!considerably!reduced!the!household!direct!cost!on!education!(Kadzamira!and!Rose!2001,!pK13).!!!The!authors!argue!that!since!the!abolition!of!primary!school!fees,!the!feeKwaiver!for!the! nonKrepeating! girls! became! ineffective,! so! the! feeKwaiver! was! shifted! to! the!secondaryKlevel!girls.!Even!though!the!funding!agency!USAID!wanted!the!feeKwaiver!to! be! granted! to! girls! in! the! secondary! level,! selectively! to! those! in! need,! the!government! insisted! on! extending! the! feeKwaiver! to! all! nonKrepeating! girls!irrespective!of!need.!This,!in!some!measure,!was!a!missed!opportunity!as!it!was!not!targeted.!Girls!from!only!the!wellKoff!families!benefitted,!as!conventionally,!only!girls!from!wealthy! backgrounds! are! able! to! attend! the! government! secondary! schools!and!the!poorest!rural!households!are!unrepresented!here!(citing!CastroKLeal!1996!in!Kadzamira!and!Rose!2001,!pK18).!The!secondary!level!remains!meritKbased,!so!it!excludes!girls!from!the!poorest!backgrounds!as!performance!at!the!primary!level!is!critically! linked! to! the! socioKeconomic! status! of! the! family.! ! The! authors! conclude!that! the! feeKwaiver!at! the! secondary! level!did!not!yield! results!as!only!39!percent!girls!were!enrolled!in!1997!in!any!type!of!secondary!school.!!!GABLE!I!and!GABLE!II!were!pathKbreaking!initiatives! in!terms!of! focusing!on!girls’!education!and!working!with!communities,!schools!and!the!national!government!to!set! the!policy!environment!right! for!educating!girls.! Its!work!can!be!considered!as!one! of! the! first! to! systemically! address! the! need! to! improve! the! schooling! and!classroom! learning! environment! for! girls,! besides! developing! genderKappropriate!curriculum! material! which! would! provide! girls! with! a! good! school! experience.!However,!the!sheer!weight!of!the!feeKwaiver!–!instantly!and!without!preparation!–!somehow!limited!its!capacity!to!realize!its!full!potential.!!!'

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4.5.2'Bangladesh:'Unconventional'wisdom'in'expanding'schooling'access,'opportunity,'under@writing'tuition,'indirect'costs'and'enabling'the'role'of'private'institutions'''The! success! of! Bangladesh! in! achieving! gender! parity! in! secondary! education!enrollment! is! built! on! the! solid! foundation! of! the! nonKformal! primary! education!program! created! by! Bangladesh! Rural! Advancement! Center! (BRAC)! and! using!unconventional! wisdom! in! transforming! Madarasas! into! secondary! schools.! This!was! a! masterstroke! to! solve! the! perennial! shortage! of! secondary! schools.! If! the!government!had!to!create!such!a!mammoth!infrastructure!it!would!have!taken!years!and! resources! beyond! the! imagination! of! a! poor! country.! Instead,! it! used! its!resources!optimally,!by!underwriting!part!of!the!cost!toward!secondary!schooling!of!girls.! This! enabled! the! Government! of! Bangladesh,! in! a! relatively! short! time,! to!considerably! enhance! the! supply! of! secondary! schools.! It! avoided! the! situation!experienced! by! many! countries! in! Africa! where,! after! announcing! free! primary!education!for!all!children,!governments!found!that!they!were!unable!to!expand!the!supply! of! secondary! schools! to! absorb! the! higher! volume! of! graduating! students!from!the!primary!to!the!secondary!level,!and!also!faced!severe!shortages!of!skilled!and!trained!teachers.!The!Bangladesh!model!stands!out!as!an!example!of!good!and!measured! social! policy! choice! that! a! country! can!make,! thoughtfully! utilizing! the!locally!available!resources!and!solutions! imaginatively,! in! line!with!and!respecting!local!cultural!values.!!!This!BRAC!model!of!nonKformal,!highKimpact,!lowKcost!model!of!schools!for!children!never!enrolled,!or!who!had!dropped!out!of!primary!school,!created!an!infrastructure!of! some! 40,000! schools! covering! 50,000! out! of! 84,000! Bangladeshi! villages.! The!success!of! the!BRAC!model!was!built!on! the! twin!strength!of! local'female'teachers!and! school' within' the' community' as! BRAC! penetrated! deeper! into! the! rural!hinterland! to! reach!out! to! the!poorest! segments! of! households.! Since!1984,!BRAC!has! catered! to! the! poorest! 20! percent! of! the! population;! 70! percent! of! children!attending! BRAC! schools! are! females.! NinetyKseven! percent! of! teachers! in! BRAC!schools! are!married!women! and! come! from! the! same! village!where! the! school! is!located!(Asadullah!and!Chaudhury!2008,!pK4).!The!Government!of!Bangladesh!gave!unrestricted! entry! and! access! to! private! institutions! in! creating! such! a! vital!infrastructure!to!lay!the!foundation!for!reaching!out!to!the!poorest!and!the!majority!of!girls.!!!This! strategy! proved! very! successful.! Ninety! percent! of! students! completing! their!primary! schooling! though!BRAC!continue! into! secondary!education.!BRAC! schools!have!been!instrumental!in!retaining!female!students!from!poorer!families!in!school!(Sukontamarn,! 2005).! BRAC’s! track! record! of! success! in! graduating! students! and!mainstreaming! them! to! continue! their! education! in! government! schools! has! been!phenomenal.! BRAC! helped! educate! close! to! 5! million! children! since! inception!through!its!NFE!Centers!to!create!a!strong!demand!for!secondary!schooling.!!!To! sustain! and! absorb! this! demand! of! continued! schooling! in! Bangladesh! the!Government! came! up! with! a! smart! solution! of! utilizing! the! existing! Madarasas,!

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(Islamic!seminaries)!located!within!heart!of!the!poorest!communities,!to!operate!as!NGOKrun! schools.! This! increased! the! supply! of! schools,! as! now! Madarasas! were!thrown!open!to!imparting!secondary!school!education.!!!The!Government!of!Bangladesh!had!a!multiKpronged!strategy,!and!provided!through!the!Female!Secondary!School!Stipend!Assistance!Programme!(FSSSAP),!tuitionKfees!and! monthly! stipends! for! unmarried! rural! girls! up! to! class! 10! who! attend!recognized!institutions,!remain!unmarried,!maintain!at!least!75!percent!attendance,!and!secure!at!least!45!percent!marks!in!the!annual!examinations!(a!pass!requires!35!percent).!This!was!critical!support!for!girls!and!parents.!The!idea!behind!this!was!to!retain!girls! in! schools! for!a! longer!duration!and! thereby!delay!early!marriage!and!early!childbearing.!It,!therefore,!succeeded!in!piggybacking!on!the!infrastructure!of!Madarasas! for! secondary! schools,! prevailing! upon! them! to! impart! the! modern!school!curriculum!of!the!Government!of!Bangladesh.!!!The! government! provided! funding! toward! teacher! salaries! to! madrasas!participating! in! the! Female! Secondary! School! Stipend! Assistance! Programme!(FSSSAP).! This! was! conditional! upon! their! formal! registration! and! teaching! of!modern! subjects! (math,! science,! etc.),! and! also! dependent! on! the! number! of! girls!enrolled!in!the!school.!The!FSSSAP!allowed!rural!girls!to!go!to!any!registered!school!(public,!private,!religious)!of!their!choice!(payment!was!conditional!upon!enrolling!in!secondary!school)!(Asadullah!and!Chaudhury!2008,!pK5K6).!!!Madarasas!are!trusted!religious!institutions!and!very!wellKplaced!in!the!community.!“Registered!madrasas! in! Bangladesh! during! the! 1980s!were! predominantly! boysKonly,!with!only!7!percent!of!the!total!enrolled!students!being!female.!However,!the!FSSSAP! brought! dramatic! changes! in! just! about! a! decade.! By! the! year! 2000,! 46!percent! of! the! students! in! registered! secondary! madrasas! in! the! country! were!girls”(Asadullah! and! Chaudhury! 2008,! pK3).! The! introduction! of! the! FSSSAP! may!have!stimulated!secondary!school!madrasas!to!open!their!gates!to!female!students.!!!Madrasa! enrollment! accounts! for! 15! percent! of! total! postKprimary! education!enrollment.! Most! madrasa! education! takes! place! in! rural! locations! and! rural!learners!account!for!90.9!percent!of!madrasa!enrollment,!compared!with!around!77!percent!in!mainstream!education.!More!than!90!percent!of!the!registered!secondary!madrasas!in!Bangladesh!today!admit!girls,!and!half!of!the!students!enrolled!in!these!schools! are! girls! (Asadullah! and! Chaudhury,! 2007,! CDP!Task! Force! 2001,! cited! in!Fransman!et'al.,!2003).!It!is!therefore!important!to!view!the!FSSSAP!in!conjunction!to! the!opening!up!of! the!Madarasas! for! girls’! secondary! education.!The! success!of!Bangladesh! in! promoting! and! realizing! girls’! education! has! come! about! in! a! truly!remarkable! fashion.! The! transforming! of! the! Madarasas! into! secondary! schools!allowed!otherwise!conservative!parents!to!send!their!daughters!to!attend!secondary!school,!as!their!daughters!stayed!within!the!known!environment!of!the!community.!The!distance!to!school!barrier!was!comprehensively!addressed!in!this!case!and!the!teachers!are!mostly!locally!hired!women!teachers.!!'

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In!addition,! it! is! important!to!give!due!credit!and!recognize!that!the!success!of!the!FSSSAP!which!was!built!on!a!predecessor!program!targeting!the!girls!in!Grades!6!to!8!in!the!middle!school!years!–!a!critical!time!to!raise!expectations!and!horizons!for!secondary! schooling.! Tuition! subsidy! played! an! important! role! in! expanding! the!scope! and! aspirations! of! parents! to! raise! the! bar! for! their! daughters! continued!education! beyond! Grade! 5! up! to! Grade! 8.! As! Khandker,! et' al.! (2003)! notes:! “The!female!share!of! secondary!enrollment!was!only!17!percent! in!1970,!26!percent! in!1980,!33!percent!in!1990,!and!38!percent!in!1994!–!the!initial!year!of!the!program!intervention.! The! share! of! female! secondary! school! enrollment!increased! to! 42!percent! in! 1995! just! one! year! later.! While! the! average! growth! in! female! school!enrollment!was! only! 8! percent! during! 1985K90,! it! increased! to! 12!percent! during!1991! and! 1993,! and! to! 15! percent! after! 1994.! The! rapid! rise! in! rural! school!enrollments!beginning!with!1992!may!reflect,!in!part,!the!introduction!in!1992K93!of!a! government! tuition! subsidy! for! girls! attending! grade!6! to! 8,! only! in! rural! areas.!This! predecessor! to! the! FSSSAP! program! is! likely! to! have! increased! the! number!of!girls!“at!risk”!for!continued!secondary!schooling!at!the!time!the!FSSSAP!program!was!being!introduced”!(pK9).!!!By!2005,!girls!accounted!for!56!percent!of!secondary!school!enrollment!in!the!areas!covered!by! the!program,! compared!with!33!percent! in!1991.!This!had! risen! to!63!percent!in!2008.!It!has!been!made!possible!for!millions!of!girls!to!attend!school,!and!at!the!same!time!it!appears!that!the!girls’!enrollment!in!secondary!schooling!at!the!entry!level!is!better!than!boys.!Girls!are!now!in!school!in!higher!numbers!at!intake!than! boys! but! the! secondary! school! completion! rate! is! still! higher! for! boys;!more!girls! drop! out! of! the! early! grades! of! lower! higher! secondary! level.! ! The! rapid!expansion! of! NGO! schools! has! also! created! awareness! of! a! ready! job! market! for!women! teachers.! There! was! also! exponential! growth! in! the! garment! sector! of!Bangladesh!for!girls’!employment.!This!created!tremendous!visible!impact!on!wage!labor!employment!for!women.!All!of!this!is!significant!in!boosting!girls’!education!in!Bangladesh.!!!The!World!Bank!(2003)!study!looking!at!the!effects!of!FSSSAP!on!marriage!of!girls!in!Bangladesh!concludes! that!while! the!dropout!of!girls! for!marriage!and! its!effect! is!‘unknown! and! hard! to! estimate’,! the! number! of! recorded' dropouts! due! to! early!marriage!is!almost!zero.!The!report!points!out!that!the!number!of!girls!benefitting!from!possible!FSSSAPKrelated!delayed!marriage!is!probably!rather!low,!because!only!girls!who! graduate! from!primary! school! are! eligible! for! the! secondary! stipend,! so!many!remain!at!risk!of!early!marriage.!FSSSAP!was!also!able!to!positively!reduce!the!percentage!of!girls!leaving!school!for!reasons!of!marriage.!It!came!down!in!the!range!of!1.75!percent!to!2!percent!(Darnell,!World!Bank,!2000).!This!reduced!the!number!of!young!women!marrying!before!the!age!of!18.!The!overall!proportion!of!13K!to!15KyearKold!married!girls!declined!from!29!percent!in!1992!to!14!percent!by!1995,!and!from!72!percent!in!1992!to!64!percent!in!1995,!for!girls!falling!in!the!age!group!of!16!to19!(Bhatnagar!et'al.,!2002).!Mahmud!comments!that!pressure!for!early!marriage!remains!a!powerful!force!(Mahmud,!2003).!'

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While! Bangladesh! has! innovatively! demonstrated! success! in! increasing! schooling!supply!and!the!demand!for!secondary!schooling,!concerns!persist!over!the!financial!implications!of! the!program,!girls’! retention,!quality!of!schooling!and!the!ability!of!the!FSSSAP!to!reach!the!poorest!segments!of!the!population.!!In!2005,!nearly!2.3!million!girls!were!enrolled!in!the!program!drawing!stipends!on!a!conditional!basis!up!to!Grade!10.!The!combined!stipend!and!tuition!subsidy!for!each!girl!is!Tk.!906!for!nonKgovernment!schools!and!Tk.!847!for!government!schools.!The!stipend! itself! accounts! for! twoKthirds! of! the! total! outlay! used! to! support! the!program.!The!female!subsidy!is!about!6!percent!of!Bangladesh’s!per!capita!income.!Supporting! over! 2!million! girls! each! year! under! this! program! has! evolved! into! a!major! expenditure! obligation! for! the! government.! The! stipend! budget! alone!accounts!for!more!than!60!percent!of!the!country's!secondary!school!development!budget!and!13!percent!of!the!education!sector!budget!(World!Bank!1997).!Another!study! from!The!World!Bank! examining! the! targeting! of! the! beneficiaries! suggests!that! the!selection!criteria!was!wrong,!as! the! 'average'!beneficiaries!are!reasonably!wellKoff,! at! least! as! compared! to! the!poverty! line! in!Bangladesh! (Ahmed,!2005).!A!report! of! the! World! Bank! (2008)! notes! that! the! “stipend! rates! were! too! low! to!attract!the!poorest!girls,!and!the!pass!mark!of!45!percent!and!75!percent!attendance!acted! as! deterrent! factors! for! their! participation.”! (pK5! and! pK9).! Other! issues!highlighted! by! the! same! report! include! the! need! for:! (i)! improving! the! quality! of!secondary! education!when!most! of! the! schools! are! privatelyKowned! and! run;! (ii)!achieving! the! sector! reforms;! and! (iii)! successful! and! timely! monitoring! and!evaluation!(World!Bank!2008,!pK5).!!The! above! discussion! points! to! the! need! toward! an! evaluation! of! the! FSSSAP! in!tackling! the!ambiguity!about! large!numbers!of! the!poorest!girls!being!still!outside!the!schools,!as!this!might!throw!some!light!on!how!effectively!the!program!can!be!reKdirected!toward!the!most!deserving!of!the!girls.!!Whereas!the!FSSSAP!covers!the!bulk! of! the! direct! costs! and! also! some! indirect! costs! for! girls’! education,! the!attainment! gap! has! persisted.! Although! girls! and! boys! are! now! equally! likely! to!enroll'in!secondary!school,!girls!drop!out!by!Grade!11!(age!16)!at!five!times!the!rate!of! boys.! In! particular,! according! to! a! recent! project! evaluation,! female! students!constituted! 48! percent! in! grades! 6K10! but! only! 13! percent! in! grades! 11K12!(Mahmud,!2003,!pK).! !Of! those!girls!who!survive!up! to!Grade! ten,! less! than!a! third!pass! the! schoolKleaving! examinations.! The! FSSSAP! has! increased! the! numbers! of!enrolled! girls! but! schools! have! provided! little! educational! enrichment! (Abadzi,!2003,! p.15).! It! is! also! understood! that! the! FSSSAP! has! negatively! affected! school!quality! since! the! increased! enrollment! outpaced! increases! in! the! numbers! of!teachers! and! classrooms.! It! has! also! not! been! able! to! bring! reforms! in! classroom!management!and!teacher!preparation!(Raynor!and!Chowdhury,!2006).!!!The! most! important! aspect! of! the! remaining! work! for! the! Government! of!Bangladesh! is! to!have!the!boldness!to!reset! the! fellowship!program!and!target! the!young!girls,!based!on!the!criteria!of!offering!fellowships!to!girls!from!critically!poor!

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backgrounds!and!to!those!who!are!most!deserving.!There!are!better!ways!of!doing!this!than!it!has!been!done!so!far,!and!at!the!same!time,!also!bring!down!the!costs.!!!Another! important! work! unrealized! is! investing! in! improving! the! quality! of!education.! This! can! only! be! achieved! by! intensive! evidenceKbased! close! working!with!the!teachers!–!enhancing!their!ability!to!improve!their!own!knowledge!levels!in!teaching! basic! subjects! –! thereby! raising! the! student! achievement! outcomes.!Measured! support! toward! this! is! a! compelling! need.! Making! teachers! aware! of!navigating! teachingKlearning! in! classroom! with! a! gendered! approach! will! imply!working! harder! with! the! existing! set! of! teachers! and! providing! them! with! the!relevant! opportunities,! either! through! simulation! or! by! actual! classroom!observation!on!how!the!current! teachingKlearning!happens! from!the!girls’!point!of!learning.!!!4.5.3'Balochistan:'Improving'school'supply'with'better'infrastructure,'hiring'female'teachers'from'the'community'and'offering'professional'development'opportunities,'focusing'on'improving'the'schooling'experience'key'to'educating'girls''!The!Balochistan!Education!Support!Programme! in!Pakistan! is! aimed!at! increasing!the! supply! of! schools! for! attracting! girls! to! the! primary! schools! in! an! extremely!tough! terrain! with! little! educational! infrastructure.! Since! girls’! mobility! after!puberty! is! restricted! in! this!part!of! the!country,! the!program!strategy!has!been! to!establish!community!schools!and!promote!private!schools,!all!in!rural!remote!areas!of! the! various! districts! of! Balochistan.! This! region! of! Pakistan! does! not! have! a!culture!of!sending!girls!to!school.!Eight!of!the!ten!most!deprived!districts!in!Pakistan!are!located!in!Balochistan.!The!net!enrollment!rate!is!less!than!32!percent!reported!in!the!PIHS!2001.!As!per!MICS!2004!Balochistan,!there!is!an!absolute!difference!in!NER!for!boys!(28!percent)!as!compared!to!girls!(20!percent).!!!An! important! part! of! this! program! is! to! improve! the! schools! and! the! classroom!environment!by!providing!water,!sanitation,!roof,!furniture!and!electricity!to!every!school,! besides! playgrounds! and! a! boundary! wall.! Teachers! are! hired! –!predominantly!women,!from!within!the!community!and!from!within!a!radius!of!two!kilometers.!As!the!availability!of!teachers!was!scarce!in!this!rural!remote!part!of!the!state,! teachers! were! hired! by! lowering! the! standards! for! recruitment.! These!teachers! were! offered! 7! days! to! 40! days! of! teacher! professional! development!support.! Besides,! the! teachers! were! encouraged! and! offered! flexibility! to! pursue!further! advanced! studies! to! improve! their! educational! qualifications,! in! line! with!their!decision!to!remain!teachers!in!future.!!!The! initial! program! started! with! the! launch! of! the! Urban! Fellowship! Program! in!Quetta! in! February! 1995.! The! purpose! of! this! pilot! project! was! to! determine!whether! establishing! private! schools! in! poor! neighborhoods! was! a! costKeffective!means! of! expanding! primary! education,! particularly! for! girls,! in! Quetta's! lowerKincome! neighborhoods.! The! initial! Urban! Fellowship! Program! encouraged! private!schools,! which! were! controlled! by! the! community,! to! establish! new! facilities! by!

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paying!subsidies!directly!to!the!schools.!These!schools!were!assured!of!government!support! for! three!years.!The! initial! subsidy!was!100!rupees! (about!$3)!per!month!per!girl!enrolled.!There!was!an!upper!scholarship!limit!of!10,000!rupees!(100!girls!at!100!rupees!per!girl)!in!the!form!of!subsidy!per!month.!This!subsidy!was!sufficient!to! cover,! typically,! tuition! at! the! lowestKpriced! private! schools.! In! addition,! each!school! received! 200! rupees! per! girl! to! defray! startKup! costs.! The! subsidy! was!reduced!in!the!second!year!and!again!in!the!third!year.!By!the!fourth!year,!schools!were! expected! to! be! largely! selfKsufficient! through! fees! and! private! support,!although! they! would! still! be! eligible! to! apply! to! the! Balochistan! Education!Foundation! for! additional! grants.! Schools!were! required! to! keep! class! sizes! at! or!below!50!boys!and!girls!per!classroom,!and!had!to!hire!at!least!one!teacher!for!each!classroom.!!The! initial! results! were! encouraging.! There! was! 21.8! percent! increase! in! girls'!enrollment! and! a! 12.9! percent! increase! in! boys'! enrollment.! The! success! here! is!attributed! to! the! use! of! parental! participation! and! local! female! teachers! as! being!critical!to!breaking!the!cultural!barriers!to!female!schooling!(Kim!et'al.,!1998).!!!The!Quetta!Urban!Fellowship!program!assisted!NGOs!to!build!new!primary!schools!in!poor!neighborhoods!by!paying!a!subsidy!to!the!school!for!each!girl!enrolled.!The!growth!in!enrollment!of!girls!in!the!intervention!neighborhoods!was!33!percentage!points!higher! than! in! the!control!neighborhoods.!Enrollment! increased!slightly! for!boys!as!well.!This!suggests!that!the!sharp!increase!in!girls’!enrollments!was,!in!part,!an!outcome!of! reduced!distances! to! schools! that!was!acceptable! to! the! families! to!allow!sending!their!daughters!to!school.! It! is!uncertain! if! the!girls’!enrollment!was!low! earlier! because! of! the! cultural! barriers! that! caused! parents! to! keep! their!daughters! out! of! school,! or! because! of! an! inadequate! supply! of! girls'! schools.!!However! it! provides! strong! evidence! that! a! reduction! in! the! cost! of! schooling! for!girls! can! sharply! increase! girls'! enrollment.! It! also! saw! increase! in! enrollment! for!boys,! suggesting! this! to! have! increased! because! parents! wanted! girls! to! be!accompanied!by!their!brothers.!The!program!had!collateral!benefits!of!raising!boys'!enrollment!rates!(Kim!et'al.,!1999).!!Glick!(2008)!suggests!that!girls!may!benefit!from!small!satellite!schools!set!up!closer!to! the! homes! of! the! girls,! so! that! they! can! appropriately! balance! home! and!work!responsibilities!with!flexible!school!schedules.!!Although,!here!too!there!is!a!lack!of!formal!evaluations,!descriptions!of!a!number!of!such!interventions!suggest!that!they!can!significantly!raise!the!school!attendance!of!girls.!Herz!and!Sperling!(2004)!bring!forward! and! discuss! several! examples! of! enrollment! of! girls! increasing! with! the!availability!of!schools!in!close!distance!from!home.!In!some!contexts!(e.g.,!Pakistan’s!Balochistan! Province),! offering! later! sessions! for! girls! can! address! a! different,!cultural! barrier! to! their! education:! double! sessions! make! it! possible! for! girls! to!attend!school!separately!from!boys!(World!Bank!1996).!!During!2006K07!to!2009K2010,! the! ‘Balochistan!Education!Support!Project’! (BESP)!received!the!support!and!assistance!of!the!World!Bank!for!a!period!of!4.5!years.!!It!

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has!set!up!430!community!schools,!specially!keeping!in!mind!the!promotion!of!girls’!education!as!the!central!concern.!Establishment!of!650!new!community!schools!by!the!end!of!the!project!was!the!stated!goal.!It!has!additionally!established!140!private!schools.! ! This! has! been! done! with! the! objective! of! promoting! publicKprivate! and!community!partnerships! in!order! to! improve!access! to!quality!primary!education,!particularly!for!girls.!Each!school!would!receive!a!per!capita!subsidy,!as!per!uniform!rates!determined!by!the!BESP!in!consultation!with!private!sector!operators!applying!for! establishment! of! schools.! These! private! sector! operators! will! become! BESP’s!partners,!up!to!a!maximum!period!of!4!years,!to!cover!the!costs!of!the!teachers,!the!quality!inputs!and!monthly!savings.!New!schools!would!be!established!if!there!are!at!least!50! children! (aged!4K9!years)!out!of! school! and!with!no!government!primary!school!or!any!other!school!for!girls!in!a!radius!of!1!km.!An!additional!school!in!the!same! locality! can! also! be! established! if! it! is! justified! due! to! overcrowding.!While!these! schools! will! charge! low! fees,! unlike! the! community! schools! in! rural! areas,!previous!experience!with!fellowship!schools!in!urban!Balochistan!and!rural!Punjab!has! shown! that! the! schools! are! still! able! to! attract! students! from! relatively! poor!households.! In! the! establishment! of! the! new! community! schools! in! rural! areas,!besides! setting! up! private! schools,! it! provides! training! and! skill! development,!focusing! on! quality! improvement! and! training! of! the! various! educational!functionaries.!The!BESP!Secretariat!is!involved!in!backstopping!and!monitoring.!!!In! the! first! two!phases!250! schools!were! to!be!established.!A! total! of!100! schools!were!to!be!established!in!Phase!I!and!150!in!Phase!II.!However,!according!to!BESP,!a!total!of!81!schools!were!established!and!have!sustained!from!Phase!I!and!another!53!schools! from! Phase! II! (pK62).! The! focus! on! improving! the! school! environment! to!cater! to! girls’! needs! appears! as! the! main! motive! behind! the! private! schools,! as!compared!to!the!Government!schools,!according!to!popular!perception.!!!According!to!survey!results,!all!private!schools!(100!percent)!have!proper!boundary!walls! and! safe! drinking! water.! NinetyKseven! percent! of! the! private! schools! have!covered!roofs,!proper!ventilation!and!latrines.!Electricity!is!available!in!90!percent!of!the!schools,!all!of!them!have!access!to!lights!but!only!80!percent!of!them!have!fans!(pK64).!EightyKthree!percent!of! the!respondents!cite!provision!of!quality!education!as! the! main! reason! for! new! enrollment! in! private! schools;! 60! percent! of! the!respondents!cite!nearness!to!home!and!53!percent!respondents!are!of!the!opinion!that! private! schools! show! better! results! than! other! schools,! due! to! qualified! and!experienced!teachers.!TwentyKthree!percent!people!like!these!schools!because!of!(i).!Good!teaching!techniques!and!material,!and!(ii).!Better!facilities,!including!drinking!water,! playgrounds! and! equipment! (pK70).! SeventyKthree! percent! of! the! students!live!in!the!range!of!less!than!1km!from!schools,!and!17!percent!live!in!the!radius!of!1km!from!school!(pK70).!!!ThirtyKeight!percent!of!the!private!schools!have!a!single!teacher!for!30!students,!and!in! two!thirds!of! the!(62!percent)!schools! the!studentKteacher!ratio! increases!up!to!50!students!per!teacher!(pK73).!Data!shows!that!majority!of!the!teaching!staff!have!MatriculationKlevel!qualification`.!And! in!some!areas,!due! to! the!nonKavailability!of!

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teachers,!specifically!female!teachers,!the!minimum!qualification!level!is!sometimes!below!Matriculation.!Teachers!are!continuously!provided!with!considerable!onKtheK!job! learning!opportunities!with! the! focus!being!on!continued!strengthening!of! the!InKservice! training.! Teachers’! attendance! in! 82! percent! of! the! schools! is! over! 90!percent;!in!another!14!percent,!it!is!between!80K90!percent;!in!4!percent!of!schools,!the!attendance!of!teachers!is!below!80!percent.!The!quality!of!school!teaching!is!best!reflected!with!student!attendance!and!grade!completion!rates.!EightyKone!percent!of!schools!have!attendance!averaging!between!70!to!100!percent.!In!54!percent!of!the!community!schools,!the!grade!completion!rate!is!in!the!range!of!80!percent!to!100!percent;!in!another!23!percent!of!the!community!schools!the!grade!completion!rate!is!70!percent!to!80!percent!(SDC,!2009,!pK46K47).!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!It!is!pertinent!to!note!that!the!program!had!to!set!the!bar!lower!for!recruitment!of!teachers! and! particularly! for! women,! so! that! they! could! teach! in! their! known!neighborhoods.! However,! a! significant! point! to! recognize! is! that! the! teachers!continuously!have! improved!upon! their! educational!qualifications.!This!would!not!be! possible! if! the! BESP! did! not! give! them! the! opportunity! for! continuing! their!education!to!enhance!their!professional!qualifications.!This!is!particularly!important!for!situations!and!in!countries!where!the!availability!of!female!teachers!is!not!easy.!!The! program! has! shown! flexibility! and! chosen! to! hire! local! women! with! limited!qualifications,! give! them! continuous! support,! mentoring! and! professional!development! opportunities! so! that! they! are! able! to! reach! the! desired! levels! of!qualification.! The! encouragement! and! accommodation! offered! by! the! program! in!allowing!these!teachers!to!simultaneously!pursue!advanced!degrees!with!incentives!and!financial!gains,!as!against!opting!to!bring!in!outsiders!has!been!fortunate.!Very!often!outsiders!who!will!accept! the! job,!but!are!not!sensitized! to! the! local!culture,!are! viewed! with! suspicion;! besides! teacher! absenteeism! is! a! recurring! problem!when!the!commute!to!work!is!from!far.!!!In!addition!the!key!to!hiring!of! teachers!by! lowering!the!standard!benchmarks! for!qualified! teachers! implies! intensive! and! regular! academic! support! to! teachers.!!Various! training! programs! are! designed! for! the! teachers! in! the! private! schools!ranging! from! two! weeks! to! 40! days! of! teacher! professional! development!opportunities!(pK75).!Overall!results!show!that!69!percent!of!respondents!claim!that!they! have! received! some! kind! of! training! during! the! period! of! their! service;!however,! 31! percent! did! not! receive! any! type! of! training.! To!make! training!more!effective,! various! training! modules! are! used! such! as! InKservice! training,! directKongoing!classroom!support,!workshops!and!seminars.!From!the!survey!sample!data!it! is!seen!that!43!percent!of!respondents!received!faceKtoKface!training,!30!percent!respondents!received!training!through!field!assignments.!InKclassroom!support!was!received! by! 50! percent! of! the! respondents! on! completed! lessons! plan! and! class!room! management.! FiftyKtwo! percent! of! the! respondents! received! training! on!teaching!skills!and!ideas.!The!total!number!of!training!days!for!teachers!varies!from!one!week!to!more!than!45!days!(See!Table!3).!!!!!

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!Table!5:!Various!types!of!inBservice!training!and!support!received!by!teachers!

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Current Salary

6%20%

69%

5%

Less than 2,000 2,000 to 3,000 3,000 to 5,000 5,000+

181. Table 47 and pie Chart 57 show that almost 95% of the teachers in the sample survey receive monthly salary up to Rs.5,000/. Only 5% teachers get salary above Rs. 5,000/-

CHART: 57

6.3 CAPACITY BUILDING 182. Teachers training play a very crucial role in improving the quality of education in both private and public schools. Overall results show that 69% of respondents claim that they have received training during the service, however, 31% did not receive any type of training. 183. To make training more effective various training modules are used such as in-service training, direct-ongoing classroom support training, workshops and seminars. From survey sample data 43% respondents receive face to face training, 30% respondents receive training through field assignments. In class room support training 50% of respondents completed lessons plan, and class room management. 52% of the respondents receive training on teaching skills and ideas. Very few respondents participated in workshops and seminars.

TABLE: 48 S.NO TRAINING RECEIVED BY TEACHERS RESPONSES PERCENTAGE i In-service training a Face to face training 55 43b Field assignment 39 30c Feedback 33 26ii Direct-ongoing classroom support training a Skills to develop teaching skills & ideas 67 52b Lessons plans 64 50c Classroom management 65 50d Teacher's guides 54 42e Through mentors 39 30f In-school professionals meetings 37 29iii Other Trainings a PTC 4 3b B. Ed 1 1iv Workshops 18 14v Seminars 2 2

!'Source:'BESP'Third'Party'Evaluation'Report'2009'(p@84)'!Data! shows! that! earlier! the! majority! of! the! teaching! staff! (53! percent)! had!Matriculation! level! qualifications.! This! has! now! reduced! to! 46! percent.! The!percentage!of!teachers!who!have!passed!Grade!12!(FA/FSc)!has!increased!from!16!to!28!percent.!Table!4!shows!(pK74),!how!teachers!have!tried!to!improve!upon!their!qualifications.!!'!Table!6:!Teachers’!education!level!before!and!after!working!in!program!

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41

52

12 13

59

1418

10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Recruitment of Teachers Teacher from samecommunity

Resides with in 2kmsradius of school

Relationship with PECmember

Minimum qualification

Qualification + test

Qualification + test +interview

Walk in interview

Test

2154

16

53

73

2

18

6

28

36

82

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

At the time of joiningthe school

Now

Teacher's Qualification

Under Matric

PTC

Matric

FA/F.Sc

B.Ed

Graduation

Masters

CHART: 52

176. Table 44 and bar Chart 53 provide us the qualification of teachers at the time of joining the school and their current level of qualification. At the time of joining the school, the number of Matric and under-Matric teachers, especially females, were higher, but latter on its proportion decreases, as the respondent improves his/her degree, as is depicted by an increase in number of PTC, FA/F. Sc, B. Ed, graduates and Masters.

TABLE: 44 NO. QUALIFICATION AT THE TIME OF

JOINING THE SCHOOL

NOW

1 Masters 2 2% 3 2% 2 Graduation 19 15% 23 18% 3 B. Ed 5 4% 8 6% 4 FA/F. Sc 21 16% 36 28% 5 Matric 67 53% 46 36% 6 PTC 9 7% 11 8% 7 Under Matric 4 3% 2 2%

CHART: 53

!Source:'BEF'Third'Party'Evaluation'Report,'2009,'p@81'!The! program! has! played! a! stellar! role! in! bringing! girls! to! school! under! very!challenging! circumstances,! in! an! area! which! is! historically! one! of! the! poorest! in!terms! of! educational! infrastructure,! and! extremely! conservative! in! allowing! girls!mobility,! education! and! any! visible! exposure! to! modernity.! Under! such!circumstances,! the! approach! adopted! by! the! organization! to! establish! and! run!schools! in! an! environment! where! it! is! impossible! to! bring! teachers! from! outside!because! of! the! extremely! fragile! security! environment! and! cultural! barriers! to!educating!girls,!the!organization!had!the!challenge!to!work!with!what!was!available!locally.! Through! the! combination! of! establishing! community! schools! and! private!

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schools,!the!organization!was!able!to!create!a!sense!of!ownership!and!enterprise!in!the! area,! and! gradually,! over! the! years,! create! an! infrastructure! to! germinate! the!seeds! of! education! for! educating! girls.! It! is! a! slow! process! –! to! provide! schools,!teachers,! teacher! training! and! inspire! teachers! to! continuously! strive! to! improve!their! personal! career! growth! by! continuing! to! achieve! higher! professional!education.!For!a!teacher!this!has!been!an!extremely!valuable!learning.!The!schools!were!set!up!with!a!fair!sense!of!knowledge!that!girls!were!not!going!to!come!to!the!school! if! the!school! infrastructure!was!not!good.!Keeping!that! in!mind,!the!schools!were!created!with!the!provision!of!specifications!to!ensure!that!water!supply,!roof!over! the! building,! washrooms! facilities! and! boundary! walls! were! built! to! ensure!safety! and! satisfaction! of! the! community.! It! also! hired! only! local! female! teachers!respecting!the!community!ethos!and!vulnerability!to!expose!daughters!to!outsiders.!The!organization!also!tackled!teacher!absenteeism!by!hiring!local!communityKbased!girls! even! though! that! it! had! to! lower! the! professional! requirements! to! hire! the!teachers.! However! it! invested! substantively! in! working! with! these! teachers! to!provide!them!with!ongoing!professional!support.!!!'4.5.4'Turkey:'Strong'social'mobilization'for'girls’'education'!The! Conditional! Cash! Transfer! program! in! Turkey,! a! part! of! the! Social! Risk!Mitigation! Project! (SRMP),!was! a! targeted! social! assistance! transfer! program! that!provides! support! to! the!poorest! 6! percent! of! the!Turkish!population.! The! specific!objectives! of! the! CCT! was! to! reach! 1.1! million! beneficiaries,! increase! school!attendance! rates! for! the! poor,! decrease! dropout! rates,! increase! immunization!coverage!and!usage!of!health!facilities.!The!CCT!was!made!on!the!condition!that!the!children!receiving!educational!support!should!have!an!attendance!of!80!percent!of!the!total!school!days,!and!not!repeat!the!same!grade!more!than!once.!!This! program! raised! secondary! school! enrollment! for! girls! by! 10.7! percent.! The!evidence!suggests!that!girls!aged!14K17!years,!whose!families!received!the!education!transfers,! were! significantly! more! likely! to! be! enrolled! in! secondary! school! than!those! belonging! to! nonKbeneficiary! applicant! families,! with! a! difference! in! the!probability!of!being!enrolled!of!10.7!percent.!Estimates!also! indicate! that,! in! rural!areas,! the!CCT!program!caused!a!16.7!percent! increase! in! the!probability!of!being!enrolled! in! secondary! school,! among! children! aged!14K17!years.! For!boys! in! rural!areas,! the! estimated! impact! is! even! larger.! Beneficiary! boys! had! a! 22.8! percent!higher! secondary! school! enrollment! rate! than!nonKbeneficiary! boys,! as! a! result! of!being! in! the! program.! In! secondary! schools,! education! transfers! from! the! CCT!program! raised! girls‘! attendance! rates! by! 5.4! percentage! points.! As! in! primary!schools,! this! effect! was! led! by! impacts! in! urban! areas,! where! girls! in! families!receiving! the! education! transfers! had! a! 6.2! percent! larger! net! attendance! rate! in!secondary! school! than! girls! in! nonKbeneficiary! applicant’s! families.! The! program!showed! no! effect! on! secondary! school! attendance! for! boys.! The! qualitative!assessment!suggests! the!scope! for!expanding! the!coverage!of! the!CCT!to!boys!and!enhancing! the!amount!of! cash! for!boys,! as! the! loss!of!opportunity! cost! for!boys! is!

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higher.! It! is! for! this! reason! that! education! transfers!have!had! little! effect!on!boys‘!secondary!school!enrollment!and!attendance.!!!The!First!Qualitative!Assessment!(Kudat!et'al.,!2006)!found!that!the!CCT!increased!awareness!of!female!education!and!reinforced!the!hopes!of!the!poor!that!the!future!of! their! children!may! be! positively! different! if! they! are! educated.! CCT! has! helped!change!people‘s!mindset!about!female!education.!Parents!as!well!as!female!students!benefiting! from! the!program! recognized! that!without!CCT! there!would!be! greater!reluctance! to! send! girls! to! school! beyond! the! first! eight! years! level! of! basic!education!(Grades!1K8).!!Enrollment!rates!were!still!very!low!at!the!secondary!level.!The!enrollment!rate!for!girls! of! secondary! school! age! (14K17! years)! was! 38.2! percent! for! program!beneficiaries!and!46.3!percent! for! the!control!group!of!nonKbeneficiary!applicants.!The! CCT! program! had! no! effect! on! the! progression! of! children! from! primary! to!secondary!school!(Ahmed!et'al.,!2006).!In!Van,!one!of!the!three!provinces!where!the!qualitative!research!was!carried!out,!the!survey!data!showed!that!the!rates!of!girls’!school! enrollment! were! far! lower! than! the! national! average! –! at! 81! percent! for!primary!school!and!15!percent!for!secondary!school!(Adato!et'al.,!2007a)!!Participation!in!either!the!health!or!education!components!of!the!CCT!program!had!no! statistically! significant! effect! on! pregnancy! (Ahmed! et' al.,! 2007).! Vaccination!coverage! was! almost! universal! for! health! beneficiary! and! nonKbeneficiary!households,!but!the!doses!were!not!completed!for!a!considerable!share!of!children!from!both!groups!(they!were!completed!for!84!percent!and!82!percent!of!children,!respectively)!(Ahmed!et'al.,!2006).!!Kudat! et' al.! (2006)! argue! that! it! is! evident! the! CCT! program! alone! will! not! be!sufficient! to! overcome!many! of! the! obstacles! to! schooling,! particularly! secondary!school! attendance! by! girls.! Other! efforts! are! needed! to! respond! to! logistical!concerns! such! as! transportation! and! school! location,! safety! at! schools,! as!well! as!children‘s! academic! performance.! ! Changing! attitudes! and! values!will! be! a! crucial!part!of!the!strategy,!and!that!the!CCT!program!cannot!tackle!on!its!own.!One!of!the!provinces!–! !Van!used! the!campaign! !―!Let‘s'Send'Our'Daughters'To'School! (Haydi!Kizlar!Okula),!going!door!to!door!to!raise!people‘s!consciousness,!which!reportedly!had!a!good!effect.!This!approach,!combined!with!providing!school!textbooks!and!the!availability! of! primary! schools,! made! a! significant! difference! in! primary! school!attendance.!But!there!remain!tremendous!obstacles!to!secondary!school!attendance!–!both!material!and!nonKmaterial!–!that!need!an!integrated!response.!!The! most! significant! constraint! remains! the! primacy! of! marriage! and! early!motherhood.! There!was! also! a! perceived! threat! to! girls! and! their! families’! honor!(from!men!and!boys!in!the!area)!if!the!girls!attended!school!after!reaching!maturity.!Adato! (2004)!mentions! in! the!qualitative!study! that! transportation!concerns!were!not! addressed! by! the! program.! ! The! secondary! schools! were! far! from! home,! the!options!of!transportation!were!restrictive!for!girls’!school!attendance,!especially!in!

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the! light! of! cultural! values! attached! to! girls’! mobility! and! honor.! There! was! the!threat! of! physical! safety! in! schools,! and! children’s! own! preferences! and! school!performance.!CCT!could!address!the!poverty!and!cost!of!school!expenses,!but!could!not!prevail!against!the!cultural!factors!acting!as!a!barrier!to!girls’!education!(Adato!2008).!!!In! summing! up,! the! authors! conclude! that! because! the! CCT’s! direct! and! indirect!objectives! include!increasing!girls’!schooling!and!improving!women‘s!status,! it! is!a!critical! intervention! that! had! the! potential! to! make! an! enormous! contribution! to!girls’!and!women‘s!conditions!in!the!short!and!longer!term.!However,!because!of!the!sheer! weight! of! the! gender! biases,! cultural! beliefs! and! practices! it! faced,! the!program!could!not!deliver!results! in!a!manner!as!expected.!It!was!not!sufficient!to!solely!address!the!poverty!dimension!and!compensate!for!schooling!costs,!ignoring!cultural!biases!against!girls’!mobility!and!educating!girls.!Distance!to!school!matters!fundamentally! in! such! communities,! and! so! do! the! issues! of! safety,! security! and!family!honor,!when!it! is!the!issue!of!girls’!exposure!to!the!outside!domain,!beyond!the! boundaries! of! the! home! and! community.! Under! such! circumstances,! the!program!would!be!required!to!adopt!multiple!strategies!to!improve!girls’!schooling!participation.!These!would! include! finding!a! schooling! solution! in! close!proximity,!identifying!and!ensuring!dependable!transportation,!as!well!as!designing!programs!aimed!at!changing!worldKviews!and!attitudes.!Bringing!transformation!in!thinking!is!a!longKdrawn!process.!!!The!recommendations!from!the!qualitative!evaluation!suggests!providing!education!support!to!secondaryKschoolKage!girls!until!there!is!evidence!that!the!gender!gap!in!education!has!been!eliminated,!secondary!school!enrollment!rates!have!reached!the!targeted!levels,!and!dropout!rates!have!been!reduced.!It!stresses!on!building!more!secondary! schools! in! rural! areas! closer! to!where!people! live,! especially! in! regions!where!travel! for!girls! is!very!restricted.! It!also!suggests!using!the!existing!primary!schools!in!the!second!shift!for!secondary!school!in!areas!where!it!is!not!possible!to!build!new!schools.!Providing!for!some!sort!of!transportation!support!to!areas!where!secondary!schools!cannot!be!brought!closer!is!another!recommendation.!However,!it!cautions!that!it!is!important!to!improve!transportation!systems!responsive!to!local!conditions,!implying!that!separate!small!vehicles!for!boys!and!girls!may!have!to!be!provided,!depending!on!local!values.!Recognizing!that!separate!buses!for!boys!and!girls! would! not! be! desirable,! but! citing! research,! the! evaluation! indicates! that! an!informal!solution!such!as!this!could!overcome!some!households’!reluctance!to!send!girls! to!school.! It!also!suggests! increase! in!dormitories! in!areas!where!families!are!willing!to!send!their!girls!to!dormitories,!as!per!the!need!and!local!demand.!Above!all,!it!underscores!the!need!to!generate!awareness!on!the!compelling!need!for!girls’!education.! It!stresses! the!value!of!enlisting!the!support!of! the! influential!people! in!conservative! closed! communities! to! allow! girls! to! attend! school.! It! believes! that!changing!attitudes!is!the!key!to!the!success!of!the!CCT!(Ahmed!et'al.,!pK83,!2007).!!!!!

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4.6!The!overall!experience!of!different!countries!!The!overall!experience!of!the!various!integrated'context@specific'programs!has!been!very! positive! in! increasing! girls! schooling! participation.! The! gains! established! in!girls’!secondary!school!enrollment!in!all!of!the!countries!with!the!different!forms!of!CCTs!has! been! substantive.!However,! it! is! clear! that! the! situation! in! each! country!!!varies! immensely.! It! is! increasingly! apparent! that! to! enable! girls’! attending! of!secondary!school!it!is!imperative!to!have!policies!and!programs!in!place!early,!so!as!to!encourage!and!promote!girls’!participation!right!from!the!primary!school!years.!Girls’! participation! and! completion! of! primary! school! in! very! large! percentages! is!essential! toward!bringing! them! to! the!middle! school!years!and!preparing! them! to!enter!the!secondary!school.!!!The!middle!school!years!are!the!most!challenging!for!retaining!the!girls,!because!of!the!cultural!attitudes,!perceptions!and!worldKviews!of!the!community!to!which!they!belong.! At! this! point,! a! consistent,! coherent,! good! social! policy! response! is! an!essential!preKrequisite!to!promote!and!support!girls’!continued!education.!These!are!the! most! difficult! years! for! girls! at! the! intersection! of! entering! adolescence! and!secondary!schooling.!Girls!and!families!need!sustained,!predictable!support!to!fulfil!the!ambition!and!the!yearning!to!complete!secondary!schooling.!!!The! model! of! Bangladesh! stands! out! because! it! was! underpinned! on! a! smart!solution,!guided!by!a!good!social!policy!response!blended!with!local!cultural!values!and! attitudes,! and! at! the! same! time! respectful! toward! the! limitations! on! girls’!mobility!beyond! the!domestic!realm.! It!offered!a!coherent!solution! to!scale!up! the!infrastructure! of! girls’! schooling! closest! to! their! homes.! It! allowed! private!organizations!like!BRAC!to!build!the!vast!network!of!nonKformal!primary!schools!in!the! remotest! and! most! interior! pockets! occupied! by! the! poorest! inhabitants.! It!supported! the! middle! school! years! with! a! girls’! scholarship! program! and! then!dramatically! increased! the! supply! of! secondary! schools! in! the! heart! of! the!community! by! harnessing! existing! religious! seminaries.! They! underwrote! the!tuition! fees! based! on! unit! cost! per! girl! student! and! additionally! paid! a! modest!monthly!stipend!to!the!girls,!conditional!to!their!maintaining!a!certain!percentage!of!school! attendance! and! basic! level! of! academic! performance.! This! stipend! was! to!partially!compensate!for!the!school!costs!to!be!incurred!by!the!family.!In!some!cases,!the! poorest! families! were! also! provided! with! food! grains! to! further! supplement!household! food! security! and! provide! some! measure! of! social! protection! against!economic! shocks.! This! program! appears! to! be! one! of! the! most! comprehensive!solutions! offered.! Over! the! years,! it! consistently! maintained! the! leverage! on!ensuring! that! girls! and! households! remained! committed! to! girls’! education.! The!Bangladesh!model!has!delivered!satisfactory!results.!!!The! Balochistan! model! is! another! lowKcost! alternative! to! increase! the! supply! of!schools! for! girls’! education,! in! an! extremely! fragile! security! environment! and! in! a!context! where! there! is! not! much! in! the! form! of! an! existing! culture! of! giving!education! to! girls.! Alongside! community! schools! the!model! attempted! incubating!modest! private! entrepreneurs! –! assisting! and! regulating! them! to! create! a! school!

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infrastructure,! acceptable! to! the! local! cultural! context,! sowing! the! seeds! for!educating!girls.!These!schools!within!the!neighborhood!create!a!sense!of!ownership!of!the!community!to!this!new!development.!The!program!also!ensured!a!consistent!supply!of!female!teachers!from!the!community!and!immediate!neighborhood!to!the!schools,! facilitating! girls’! entry! and! continuance! in! these! community! schools.! The!Balochistan!model! is! also! significant! as! it! stresses!on! reducing! the!benchmark! for!recruiting!female!teachers!and!being!flexible!in!allowing!them!to!continue!to!study!and! improve! their! professional! qualifications.! Besides,! it! invests! rigorously! in!providing! InKservice! teacher! training! to!mentor! and! groom! these! teachers! on! the!job.!!!The! experience! of! Malawi! was! very! different,! as! this! was! a! unique! program!developed!with! the! foresight! and! comprehensive! vision! of! providing! an! enriching!schooling!experience.!However,!the!sudden!declaration!of!school!feeKwaiver!by!the!government,!led!to!large!numbers!of!children!enrolling!in!the!primary!school!level!–!literally! thousands!of! school! children! in! the!classroom!with! little! infrastructure! to!accommodate!all!of!them.!Clearly,!the!implications!of!this!policy!step!had!not!been!thought! through.! The! tuition! fee!waiver!was! then! passed! on! to! secondary! school!girls.! However,! this! did! not! benefit! the! poorest! girls.! Nonetheless,! the! program!contributed!significantly!in!strengthening!community!mobilization!and!intensifying!community!participation!in!managing!schools.! It!should!be!acknowledged!that!this!program!was!one!of!the!first!to!systemically!address!improvement!of!the!schooling!and! classroom! learning! environment! for! girls,! besides! developing! genderKappropriate! curriculum! material! which! was! to! provide! girls! with! a! good! school!experience.!!The!Bangladesh!model!could!have!been!surely!done!better!by!initially!targeting!the!most! needy! and! deserving! from! the! poorest! segments! of! Bangladesh! households!and! increasing!the!stipend!amount.! It!could!have!saved!crucial!resources!to!better!equip!the!teachers!toward!focusing!on!improving!the!quality!of!education.!This!was!something!the!Bangladesh!model!truly!required!to!do,!because!of!the!sheer!numbers!of!girls!now!graduating!from!school!with!very!poor!quality!of!education!and!skills.!This! has! created! a! gridlock! in! the! labor! market! with! an! overKsupply! of! poorlyKeducated! girls.! ! The! quality! of! schooling! became! the! biggest! casualty.! ! The!government! could! not! provide! the! desired! schooling! quality! in! a! manner! that!schooling! gains! could! also! in! some!measure! reflect! in! the! labor!market! gains! for!adolescent!girls.!!!4.7!Conclusion!'The!most! important!point!emerging! from!all!of! these!various! country!experiences!underscores! that! girls’! continued! education! up! to! the! secondary! level! requires!consistent,!predictable!support!for!a!long!duration.!It!is!also!very!clear!that!there!is!no! one! way! of! improving! interventions! directed! at! creating! an! enabling!environment! for!educating!girls.!Schools!being!situated!close!to!the!community!do!matter,!as!do!the!middle!and!high!schools!existing!in!close!proximity!of!each!other.!It!

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matters! in! some! contexts! that! schools! are! singleKsex! and! have! provisions! for!washrooms! with! proper! water! supply.! Girls’! education! is! also! dependent! on! the!economic!wellKbeing!of!the!household,!and!cash!assistance!–!either!to!mothers,!the!elderly!or!directly!as!scholarships!to!girls!–!goes!a!long!way!in!positively!impacting!girls’!secondary!education!participation.!!!Financial! assistance! is! required! for! the! family! to! be! able! to! afford! the! schooling!costs.!It!is!not!just!the!conditionality!or!the!unKconditionality!of!the!cash!receipt!that!will!enable!girls!to!receive!good!quality!and!meaningful!education.!It!is!evident!from!most!of!the!programs!reviewed!here!that!girls!attending!school!and!receiving!cash!support!does!not!prepare!them!for!actual!learning!nor!guarantee!that!they!find!their!gainful!entry!in!the!formal!labor!market.!Cash!support!does!not!make!a!difference!to!an! existing! hostile! learning! environment! for! girls.! The! girls’! schooling! experience!has!witnessed!little!positive!shift!other!than!the!program!in!Balochistan!(Pakistan).!It!was! here! that! the! community! schools! and! private! schools! invested! the!most! to!build!a!positive!schooling!experience! in!an!environment!with!restrictions!on!girls’!mobility!and!little!culture!of!educating!girls.!!!But! this! was! a! small! program! not! to! be! compared! to! the! large! public! schooling!programs! of! most! other! countries.! In! Malawi! the! GABLE! program! contained!important!elements!of!improving!the!school!environment!by!working!with!teachers,!improving!the!curriculum!and!raising!awareness.!The!Bangladesh!model!stands!out!in!a! remarkable! fashion!as! it! is!based!on! finding!a!smart!social!policy!response! to!tackle! educating! girls,! using! the! best! options! from! locally! available! solutions.! It!offers!comprehensive!schooling! from!the!primary! level,! to!middle!school!and!high!school,!consistently,! in!a!manner!that!is!a!great!opportunity!for!girls.!It!has!to!go!a!long!way!now,!in!tackling!the!quality!deficit!and!overcoming!the!critique!on!leaving!substantial! numbers! of! girls! out! of! the! schooling! net.! Because! the! scholarship!amount! is! insufficient;! it! neither! pays! for! schooling! costs! in! entirety,! nor! does! it!compensate! for! the! lossKofKopportunity! costs! for! households! in! the! most!disadvantaged!sections!that!draw!about!a!quarter!of!their!consumption!from!child’s!work.!!!There!are!positive!externalities!from!educating!girls.!The!bulk!of!the!CCTs!in!Latin!America! have! delivered! comprehensively! by! improving! the! health! and! nutrition!levels!of!pregnant!and!lactating!mothers!and!increasing!the!number!of!their!visits!to!clinics.!It!has!also!shown!positive!results!in!health!and!nutrition,!growth!monitoring,!immunization! coverage! for! infants,! in! reducing! overall! morbidity,! mortality! and!fertility,!and!in!general,!in!harnessing!human!capital!formation.!CCT!programs!have!led!to!substantial! increases! in!school!enrollment!overall,!and!especially! for!girls!at!the! secondary! school! level,! with! more! modest! effects! at! the! primary! level.! The!programs!have!also!led!to!increases!in!school!attendance,!grade!progression!and!in!some!contexts,!positively!contributed!to!reductions!in!child!labor!in!Nicaragua!and!Mexico.!There! is!much! ambiguity! though,! on! its! impact! on! reducing! child! labor! in!Brazil.! Children! contribute! about! 40! percent! of! household! cost! and! the! transfer!amount!is!not!large!enough!to!have!the!ability!to!withdraw!children!from!the!labor!

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market,!particularly!in!the!northKeastern!part!of!Brazil.!In!Brazil!and!in!Bangladesh!there!is!a!widespread!counter!claim!that!the!working!population!of!children!is!still!outside!the!CCT!and!FSSSAP,!respectively.!!!How! do! we! effect! change,! a! positive! change! for! girls! to! experience! a! healthy,!welcoming!environment,!particularly!from!the!adolescent!girls’!point!of!view!and!of!the!proper!scale?!There!are!few!programs!today!focusing!on!improving!the!quality!of!teachingKlearning,!and!making!a!difference!in!the!cultural!attitudes!and!beliefs!of!school! teachers,! school! principals,! the! district! school! administrators,! even! to! the!extent! of! female! teachers.! In! the! public! space! of! education,! it! is! rare! to! find! the!school! establishment!personnel! possessing! the! sensitivity! to! invest! in! providing! a!positive!schooling!experience!for!adolescent!girls.!These!hard!questions!need!to!be!addressed!and!even!confronted,!if!changes!have!to!be!brought!about!for!creating!an!inclusive!and!socially!just!schooling!environment!for!educating!adolescent!girls.!!!The! experiences! of! various! programs! tell! us! that! for! improving! girls’! secondary!school! participation! there! is! a! need! to! prepare! and! acquaint! schools,! teachers,!school!district!administrators,!with!a!relevant!teacher!preparation!process.!Equally!important! is! the! provision! of! InKservice! teacher! training! and! professional!development!opportunities! for! teacher!educators! from! the!point!of!understanding!and! developing! a! positive! attitude! toward! the! particularities! of! adolescent! girls’!needs! in! the! school! environment.! There! is! a! need! for! developing! a! new! genderKappropriate!curriculum!to!project!positive!and!balanced!images!of!girls!and!women!in!textbooks!along!with!a!school!environment!that!respects!adolescent!girls.!School!district!administrators!need!to!examine!their!own!institutional!space!and!reflect!on!how! to! evolve! it! into! a! genderKsensitive! one.! Girls’! continuation! in! school! also!depends! largely! on! community! attitudes! and! worldviews.! It! is! here! that! national!governments!and!international!institutions!have!to!deploy!all!its!imagination!to!take!the! community! perceptions! on! board! and! develop! socially! just! and! culturally!relevant!and!acceptable!models!of!schooling!choices,!keeping!the!specific!context!of!the!poorest!and!most!deserving!adolescent!girls!central!to!all!planning.!!The!poorest!and! the!most!needy!adolescent!girls! require! this! support!as!a!matter!of! right,!and!thus!it!is!an!obligation!of!the!State.!!!The!next!section!lays!out!a!road!map!that!attempts!to!bring!this!vision!systemically!within!the!entire! institutional!space!of! the!government!and!school!establishments,!to! work! toward! bringing! a! positive! difference! to! adolescent! girls’! schooling!participation!and!experience.!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Chapter!5!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Recommendations!!5.1!General!Recommendations!Globally,! countries! have! made! enormous! progress! in! increasing! girls’! primary!school! enrollment.! However,! primary! school! completion! remains! a! daunting!challenge;! only! 56! percent! of! the! 162! countries! are! poised! to! graduate! an! equal!number!of!boys!and!girls! from!the! last!grade!of!primary!school.! In!half!of!the!subK!Saharan! countries,! girls! are! less! likely! to! complete!primary!education,! eliminating!the! possibility! for! them! to! attend! secondary! school.! Each! country! represents! a!unique!challenge!in!terms!of!girls!completing!primary!schooling!and!transitioning!to!the!secondary!level.!!!There! is!conclusive!evidence! that!economic!and!social! returns! to! female!schooling!are! higher! with! secondary! education.! Educating! girls! is! critical! to! prevent! early!marriage,! teen! pregnancies! and! controlling! population! growth.! It! is! important! for!the!country’s!future!growth,!development!and!economic!and!social!wellKbeing.!It!is!good! for! the! families,! good! for! the! community! and! economy,! and! good! for! the!country.! ! It! is! imperative! for! the!Global!Partnership! for!Education! (GPE),! together!with! its! partners,! to! advocate! this! perspective! with! national! governments! at! the!highest!policy! level!of!educational!planning!and!administration! in!order! to! further!its! efforts! toward! realizing! the! GPE! Strategic! Objective! Two! –! addressing! gender!imbalances! in! transition! to! secondary! school.! The! realization! of! this! strategic!objective! is! dependent! on! developing! gender! equality! indices! for! measuring! and!reporting!education!quality.!Equally!important!is!improving!teacher!effectiveness!by!building! their! understanding! on! the! gender! equality! gap,! undertaking! gender!organizational!change!within!the!educational!ministries!and!line!departments!of!the!Government,! to! enable! Education! Sector! Plans! become! gender! inclusive.! ! Toward!achieving!all!of!this!it!is!critical!to!assign!specific!resources!to!place!this!agenda!for!change! on! a! higher! political! consciousness! of! the! national! governments! and!partners.!!!In!particular,!for!countries!with!low!rates!of!girls’!schooling!participation!and!large!disparities! in!educational!outcomes!between!girls!and!boys,! the!effort!needs! to!be!directed!at!evolving!a!multiKfaceted,!countryKspecific!social!policy!response.!Such!a!response!will! be! able! to!meet! the! growing! need! for! increasing! girls’! participation!and! completion! of! the! primary! level,! ensure! transitioning! of! girls’! to! secondary!school!and,!subsequently,! their!successful!completion!of!secondary!schooling.! !The!Global!Partnership!for!Education!(GPE)!should!essentially!contribute!to!this!process!of! enabling! national! efforts! through! leveraging! on! strategic! partnerships! in! this!

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direction,! strengthening! state! institutions,! developing! an! understanding! of! its!importance!and!facilitating!all!inputs!toward!its!realization.!!!There! is! better! scope! for! discussion! on! the! Education! Sector! Plan! (ESP)! if! it! is!situated!within!the!larger!Poverty!Reduction!Strategy!Paper!(PRSP)!in!the!country.!This!will!provide!direct!engagement!with!the!various!ministries,!including!Finance,!making!them!aware!of!the!Strategic!Objective!Two!and!create!the!preKconditions!to!dovetail! various! social! and! economic! protections! to! the! poor! with! the! additional!objective!of!girls’!continuing!education!until!secondary!school.!The!discourse!on!the!issues! of! the! poorest! girls’! continued! schooling!matters! at! this! political! level.! The!PRSP!process!at!the!country!level!has!to!build!a!consensus!that!developing!human!capital!for!poverty!alleviation!has!to!be!viewed!conjointly!with!the!Education!Sector!Plan.!Girls’!education!within!this!has!to!be!underlined!as!being!of!special!focus,!with!mechanisms! in! the! PRSP! creating! the! preKconditions! for! the! required! schooling!environment.! This! would! offer! a! better! opportunity! for! GPE! together! with! the!Education! Ministry! to! seek! an! interface! with! the! Ministries! of! Finance! toward! a!strategy!to!support!human!capital!development,!and!seek!longerKterm!commitment!to!strengthening!local!state!educational!institutions!toward!this!responsibility.!This!is!not!a!task!that!can!be!handled!alone!by!the!LEG.!The!role!in!this!of!the!strategic!partners!at!the!country!level!is!critical.!UNICEF,!with!its!strategic!presence!in!most!of!the!countries,!and!existing!infrastructure!and!longKterm!support!to!the!Ministries!of!Education,!has!a!huge!advantage.!The!UNGEI!is!aptly!positioned!in!this!respect!to!play! a! catalytic! role! within! the! national! processes.! GPE! should! continue! to!strengthen,! support,! harness! and! build! upon! this! advantage! toward! realizing!concrete!results.!Another!close!strategic!ally!in!this!for!any!tangible!reform!will!be!Educational!International.!They!will!be!a!force!to!bring!Unions!on!board!to!agree!for!consultations! and!develop!a! common!minimum!plan! and! commitment! to! improve!the!schooling!environment!and!experience!for!adolescent!girls.!!!GPE,!together!with!the!Ministry!of!Education!and!supported!by!the!LEG!partners,!is!better! equipped! to! escalate! these! issues! higher! up! in! the! scheme! of! national!government! priorities.! It! is! required! to! draw! attention! to! the! need! to! invest! in!building! conducive! schooling! environment! as! a! necessary! preKcondition! for!adolescent!girls’!education.!Attracting!girls!to!attend!fullKtime!school!requires!longKterm! sustained! support,! particularly! to! the! poorest! families,! by! offering! them! a!package!of!social!and!economic!protection!to!compensate!for!the!opportunity!loss.!It!is! imperative! that! the! country! PRSPs! provide! this! to! the! poorest! segment! of! the!population,! and! particularly,! to! the! adolescent! girls! from! this! section! of! the!households.! This! should!have!been! the!point! of! LEG!engagement! in! the!PRSP! and!ESP!processes!as!an!essential!preKrequisite!and!a!clear!expected!outcome.!!!5.2!Dovetail!PRSP!and!ESP!processes!to!educate!adolescent!girls!It!is!important!for!the!GPE!to!proactively!engage!with!the!national!governments!and!the! local! education! groups! in! developing! a! shared! vision! on! adolescent! girls’!education.!The!GPE! is!already!working! in!about!50!partner!countries,!where!girls’!primary! school! enrollment! grew! from! an! average! 82! percent! to! 100! percent!

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between! 2002! and! 2008.! SixtyKeight! percent! of! girls! in! GPE! countries! completed!primary!schooling.!Eighteen!countries!have!achieved!gender!parity! for!enrollment!or! had! more! girls! than! boys! in! school.! There! is! still! a! long! way! to! go! and! it! is!apparent! that! the! dropout! rate! among! girls! is! very! high! [Fast! Tracking! Girls!Education,!GPE,!2011].!It!is!also!important!for!the!GPE!to!give!a!concerted!push!for!the! country’s! PRSP! and! ESP! processes! to! cohere! through! a! conjoint! process! and!consultations!with!the!national!governments!and!LEGs!with!a!sense!of!seriousness!and! urgency! to! take! issues! on! board! in! creating! the! necessary! preKconditions! for!adolescent!girls’!continued!schooling.!!!The!most!critical!aspect!of!the!national!efforts!will!be!to!match!the!aspirations!of!the!ESP!with!enhanced!financial!commitments!so!as!to!demonstrate!willingness!toward!adolescent! girls’! continuing! education! through! the! various! social! and! economic!measures!taken!to!support!the!poorest!households.!!'5.3! ReBevaluate! country! ESPs! from! the! perspective! of! educating! adolescent!girls!It!is!imperative!for!the!GPE!to!facilitate!a!process!with!the!national!governments!of!the! current! partnership! countries! and! the! LEGs! to! reKevaluate! their! country! ESPs!toward! adolescent! girls’! continuing! education.! ! The! effort! toward! accelerating!adolescent! girls’! completion! of! primary! education! will! depend! on! deepening!knowledge! within! state! institutions! on! why! girls! are! dropping! out! in! such! large!numbers! and! identifying! the! key! barriers! to! their! continuing! education.! The!Indicative!Framework!(IF)!at! the!country! level!as!a!monitoring!tool!has! to! include!the! education!of! adolescent! girls! and! all! related! issues! such! as! the! analysis! of! the!school!environment!and!provision!of!social!and!economic!protection!to!the!girls.!!!5.4!Give!primacy!to!state!institutions!The!process!or!reKevaluation!has!to!be!underpinned!on!the!existing!internal!capacity!of! the! state! institutions! with! support! from! the! LEG! members! and! a! strategic!presence! in! the! government.! A! comprehensive! review! of! all! the! ESPs! should! be!taken! up! by! the! state! institutions! to! ensure! developing! an! attitude! of! ownership,!deepening! the! understanding! of! the! issues! and! a! substantive! consideration! to!articulate! the! needs! in! national! plans! and! strategies! from! the! standpoint! of!adolescent! girls’! education.! State! educational! institutions! need! to! take! the! lead! in!this!with! other!members! of! the! LEG! supporting! this! process.! This!will! ensure! the!ownership! attitude! of! the! national! state! institutions,! preparing! the! ground! for!national! level! consultations! on! identifying! the! key! challenges! to! adolescent! girls’!continued!education,!and!developing!a!plan!to!seek!modifications!in!the!current!ESP.!Once! they! are! in! this! deep! enough! they!will! find!ways! to! connect!with! the! other!departments! and! ministries! to! harness! resources! and! reciprocity.! Strengthening!state! institutions! dedicated! to! elementary! and! secondary! education! should! be! the!key!objective!of!all!GPE!efforts!and!engagement.!!!!!

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5.5!Institutional!strengthening!of!national!partners!Based! on! the! review! report! it! is! apparent! that! ‘most! countries! continue! to! lack!comprehensive!capacity!development!approaches,! and! the!FTI! (read!GPE)!has!not!significantly! contributed! to! increasing! their! prevalence! or! strengthening! country!ownership!of!capacity!development!support.!The!FTI's!own!direct!contributions!to!capacity! development! have! tended! to! be! piecemeal! through! support! to! selected!shortKterm! activities.! A! lack! of! awareness! of! the! EPDF! outside! the!WB!has!meant!that! the! opportunity! for!widespread! engagement! in! the! use! of! the! EPDF! to! build!capacity! has! been! missed.! In! practice,! the! FTI! has! focused! mainly! on! upstream!assistance!with!plan!preparation,! and!paid! insufficient! attention! to! the! continuing!needs! for! capacity!development!during! implementation’! (Cambridge!Education,! SK44,! 2010,! pK7).!! It! is! imperative! for! the! GPE! to! also! take! stock! of! the! institutional!capacities! within! the! national! government,! line! departments! of! ministry! of!education! and! the! LEG! members! to! deal! comprehensively! with! issues! related! to!girls’! education.! It! is! essential! to! size! up! if! there! is! sufficient! understanding! and!political!will!to!steer!this!process!as!regards!girls’!education,!so!that!this!issue!can!be!escalated! at! a! higher! level! of! national! consciousness,! priorities,! government!planning!and!financing!departments!for!consideration.!!!Toward! this,! the! first! step! is! to! invest! in! perspective! building! of! the! national!partners! and! stakeholders,! together!with! a! broader! platform! identifying! strategic!partners!capable!of!playing!a!role!and!enjoying!acceptance!and!legitimacy!with!the!government.! The! perspective! building! should! not! be! restricted! to! the! LEG,! other!stakeholders! and! Ministry! of! Education! line! departments! such! as! Elementary!education,! Secondary! Education,! School! Board! alone.! The! endeavor! should! be! to!engage!key!officials!from!the!Ministry!of!Finance,!Labor,!Employment,!Social!Affairs!and!Health,! in! the! perspective! building,! to! foster! and! build! a! larger! support! base.!!The!effort!of! educating!girls!demands!a! concerted! interKdepartment! consideration!as!many! elements! of! the!work! of! other!ministries! need! to! coalesce! and! cohere! to!make! it! possible! to! educate! girls.! Investing! in! perspective! building! can! also! be!dovetailed! to! the!PRSP!process,!with!various!ministries!and!stakeholders! included!as!a!part!of!the!continuing!dialogue.!!!The! GPE! should! not! assume! that! this! will! happen! on! the! initiative! of! the! LEG!members!alone,! in!all!situations.! ! It! is! important!to!note!that!ESPs!being!approved!without!due!consideration!being!given!to!identifying!key!barriers!to!girls’!education!and!articulating!strategies!to!overcome!those!barriers,!points!to!the!already!limited!capacities!within!the!LEG.!There!is!no!way!that!the!GPE!can!avoid!this!conversation!higher! up! in! the! government! by! itself! to! prepare! the! ground! for! seeking! political!commitment.! This! will! happen! only! when! deeper! understanding! on! the! issues!involved!is!systematically!shared!for!the!purpose!of!perspectiveKbuilding!within!key!ministries! and! with! the! LEG! members.! To! achieve! this,! the! GPE! should! create! a!resource! group! comprising! key! strategic! partners! to! support! this! process! in!countries!with!limited!capacities.!!!!

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5.6!Developing!a!country!Plan!of!Action!The! GPE! should! institute! in! each! partner! country! a! comprehensive! study! on!accelerating! girls’! transition! to! secondary! education.! It! should! audit! school! and!classroom! environments,! school! curricula,! teacher! preparation,! supply! of! schools!and! female! teachers!with! the! help! of! the! partners.! This! analysis!will! also! suggest!clear! steps! toward! reform,! identifying! what! is! achievable! in! the! shortKterm,!mediumKterm! and! longKterm.! There! will! be! things,! which! might! be! very! much!possible!to!achieve,!based!on!the!application!of!collective!wisdom!of!the!partners!in!the!LEG!and!subsequent!to!the!national!level!consultations.!!!The! study! could! be! undertaken! conjointly! with! the! process! of! the! ESP! or! the!transitional!plan!for!the!country,!and!more!specifically,!focusing!on!adolescent!girls!in! the! intersection! years! of! primary! and! secondary! schooling.! The! senior! officers!from! the!Department!of!Education!could!be! involved! in! this! so! that! they!have! the!ownership!of!the!process.!If!required,!the!GPE!should!utilize!the!grant!development!plan!for!the!new!process!or!consider!reKvisiting!the!existing!ESP!in!a!country,!where!a!reKset!is!needed.!The!findings!of!this!study!and!remedial!measures!should!provide!the!basis!for!the!national!plan!of!action!for!the!adolescent!girls’!continued!education.!!A! team! consisting!of! one!person! from! the!GPE,! two! representatives! from! the!LEG!who! are! selected! by! the! group! to! represent! them! –! not! necessarily! donors! –! but!those!who! are! from! the! country! and! bring! profound! knowledge! of! the! education!sector! and! girls! education,! two! key! members! of! the! Education! Ministry! and! one!senior! official! from! the! Ministry! of! Finance,! Labor,! Social! Affairs,! respectively,!should!be!part!of!this!process!to!translate!the!findings!into!a!plan!of!action!through!a!consultative!process.!!!The! national! Plan! of! Action! referred! to! be! called! ‘Plan! For! Educating! Adolescent!Girls!(PFEAG)’,!should!be!part!of!the!ESP!and!integral!to!the!country!PRSP!process.!It!should!centrally! focus!on!supporting!girls! in!the! intersection!years!of!primary!and!secondary! education! and! belonging! to! the! poorest! households.! ! This! plan! should!also! look!at! the!mechanism!for! funding!through!the!aggregate!national!efforts!and!clearly!identify!financing!needs!and!resources.!There!has!to!be!a!buyKin!for!this!plan!from!the!key!ministries!and!the!LEGs!to!support!specific!activities.!!!5.7! Involve,! from! the! outset,! the! Ministries! of! Finance,! Labor,! Employment,!Social!Affairs!and!Health!in!the!ESP!The!effort!on!the!part!of!the!Ministries!of!Education!and!Finance!should!be!to!bring!together!a!Group!of!Ministries!in!this!as!a!shared!responsibility.!The!creation!of!such!a! platform! should! be! the! first! and! foremost! responsibility! for! the!WBKGPE! in! any!country!engagement!going!forward.!The!enormity!of!the!task!in!educating!girls!has!to!be!a!shared!enterprise!of!the!critical!line!ministries!of!the!national!governments.!Building!a!common!vision,!a!shared!resolve!alone!will! lead!to!building!a!pragmatic!set!of!expectations!on!educating!girls.!!The!scope!of!educating!adolescent!girls!has!to!be!viewed!within! the! context!of! the!broader! social! and!economic!benefits! flowing!out!of!educating!girls,!and!has!to!be!embedded!in!the!country’s!overall!strategy!on!PRSP.! This! needs! to! be! asserted! in! the! national! processes,! demanding! greater!

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integration!of!gendered!planning!for!the!work!of!the!various!ministries!to!harness!the! benefits! of! educating! adolescent! girls.! All! efforts! should! be! directed! to!supplementing! programs! and! initiatives! that! allow! providing! valueKaddition! with!resources! for! securing! adolescent! girls’! continued! education.! The! social! and!economic!protection!initiatives!within!the!country!PRSPs!can!be!leveraged!for!girls!from! poorer! households! to! mandatorily! attend! fullKtime! school.! The! future!discourse! for! the! GPE! work! at! the! country! level! has! to! be! redefined! and! the!formation!of!the!LEG!reKconsidered,!by!including!various!supportive!ministries.!!!!5.8!Drawing!benchmarks!for!girls’!education!at!the!secondary!level!!This! PFEAG! should! clearly! lay! out! the! benchmarks! to! be! achieved! for! adolescent!girls’!education,!in!terms!of!the!school!environment,!classroom!instruction,!expected!learning!outcomes,!grade!progression,!reducing!school!dropout,!teacher!education,!capacityKbuilding!of! the! educational! leadership! at! the! school! district! level! and! the!progress!made!on!predictable!resource!mobilization.!These!benchmarks!should!be!part!of! the! Indicative!Framework! (IF)! for!progress!monitoring.!The! IF!should!also!reflect!and!grade!countries! that!reach!and!attain!higher! levels!of!complementarity!for!the!ESP!within!the!country!PRSPs!to!demonstrate!political!commitment!and!as!an!essential!preKrequisite!for!this!plan!to!succeed.!!This!will!open!the!pathways!for!this!plan!to!bring!commitment!on!board!from!the!various!ministries!to!expand!and!build! complementarity! in! policies! and! actions! to! support! adolescent! girls’!transitioning!from!primary!to!secondary!education.!Reporting!on!these!benchmarks!should! be! part! of! the! routine! monitoring! process! to! bring! informed! knowledge!periodically!to!the!Group!of!Ministries!on!the!progress!made.!It!is!important!that!the!GPE!and!LEG!raise!capacities!of!the!monitoring!group!to!essentially!ensure!that!all!elements! of! the! IF! are! addressed.! The! Cambridge! Consultants! in! the! midKterm!evaluation! report! 2010! have! indicated! minimal! use! of! the! benchmarks! on! the!Indicative!Framework!(IF)!points,!beyond!universal!primary!enrollment!(Cambridge!Education!2010,!SK41,!pK7).!!5.9!Developing!new!tools!for!reporting!on!girls!education!The!attention!of!national!governments!needs! to! shift! from!enrollment! to!ensuring!completion! of! the! primary! level! by! girls,! developing! tools! for! identifying! and!monitoring! girls! dropout,! schooling! environment,! persistence,! grade! progression,!primary! school! completion! and! transitioning! to! the! secondary! education! level,!ensuring!that!girls!continue!for!as!long!as!it!takes!to!complete!secondary!education.!In! addition,!monitoring! has! to! be! focused! on! increasing! the! supply! of!middle! and!secondary! schools! and! female! teachers! and! ensuring! the! availability! of! sanitary!facilities!in!the!schools.!It!is!also!required!to!ensure!that!the!IF!addresses!the!issue!of!access! and! quality! in! its! framework! from! the! perspective! of! adolescent! girls.!Constant! monitoring! of! this! is! an! essential! requirement,! specifically! for! girls!belonging!to!the!poorest!sections!and!disadvantaged!groups.!National!governments!need! to! recognize! that! for! adolescent! girls! to! enter! into! secondary! school! a!necessary! preKcondition! is! to! have! a! higher! level! of! enrollment! and! higher!percentage!of!girls’!complete!primary!schooling.!It!is!here!that!the!maximum!effort!has!to!be!made,!to!ensure!that!a!higher!percentage!of!girls’!complete!primary!school!

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without!any!obstacles.!Rigorous!monitoring!has!to!be!instituted!at!this!intersection!of!girls’!primary!and!secondary!school!levels.!!!5.10! Enforcing! laws! on! minimum! age! at! marriage,! minimum! age! to! work,!registering!births,!death!and!marriage!!!It! is! also! apparent! that! girls! schooling! becomes! intermittent! from! the! time! they!attain!puberty;!pressure!on!girls!mounts!from!parents!and!the!community!to!marry!off! the! girls! as! soon! as! they! have! attained! puberty.! This! is! one! of! the! biggest!challenges! toward! girls’! continuing! education.! Tracking! of! the! girls’! attendance! in!Grades! 6! ! through! 8! is! of! critical! importance.!Most! girls’! start! disappearing! from!school!at!this!age!gradually,!either!for!marriage!or!because!of!the!distance!to!school!and! concern! for! security! as! is! evident! in!most! of! the! poorest! countries.! Girls! are!forced!to!stay!at!home!to!work!–!assisting!in!family!labor,!working!in!the!farms!or!outside! the! home! as! domestic! help.!Much! of! this!work! done! by! girls! is! nonKwage!work.!A!good!social!policy!response!to!combat!this!will!require!three!things!for!the!girl’s!ability!to!transition!from!the!primary!to!secondary!education:!!

1. There!has! to!be!strict!enforcement!of! the!national! laws!on!minimum!age!at!marriage.!!

2. The!law!on!minimum!age!at!work!has!to!be!enforced.!3. Registering! all! marriages,! births! and! death,! immunization! records,! school!

enrollments!has!to!be!made!mandatory.!!!This! needs! to! be! done! at! the! level! of! seeking! commitment! from! the! national!government! at! the! time! when! partnership! is! being! negotiated.! Setting! up! a!mechanism! for! the!oversight!of! this!at! the!highest! level!of! the!government!should!come!in!return!for!GPE!partnership!and!assistance!in!this!joint!endeavor!to!establish!the!right!environment!for!educating!girls.!!!The!important!thing!to!recognize!is!the!necessity!of!laws!and!that!these!laws!have!to!be!in!place!and!enforceable.!However,!the!government!together!with!the!LEG!should!formulate!policies!to!incentivize!and!honor!the!delayed!marriages!of!girls.!It!is!also!important! to! involve! community! elders,! community! leaders! and! social! cultural!groups!to!undertake!intensive!mobilization!of!the!community!to!pledge!and!support!the! delayed! marriage! of! girls,! particularly! after! girls! attain! secondary! education.!!Early! marriage! of! girls! is! a! cultural! value! and! cannot! be! combatted! with! only!legislation.! It! is! required! to! draw! lessons! of! community! mobilization! from! the!strategy!adopted!by!the!group!led!by!Molly!Melching!and!the!organization!TOSTAN!seeking! the! community! elders’! commitment! toward! abandoning! the! centuries! old!practice!of!female!genital!cutting!in!Burkina!Faso,!Djibouti,!Gambia,!Guinea,!GuineaKBissau,!Mali,!Mauritania,!Senegal,!Somalia,!and!Sudan.!!!!5.11!Reward!delayed!marriage!It! will! be! valuable! to! develop! an! incentive! program! targeted! at! delaying! early!marriage! in! which! the! rewards! can! be! structured! in! a! manner! such! that! girls!

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reaching!higher! levels!of!schooling! incrementally!receive!higher! levels!of! rewards.!The!rewards!should!be!such! that! they!should!start!when!a!girl!completes!primary!school!and!enters!the!secondary!school;!the!reward!slab!should!increase!with!each!year!of! completed!schooling.!The! final! reward!admissible!on!completion!of!higher!secondary! school! should!be! sufficient! to!meet! the! expenses! that! the! family!would!have!to!bear!toward!her!marriage,!also!the!cost!of!delayed!marriage.!There!can!be!similar!awards!for!the!traditional!community!groups!abandoning!early!marriage!of!girls! by! investing! in! and! providing! them! with! assets! from! which! the! community!benefits!as!a!whole.!!!5.12!Strengthen!married!girls’!and!young!mothers’!resolve!to!return!to!school!!!In!countries!where!girls!are!forced!to!drop!out!because!of!early!marriage!or!because!of! pregnancy,! a! coherent! social! policy! response! has! to! be! evolved! to! ensure! that!pregnant!mothers!are!provided!with!all!the!support!to!enable!them!to!continue!with!their!studies.!Schools!should!be!welcoming!young!mothers!after!their!deliveries.!!!All! GPE! countries! should! strive! to! work! closely! with! LEG,! the! national! group! of!ministries! and! the! civil! society! to! evolve! and! place! legal,! social! and! economic!provisions! for! safeguarding! the! interest! of! the! young! pregnant! and! lactating!mothers’! continued! education! and! facilitate! their! return! to! school.! ! Pregnant! and!lactating! mothers! require! some! modest! support! when! they! return! to! school! and!should!be!offered!some!incentives!to!make!their!school!return!possible,!welcoming!and! meaningful.! This! will! require! collaboratively! working! with! the! Ministries! of!Health,!Family!Welfare,!Labor!and!Social!Affairs!to!design!and!administer!programs!that!facilitate!the!return!of!married,!pregnant!and!lactating!girls!to!school.!!!5.13!GPE!to!bring!issues!of!early!marriage!of!girls!at!key!political!multiBlateral!forums!for!accelerated!action!from!national!governments!!!!Any!effort! to!break!the!existing!practice!of!girls’!early!marriage!will!not!succeed! if!there!is!no!national!political!will.!It!is!imperative!for!the!international!community!to!really! bring! this! issue! into! the! major! multiKlateral! forums! seeking! to! draw! the!attention! of! world! leaders! to! commit! for! accelerated! action! in! their! respective!countries! to!promulgate! and!enforce!national! laws.!National! governments!have! to!commit!themselves!to!developing!comprehensive!national!responses!and!strategies!for!combating!girls’!early!marriage!by!clearly!fashioning!laws,!national!enforcement!and! legal,! as!well! as! the! judicial! setKup! to! tackle! this! issue.!However,! this!will! not!succeed! as! a! standKalone! policy! without! a! comprehensive! strategy! to! undertake!public! awareness! campaigns! on! the! part! of! the! national! governments! to!mobilize!support.!The!GPE!should!also!actively!consider!the!idea!suggested!by!Gordon!Brown!for! hosting! an! International! Summit! on! Girls’! Early! Marriage! to! bring! the!international!community!on!a!common!platform.!!!!!

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5.14!Accounting!for!missing!girls!from!schools!!It!is!important!that!the!LEGKled!ESP!process!sets!into!motion!consultations!and!plan!preparation!to!account!for!the!missing!girls!who!are!often!at!home!either!engaged!in!domestic! chores! or! are! tending! to! the! younger! siblings! when! the! parents! are! at!work.!Each!country!should!create!a!national!task!force!to!identify!missing!girls!from!the!schools.!The!effort!should!seek! information!from!each!school!district! to!report!from! every! village! and! hamlet! in! its! jurisdiction! to! record! whether! all! girls! are!attending!schools!or!not.!This!information!should!be!posted!in!a!national!registry!of!outKofKschool! girls! with! the! information! about! each! girl! explaining! the! reason!preventing! her! from! attending! school.! This! work! can! be! accomplished! in! a! timeK!bound! manner! in! one! month! as! it! has! been! tried! already! in! the! form! of! an!enrollment! drive! in! India! in! many! states,! during! the! summer! holidays.! It! was!undertaken!by!the!entire!district!school!administration!supported!by!teachers!and!the!officials!of!the!district!level!administration,!taking!up!collective!responsibility!to!enroll!every!child!in!school!at!the!start!of!the!academic!year.!Once!the!registration!is!complete!then!it!is!the!responsibility!of!the!school!district!administration!to!draw!a!plan! for!mainstreaming!girls! into! the!schools!appropriately.!National!governments!together!with!the!LEG!should!contribute!to!this!effort.!Any!local!donorKpartner!could!provide!support!in!this!by!installing!a!computer!and!a!couple!of!staff!to!computerize!this!database!for!easy!access!and!to!report!follow!up!action.!!!5.15!Take!cognizance!of!girls’!absenteeism!from!school!!The!GPE!together!with!the!LEG!members!should!persuade!the!government!to!make!it!mandatory! for! the! children! of! schoolKappropriate! age! to! attend! school! as! their!right! to! education.! If! any! school! appropriateKage! child,! including! any! girl,! fails! to!attend! school,! it! becomes!an!obligation! for! the! family!or!household! to! explain! the!absenteeism.!At! the!same!time,! the!school!district!authorities!should!on! their!own!also! ascertain! the! reason! behind! the! child! not! reporting! to! school.! ! Governments!should!institute!systems!for!reporting!and!acting!upon!school!absenteeism!of!girls,!if!it! persists! for!more! than! three! days! at! one! time.! This! system!will! be! enforceable!because!it!fixes!responsibility!on!the!household,!the!schoolteacher!and!the!Principal.!It! is! important! that! the! district! school! authorities! should! be! evaluated! on! their!performance!on!keeping! the!absenteeism! to!a!minimum! low.! !This!practice,!when!instituted,!will!take!a!couple!of!years!but!over!time!it!will!bring!a!behavioral!change!in!schools!and!the!community!attitude.!!Schooling!attendance!can!also!be!monitored!for! girls! from! the! poorest! segments! of! the! population! through! linkages! to! any!incentives!or!awards!for!their!school!attendance.!!'5.16! Increasing! supply! of! schools! by! expanding! primary! schools! to! middle!schools!(Grades!I!to!8)!!National!efforts!need!to!be!directed!toward!enhancing!the!supply!of!schools!within!the! easy! reach! of! communities.! OutKofKtheKbox! solutions! to! increase! the! supply! of!school!should!be!promoted.!These!schools!can!be!managed!by!the!community,! the!

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private! sector,! and! in! places! where! there! is! no! private! sector! or! community!initiative! to!set!up!schools,! the!government!has! the!obligation! to!establish!schools!closest! to! the! community! settlement.! The!best!way! to! do! this! is! to! set! up! schools!within!the!community.!It!is!extremely!important!to!target!the!pockets!in!the!country,!the! provinces,! counties,! districts,! development! blocks! and! departments!with! high!prevalence!of!early!marriage!for!girls!or!with!general!largeKscale!school!dropout.!For!these!special!areas!the!supply!of!schools!has!to!be!considerably!increased,!keeping!in!mind!the!distance,!so!that!girls!can!easily!commute!to!schools! from!their!home.!An!effective!method!for! increasing!school!supply,!which!has!been!experimented!in!several!countries,! is! to!upgrade!and!expand!the!primary!schools!(Grades!I! to!5)!to!also! cater! to! Grades! 6K8.! This! will! ensure! that! the! girls! will! have! easy! and! close!access! to! school! from! their! homes,! providing! them!with! the! opportunity! of! three!additional!years!of!schooling.!''5.16! Expanding! the! existing! middle! school! infrastructure! for! increasing!supply!of!secondary!schools!in!close!proximity!to!the!community!!There!is!sufficient!evidence!that!girls’!motivation!to!learning,!parents’!inclination!to!sending! girls! to! school,! regular! attendance! and! completing! primary! education! is!linked,! in! large!measure,! to! the! availability! of!middle! and! secondary! schooling! in!close! proximity.! Following! this,! primary,!middle! and! secondary! schools! should! be!available! within! the! permissible! limits! of! the! negotiable! distance! for! girls.! These!schools!could!be!sameKsex!or!coKeducational!schools!as!per!the!cultural!norms!of!the!community.!!!Where! it! is! not! possible! to! construct! new! secondary! schools,! the! existing!infrastructure! of! the! middle! school! can! be! expanded! to! serve! as! high! school.!Alternatively!the!existing!school!could!be!run!in!two!shifts,!one!for!the!middle!school!and! one! for! high! school.! It! is! also! possible! to! open! smaller! secondary! schools! for!girls! in! close! proximity! to! the! villages,! accommodating! and! offering! subjects! and!skills!based!on!flexible!learning!needs!for!adolescent!girls,!with!particular!reference!to!the!labor!market!needs!in!close!proximity!to!their!homes!and!region.!!!!5.17! Establish! Teacher! Training! Institutions! and! provide! opportunities! for!professional! teaching! qualification! for! girls! with! higher! secondary! school!education!'Each! district! should! have! a! government! or! private! teacher! preparation! college.! It!should!be!possible!to!scout!for!young!girls!to!attend!these!institutions!straight!after!Grade!8!to!do!four!years!until!higher!secondary!school!completion,!and!another!two!years!of!teacher!preparation!study!in!continuation!to!become!local!female!teachers!for! the! primary! grades.! This! will! serve! as! an! incentive! for! girls! to! pursue! a!professional!occupational!track!immediately!after!their!higher!secondary!education.!Further,! this! strategy! would! also! guarantee! the! supply! of! women! teachers! to! be!deployed! in! each! block! or! subKdivision! of! the! district.! The! institution! could! be!

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developed! within! any! existing! higher! secondary! school! in! each! district! by! upKgrading!the!available!facilities.!!!An!alternate!route,!especially!in!areas!that!have!an!acute!shortage!of!female!teachers!and! low!educational! attainment!among! females,! is! to! create!a! combined! fourKyear!curriculum!after!Grade!8!for!girls!to!complete!their!higher!secondary!education!and!teacher! preparation! simultaneously.! In! this! program! of! study,! all! subjects! in! the!Languages,! Arts,! Science,! Math! and! Social! Studies!would! be! taught.! At! the! higher!secondary! level,! these! girls! will! study! courses! in! preparation! for! becoming! a!schoolteacher.! An! additional! six! months! could! be! devoted! to! a! school! internship!component.!!!!Flexibility!should!be!given!to!school!districts!to!plan!their!own!teacher!recruitment!needs! through! these! methods! and! determine! the! quota! of! teachers! that! they!anticipate! to! hire! in! the! coming! five! years.! The! national! government,! on! its! part,!needs! to! provide! incentives! to! female! teachers! recruited! through! this! route! to!continue! and! complete! their! undergraduate! and! graduate! level! education! by!offering!them!salary!increments!for!higher!level!of!educational!attainments.!!!5.18!Cover!all!schooling!costs,!including!opportunity!costs!!Evidence!strongly!suggests!that!girls’!education!is!priceKsensitive!and!dependent!on!the!availability!of!additional!resources!in!the!household.!Secondary!schooling!costs!are!prohibitive.!Government!policies!should!aim!at!compensating!households!for!the!cost!of!schooling,!keeping!in!mind!the!direct!and!indirect!costs,!including!tuition!and!examination! fees,! schooling!supplies,!uniforms,! transport!and!opportunity!costs!of!attending!school.!!!The! ESP! process! has! to! essentially! engage!with! the! national! government! and! the!Group! of! Ministries! to! bundle! all! the! social! and! economic! protection! programs!currently!ongoing,!to!evaluate!how!they!can!be!of!any!assistance!and!creatively!tie!up!to!educating!girls!and!leverage!complementarities.!The!effort!at!the!national!level!to! engage! with! the! country! PRSP! process! will! allow! taking! a! macro! view! on! the!possibilities!that!exist,!first!and!foremost!to!target!the!poorest!households!to!benefit!through! a! package! of! services! to! allow! girls! to! attend! fullKtime! school! as! a! clear!conditionality!to!continue!to!benefit!from!the!award.!The!ESP!process!should!draw!support! from! the! various! ministries! and! programs! so! that! poor! households! can!benefit!directly!and! indirectly!and!receive!awards! to!enable!girls! to!attend!school.!The! GPE! should! also! persuade! the! government! to! devise! a! financing! plan! for!meeting! the! girls’! education!needs,! besides!persuading! the!donor!members! in! the!LEG! to!make! clear,! predictable! commitments! toward! this.! This!work! should! be! at!least!attempted!in!a!guided!manner!on!a!pilot!basis!in!a!few!selected!countries.!!!!!

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5.19!Supporting!the!poorest!girls!from!the!primary!level!to!secondary!school,!based!on!needs!!The! support! to! the! poorest! households! toward! educating! girls! will! depend! on!incentives! specifically! assigned! and! linked! to! educating! girls! from! the! primary!school! level,! consistently! through! middle! school,! to! prepare! them! for! secondary!school.!The!support!from!the!government!should!come!from!the!early!school!years!so!that!a!culture!of!learning!and!attending!school!is!created!in!favor!of!girls.!The!GPE!mandate! is! to! bring! critical! support! to! these! countries,! particularly! to! the!marginalized,! underKserved! and! the!most! deserving!poorest! girls! to! provide! them!with! cash! support! in! a! targeted! manner! so! as! to! realize! secondary! education!completion.!However,! it!should!be!reiterated!that!cash!incentives!alone!will!not!be!able!to!achieve!much.!Simultaneous!efforts!need!to!be!mounted!toward!designing!a!girlKfriendly!curriculum,!improving!the!quality!of!instruction!and!learning!outcomes,!increasing!supply!of!schools!and!female!teachers,!providing!toilet!facilities!for!girls,!and,!above!all,!creating!a!safe!and!secure!school!environment.!!'5.20! Continued! commitment! from! the! international! community! critical! to!educating!girls!!!The!cost!of!schooling!and!providing!for!the!fees,!supplies!and!cash!incentives!to!girls!attending!school!will!be!way!beyond!the!ability!of!the!governments!to!manage!in!the!poorer! countries.! It! is! imperative!on! the!part! of! the!GPE! to!work! closely!with! the!international! aid! architecture! to! mobilize! and! rally! support! from! the! rich!industrialized! world! leadership! to! make! unambiguous,! consistent,! predictable!commitments!toward!educating!girls!and!continuously!make!efforts!to!seek!pledges.!It!is!also!a!grim!reminder!that!ultimately!these!efforts!have!to!be!shouldered!by!the!national!endeavor.!The!most!important!contribution!of!the!GPE!in!this!direction!will!be! to!persuade!national!governments! to!creatively!consider!bringing!some!kind!of!alternative! financing! of! girls’! education.! An! important! example! has! been! seen! in!India!where! the! government! has! levied! a! special! education! tax! charged! to! all! tax!payers.!As!per!the!proposal!made!in!Section!95!of!Finance!Act,!2004,!this!tax!was!to!be!levied!at!the!rate!of!2!percent!of!income!tax!inclusive!of!the!existing!surcharge.!It!was! decided! that! this! tax! would! also! be! applicable! to! all! the! taxes! deducted! at!source,! tax! on! dividend! distributed! by! domestic! companies! and! tax! on! income!distributed! by!mutual! funds.!While! proposing! this! tax,! the! then! Finance!Minister!clarified! that! this! tax! was! being! levied! on! the! grounds! of! the! government’s!commitment! to! provide! universal! access! to! quality! basic! education.! With! the!imposition!of!this!tax,!the!government!of!India!collects!additional!revenue!dedicated!to!school!spending,!of!around!$!950!million!every!year!from!tax!payers.!!!5.21!Invest!in!developing!healthy!schooling!experience!for!girls!!!!Special! attention! should! be! paid! to! ensure! that! the! school! environment! and!infrastructure!is!conducive!to!the!needs!of!adolescent!girls.!All!girls’!schools!should!be! appropriately! equipped! with! water,! sanitation! and! washroom! facilities.! The!

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construction!of!this!should!be!done!with!the!consent!and!participation!of!adolescent!girls.!The!location!of!the!facilities!should!be!done!keeping!in!view!the!safety!of!girls!when!they!use!it.!Special!efforts!should!be!made!and!funds!provided!for!maintaining!hygienic!standards!in!the!facilities.!!'Further,! teachers,!principals!and!school!district!administrators! should!be!oriented!on!providing!a!healthy!schooling!experience!for!adolescent!girls.!The!local!partners!should!prepare!calendars!for!each!classroom!in!the!partnership!countries!to!present!ideas!on!what! the! teachers!and!school!administrators!can!do! to!prepare!a!healthy!environment.! Teachers! and! school! administrators! should! be! unambiguously!educated!on!the!code!of!conduct!(see!next!page)!and!the!implications!of!its!violation.!!!5.22! Develop! a! code! of! conduct! with! the! Teachers! Union! and! Ministry! of!Education!for!enforcement!on!improving!schooling!environment!!There!has!to!be!a!code!of!conduct!categorically!stating!the!behavior!expected!from!teachers,! school! Principals! and! administrators! toward! adolescent! girls.! It! should!categorically!lay!down!the!implications!of!physical!and!sexual!abuse!of!girl!children,!and! lay! down! other! prohibited! behaviors! such! as! asking! girls! to! wash! and! clean!toilets,!clean!the!school!premises,!handle!responsibilities!at!teachers’!homes!such!as!looking! after! their! young! children! and! cooking! their! food.! The! code! of! conduct!should! explain! the! responsibilities! of! school! administrators! and! teachers! in! the!event!of!violation!of!its!terms.!!!First,! the! professional! bodies! of! the! school! administrators! and! teacher! unions!should! be! given! a! fair! chance! to! evolve! this! code! of! conduct! voluntarily,!with! the!expectation! that! this! would! be! a! selfKdirected! code! for! their! own! professional!community.! This! should! be! implemented! in! all! countries! with! current! GPE!partnership! or! partnerships! expected! in! the! future,! together! with! the! national!government!and!the!LEG!within!the!scope!of!the!ESP.!!'5.23! Partner! with! National! Teachers! Union! for! sensitization! to! and!implementation!of!the!code!of!conduct!for!teachers!!'The!GPE!should!persuade!the!LEGs!and!the!national!governments!to! implement! in!partnership!with!the!national!teachers’!unions,!the!selfKdirected!code!of!conduct!for!the!teachers! in!schools!so!as!to!protect! the!respect!and!dignity!of!adolescent!girls.!Strict! guidelines! need! to! be! issued! from! the! national! teacher! unions! to! ask! their!members! to! commit! to! drawing! up! a! national! policy! on! teachers’! conduct! in! the!school!with! students,! particularly!with! regard! to! adolescent! girls.! The!GPE!has! an!advantage! in! this!respect!with!Education! International!–!a!partner!organization! to!take!the!lead!in!bringing!the!national!teachers!unions!on!board.!!!The! unions! should! commit! to! persuading! their!members! to! abide! by! the! code! of!conduct! in! schools! and! thereby! contribute! to! a! positive! and! equitable! learning!environment!for!adolescent!girls.!The!unions!should!also!clearly!commit!themselves!

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to! ensure! that! their! teacherKmembers!will! not! place! adolescent! girls! at! schools! in!roles! that!perpetuate! their! gendered! roles! in! the!domestic! sphere,!nor!berate!and!belittle!their!image!as!students.!!!The!Teacher!Unions!should!also!be!persuaded!to!draw!up!clear!policy!guidelines!on!actions!to!be!taken!by!the!government!in!case!teachers!fail!to!comply!with!the!policy!and! are! involved! in! physical! and! sexual! abuse! of! any! adolescent! girls.! The! policy!should! also! clearly! explain,! unambiguously,! the! steps! to! be! taken! against! the!teachers!found!violating!the!policy!and!show!zero!tolerance!toward!this.!!'5.24!Retool! curriculum! for! 21st! century!knowledge! and! skills! for! adolescent!girls!!!There! is! a! serious! mismatch! between! the! education! received! by! girls! and! the!knowledge! and! skill! sets! required! for! entering! the! labor! market.! This! requires! a!strong!need!for!reKdrafting!the!school!curriculum!for!girls!from!Grades!8!to!12,!such!that! it! offers! the! choice! of! a! skillsKbased! education! to! girls.! This! will! require! reKtooling!of!the!offered!choices!of!compulsory!and!optional!subjects,!which!should!aim!to! equip! adolescent! girls’! applied! knowledge! and! vocational! skills! to! better! align!their!education!with!the!skills!required!in!the!labor!market!at!the!entry!level,!locally.!!!Strong!linkages!need!to!be!fostered!with!Technical!Training!Institutes!and!Industrial!Training!Colleges!to!reKtool!the!higher!secondary!curriculum.!!'5.25! Collaborate! and! strengthen! the! teacherBeducation! establishment! for!adolescent!girls’!needs!and!quality!learning!!!There!is!a!compelling!need!to!review!and!renew!the!entire!teacher!preparation!and!InKservice! teacher! training! program! from! the! perspective! of! girls’! schooling!experience! and! quality! of! instruction.! Strengthening! the! capacity! of! the! teacher!education!set!up!is!a!necessary!step!in!realizing!this.!!!The! LEG! should! facilitate! national! level! consultations! on! the! reform! of! school!education!(curriculum,!textbooks,!reference!material!and!teacher!source!books)!and!teacher!education! (preparing! teachers! to! transact! the!newly!designed!curriculum)!to!align!with!the!new!curricular!objectives!for!girls’!education.!These!objectives!are!focused!on!equipping!girls!to!contribute!to!the!national!development!process!and!on!addressing!the!barriers!to!their!participation!in!the!labor!market.!!!The!LEG!should!work!together!with!the!teacher!education!set!up!in!the!state! for!a!plan!of!action! in!conjunction! to! the!ESP!process! to!provide! teacher!educators!and!teachers! with! academic! resources,! enrichment! as! well! as! continuous! learning!opportunities! for! enhancing! their! knowledge! and! pedagogic! support! to! improve!teaching!and! learning! in! the!classroom.!The!special! focus! in! this!has! to!be!on!how!teachers! can! be! provided! with! better! instructional! support! and! improve! the!schooling!experience!of!girls.!!!!

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5.26!Strengthen!school!district!educational!leadership!!The! reform! of! the! secondary! school! curriculum! from! the! perspective! of! the!adolescent!girls!requires!a!commitment!for!creating!awareness!and!sensitization!of!the! district! and! school! educational! leadership! comprising! the! school! district!administrators,! district! education! officers,! teacher! educators,! principals! and!teachers.! The! effort! should! be! to! ensure! that! each! of! these! actors! coalesce! their!work! in!the!direction!of!creating!a!positive! learning!and!enabling!environment! for!adolescent! girls’! schooling! experience.! The! improvement! and! safety! of! the! school!environment! from! the! adolescent! girls’! perspective! should!be! a! shared! enterprise!for! the! educational! leadership.! In! this,! it! is! important! for! these! stakeholders! to!challenge!their!own!worldKviews!on!gendered!roles!for!girls!and!women,!vision!on!girls’!learning!ability,!their!mobility,!value!of!education,!returns!from!educating!girls,!the!benefits!of!delaying!girls’!marriage!and! its!positive!effects!on!health,!nutrition!and!raising!a!family.!!!The!LEG!and!local!partners!should!play!a!catalytic!role!in!this!effort,!which!should!be!part!of!the!ESP!process.!!!5.27!Facilitate!gender!organizational!audit!of!education!department!offices!!It! is! felt! that! the! Education! Sector! Plans! poorly! reflect! on! an! inclusive! gender!approach!largely!!because!of!the!gender!imbalance!in!staffing!across!all!levels!of!the!education! department,! particularly! educational! planning! and! administration.! It! is!here! that! national! strategic! partners! should! play! a! catalytic! role! in! ensuring! that!there! is! realization! of! this! within! the! overarching! government! bureaucracy! for!addressing! this! systemic! shortcoming! with! sensitization.! Once! the! perspectiveKbuilding!in!this!has!been!achieved!it!is!imperative!for!the!GPE!to!engage!with!the!key!LEG!strategic!partners!to!persuade!the!government!for!a!long!term!commitment!to!implement! a! timeKbound! gender! and! organizational! change! plan! devised!with! the!collective! might! of! the! education! department.! This! plan! should! try! and! achieve!building! gender! balance! across! the! entire! vertical! of! the! education! department.!There!has!to!be!an!independent!group!to!externally!support!this!process!within!the!government.!The!GPE!and!the!LEG!partners!should!collectively!support!and!monitor!the!realization!of!this!plan.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!!!Checklist!toward!Country!level!Process!for!Educating!Adolescent!Girls!!!!!!!!!!!!Institute!a!rapid!appraisal!study!on!barriers!to!adolescent!girls!schooling!!!

• The!Ministry!of!Education,!through!the!LEG,!should!appoint!an!independent!team!for!the!rapid!appraisal!

• This! team! should! present! a! status! report! on! adolescent! girls’! school!participation! in! the! country,! identifying! the! key! barriers! and! offer! local!solutions!in!consultation!with!various!stakeholders!!

• The! study! team! should! consist! of! three! or! four! members! drawn! from! the!academic!community!and!public!interest!groups!!!

• Identify!representatives!from!the!LEG,!Ministry!of!Education!and!Finance!to!be!associated!with!this!rapid!appraisal!and!to!continuously!assist!in!the!work!to! ensure! that! it! coalesces!with! the!work! on! poverty! reduction! and! social,!economic!protection!and!various!welfare!efforts!of!the!Government!directed!to!the!poorest!segments!of!the!population!!!

!Organize! national! and! provincial! level! consultations! on! the! findings! of! the! rapid!appraisal!study!report!on! the!countryKlevel!situation,! together!with! lead! from!LEG!strategic!partner!in!each!country!!

!• The!study!team!should!hold!national!and!provincial!level!consultations!with!

various!stakeholders! in! the!country! including!various!heads!of! the!political!parties,!teachers!unions,!NGOs!to!create!awareness!and!to!seek!cooperation!in! the! preparation! of! the! national! ‘Plan! for! Educating! Adolescent! Girls!(PfEAG)!

• The! study! findings! should! be! extensively! disseminated! and! shared! at!national!and!provincial!levels!and!invite!feedback!toward!building!a!national!level!consensus!!

Create!a!National!Task!Force!to!develop!Plan!for!Educating!Adolescent!Girls!(PfEAG)!in!conjunction!to!the!ESP!!

• Create!a!national!task!force!comprising!key!members!of!the!LEG!to!facilitate!processes!and!senior!officers!of!the!Ministry!of!Education,!Labor!and!Finance!to!prepare!and!contribute!to!the!PfEAG.!Specific!responsibility!for!the!costing!of!the!Plan!will!be!on!the!Ministries!of!Education!and!Finance.!

• The!Plan!should!clearly!suggest!strategies!to!attract!outKofKschool!adolescent!girls!or!school!dropouts!to!school.!Depending!on!the!specific!country!context,!these!may!include!the!following:!

o Various! economic! and! social! protection! possibilities! to! offer! to! girls!from! the!poorest!households! to! enable! them! to! attend!and! continue!schooling!until!completing!secondary!school!!

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o Identify! a! clear! strategy! for! increasing! supply! of! schools! including!setting! up! new! schools! –! public,! private! and! community! schools,! or!expanding!existing!ones!

o Draw! up! a! plan! for! providing! and! upgrading! water! and! sanitation!facilities!in!schools!

o Develop! a! clear! strategy! for! accelerated! female! teacher! recruitment,!including!a!plan!for!meeting!future!needs!of!female!teachers,!based!on!current!and!projected!needs.!If!there!are!some!areas!and!pockets!that!are! remote! or! have! scarcity! of! female! teachers! then! suggest! some!modest!incentives!and!housing!facilities,!wherever!possible!

o Identify! strategies! for! converting! some! secondary! schools! to!additionally!serve!as!teacher!education!institutions!with!a!clear!plan!

o Suggest!a!strategy!and!road!map!for!developing!a!professional!cadre!of!teacher!educators!

o Suggest! policy! guidelines! to! enforce! discipline! in! school! teachers!toward! ensuring! girls! are! not! made! victims! of! physical! and! sexual!abuse!

o Identify!a!clear!strategy!for!a!timeKbound!monitoring!mechanism!and!oversight!of!the!recommendations!!

!Invest!in!perspectiveKbuilding!at!country!level!on!educating!adolescent!girls!!!

• NationalKlevel!Key!Resource!Persons!(NKKRPs)!should!be!developed!in!each!country!as!a!resource!pool!to!support!various!initiatives! in!the!country!and!as!advocates!for!educating!adolescent!girls!

• WBKGPE,! with! agreement! and! facilitation! of! Ministry! of! Education! and!wherever!possible,!with!the!support!of! the! interested!LEG!members!should!conduct!short! intensive!orientation!program!for!NKKRPs!to!help!develop!an!understanding!on!issues!related!to!educating!adolescent!girls.!The!sharing!of!the!rapid!appraisal!report!of!the!country!on!the!status!of!the!adolescent!girls’!schooling!should!be! the!key!objective!of! the!process!and!should!be!utilized!for!perspective!building!

• The!NKKRPs!in!return!will!undertake!intensive!orientation,!when!required,!of!key!officials!of!the!education!department.!The!education!department!officials!should! include! school! Principals,! Teacher! Educators,! District! School!Administrators!and!the!Teacher!Unions’!office!bearers!to!sensitize!them!and!make!them!partners!in!the!education!of!adolescent!girls!!

!Curriculum!reform!and!gender!sensitization!of!teachers!!

• The!Department!of!Education!should!facilitate!the!review!and!revision!of!the!school! curriculum! and! textbooks,! teacher! education! curriculum! from! a!genderKsensitive! standpoint! with! the! help! of! the! Department! of! School!Education!and! the! agency! responsible! for!Teacher!Education.!These! should!

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be!assiduously!supported!by!the!NKKRPs,!external!technical!expertise!as!per!the!specific!need!and!advice!of!the!LEG!members!

• Create! flexibility! in! the! curriculum,! with! an! emphasis! on! acquisition! of!workforce!skills!in!sync!with!those!required!in!the!country!context.!

• For! girls! in! particular,! the! choice! of! subjects! and! vocations! should! not! be!typically!‘occupations!for!women’!!

• In! this! the! Ministry! of! Labor! and! Employment,! Department! of! Vocational!Training,!Business,!Industry!and!Trade!associations!should!contribute!in!the!process! to! be! anchored! by! the! Department! of! Education,! identifying! the!fastest! growing! sectors! of! goods,! products,! manufacturing,! commodities,!trade! and! service! industry! for! various! occupations!where! girls! and!women!graduates!can!compete!in!equal!measure!!!

• Create!the!option!for!a!4!–!6!year!combined!secondary!school!plus!diploma!in!teacher! education! program.! The! program! would! qualify! young! women! to!teach!at!the!primary!school!level!

• The! Department! of! Education! led! by! the! Division! on! InKservice! teacher!training! and! with! additional! external! support! from! the! NKKRPs! should!prepare! a! strategy! for! intensive! teacher’s! orientation! on! improving! girls!‘schooling!environment!

!Create!a!resource!mobilization!plan!!

!• In!a!timeKbound!manner!ensure!that!the!Ministry!of!Finance!and!Ministry!of!

Education! together! with! Ministry! of! Social! Welfare! and! Labor! work! out! a!formula! to!galvanize! resources! from!all! ends;!onKgoing!programs! to!ensure!what! part! of! the! budget!will! be! covered!within! the! scope! of! the! resources!available!to!the!onKgoing!programs!of!the!various!ministries!!

• Constitute!with!the!Ministry!of!Finance!a!committee!to!identify!the!financing!gap! and! suggest! methods! toward! additional! resources! mobilization!dedicated!to!financing!this!plan!!

• Particular! focus! of! this! will! be! the! method! of! financing! new! school!establishments!together!with!costs!to!provide!social!and!economic!incentives!to!girls!from!poor!households!to!attend!school!

• LEG!members!to!commit!for!predictable!longerKterm!financing!plans!• Reconstitute!LEG!with!membership!to! include!those!with!serious! longKterm!

commitment!!

Prepare!a!national!database!for!outKofKschool!girls!and!launch!an!enrollment!drive!with!the!help!of!NGOs!in!each!school!district!!

• The! Department! of! Education! should! lead! a! timeKbound! drive,! before! the!start!of! the!new!academic!year,! to!register!all!outKofKschool!girls!of!schoolKappropriate!age,!and!prepare!a!national!registry!through!computerization!of!all!records!

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• Enroll!all!outKofKschool!girls!ageKappropriately!to!the!classrooms!on!priority!basis!

• Provide!these!girls!with!condensed!and!enrichment!classes!to!catch!up!with!their!peers!in!the!classroom.!This!is!the!function!of!Department!of!Education!and!can!be!done!conjointly!with!the!help!of!NGOs!for!outKofKschool!girls! to!mainstream! them! ageKappropriately! in! schools.! Government! can! provide!costs!to!support!this.!LEG!members!can!provide!support!to!the!Ministry!with!additional!resources!!!!

• !Make! teachers! understand! and! deal! with! sensitivity! the! learning! needs! of!these!girls!!

• As!far!as!possible!reward!teachers!for!their!special!efforts!and!achievements!in! bringing! outKofKschool! girls! learning! and! knowledge! up! to! the! relevant!grade!level!!

!Institute!policies!to!ensure!regular!school!attendance!!!

• Make! it! mandatory! for! all! parents,! guardians! to! send! children! to! school,!particularly!girls!!

• Link! regular! school! attendance!with! incentives! such! as! providing! access! to!other! public! provisions! on! social! and! economic! protection,! agricultural!subsidies,! food! for! work,! state! pensions,! old! age! pension,! cash! incentives,!minimum!days!of!employment!guarantee!each!year!

• Liaison! with! other! ministries! toward! invoking! this! arrangement! in! their!operations!!!

• Make! school! absenteeism! for! three! days! or! more! an! issue! for! mandatory!follow!up!with! family! and!hold!Principal! and!District! school! administrator!accountable!

• Student!absenteeism!should!be!recorded!on!dayKtoKday!basis!with!the!school!Principal! and! through! the! school! Principal! to! the! District! School!Administrator!

• All!school!absenteeism!to!be!reported!to!the!national!office!and!recorded!as!an! important! factor! in! understanding! quality! of! school! environment! and!causes!of!student!absenteeism!

• Schools!with! lowest! student!absenteeism!should!be! rewarded!and! teachers!and!Principals!to!be!given!appreciation!

!!Engage!Teacher!Unions! to!develop!Model!Code!of!Conduct!with!zero! tolerance! for!indecent!behavior!of!teachers!with!students!!

• Enlist!the!cooperation!of!Teacher!Unions!to!develop!a!model!code!of!conduct!for! teacher! student! interaction! with! special! focus! on! adolescent! girls! in! a!timeKbound!manner.!Teacher!Union!should!also!clearly!suggest! the!manner!in!which! it!wants! to!deal!with! the!violations!as!a! responsible!Union!among!peers!

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• Unions! should! develop! a! teacher! rulebook! to! be! provided! to! each!schoolteacher! clearly! specifying! classroom! behavior! and! conduct! with!students!

• Provide!schools!and!classroom!with!information!about!grievances!redressal!in!a!manner!that!is!easily!accessible!to!each!child,!but!maintains!her!privacy!at!the!same!time,!to!encourage!the!reporting!of!any!case!of!misdemeanor!on!the!part!of!teacher!or!fellow!students!!

• Education! department! should! set! up! special! speedy! trials! for! all! reported!cases!in!timeKbound!manner!

• During! the!course!of!any!such!complaint,! the! teacher! should!be!withdrawn!from! the! classroom! and! placed! on! administrative! duty! instead! of! teaching,!and!should!be!withdrawn!from!the!school!summarily!on!being!proven!guilty!

!Steps! to! be! taken! based! on! the! recommendations! of! the! National! Task! Force! on!PfEAG!:!Review!national!laws!and!its!implementation!on!physical!and!sexual!abuse!of!school!children!and!on!early!marriage!of!girls!!!

• Review! the!national! laws!on!physical! and!sexual!abuse!of!girls! and!boys! in!the!class!

• Identify!barriers! to! its!enforcement!and!seek!at! the!highest! level!of! the! law!enforcement!for!implementing!laws!with!full!force!!

• Teacher! recruitment! conditions! to! explicitly! mention! teachers! to! be!summarily!dismissed!and!police!cases!to!be!registered!for!law!to!take!its!own!course!

• Undertake! orientation! and! sensitization! of! the! Judicial! and! Prosecuting!officers!on!understanding!school!and!classroom!risks!for!girls!and!boys!

• Review!the!state!of!affairs!with!the!implementation!of!national!laws!on!early!marriage!of!girls!

• Identify!the!barriers!to!its!implementation!• Develop! a! communication! strategy! for! awareness! on! delaying! marriage! of!

girls! and! explore! possibility! of! strengthening! enforcement! of! law! on!minimum!age!at!marriage!

• Establish!guidelines!for!pregnant!and!young!mothers!to!return!to!school!with!no! ambiguity! and! suggest! support! for! young!mothers! in! possible!ways! for!them!to!continue!with!their!education!!

!Reward!girls!for!delayed!marriage!!!

• Ministry!of!Education!should!develop!a!package!of!rewards!for!girls!delaying!marriage! as! per! the! recommendation! and! guidelines! of! the! National! Task!Force!!

• Rewards!should!be!based!on!offering!a!fixed!amount!to!girls!for!completing!Grade! 8,! enhancing! the! amount! for! finishing! successfully! Grade! 9! and!similarly! on! completing! Grades! 10,! 11! and! 12.! This! amount! of! the! award!

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should! be! realistic! to! meet! the! cost! of! delayed! marriage! dowry! for! girls’!households!!

!Report!data!in!gender!disaggregated!manner!on!schooling!and!learning!ability!!

• Present!school!enrollment,!attendance!data!for!boys!and!girls!separately!• Report! specifically! the! situation! among! children! of! the! poorest! 20! percent!

population! and!within! that! separately! for! girls,! as! they! are! twice! as!much!vulnerable!

• Report! primary! school! completion! and! grade! progression! data! until! the!higher!secondary!level!for!boys!and!girls!separately!!

• Report!girls!and!boys!knowledge!and!learning!abilities!separately!• The!data!should!serve!as!an!important!feedback!for!joint!analysis!with!School!

Principals,! district! school! administrators! and! Teacher! Educators! to! work!with!the!teachers!and!the!community!leaders!on!girls’!situation!!

!Create!a!high!level!group!of!Ministers!of!Education,!Labor,!Finance,!Social!Welfare!to!monitor!progress!!

• It! is! imperative! that! a! program! of! this! ambition,! from! the! very! outset,! is!aimed! at! mobilizing! and! building! support! from! all! the! key! ministries! to!contribute!to!the!girls!from!the!poorest!sections!of!the!households,!to!enroll!in!schools!!

• The! highKlevel! group! of! ministers! at! countryKlevel! should! imaginatively!consider! developing! social! and! economic! protection! packages! for!categorically!targeting!the!poorest!household!girls!!

• !This!benefit!package!should!be!conditional!to!girls!attending!fullKtime!school!!• This!highKlevel!group!should!monitor!progress! in!all!of! the!areas! identified,!

toward!ensuring! that!girls!complete!primary!school!and!continue!schooling!up!to!secondary!education!!

• Special! focus!necessary!on!providing!handKholding! in!the! intersection!years!of!primary!and!secondary!schools!for!girls!!

• The! task! of! the!highKlevel! group! should!be! to! continuously! ensure! that! the!various! efforts! of! the!ministries! coalesce! toward! one! common! objective! of!educating! girls,! create! conditions! for! them! to! complete! higher! secondary!school!and!enter!labor!markets.!To!remove!any!impediment!in!this!should!be!the! common! resolve! and! a! shared! enterprise! of! the! Group! of! Ministers! at!country!level!!

!Open!strategic!dialogue!with!the!national!government!on!gender!organizational!diagnosis!and!the!need!for!gender!organizational!plan!of!action!!It!is!imperative!that!the!national!government!through!the!highKlevel!group!of!Ministers!is!impressed!upon!to!consider!and!evaluate!the!need!for!the!Education!Department!undertaking!a!gender!and!organizational!diagnosis!to!evaluate!its!

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capacity!and!limitations!to!prepare!genderKinclusive!Education!Sector!Plan.!The!proposal!needs!to!be!considered!since!evaluating!on!a!pilot!basis!one!or!two!countries!that!are!willing!and!open!to!such!an!effort!to!be!mounted.!This!should!be!addressed!within!the!framework!of!overall!governance!reform!and!strengthening!local!institutions.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Annex!I!!

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EARLY MARRIAGE: A Harmful Traditional Practice 31

TABLE 1: Percentage and number of women married by ages 15 and 18

Proportion of women married by exact age of 15 Proportion of women married by exact age of 18

Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged Aged AgedCountry Year 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49Bangladesh 1999 27.3 38.2 45.4 50.8 56.4 65.1 69.2 65.3 74.8 80.8 85.6 89.4 90.4Benin 2001 5 7.5 11.8 13.3 10.6 13.8 10.1 36.7 39.8 42.8 42.1 43.6 41.2Bolivia 1998 2.6 2.6 5.6 5.3 5.1 5 4.4 21.2 25.2 24 25.4 22.1 20.8Brazil 1996 4.3 4.4 4.4 3.9 3.9 3.4 4.7 23.7 24.7 23.3 22.6 21 20.5Burkina Faso 1999 6.3 8 7.7 8.8 6.1 10.5 6.9 62.3 60.3 64.8 63.5 64 64.5Cambodia 2000 1.1 3.3 3.6 3.5 1.9 3.7 2.7 24.8 27.5 25.6 29.1 22.8 37.3Cameroon 1998 11 14.8 20.6 22.8 20.5 24.9 32.3 43.4 49.7 56.8 55.9 60.8 67.3Central African Republic 1995 16.1 19.6 21.9 21.5 19.8 26.2 23.5 57 55.7 57 52.9 64.6 56Chad 1997 18.6 28.6 36.4 35.2 34.1 39.2 39 71.4 72.5 71.1 72.1 77.9 74.7Colombia 2000 3.8 4.1 3.7 3.4 5.7 5.7 6.2 21.4 23 18.7 22.9 24.4 26.2Comoros 1996 5 9.2 13.1 21.7 15.5 17.8 22.5 29.7 33.9 47.4 48.4 54.5 55.5Côte d’Ivoire 1998 7.4 9.5 12.6 17.2 14.3 16.6 18.1 33.2 37.4 46.1 44.1 49.7 44.9Dominican Republic 2002 10.4 12.5 12.8 12 13.8 12.9 14.6 41.2 40.2 39.8 38.5 40.7 43.2Egypt 2000 1.3 3.9 8.2 10.1 12.2 12.2 16.7 19.5 25 34.6 41.4 43 48.7Eritrea 2002 8.5 19.6 16.2 20.9 19.1 21.4 24.6 47 46.4 51.8 44.2 47.4 53.5Ethiopia 2000 14.4 19.1 24.5 30.6 35.1 33.4 34.2 49.1 56.7 74 73.4 79.4 77.7Gabon 2000 6.6 10.8 9.8 11.9 15.4 16.1 20.8 33.6 33.7 34.7 39.2 41 50.2Ghana 2003 2.5 5.9 7.6 10.2 9.3 10.6 10 27.9 31.3 40.5 34.9 37.7 33.1Guatemala 1999 6.8 9.3 8.7 10.7 13.2 10 9.8 34.3 36.7 38.4 39.6 40.1 33.6Guinea 1999 20.2 27.5 28.6 27.5 21.2 29.1 31 64.5 67 69.7 60.9 68.5 70.3Haiti 2000 4.7 5.3 6.4 5.5 6.6 5.3 4.3 24.1 30.8 25 31.6 26 24.3India 1999 10.2 16.2 20.3 21.5 23.1 24.3 25.7 46.2 54.7 59.8 61.4 63.1 64.7Indonesia 2002 2.8 4.7 7.2 10.1 12.7 17 20.4 24.2 29 32.1 41.7 46.8 51.2Kazakhstan 1999 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.7 14.4 9.6 6.6 6.1 7.7 8.4Kenya 2003 3.5 3.8 6.2 8.8 9.2 10.6 12.6 24.6 28 32.1 30.9 37.2 42.1Kyrgyzstan 1997 0.3 0.1 0 0 0.5 0 0.9 21.2 11.6 10.4 10.7 15.7 17.7Madagascar 1997 11.5 12.5 13.5 13.9 13.1 15.1 16.1 40.4 40.3 40.4 47.3 49.5 51.6Malawi 2000 5.6 10.2 12.9 17 15.2 18.9 15.4 46.9 48.5 53.9 54.3 55.7 51.9Mali 2001 19.4 24.5 24 27.6 24.3 26.5 24.1 65.4 62.8 68.4 66.1 66 65.3Mauritania 2001 – – – – – – – 37.2 43.6 57.1 59 63.5 58.8Mozambique 1997 14.3 21.5 21.3 21.2 24.4 21.6 27 56.6 59.1 55.6 64.3 59.9 58.7Namibia 2000 1.7 2.2 1.9 2.7 2.6 4.9 4.3 9.8 9.7 11.7 11.5 15.8 11.2Nepal 2001 9.1 14.1 16.9 17.5 21.4 25.6 28.8 56.1 62.8 65.5 67.6 69.8 72.2Nicaragua 2000 9.4 13.3 15.7 12.9 16 16.6 14 43.3 48.7 47.4 49.9 50.1 45.6Niger 1998 27.3 35.1 42.6 46.6 49 50.8 47.3 76.6 82 86.4 90.2 89.1 87.7Nigeria 2003 16.1 18.8 25.5 34.4 38 41.8 43.5 43.3 47 61.3 63.7 65.1 70.6Peru 2000 2.1 3.4 3.6 4.8 4.5 5.7 4.2 18.7 21.9 22.7 25.3 23.3 24.6Philippines 1998 1.3 2 2.4 3.2 2.7 3.3 4 14.6 14.4 18 16.3 20.2 18.7Rwanda 2001 0.3 2.1 1.8 2.8 2.6 3.4 3.6 19.5 16.8 19.7 20.6 21.5 24.1Senegal 1997 8.2 11 13.7 16.7 16.3 20.4 17.8 36.1 45.4 55.7 58.2 61.9 64.4South Africa 1998 0.4 1.1 2.5 2.9 5 3.1 2.8 7.9 11 14.2 16.9 15.1 13.2Tanzania, United Republic of 1999 3.9 6.4 9.7 9.9 14.3 22.1 18.2 39.3 42.4 44.9 49.8 61.2 57.5Togo 1998 3.8 8.3 11.3 10.8 9.3 9.8 10.9 30.5 40.4 40.6 38.2 40.4 40.5Turkmenistan 2001 0.1 0 0.2 0.7 0.1 0.3 0.6 9.1 6.5 4.4 4.8 9 16.8Uganda 2000 6.6 15.2 15.5 16.8 17.1 21 22.2 53.9 49.9 52.6 52.3 59.5 55.8Viet Nam 2002 0.3 0.7 1.6 0.9 1 0.7 1.2 11.1 17.1 12.1 14.6 12.2 11.6Yemen 1997 6.2 14 23.9 29.5 29.8 30.8 33.7 48.4 64.3 71 75.1 74.8 77.7Zambia 2002 4.9 7.8 8.4 10.3 15.4 18 24.6 42.1 45.3 48.4 56.8 59.7 63.7Zimbabwe 1999 1.7 4.6 6.5 5.9 8.7 11.4 8.8 28.7 30.1 28 40.5 39.4 37.1

– Indicates data are not available. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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Annex!II!

32 EARLY MARRIAGE: A Harmful Traditional Practice

TABLE 2: Percentage of women aged 20–24 married by the exact age of 18

No Primary Secondary Higher Poorest Richest 0 1–2 3–4 5+ Country Year Total Urban Rural education education Education education 20% 20% Monogamous Polygynous children children children children

Bangladesh 1999 65.3 43.6 72.1 86.2 78.2 52.6 10 86.8 40.3 – – 13.8 83.3 100 100Benin 2001 36.7 25.2 45 45.8 28.8 8.7 0 55 12.3 46.5 53.3 5.8 44.2 88.5 86.2Bolivia 1998 21.2 16.8 35.1 31.8 37.9 20.1 1 41.9 8.7 – – 1.3 27.9 72.1 96Brazil 1996 23.7 22.2 30.1 61.9 33.2 20.8 3.7 36.4 11.1 – – 3.2 39.6 73.7 90.9Burkina Faso 1999 62.3 32 69.9 70.2 41.1 12.1 0 71.9 39.6 680 71.3 17.3 65.3 89.6 100Cambodia 2000 24.8 18.8 26.1 28.9 25.1 19.7 0 32.4 14.5 – – 1 50.8 83.1 100Cameroon 1998 53.4 30.2 51.3 80.9 46.4 22.8 21.5 63.9 23.9 55.1 75.3 15 46.8 84.7 100Central African Republic 1995 57 54.2 59.2 59.2 60.9 44.4 43.8 55.1 52.2 70.2 70.3 28 56.6 89.6 94.5Chad 1997 71.4 64.7 73.6 76.1 66.2 36.4 0 75.5 66.3 77.2 77.9 25.4 71.6 96 100Colombia 2000 21.4 18.4 33.7 33.2 44.1 19.7 2.2 36.6 9.7 – – 1.4 35.4 72.2 86.8Comoros 1996 29.7 22.5 33 36.4 34.6 17.3 0 31.8 12 61.1 60 4.4 53.8 90 100Côte d’Ivoire 1998 33.2 23.5 43 43.5 33.1 10.8 0 47.6 14.6 48.4 53 7.8 36.2 72 89.9Dominican Republic 2002 41.2 37.2 50.8 79.4 71.9 33.3 6.5 69.6 16 – – 5.9 57.6 92 97.3Egypt 2000 19.5 11.3 26.5 41.4 35.3 12.7 0.8 31.6 6.7 – – 1.9 36.1 87.6 100Eritrea 2002 47 30.5 59.8 64.1 53.3 12.9 0 46.4 20.6 63.7 63.9 17.8 64.1 91.7 100Ethiopia 2000 49.1 31.8 53.2 55.4 43.9 20.1 25.7 51.7 34.4 68 54.1 14 63.8 92 89.9Gabon 2000 33.6 30.3 48.6 41.1 44.7 28.4 11.5 46.5 25.6 53.9 57.7 13 34.9 66.6 65.3Ghana 2003 27.9 18 38.9 49.4 37.6 19 3.9 42 8.1 45.2 63.8 5.4 45.1 84.3 100Guatemala 1999 34.3 24.7 43.9 54.8 40.3 13.1 1.3 56.2 12.9 – – 2.8 35.9 38.9 97.7Guinea 1999 64.5 46.2 75.3 72 53.9 26.1 23.6 82.8 40.3 75.3 79.2 19.6 71.3 94.2 100Haiti 2000 24.1 17.8 30.7 37.9 32.2 11.7 2.5 26.5 13.6 37.9 45.9 3.8 39.1 73.6 78.7India 1999 46.2 25.6 54.5 71.5 55.2 30.5 5.4 74.1 15.5 – – 12.3 59.7 91.5 100Indonesia 2002 24.2 14.8 33.4 27.1 43.7 14.9 0.2 34.9 8.4 – – 2.8 46.6 86 100Kazakhstan 1999 14.4 12.4 16.7 69.4 – 17.9 1.6 16.1 13.6 – – 1.7 26.4 72.3 –Kenya 2003 24.6 18.6 27.4 56.3 30.8 8.8 1.2 44.3 17.2 36 52.1 0.7 27.4 69 93.7Kyrgyzstan 1997 21.2 18.6 22.3 – 100 23.6 6.7 37.4 17.4 – – 2.5 28.8 48.6 –Madagascar 1997 40.4 31.6 43.9 60.8 41.3 26.7 0 58.4 20.5 53.2 70.1 7.8 37.6 77.2 96.2Malawi 2000 46.9 32.3 50.4 65.8 51.6 10.7 9.2 52.4 36.4 52.7 57.5 8 45.8 86.4 100Mali 2001 65.4 45.7 74.3 71.5 63 19.7 11.7 76.8 40.1 75.2 75.2 23 65.6 92.3 96.6Mozambique 1997 56.6 47 59.7 65.2 55.3 8.3 0 66.9 37.3 64.5 57.6 20.5 57.6 88.4 100Namibia 2000 9.8 9.1 10.3 31.7 16.6 6.1 0 17.5 7.1 31.5 43.2 3.2 13.9 16.8 –Nepal 2001 56.1 34.2 59.6 70.6 58.7 34.3 5.1 66.9 33.8 67.8 60.6 14.6 70.8 96.9 100Nicaragua 2000 43.3 36.4 55.1 69.1 62.5 32.1 6.9 62.7 27.2 – – 4.8 58.9 92.1 100Niger 1998 76.6 45.7 85.7 85.5 58.7 22.8 0 87 48.7 86.6 86.6 29.1 79.4 98.3 100Nigeria 2003 43.3 26.5 52 83.3 49.3 15 1.5 65.8 11.8 63.4 80.5 8.3 58 93.1 93.7Peru 2000 18.7 12.3 34.9 39.2 42.2 17.4 2 45.4 5 – – 0.7 32.3 81.8 94.4Philippines 1998 14.6 10.7 20.4 26.5 36.7 17.3 2.1 3.1 3.4 – – 0.8 28.2 71.5 100Rwanda 2001 19.5 20.5 19.2 30 17.9 13.8 0 22.3 17.9 30.3 49.5 0.6 29.8 63.7 100Senegal 1997 36.1 15.4 53.1 50.4 19.7 4.3 4.9 58.5 13.4 53.5 66.5 5.8 47.2 84.1 100South Africa 1998 7.9 4.7 12.3 17.6 16.2 7.1 0 11 4.4 31.3 38.8 1.6 10.7 43.1 –Tanzania, United Republic of 1999 39.3 22.5 47.6 60.5 37.6 3 0 56.2 24.8 – – 8 44.4 73.9 100Togo 1998 30.5 16.9 40.8 43.6 29.2 8.2 0 49.3 15.6 44.1 54.7 3.9 40.3 89.4 89.2Turkmenistan 2001 9.1 12.1 7 0 14.2 9.4 2.1 13.1 6.3 – – 1 18.7 50.4 100Uganda 2000 53.9 33.7 58.9 69.1 62.9 21.2 3.6 66.9 37.2 63.5 61.1 7.4 48.9 82.9 100Viet Nam 2002 11.1 4.8 13 21.4 20.8 7.2 0 20.8 4.2 – – 0.5 27.1 72.5 –Yemen 1997 48.4 39.4 52.6 57.3 50.7 26.1 2.1 57.1 35.7 66.4 71.8 12.6 63.6 93.8 98.3Zambia 2002 42.1 32 49.4 62.5 53.1 20.4 3.1 48.1 21.3 55.2 57.9 6.4 41.8 81.1 87.3Zimbabwe 1999 28.7 20.6 35.9 86.9 48 18 9 43.5 16.5 34.4 56.2 1.9 36.2 84 100

– Indicates data are not available. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! 134!

Annex!:!III!!Table:!!Strategies!and!conditions!for!payment!in!CCT!Programs!'Country!! Payment!! Conditions!Brazil! (Bolsa! Familia)!recipients! of! Bolsa'Familia,' a! family’s!monthly! per! capita!income! between! 60! and!less!than!120!Reais!(about!60! U.S.! $)! to! be! eligible!provided! they! have!children! under! 16! years!old! or! a! breastfeeding! or!pregnant!woman.!!!Families!with!monthly!per!capita! incomes! below! 60!Reais!are!classified!as!very!poor! and! receive!payments! even! if! they!have! no! children! and! no!pregnant!or!breastfeeding!women.! The! current!monthly! payment! to! very!poor!families!is!62!Reais.!!11!million! families! (about!46! million! people,! one!fourth! of! Brazil’s!population)! received!Bolsa!payments!(2007)!!Impact!!Fall! in! poverty! from! 12%!to!4.8%!during!2003K2008!42%! families! say!improved! nutrition!(Murao! et.al! 2011),! 88%!value! of! transfer! used! in!food! consumption,!improves! fight! against!hunger! (Duarte,! Sampaio!

$18!per!household;!$5!per!child! (up! to! three!children)!!!K! The! monthly! payment!per!child!is!approx.!$!8!for!children!up! to!age!15!and!Under! $15! for! children!age!16!or!17!!!

KChildren!from!birth!to!six!years! old! must! have! an!updated! immunization!card!KPregnant! and!breastfeeding! women!must!make!“regular”!visits!to!health!centers!KChildren! from! birth! to!fifteen! years! of! age! must!make! “regular”! visits! to!health!centers!K6K15! years! of! age!enrolling! in! school! and!recording! school!attendance!at!least!85%!K16K17! year! old! to! have!attendance!75%!KAt! risk! children! up! to! 15!yrs! old! to! attend! coKhabitation! and!strengthening! of! bond!services!and!attend!school!85%!!

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and! (Sampaio! 2009),!!Significant! effects! on!malnutrition!(Soares,!et.al.!2010)!Bolsa' is! less! effective! at!reducing! their! dropping!out,!but!effective!in!school!attendance! and! grade!progression.!!The!probability!of!absence!in! the!most! recent!month!before! the! survey! is! 3.6!percentage! points! lower!for! children! in! the!programme.! Also,! their!probability! of! dropping!out! is! 1.6! percentage!points! lower! than! that! of!children! in! nonKtreated!households! (Soares! et.al.!2007)!!In! children! of! ages! 6K17!years! the! increase! in!school! attendance! is!3.7! –!4.4! percentage! points!overall.! In! girls! age! 15K17!years! the! increase!reported!is!9.2!percentage!points!and!in!rural!area!in!the! same! age! group! the!increase!is!reported!at!9.3!percentage!points!and! the!poorer! north! eastern! part!in! ages! 6K17! years! the!increase! is! reported! at!11.7! percentage! points.!Most! effective! results!amongst! the! poorest!segments.!!Colombia! (Familias! en!Acción)! covering! 20%!poorest! households,!covering! 30%! of! pre!transfer! household!

K$15!per!household,!!KThe! grant! is!approximately! US$8! for!children! attending!

KChildren! ages! birth! to!four! years! must! attend!growthK! monitoring! visits!according! to! a!Ministry!of!KHealth! protocol! (six! a!

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consumption!Imapact!Colombia’s! Familias! en!Acción! (FA)! program!seems! to! have! had! no!effect! on! enrollment! rates!among!the!primary!school!age!population! (8K11!year!old)! while! boosting!secondary! school!enrollment! rates! (for! 12–17! years! old)! 5.2!percentage! points! in!urban! areas! and! 10.1!percentage! points! in!urban!areas!!Improved! nutritional!status! and! morbidity! of!young! children,! increased!consumption! of! protein!and! vegetables,! visits! for!growth! monitoring,! on!child! nutrition! ambiguity!of! the! effects! were!because!of!the!programme!or! another! existing!intervention! ((Attanasio,!et.al.!2005,)!!

primary! schools! and!approximately! US$16! for!children! attending!secondary!school.!!

year! for! ages! birth! to! one!year,! two! a! year! for! ages!one! to! three,! and! one! a!year! for! ages! three! to!four)!KMothers! must! attend!bimonthly! health!education!workshops!KChildren! aged! 6–17!receive! a! separate!monthly! grant! per! child,!conditional! on! the! child!attending! at! least! 80%! of!school!lessons.!!

Mexico! (Progresa,!Oportunidades)!Transfer!value!nearly!25%!mean! value! of! household!consumption!Impact!Kenrollment! at! secondary!level! most! spectacular! 20!percent! for! girls! and! 10!percent! for! boys.!Significant! health! and!nutrition!effects!were!also!reported.!Increased! schooling! from!grades! 1K9! expected! to!increase! educational!

Basic! health! care! for! all!members! of! the! family! by!public! health! institutions.!–For! nutrition! a! fixed!monetary! transfer,! equal!to! about! $15.50! (155!pesos)! monthly,! for!improved! food!consumption,! as! well! as!nutritional! supplements!for! children! between! the!ages! of! four! months! and!two! years,! malnourished!children! aged! 2! to! 4,! and!pregnant! and! lactating!women!

KChildren! ages! birth! to!twentyKthree! months!must! be! fully! immunized!and! attend! growthKmonitoring! visits! every!two!months!!KChildren! ages! twentyKfour! to!sixty!months!must!attend! growthKmonitoring!visits!every!four!months!KPregnant! women! must!keep!at!least!four!prenatal!care!visits.!!KBreastfeeding! women!must! keep! at! least! two!postpartum!

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attainment!for!the!poor!by!.66! years! of! additional!schooling! by! grade! 9! (.72!years! of! additional!schooling! for! girls,! .64!years!for!boys).!Given!that!the!average!youth!aged!18!typically! achieved! 6.2!years! of! completed!schooling,! PROGRESA!effectively! can! be!expected! to! increase!educational! attainment! of!poor! Mexican! rural!children! by! 10%.!Increased! continuation! of!children!in!school!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Under! the! education!component,! grants! are!provided! for! primary!through! high! school.! The!grants! increase! as!children! progress! to!higher! grades! and,!beginning! at! the!secondary! level,! are!slightly! higher! for! girls!than! for! boys.! The!amounts! of! the! monthly!grants! range! from! about!$10.50! (105!pesos)! in! the!third! grade! of! primary! to!about!$58!(580!pesos)!for!boys!and!$66!(660!pesos)!for! girls! in! the! third! year!of! high! school.! Beginning!with!secondary!school,!the!grants! are!higher! for! girls!to! remain! in! school!because!they!tend!to!have!a!higher!dropKout!rate;!!

care!visits!!KOther! family! members!must! have! physical!checkups!once!a!year!!KAdult! family! members!must! attend! health! talks!(femaleheadsof!household!every! two! months;! other!adults!once!a!year)!!KChildren! must! attend!school! regularly! and!families!must.!KResponsibility! to! meet!the! conditional!requirements,! to! the!mother!of!the!family.!!!

Nicaragua! (Red! de!Protección)!!!The!annual!amount!of! the!cash! transfers! was! the!equivalent! of! up! to! 18! %!of! a! typical! beneficiary!household’s!expenditures!Impact:!!Education:! 20%! points!increase! in! enrollment!and!school!attendance!In!attendance!the!gains!for!!poor!(23%)!and!extremely!

In!RPS!II!US$!168!per!household! in!first! year!US$! 145! per!household!in!second!year!US$!126!per!household! in!third!year!!!!!!!!!

KWomen! and! adolescents!must! attend! biKmonthly!training!sessions!K! Children! from! ages! 0–9!must! be! upKtoKdate! with!the! Ministry! of! Health’s!immunization!requirements!K! Children,! adolescents!and! women! of!childbearing! age! must!attend! required! doctor’s!appointments.!!

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poor!(33%)!!Increased! in! consumption!by! about! 25! per! cent! in!hhs,! on! average! increase!in!food!fruit!and!vegetable!consumption,! School!enrollment! and!attendance! rose,! and!expenditures! on!educationKrelated! items!grew.!!!15%Kpoint! increase!children! under! age! five!attending! preventive!checkKup! in! the! previous!six! months.! Stunting!decreased!by!7.4!per! cent!in! the! new! treatment!group,! but! this! effect! was!not! significant! compared!to!the!larger!reductions!in!stunting! in! the!comparison! community.!Improvements! in!children’s! use! of! local!health! services! were!greatest! in! the! poorest!households!(Moore!2009).!!Programme!well! targeted,!with! 81! percent! of! the!beneficiaries! falling! into!the! poorest! 40! percent! of!the!national!population.!KIron! supplementation!jumped! from! under! 25!percent! to! nearly! 80!percent,! but! with! no!change! in! very! high!anemia! rates,! programme!improved!some!aspects!of!women’s! empowerment!(Adato!2008)!!

Education!transferK!!Beneficiary! households!that!have!at!least!one!child!between!the!ages!of!7!and!13!who!has!not!completed!the!fourth!grade!US$!90!per!household!per!year!!!!School!Pack:!!Targeted!households!with!children! from! the! first!through!fourth!grade!US$!25!p/c!annually!!Education!Transfer:!Targeted!households!with!children! from! the! first!through! fourth! grade,! but!the! benefit!must! be! given!to! the! local! school!advisory! committee! or!teacher! US$! 8! per! child!per!year!!Health!Transfer:!Contracted! private! health!service! providers! US$! 90!per!hh!annually!!Occupational! Training!since! end! of! primary!school! 14K25! yrs! old!receive! on! request! to! join!three! months! of! classes!(amount! varied! by!vocation)! free! of! charge,!opportunity! cost! transfer!of!US$!15!per!month,! and!one! time! transfer! of! US$!200!at!end!of!training!!!

All! children! aged! 7–13!who! have! not! completed!first! to! fourth! grade!must!attend! school,! with! no!more! than! three!unexcused! absences! per!month! (85! per! cent!attendance).!K! Household!must! turn! in! SupplyK! side!Education! Transfer! as!specified.!KChildren! must! be!enrolled! in! school! at! the!beginning! of! the! school!year.!!!Household’s! eligible!children! must! attend!school,! and! the! teacher!must! participate! in! the!local!parent!association!as!sponsored!by!the!Ministry!of!Education.!!!!KPaid! as! per! goals! and!health!services!provided.!!!!KTo! attend! VT! classes! to!receive! opportunity! cost!transfer.!!KCreate!approved!business!plan! to! receive! oneKtime!productive!transfer.!K!Must!use!cash!transfer!at!end! of! training! for!investment!in!the!startKup!costs!of!a!microenterprise!in!the!selected!vocation!!

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!Turkey! CCT! a! subBcomponent! of! the! Social!Risk! Mitigation! Project!(SRMP),!!The! poorest! 6! percent! of!the! Turkish! population,!1.1! million! households!with! children! aged! 0K6!years,! schoolKage! children!6K17! years,! and! childK!bearing! age! women,!bottom! 6! percent! of! the!population! in! the! income!distribution.!Impact!KSecondary! school!enrollment!raised!for!girls!by! 10.7! percent.!Enrollment! rates! were!still! very! low! at! the!secondary! level.! The!enrollment!rate!for!girls!of!secondary!school!age!(14K17)! was! 38.2! percent! for!program! beneficiaries,!and! 46.3! percent! for! the!control! group! of! nonKbeneficiary!applicants.!KCCT! program! had! no!effect! on! the! progression!of! children! from! primary!to! secondary! school!(Ahmed!et'al.!2006).!!KIn! Van,! one! of! the! three!provinces! where! the!qualitative! research! was!carried! out,! the! survey!data!showed!that!the!rates!of!girls’!school!enrollment!were! far! lower! than! the!national! average—at! 81!percent! for! primary!school! and!15!percent! for!

Beneficiaries' of' the' health'support'''$10!per!child.!!!!!!!!!!!For'women'$10! per! pregnant!woman!$31!after!the!birth!is!given!in!a!hospital.!'!!!!!!!For'school'for'nine'months'1$10.25! for! boys!attending!primary!school!$16! for! boys! attending!secondary!school!$12.5! for! girls! attending!primary!school!$22.15! for! girls! attending!secondary!school!!

For' the' children' who'receive'the'health'support:!KChildren! at! 0! to! 6th!months! require! regular!checkKups!every!month.!!!KChildren! of! 7th! to! 18th!months! require! regular!checkKups!every!two!months.!!KChildren! of! 19th! to! 72nd!months! require! regular!checkKups!every!six!months!!For'the'women'who'receive'the'pregnancy'support:!KRegular! health! checkKups!are! required! every!month!until!the!birth.!!KBirth! shall! be! given! in!hospital.!!KPostKbirth! checkKups! are!required! following! the!birth.!!For'school'support:!!KAttend! 80! percent! of! the!total! school! days! and! Not!to! repeat! the! same! grade!more!than!once.!

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secondary! school! (Adato!et'al.!2007a!Participation! in! either! the!health! or! education!components! of! the! CCT!program! had! no!statistically! significant!effect! on! pregnancy!(Ahmed!et'al.!2007).!!KVaccination!coverage!was!almost! universal! for!health! beneficiary! and!nonK! beneficiary!households,! but! that! the!doses!were!not!completed!for!a!considerable!share!of!children!from!both!groups!(they! were! completed! for!84!percent!and!82!percent!of! children,! respectively)!(Ahmed!et'al.!2006).!!!!!Ecuador,! Bono! de!Desarrollo! Humano!(BDH)!!Meticulous! selection! of!hhs! on! a! composite!welfare!index!on!the!basis!of! information! on!household! composition,!education! levels,! dwelling!characteristics,!and!access!to! services,! aggregated!by!principal! components.!This!index!is!known!as!the!Selben.' Hhs! surveyed! by!the! Selben! are! ranked! by!their! Selben! score.! In!theory,! 40! percent! of!households! in! Ecuador,!those! with! the! lowest!

Beneficiaries! receive! a!cash!transfer!of!US$15!per!month,!per!family!!

Education! component!requires!children!from!the!ages!of!6!to!15!to!enroll!in!school! and! to! attend! at!least! 90%! of! the! school!days!in!a!month.!!!The! health! component!requires! children! under!the! age! of! six! to! attend!health! centers! for!bimonthly! medical! checkKups! where! their! growth!and! development! is!monitored! and! they!receive! nutritional!supplements! and!immunization!!

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Selben! score! eligible! to!BDH! transfers! to! women!via! bank.! Transfer! of! US$!15! is! 7! percent! of! preKtransfer! expenditures! of!the!mean!household.!!Impact!Effect! on! enrollment! is!between! 9.8! and! 12.8!percentage! points,! on!child! work! is! between!15.4! and! 20.7! percentage!points.! On! 6th!graders! !program!effect!of!17.8!percentage!points.!!!!Probability! to! work! is!approx! 5.4! to! 6.2!percentage! points! lower!for!beneficiaries.!Likely! to!stop! working! during! the!study! period,! and! less!likely! to! start! working.!Those! who! worked! !were!working! twoKandKaK! half!hours! less! than! other!children.! No! gender!disparity! in! educational!attainment! in! Ecuador—enrollment! rates! are!marginally!higher!for!girls!than!for!boys!(Schady!and!Araujo!2006)!!!!!!!The! program! covered!about! 1.1! million!households!or!40%!of! the!population.!!

!

!!!

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