Edinburgh Research Explorer · POLYBIUS AND THE ANGER OF THE ROMANS*. ANDREW ERSKINE . 1....

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Polybius and the anger of the Romans

Citation for published versionErskine A 2015 Polybius and the anger of the Romans in Emotions Between Greece and Rome Bulletinof the Institute of Classical Studies Supplements vol 125 Institute of Classical Studies School ofAdvanced Study University of London

LinkLink to publication record in Edinburgh Research Explorer

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POLYBIUS AND THE ANGER OF THE ROMANS

ANDREW ERSKINE 1 Introduction

Towards the end of his history Polybius describes the fiasco of the Achaean War in the 140s which led to the Roman sack of Corinth and the dissolution of the Achaean League Polybius has nothing but contempt for the Achaean leaders at the time and has no hesitation in saying so He himself was not long back from a lengthy period of detention in Rome making him a suitable person to mediate between Greeks and Romans in the aftermath of the war1 It is his representation of his own actions that is of interest here He draws a distinction between writing history and political action A historian must value the truth above all but in real life so to speak there has to be more flexibility there are circumstances when it is necessary to be partial to make clear your allegiance and support a cause As he puts it

κατὰ μὲν γὰρ τοὺς τῶν περιστάσεων καιροὺς καθήκει βοηθεῖν τοὺς Ἕλληνας ὄντας τοῖς Ἕλλησι κατὰ πάντα τρόπον τὰ μὲν ἀμύνοντας τὰ δὲ περιστέλλοντας

τὰ δὲ παραιτουμένους τὴν τῶν κρατούντων ὀργήνmiddot ὅπερ ἡμεῖς ἐπ᾽ αὐτῶν τῶν πραγμάτων ἐποιήσαμεν ἀληθινῶς

In times of danger it is proper that those who are Greeks help the Greeks in every way whether by giving support by concealing faults or by pleading for deliverance from the anger of those in power This is something that I myself actually did at the time of these events2

So as a historian Polybius is highly critical of the Achaeans but as a politician at the time of the crisis he took the side of his people In particular he sought to plead for deliverance from the anger of those in power (ἡ τῶν κρατούντων ὀργή) that is to say the anger of the Romans This is an arresting way of representing the relationship between Rome and Achaea especially for a historian who is often considered to be very pragmatic and utilitarian one who sees power in terms of the ability to enforce obedience Rome he

In addition to being read at the Tallahassee conference this paper was also given to the Oxford Emotions workshop I am grateful to John Marincola for impersonating me at the first reading to Angelos Chaniotis Daniel King and Criacutestobal Paacutegan Caacutenovas for comments at the second and to Douglas Cairns for his careful reading of the draft version 1 A Erskine lsquoPolybius among the Romans life in the Cyclopsrsquo caversquo in Imperialism cultural politics and Polybius ed C Smith and L Yarrow (Oxford 2012) 17-32 on detention and return 2 Plb 3847 for Polybiusrsquo actions see Plb 393-5 Plut Philop 21 D Baronowski Polybius and Roman imperialism (London 2011) 135-37

1

Offprint from BICS Supplement-125 copy The Institute of Classical Studies University of London 2013

2 EMOTIONS BETWEEN GREECE AND ROME

says has achieved universal rule when everyone obeys its orders3 Yet here Polybius adds another dimension to the relationship between subject and ruler It is necessary to understand it also in emotional terms Polybius is of course involved he is at this stage an actor in his own history and the viewpoint he presents is that of the subject So we might want to distinguish between the historian who thinks in terms of orders and obedience and the subject who thinks in terms of anger and how to respond to it

Polybiusrsquo remark certainly found a receptive and sympathetic audience among his fellow Achaeans Pausanias cites some elegiac verses written in Polybiusrsquo honour They were to be found inscribed on a relief sculpture of the historian that was erected in the agora of his home city of Megalopolis Here with a clear reference to this passage of his history Polybius is described as bringing an end to Romersquos anger against Greece (παύσειεν αὐτοὺς ὀργῆς τῆς ἐς τὸ Ἑλληνικόν)4 The very public character of this document suggests that Polybiusrsquo view of Roman anger was not exclusive to him

Nor can Polybiusrsquo own comment on the anger of the rulers be treated as a casual remark The anger of the Romans together with the problems that this caused for Greeks was a recurring theme within his history Greeks here spend a considerable amount of time placating angry Romans whether individuals Romans in general or the Senate Yet scholars have paid little attention to this Frank Walbank in his monumental commentary on Polybius has nothing on the topic5 Arthur Eckstein who has written widely on Polybius does briefly treat the theme of ὀργή in the Histories For Eckstein it is largely a sign of lack of reasoning displayed by unkingly kings such as Philip V of Macedon and by the mob by women by barbarians and by mercenaries but he is then puzzled that Polybius should depict the Senate as angry and is forced to conclude that this was an exception because of lsquoRomersquos unique powerrsquo6 Polybius does feature in William Harrisrsquo study of the control of anger in antiquity Restraining Rage but Roman anger is again sidelined It is the opponents of Rome who get angry the Roman Senate on the other hand lsquois rarely and only in rather special circumstances said to have expressed anger the one clear case seems to have concerned the Rhodian ambassadors of 169rsquo and for this

3 Pragmatism F W Walbank lsquoPolitical morality and the friends of Scipiorsquo JRS 55 (1965) 1-16 esp 8 (reprinted in Selected papers studies in Greek and Roman history and historiography (Cambridge 1985) 157-80) K S Sacks Polybius on the writing of history (Berkeley 1981) 132-36 and B C McGing Polybiusrsquo Histories (Oxford 2010) 4 although there are exceptions notably A M Eckstein Moral vision in the Histories of Polybius (Berkeley 1995) 16-27 arguing against and stressing instead Polybiusrsquo moralizing tendency Orders and obedience Plb 342-3 P S Derow lsquoPolybius Rome and the eastrsquo JRS 69 (1979) 1-15 (4-6) 4 Paus 8308-9 on Achaean honours for Polybius cf also Plb 3952 Paus 891 8372 8445 8488 F W Walbank A historical commentary on Polybius 3 vols (Oxford 1957-79) III 5 n8 On Pausaniasrsquo treatment of Megalopolis M Jost lsquoPausanias en Megalopolitidersquo REA 75 (1973) 241-67 (259 on Polybius) for what survives of the honours for Polybius P C Bol and F Eckstein lsquoDie Polybios-Stele in KleitorArkadienrsquo in Antike Plastik 15 ed F Eckstein (Berlin 1975) 83-93 5 Walbank Historical commentary (n 4 above) 6 A M Eckstein lsquoHannibal at New Carthage Polybius 315 and the power of irrationalityrsquo Classical Philology 84 (1989) 1-15 esp 6-7


ANDREW ERSKINE POLYBIUS AND THE ANGER OF THE ROMANS 3

Harris cites not Polybius but a passage of Livy said to be derived from Polybius7 Polybiusrsquo own statement that he sought to avert the anger of the conquerors is played down it was writes Harris lsquoprobably a symptom of his having felt some real doubts about Roman imperialism in the years after 146rsquo8 In their different ways therefore both Eckstein and Harris try to exclude Roman anger from their analysis for Eckstein it is an exception for Harris it is rare Yet it is neither exceptional nor rare but a central and recurring feature of the second half of Polybiusrsquo history

The main term used by Polybius to refer to anger is ὀργή already observed in the passage quoted at the beginning of this chapter Polybius also uses θυμός a word often seen as virtually interchangeable with ὀργή although θυμός is more likely to be employed when what he wants to convey is violent aggressive irrational or mad It frequently occurs in the context of battles9 Neither of these terms should be assumed to have an exact equivalent in English ὀργή is found in earlier writers such as Thucydides to mean something along the lines of lsquodispositionrsquo while θυμός can encompass far more than anger from the source of emotions in Homer to the spirited part of the soul in Plato that occupies a halfway position between reason and desire10 Cross-cultural comparison of emotions whether contemporary or across time is always problematic11 Any particular emotion in another culture and the vocabulary used to express it will only approximate to

7 W V Harris Restraining rage the ideology of anger control in classical antiquity (Cambridge Mass 2001) 198 citing Livy 44454 8 Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 199 on Plb 3847 quoted above 9 Interchangeable J Procopeacute lsquoEpicureans on angerrsquo in The emotions in Hellenistic philosophy ed J Sihvola and T Engberg-Pederson (Dordrecht 1998) 171-96 (194 n 87) (first published in Philanthropia kai eusebeia Festschrift fuumlr Albrecht Dihle zum 70 Geburtstag ed G W Most H Petersmann and A M Ritter [Goumlttingen 1993] 363-86) J P Lynch and G B Miles lsquoIn search of thumos toward an understanding of a Greek psychological termrsquo Prudentia 12 (1980) 3-9 (8) although see Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 53-54 Polybian θυμός as violent 3159 65611 aggressive 5763 irrational 2212 2353 3819 mad 5111 32158 it is frequently associated with the build-up to war eg 2212 (Gauls against Rome) 396 3105 3159 3291 3347 (Second Punic War) in battle 2304 2332 (Gauls) 3819 (Flaminius at Trasimene) 33105 (Oxybii) it can however be advantageous cf of Philip V 16288 10 ὀργή as disposition Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 52 with n 11 use in Thucydides 11403 3822 8833 on which P Huart Le Vocabulaire de lanalyse psychologique dans lœuvre de Thucydide (Paris 1968) 157 (lsquodisposition despritrsquo) θυμός in early Greek literature J N Bremmer The early Greek concept of the soul (Princeton 1983) 54-56 C P Caswell A study of thymos in early Greek poetry (Leiden 1990) in Plato Resp 4439e-42c For the Homeric language of anger D L Cairns lsquoEthics ethology terminology Iliadic anger and the cross-cultural study of emotionrsquo in Ancient anger perspectives from Homer to Galen ed S Braund and G Most Yale Classical Studies 23 (Cambridge 2003) 11-49 on Greek terminology of anger in general Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 50-68 11 See the cautionary yet positive remarks of Cairns lsquoEthics ethology terminologyrsquo (n 10 above) 11-20 cf also D Konstan The emotions of the ancient Greeks studies in Aristotle and classical literature (Toronto 2006) 3-40 Many of the issues raised by cross-cultural comparison are reviewed in B Parkinson A H Fischer and A S R Manstead Emotion in social relations cultural group and interpersonal perspectives (New York 2004) especially 25-86



a similar emotion in our own culture or language The present study of anger in Polybius faces this difficulty several times over because not only is it necessary to address the Greek experience of anger but also the Roman interpretation of that experience expressed principally by the Latin words ira iracundia and indignatio12

This paper begins with an examination of what Polybius has to say about the anger of the Romans and the Greek response to it and then moves on to consider whether this can be fitted within a broader understanding of Polybiusrsquo ideas about anger I am not suggesting that Polybius has any kind of developed theory of the emotions or of anger What Polybius offers is a common-sense view of emotions and if there is any sign of philosophical influence it is very much second or third hand For Polybius anger itself was not something to be criticized but it had to be justifiable directed at the right people and expressed in the right way criteria which were often not met The paper concludes by comparing Polybius with one of his readers the Roman historian Livy who although willing to adopt much from Polybius does not reproduce his stress on Roman anger The result is a very Roman perspective one that in the process serves to highlight the essential Greekness of Polybiusrsquo own outlook 2 The anger of the Romans

The evidence for the anger of the Romans in Polybiusrsquo Histories is surprisingly plentiful That reference to lsquothe anger of those in powerrsquo (ἡ τῶν κρατούντων ὀργή) in the opening quotation is but one of many albeit perhaps the most personal In the second half of the Histories state after state is found to be on the receiving end of Roman anger It is useful therefore to review these examples briefly and without detailed analysis before exploring their significance further in the next section Chronologically they fall roughly into three main sets the 180s after the victory over Antiochus the Great the 160s after the victory over the Macedonian king Perseus at Pydna and the time of the Achaean War in the 140s the latter being the context of Polybiusrsquo comment on his own actions

The first case occurs in book 21 thus at the halfway point of his history It is 189 BC and the Seleucid king Antiochus III has just been defeated by Rome at Magnesia leaving his erstwhile allies the Aetolians exposed and anxious As the Roman army advances towards them the Aetolians approach the Rhodians and Athenians asking them lsquoto send embassies to Rome to plead for deliverance from the anger of the Romansrsquo (παραιτησαμένους τὴν ὀργὴν τῶν Ῥωμαίων)13 This word παραιτέομαι is one that I will return to in the next section since a satisfactory translation is not easy These ambassadors went first to the Roman consul in Greece then to the Rome itself where the Athenian ambassador addressed the subject of Roman anger directly in his speech to the Senate The Romans he said were right to be angry the Aetolians had been well-treated by them yet rather than showing gratitude they had put Roman ἡγεμονία at risk Nonetheless he continued it was the leaders who should be held responsible not the Aetolian people themselves who were like a sea

12 On Latin anger words and their relationship to Greek ones Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 68-70 13 Plb 21258-10



tossed in a storm14 These themes will recur Anger is an appropriate reaction to ingratitude and anger should be directed at those who are responsible15

Victory over the Seleucid king opened up Asia Minor to Rome and Roman anger which soon makes its presence felt there In the extant text of Polybius the first to feel its force is Moagetes the obscure ruler of Cibyra not a man of whom Polybius had a very high opinion he is described as lsquocruel and treacherousrsquo When the ambassadors of Moagetes go to meet the approaching Roman consul Gn Manlius Vulso they are taken aback by his display of anger (καταπλαγέντες τὴν ἐπίφασιν τῆς ὀργῆς) so much so that they abandon their mission and instead request that Moagetes himself might have a meeting with the consul16 A little further south the Lycians were trying to avoid the consequences of supporting Antiochus in the recent war and so asked the city of Ilium to intervene on their behalf The Ilians after meeting with the Roman commission go to Lycia where they announce that they have made a successful appeal to avert the anger of the Romans (ὅτι παρῄτηνται τὴν ὀργὴν τῶν Ῥωμαίων)17

Later in the 180s and still in the same book of Polybius a Roman commissioner Q Caecilius Metellus visits Achaea on his return from the Macedonian king Philip and asks the Achaean magistrates to call an assembly When they tell him that this is not possible without a letter of authorization from the Senate he becomes so angry (ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον ὠργίσθη) that he simply leaves refusing even to talk with the Achaean magistrates The Achaeans subsequently defend their actions before the Senate although there is no mention of Roman anger in Polybiusrsquo account of the senatorial meeting18

Next it was the turn of the Rhodians whose support for Rome in the Third Macedonian War was felt to have been less than wholehearted with the result that they are faced with Roman anger lsquoseeing the anger and intimidation of the Senate towards themrsquo (θεωροῦντεςhellip τὴν πρὸς αὑτοὺς ὀργὴν καὶ τὴν ἀνάτασιν τῆς συγκλήτου) One consequence of this was possible war indeed to the alarm of the Rhodians one of the praetors was said to have addressed the Roman people pressing them to declare war on Rhodes There follow a series of speeches before the Senate over several chapters and several embassies as the Rhodians seek to persuade the Romans to put aside their anger19 The anger of the Senate is later directed at another of Romersquos friends the Bithynian king Prusias one of the beneficiaries of the Third Macedonian War His friendship with Rome soured when he pursued a war with the Attalids in defiance of the instructions of the Senate which Polybius relates responded angrily (ὀργισθεῖσα) sending a commission to force him to bring the war to an end20

14 Plb 21299 21315-16 15 See further section 5 below 16 Plb 2134 on Moagetes Walbank Historical commentary III (n 4 above) 142-43 17 Plb 2253-6 on Lyciarsquos links with Ilium A Erskine Troy between Greece and Rome local tradition and imperial power (Oxford 2001) 176-78 18 Metellusrsquo visit Plb 2210 (anger in section 13) Achaean defence 22116 22125-10 19 Polybius makes repeated references to Roman anger against Rhodes 3042-3 30232 303112-13 303117 20 Plb 337



Finally there is the Achaean war of 146 BC when Polybiusrsquo own diplomatic skills played their part in freeing Achaea from the anger of the rulers On this occasion the Achaeans were lucky that the anger of the Romans was not much worse It was Polybius writes only the fortunate shortness of the war that prevented the anger and rage of the Romans from burning for longer (διὰ γὰρ τοῦτο συνέβη μήτε τὴν τῶν Ῥωμαίων ὀργὴν καὶ θυμὸν ἐκκαυθῆναι πορρωτέρωhellip)21 The fire metaphor captures both the intensity characteristic of anger and the dangers inherent in it

In the half century from the war with Antiochus to the crushing of Achaea therefore there is no shortage of occurrences of Roman anger at least in the pages of Polybius Far from being something that can be dismissed as an exception or as rare the anger of the Romans is a significant feature of Polybiusrsquo later books 3 A Greek perspective

What is particularly striking about these examples is their perspective So much writing on anger ancient and modern focuses on the angry person what they feel why they feel it and how they can control it but here the focus is largely on those who experience the anger of another in this political context the subject rather than the ruler the defeated rather than the victor22 Articulating this is in fact rather difficult because there seems to be no word for such a person ndash love has the loved hate the hated but anger tends to focus on the person being angry with everyone else becoming collateral damage The concentration on the angry person is especially a feature of Hellenistic and later philosophy and is not so evident earlier23 Aristotle for example had offered a much broader-based interpretation of anger in his Rhetoric and to a lesser extent in his Nicomachean Ethics24 In his work attention is also paid to the kinds of behaviour that give rise to anger and the ways in which anger can be alleviated As we will see later there are similarities between this Aristotelian picture and the Polybian one25

Reading these examples in Polybius then we observe anger not from the point of view of the person who is feeling the anger but rather from the point of view of those who are at the receiving end of anotherrsquos anger Thus we share the perspective of the Aetolians the Rhodians the Lycians the envoys of Moagetes and so on when they are

21 Plb 3847 38189-12 on Polybiusrsquo role see notes 2 and 4 above 22 For the focus on the angry person note for example Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) or for a sense of the direction of contemporary anger studies see M Potegal et al ed International handbook of anger constituent and concomitant biological psychological and social processes (New York 2010) where the emphasis of the essays tends to be on the angry person There are exceptions for example C Faraonersquos paper on the way women use spells in response to male anger lsquoThumos as masculine ideal and social pathology in ancient Greek magical spellsrsquo in Ancient anger ed Braund and Most (n 10 above) 144-62 23 See further the beginning of section 5 below 24 Arist Rhet 22-3 (1378a-80b) EN 45 (1125b-26b) the difference between the two Aristotelian treatments of anger is partly to be explained by the different aims of each work the Rhetoric being specifically about persuasion with book 2 treating persuasion by means of arousing emotions in the audience 25 For further discussion of Aristotle see the end of this section and section 5 below



faced with Roman anger It is they who see or speak about the Romans as angry The Rhodians see (θεωροῦντες) the anger of the Romans and later they see (θεωροῦντες again) that it has not ceased the envoys of Moagetes are alarmed (καταπλαγέντες) at the display of anger again when the Aetolians ask the Rhodians and Athenians to intervene to deal with Roman anger it is the Aetolian reasoning that is presented to us Or Roman anger occurs in speeches or in the mouths of others the Athenians talk of it when they defend the Aetolians before the Senate as do the Rhodians when they defend themselves before the Senate and the Ilians speaking in Lycia say that they have averted the anger of the Romans26 All these cases then are ones that reflect a viewerrsquos perception of the Romans A possible exception to this pattern is Metellusrsquo anger at the Achaean magistrates after they refuse to call a meeting of the assembly Here we are not told that the Achaeans saw that Metellus was angry or talked about him being angry it is merely said that he was angry (ὠργίσθη) But in this case the historianrsquos and the Achaeansrsquo perspective might be hard to separate Polybius was an Achaean and his father Lycortas played an important role in the decision that so infuriated Metellus so that what we have here is anyway very much from the Achaean point of view27 Only in one case do we not get the victimrsquos perspective that of Prusias of Bithynia it is simply stated that the Senate was angry something that Polybius appears to feel was quite justified and here Polybiusrsquo own contempt for Prusias seems to put him alongside Rome sharing their viewpoint28

These repeated references to Roman anger largely reflect the perspective of the Greeks and others who encounter Rome or what in narratological language would be termed embedded focalization29 Until recently Polybius has attracted narratological treatments rather less than some other ancient historians30 Nonetheless an important contribution to understanding the way that Polybius orchestrates multiple perspectives has been made by James Davidson albeit in a study that although narratological in approach eschews the language of focalization and opts instead to talk of lsquothe gazersquo31 Davidson argues that lsquowe

26 Rhodians seeing Plb 3042 30232 envoys alarmed 21348 Aetolian reasoning 21259-10 speeches 21317-15 303112-17 2256 27 Plb 22108 for Lycortasrsquo role 28 Plb 3373 for Polybiusrsquo negative opinion of Prusias 3318 29 Cf I J F de Jong lsquoIntroduction narratological theory on narrators narratees and narrativesrsquo in Narrators narratees and narratives in ancient Greek literature studies in ancient Greek narrative ed I J F de Jong R Nuumlnlist and A Bowie (Leiden 2004) vol 1 1-10 with 8-9 on the problems posed by historiography 30 Thucydides in particular has benefited here see S Hornblower lsquoNarratology and narrative techniques in Thucydidesrsquo in Greek historiography ed S Hornblower (Oxford 1994) 131-66 (put into practice in his commentaries on Thucydides especially vols 2 and 3) and T Rood Thucydides narrative and explanation (Oxford 1998) On Herodotus note especially C Dewald lsquoNarrative surface and authorial voice in Herodotusrsquo Historiesrsquo Arethusa 20 (1987) 147-74 31 J Davidson lsquoThe gaze in Polybiusrsquo Historiesrsquo JRS 81 (1991) 10-24 His decision (10-11) to prefer the term lsquogazersquo to lsquofocalizationrsquo has been criticized for over-emphasizing the visual thus C Pelling lsquoSeeing through Caesarrsquos eyes focalisation and interpretationrsquo in Narratology and interpretation the content of narrative form in ancient literature ed J Grethlein and A Rengakos (Berlin 2009) 507-26 (509 n 5) Other studies of Polybius influenced by narratology are the chapters by T Rood in Studies in ancient Greek narrative ed I J F de Jong et al (n 29 above)



are presented in the Histories with a complex network of appearances and perceptions where events are always mediated through the gaze of the inhabitants of his history and that of his supposed readersrsquo32 The gaze of the inhabitants is to be found in the examples discussed in section 2 but it is a gaze that also overlaps with that of Polybiusrsquo Greek readership some of whom certainly did pick up on the theme of anger as the honorific verse inscription quoted by Pausanias shows33

In all the cases examined above Polybius rarely presents the reader with matter-of-fact statements about the Romans that they are angry and why they are angry but instead allows the reader to view the Romans from the Greek perspective something much easier of course if the reader is indeed Greek which many of his readers will have been This is where the stress lies Why the Romans are angry might be evident from the narrative but it is not made explicit Indeed the very idea that the Romans are angry at all is a Greek interpretation of Roman behaviour Yet a different way of presenting these incidents was possible placing the focus instead on those who are angry For example when explaining the origins of the Second Punic War in book 3 Polybius writes that the Carthaginians were angry because of the Roman seizure of Sardinia and the amount of money they had been forced to pay the Romans so here there is the fact of Carthaginian anger and the reason for it34 Furthermore once a reason is given we are moving away from a neutral description towards the Carthaginian perspective especially if this is a reason that the Carthaginians could reasonably be believed to have held But if all those occasions on which Greeks and others coped with Roman anger were described from the Roman point of view instead of from a Greek one it may be that anger would not be as prominent as it currently is perhaps it might even disappear Roman concern instead might be with ensuring obedience

But what Polybius gives us is the view of the subject that the ruler is angry It is their the subjectsrsquo concerns that are to the fore For them it is less the causes that matter than the steps necessary to bring the anger of the Romans to an end So what do those on the receiving end of Roman anger do in response What we find are attempts to change the mind of the Romans and to get them to put their anger aside

Several times Polybius uses the same verb παραιτέομαι of attempts to bring Roman anger to an end for instance in the opening passage when he talks of himself and people like him παραιτουμένους τὴν τῶν κρατούντων ὀργήν It is also to be found in several of the other examples discussed above παραιτησαμένους τὴν ὀργὴν τῶν Ῥωμαίων when the Aetolians ask the Rhodians and the Athenians to send embassies to Rome on their behalf παρῄτηνται τὴν ὀργὴν τῶν Ῥωμαίων when the Ilians report the results of their mission back to the Lycians and the Rhodians in a speech to the Senate describe Roman anger as

vols 1-3 McGing Polybiusrsquo Histories (n 3 above) 95-128 N Miltios lsquoThe perils of expectations perceptions suspense and surprise in Polybiusrsquo Historiesrsquo in Grethlein and Rengakos Narratology and interpretation 481-506 and N Wiater lsquoSpeeches and historical narrative in Polybiusrsquo Histories Approaching speeches in Polybiusrsquo in Stimmen der Geschichte Funktionen von Reden in der antiken Historiographie ed D Pausch (Berlin 2010) 67-107 32 Davidson lsquoThe gazersquo (n 31 above) 10 33 Paus 8308-9 see section 1 above 34 Plb 3131 cf 310



long-lasting and δυσπαραίτητος35 Coming up with a satisfactory translation of παραιτέομαι is difficult English translations of Polybius often choose words such as lsquopacifyrsquo lsquosoftenrsquo or lsquoappeasersquo the anger of the Romans36 While these translations identify anger as the object of παραιτέομαι they tend to focus on the result that anger has been reduced rather than the process They do not explain how this is achieved The stem αἰτέομαι suggests the interaction and relationship that brings about the reduction something in which two parties are involved and that the mind of the other needs to be changed Liddell and Scott give lsquoavert by entreatiesrsquo which brings in the idea of asking making a case begging even it is an act of supplication that helps suggest the difference of status the power of the Romans37 On the other hand lsquoavertrsquo could misleadingly imply that the anger is threatened rather than present lsquoDeprecatersquo would be another suitable word but not one widely used in this sense nowadays38 What we are seeing is the supplicant using entreaties in an effort to rid themselves of something that is a problem effectively to plead it away I have preferred to capture this with the translation lsquoplead for deliverance fromrsquo When Polybius uses παραιτέομαι of his own actions in relation to Roman anger he is talking about the process whereas the inscription honouring him uses παύω the result the stopping of Roman anger with no indication of how it was achieved

Begging that the Romans put aside their anger could take several forms There might be speeches to the Roman authorities whether directly by the object of Romersquos anger or indirectly through an intermediary or there might be behaviour which demonstrated subservience and inferiority or indeed there might a combination of these There are similarities here to the way a defence might be conducted in the Athenian courts where both words and general demeanour would be aimed at persuading the jury39

35 Plb 3847 212510 2256 303113 cf also the use of ἔχειν ἀπαραιτήτως at 213115 with reference to the Roman refusal to yield to Aetolian appeals with a similar sense but different grammar see 2762 for the ambassadors of Perseus in the Senate (παραιτεῖσθαι τὴν σύγκλητον) the phrase παραιτέομαι ὀργήν is not used only of the Romans cf 28205 where it is used of Antiochus IV Polybius also uses παραιτέομαι with other objects (ἀσέβεια 41811 ἄγνοια 21415) 36 Pacify Shuckburgh (2256) soften Shuckburgh (212510) Harris (Restraining rage [n 7 above] 199) appease Paton (3847) 37 H G Liddell and R Scott A Greek-English lexicon revised by H Stuart Jones (Oxford 1968) sv παραιτέομαι J Henderson lsquoFrom Megalopolis to Cosmopolis Polybius or there and back againrsquo in Being Greek under Rome cultural identity the Second Sophistic and the development of empire ed S Goldhill (Cambridge 2001) 29-49 brings out the supplicatory character with his translation of 3847 lsquobegging mercy from the wrath of the conquerorsrsquo (47) 38 Used by Paton in the Loeb translation (212510 2256) and also by Shuckburgh (3847) 39 For the ways that speakers in the Athenian courts sought to persuade the jury see S Johnstone Disputes and democracy the consequences of litigation in ancient Athens (Austin 1999) in particular his remarks on the defendantsrsquo use of supplication (109-25) Note also E Hall The theatrical cast of Athens interactions between ancient Greek drama and society (Oxford 2006) 353-92 who stresses the performance aspects of an Athenian court case together with her earlier paper lsquoLawcourt dramas the power of performance in Greek forensic oratoryrsquo BICS 40 (1995) 39-58



Polybius reports several speeches the object of which was to persuade the Romans to lay aside their anger and it is worth looking at what sort of things are said One strategy is to acknowledge that Roman anger is justified but to argue that it is being directed against the wrong people hence to this extent is unjustified or to suggest that the punishment exceeds the offence Thus when the Athenian ambassador addresses the senate on behalf of the Aetolians he says that the Romans were right to be angry with the Aetolians because in spite of all the benefits the Aetolians had received they showed no gratitude in return and instead put Roman rule at risk But he continues it was wrong to hold the masses responsible the fault lay with the leaders who had forced the people to act contrary to their nature Any appeals from the leaders should be rejected (here the phrase ἔχειν ἀπαραιτήτως) but the people themselves should be pitied40 The Athenians are speaking on behalf of someone else so there can be a certain distance in the way the arguments are presented The Rhodians on the other hand defend themselves before the Senate Their speaker Astymedes is vividly compared to a man pleading to avoid a flogging with this Polybius neatly establishes the power dynamic servile Rhodians and angry rulers The Rhodian speaker admits that the Romans are justified in being angry but argues that Rhodian suffering was more than their error merited Like the Athenian speaker he also argues that responsibility for any mistakes lay not so much with the people but with a small group who have now all been executed Anger against the people themselves was therefore misplaced41 Such speeches like speeches in court serve a purpose to change the mood and therefore the actions of the Romans Consequently they play with the truth hence Polybiusrsquo own distinction between what he says as a historian and what he says as an advocate of the Achaeans to Rome But while concealment may be acceptable to Polybius that is to say not mentioning actions that would look bad in Rome he strongly disapproved of making accusations against other cities and informing on them Consequently he is heavily critical of an earlier speech to the Senate by Astymedes in which the Rhodian speaker not only concealed the wrongs committed by his own people but argued that everyone else was worse than the Rhodians and made clear in what ways they were worse42

It is not only words that are used to change the attitude of the Romans behaviour is also important in particular the way in which relative status and emotional condition can be expressed by dress and manner The Rhodians on a previous occasion had so panicked at the way Roman anger was transforming into action (war) that they paraded themselves around Rome in mourning clothes and with tears flowing begged that no irreversible

40 Plb 21317-15 cf appeals for pity in the Athenian courts Johnstone Disputes and democracy (n 39 above) 109-25 41 Plb 3031 42 When Polybius mentions the need to conceal things from the ruling power at 3847 the word he uses is περιστέλλω the same word he uses of Astymedes (30414) but it is the criticism of other cities that Polybius has a problem with (30411-17) Yet Polybius himself adopted a not dissimilar strategy when defending Philopoemenrsquos statues against Roman threats Plb 393 Plut Philop 21 on which J Thornton lsquoOratory in Polybiusrsquo Historiesrsquo in Hellenistic oratory continuity and change ed C Kremmydas and K Tempest (Oxford 2013) 21-42 (38-40)



decision be taken43 The ruler of Cibyra Moagetes came out to meet the Roman commander without the trappings of power instead he was said to have presented himself as simple and humble in his dress and general demeanour Nor is his speech based on purely rational argument he bewails and laments his powerlessness and the weakness of the cities he rules (κατολοφυρόμενος τὴν ἀδυναμίαν τὴν αὑτοῦ καὶ τὴν ἀσθένειαν ὧν ἐπῆρχε πόλεων)44 The Jewish historian Josephus offers a number of parallels for this kind of self-presentation Just as the Rhodians chose mourning clothes so Pheroras seeks to avert the anger of his brother Herod by throwing himself at the kingrsquos feet dressed in black and shedding tears Just as Moagetes chose to dress and behave in a simple manner so Herod himself after the defeat of his ally Antony presented himself to the victor Augustus not in the attire and style of a king but that of an ordinary person45 Such behaviour is part of the non-verbal language of the Hellenistic east In the cases of both the Rhodians and Moagetes the objects of Roman anger present themselves as weak and vulnerable the Roman display of aggressive emotion therefore is countered by other emotions appropriate to suffering such as grief

These are emotions deliberately displayed in order to influence the Romans but there are other emotions that are more spontaneous and reactive The Rhodians first feel demoralized and despondent (εἰς ἀθυμίαν ὁλοσχερῆ καὶ δυσχρηστίαν) the ambassadors of Moagetes are afraid (καταπλαγέντες)46 This of course is because the impact of Roman anger is not trivial it could lead to war or loss of revenues privileges or freedom

These responses to Roman anger are an acknowledgement of Roman superiority and authority and call to mind Aristotlersquos treatment of anger in the Rhetoric where anger is said to be the result of a slight or belittlement (ὀλιγωρία) Here anger is very much linked with questions of status and recognition of status by others The situation in which one person is angry with another is resolved not by an apology from the person who has provoked the anger but by their humbling themselves (ταπεινουμένοι) before the other in other words by acknowledging their own lower status in relation to the person who is angry47 Aristotlersquos remarks resonate especially strongly in relation to Roman power lsquo[those who humble themselves] seem to agree that they are inferior and the inferior are afraid and no one who is afraid belittles another that anger ceases towards those who humble themselves is demonstrated even by dogs since they do not bite those who sit downrsquo Significantly too Aristotle numbers among the humble or submissive those who

43 Plb 3045 ὥστε καὶ φαιὰ λαβεῖν ἱμάτια καὶ κατὰ τὰς παρακλήσεις μηκέτι παρακαλεῖν μηδrsquo ἀξιοῦν τοὺς φίλους ἀλλὰ δεῖσθαι μετὰ δακρύων μηδὲν ἀνήκεστον βουλεύσασθαι περὶ αὑτῶν 44 Plb 213410 45 J BJ 1504-8 1386-7 on both these and the general theme of deportment in Josephus M Gleason lsquoMutilated messengers body language in Josephusrsquo in Being Greek under Rome ed S Goldhill (n 37 above) 50-85 esp 64-65 46 Rhodians Plb 3043 ambassadors 21348 47 Arist Rhet 22-3 (1378a-80b) on which D Konstan lsquoAssuaging rage remorse repentance and forgiveness in the classical worldrsquo Phoenix 62 (2008) 243-54 cf also his Before forgiveness the origins of a moral idea (Cambridge 2010) with review by D Cairns AHB Online Reviews 1 (2011) 103-13



plead for deliverance from anger (παραιτουμένοι)48 This is what we find in the examples discussed in this and the previous section the Greeks and others come as suppliants humbling themselves before the Roman rulers whether by begging and pleading by dress or by general demeanour This way of approaching the Romans then is a public recognition of relative status 4 The Romans become angry

This paper so far may have given the impression that the Romans spend much of Polybiusrsquo history being angry or at least being seen to be angry What is curious however is that the Romans only begin to get angry in the latter half of the history The earliest incident discussed in section 2 above is the Aetolian reaction to Roman anger in book 21 In fact there is very little Roman anger in the first half of his forty-book history That does not mean that no one is angry only that it tends to be other people not Romans Yet it is the first half the history that survives best the first five books are complete book six almost complete and books seven to eighteen are based on a fuller set of excerpts than subsequent books49 Given the very fragmentary state of the latter books their emphasis on Roman anger becomes all the more surprising

This demands explanation One possibility would be to look to Polybius himself perhaps his attitude had changed during the course of writing his history Indeed Walbank has suggested that Polybius developed a more cynical view of Roman policy in the latter part of his history but he identifies this new cynical outlook as beginning with book 30 thus significantly later than book 21 where the first of our examples of angry Romans is to be found50 Instead it seems preferable to make sense of Roman anger within the context of the history itself There are other ways in which the first half can be compared with the second

In the first half of the history much of the focus is on the wars between the Romans and the peoples of the west in particular the Carthaginians and the Celts Both these peoples traditional enemies of the Greeks who are defeated by the Romans tend to be presented by Polybius in the manner of barbarians and anger is often seen as a characteristic of barbarians51 The Romans on the other hand are defined in opposition to

48 Arist Rhet 236-8 (1380a) The relationship between anger and powerrespect is already evident in Homer (Il 178-83) κρείσσων γὰρ βασιλεὺς ὅτε χώσεται ἀνδρὶ χέρηϊ See further H van Wees Status warriors war violence and society in Homer and history (Amsterdam 1992) esp 109-25 49 On the state of Polybiusrsquo text J M Moore The manuscript tradition of Polybius (Cambridge 1965) 50 F W Walbank Polybius (Berkeley 1972) 168 stressing books 30-33 argued in detail in Walbank lsquoPolitical moralityrsquo (n 3 above) 4-8 (though note typo on p 4 giving lsquobooks III to XXXIIIrsquo an error repeated in the reprint) 51 On Polybian (and Greek) views of Carthaginians and Celts A Erskine lsquoThe view from the eastrsquo in The Hellenistic west rethinking the ancient Mediterranean ed J Prag and J Crawley Quinn (Cambridge 2013) 14-34 (24-29) Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 171 176 194 cf on uncontrolled passions of barbarians in the fifth century E Hall Inventing the barbarian Greek self-definition through tragedy (Oxford 1989) 125-26



them and Greek-like qualities are invoked to explain Roman success52 But in the latter part of the history as the Romans are increasingly involved in the Greek east so they come to be seen in opposition to Greeks Becoming angry therefore might be a natural consequence of this opposition as they come to look more like barbarians themselves

Carthaginian anger is prominent early in the history not least because of its role in the outbreak of the Second Punic War In his account of the origins of this war Polybius places great stress on the Carthaginian Hamilcarrsquos passionate anger (θυμός) and on the anger (ὀργή) of the Carthaginian people as a whole Polybius may have seen this anger as in part justified by the Roman seizure of Sardinia but nonetheless his emphasis on it reflects a certain view of Carthaginian character53 A similar disposition to anger is found in Hannibal When he met an embassy of Romans who were protesting at his attack on the Spanish town of Saguntum his judgement was impaired because he was full of irrationality (ἀλογία) and violent anger (θυμὸς βίαιος)54 Anger too spurs on the tribes of north Italy It is longstanding anger (ὀργή) that encourages the Insubres to join the Carthaginians in their invasion of Italy55 It is worth noticing however that anger in itself need not be bad Even in the case of the Celts anger can be seen as an acceptable reason for action thus they claim that it is their anger against the Romans that makes them want to advance into Roman territory when in fact it is desire for plunder56

Rarely however is Rome seen to be angry in the first half of the history and when it is angry the presentation of it is very different from the way that Roman anger is presented later The perspective here in the first half is decidedly Roman Twice Roman anger is provoked by treacherous attacks on its ambassadors conduct that breached the accepted conventions of international diplomacy The first occasion is when the Illyrian queen Teuta arranges the killing of one of the Roman ambassadors who has visited her the second when the Carthaginians intercept a Roman ship and attempt to murder the ambassadors on board57 In both cases the reader shares the Roman viewpoint identifying with them in the face of the treacherous barbarians The contrast with Roman anger in the later books is striking The one exception is C Flaminius whose anger (θυμός) expertly provoked by Hannibal led to the disaster of Trasimene but it is very much Flaminius who is singled out for blame here acting contrary to the advice of his colleagues58

So in the first half of the history the Romans tend not to be angry ndash certainly much less frequently than in the rest of the history in spite of the fragmentary state of the latter half

52 C Champion Cultural politics in Polybiusrsquos Histories (Berkeley 2004) 100-43 A Erskine lsquoPolybios and barbarian Romersquo Mediterraneo Antico 3 (2000) 165-82 53 Plb 396 3105 3131 Sardinia is only given as an explanation of the ὀργή of the Carthaginian people not of the θυμός of Hamilcar 54 Plb 3159 55 Plb 3408 56 Plb 3785 57 Teuta Plb 2812-13 Carthaginians 152-4 see further on both examples section 5 below 58 Plb 382 together with the general comments at 3819 on θυμὸς ἄλογος In war however Roman ὀργή spurred on by the citizen-soldiersrsquo need to defend their country and families can be a good thing it gives the Romans an advantage over Carthaginian mercenaries 6527



ndash and when they do get angry it is largely justified In the second half however the increasingly angry Romans are seen from a Greek perspective Greeks for whom the Romans were barbarians and who might therefore interpret Roman behaviour in the light of that as barbarians they were the kind of people who were likely to get angry59

But the second half of the history also sees another change in the Roman relationship with the Greeks Romersquos successes in its wars against Philip V of Macedon and against Antiochus the Great mean that it is now the dominant power in Greece effectively therefore making the Romans the rulers As Harris has argued there was something of a tradition of angry rulers going back at least to Herodotusrsquo depiction of Persian kings although the classical background can be overstated60 When a certain Lydian requests that the eldest of his five sons might be excused from service in the campaign against Greece a furious Xerxes punishes him by slicing the son in half and marching the army between the two halves61 But the anger of the Persian king might equally be explained by his barbarian character So too might that of another angry ruler Alexander the Great whose Greekness was not beyond question It was anger that prompted him to murder his friend Cleitus at a drinking party62

These examples tend to present royal anger as bad or even mad but Polybius himself is not so ready to see the anger of a king as bad in itself He does attribute Alexanderrsquos destruction of Thebes to the kingrsquos anger towards the Thebans but he nonetheless finds things to admire in his handling of the Theban situation notably his care in relation to temples and sanctuaries of the gods63 When Polybius looks at the kings of his own day it is only Philip V who is frequently characterized as angry and generally in a very negative way Yet it is the manner of his anger that Polybius objects to not the fact of it for instance in contrast to Alexander Philip does direct his anger against the gods and their sanctuaries64 An interesting parallel with Rome is found in the case of the Seleucid king

59 The idea that the Romans were barbarians is reported by writers as diverse as Polybius (9376 9385 1156-7 18228) and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Ant Rom 14-5 4265) and was familiar to Romans such as Cato (Pliny HN 2914) See further Champion Cultural politics (n 52 above) Erskine lsquoPolybios and barbarian Romersquo (n 52 above) and H H Schmitt lsquoHellenen Roumlmer und Barbaren eine Studie zu Polybiosrsquo Wissenschaftliche Beilage zum Jahresbericht 19578 des humanistischen Gymnasiums Aschaffenburg 38-48 60 Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 229-32 but Harrisrsquo discussion of the angry ruler tends to concentrate more on the Roman imperial period (241-63) The idea is clearly expressed in Arist Rhet 227 61 Hdt 738-9 cf 332 (Cambysesrsquo violent anger causes his wife to miscarry and die) 334-5 (Cambyses angry that his Persian subjects thought he was too fond of wine) 735 (Xerxes whipping the Hellespont in anger) 62 Arrian An 48-9 Plut Alex 50-51 on the arguments about the Greekness of the Macedonians J Engels lsquoMacedonians and Greeksrsquo in A companion to ancient Macedonia ed J Roisman and I Worthington (Chichester 2010) 81-98 63 Plb 5106 Generally however he is critical of the destruction of Thebes R Billows lsquoPolybius and Alexander historiographyrsquo in Alexander the Great in fact and fiction ed A B Bosworth and E J Baynham (Oxford 2000) 289-91 64 Plb 511-121 cf 1611-7 on the anger of Philip see further section 5 below



Antiochus IV After Antiochusrsquo invasion of Egypt Greek ambassadors approach him on behalf of Ptolemy VI and encourage him to withdraw Just as with the Romans there is the phrase παραιτέομαι τὴν ὀργὴν but this time it is of the king (τοῦ βασιλέως) rather than of the Romans (τῶν Ῥωμαίων) Furthermore the rhetorical strategy employed by the ambassadors is similar to show that the kingrsquos anger is misplaced the fault really lay with Ptolemyrsquos eunuch adviser and anyway Ptolemy was too young65

So Greeks when viewing their new Roman rulers may have fitted the Romans into an existing pattern one which in some ways was more appropriate to kings it is easier to see an individual as angry and deal with that than to do the same with a whole people because group emotion is somehow more abstract and less tangible66 But although the Greeks may have interpreted their relationship with Rome in terms of an emotion anger and used this as a way of understanding Roman decisions fundamentally that relationship was about power a point that would not have been lost on Aristotle67 For all the rhetoric and strategies to turn aside Roman anger it is obedience to Roman orders that was most likely to bring it to a close The Senate tells the Achaeans after the Metellus incident to do what they are told in the future Moagetes agrees to pay up as ordered albeit less than Manlius originally proposed and Prusias attempts to ward off Roman anger without success by obeying some of their orders68 The Rhodians are alarmed that in spite of obeying all Roman orders the Romans are still angry closure is only reached once the Roman legate has confirmed that they have indeed obeyed all the decrees of the Senate69 Greeks thus see Roman anger as a way of enforcing orders and so closely bound up with the process of ruling

It is possible too that the idea of Rome as an angry ruler could have been strengthened by association with the divine It is in just this period that Rome comes to be the object of cult worship among the cities of the Greek world Already by the mid-190s the people of Smyrna in Asia Minor had established a cult of the goddess Roma and Peloponnesian Gytheion was giving quasi-divine honours to the Roman commander T Quinctius Flamininus in the aftermath of his success in the Second Macedonian War70 If Rome in various ways came to be equated with the divine why should it not be expected to behave like a god Belief in divine anger was widespread throughout the Greek world and extended from Homer through to Late Antiquity71 Polybius himself has little to say about

65 Plb 2820 66 Cf E R Smith C R Seger and D M Mackie lsquoCan emotions be truly group level Evidence regarding four conceptual criteriarsquo Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007) 431-46 67 See final paragraph of section 3 above 68 Moagetes Plb 213412-13 Achaeans 22129-10 Prusias 3374 33123-6 69 Plb 30232-3 303120 70 Smyrna Tac Ann 456 Gytheion SIG3 592 SEG 11923 cf Chalcis Plut Flam 16 IG XII9931 On cults of Roman power R Mellor Θέα Ῥώμη the worship of the goddess Roma in the Greek world (Goumlttingen 1975) S Price Rituals and power the Roman imperial cult in Asia Minor (Oxford 1984) 40-47 The divine power of Rome may have been enhanced by the ambiguity of Romersquos name which translated into Greek as lsquostrengthrsquo A Erskine lsquoRome in the Greek world the significance of a namersquo in The Greek world ed A Powell (London 1995) 368-86 71 On early Greece van Wees Status warriors (n 48 above) 93-94 111-13 J Irmscher Goumltterzorn bei Homer (Leipzig 1950) J S Clay The wrath of Athena gods and men in the Odyssey (Lanham



er73

cults of Roman power in the extant text but they may nonetheless have helped shape the Greek view of the Romans Significantly perhaps one of the few references he does make to such cult practices is to the Rhodian dedication of a colossal statue of the Demos of the Romans in the temple of Athena following the successful resolution of their difficulties with Rome in other words after the cessation of the anger of the Romans72 On the other hand when Polybius does speak of divine anger the word he employs is μῆνις one commonly used of the wrath of the gods since the time of Hom

These explanations anger as a barbarian characteristic anger as a characteristic of rulers and perhaps also gods are not mutually exclusive the one would reinforce the other As non-Greeks indeed barbarians it would have been that much easier for the Romans to find themselves incorporated into a tradition of angry rulers74 5 Anger as a social emotion

Ancient especially Hellenistic and later philosophical writing tends to approach anger from the point of view of the angry person who is seen as suffering from the passion of anger This is considered to be a bad thing but bad not so much for the object of anger as for the angry person himself If anger is controlled restrained or even eliminated altogether then the angry person will benefit Thus Plutarch in his De cohibenda ira advocates restraint and avoidance of anger and the Stoic Seneca in De ira goes so far as to propose total banishment ndash both texts that survive from the early Roman empire one in Greek the other in Latin75 It might be something of an oversimplification to say that

1997) esp 46-53 later R Lane Fox Pagans and Christians (Harmondsworth 1986) 230-37 more broadly the essays in R G Kratz and H Spieckermann ed Divine wrath and divine mercy in the world of antiquity (Tuumlbingen 2008) 72 Plb 314 for Polybiusrsquo limited reference to any cult of Roma Walbank A historical commentary III (n 4 above) 421-22 73 Plb 231014 321514 361715 on the use of μῆνις see Cairns lsquoEthics ethology terminologyrsquo (n 10 above) 31-33 74 An inscription from Olbia (SIG3 495 (IosPE Isup2 32) A esp lines 90-95) offers an interesting parallel The Olbians detail all the payments they have to make to the barbarian king Saitaphernes but it is the reference to the kingrsquos anger that reveals clearly their subordinate relationship (τοῦ δὲ βασιλέωςhellip εἰς ὀργὴνhellip καταστάντος) noted in A Chaniotis lsquoParadoxon enargeia empathy Hellenistic decrees and Hellenistic oratoryrsquo in Hellenistic oratory ed C Kremmydas and K Tempest (n 42 above) 201-16 (209-12) Like the Romans he is both barbarian and ruler and like them he is observed from a Greek perspective 75 Plut De cohibenda ira 16 (=Mor 463b) Sen Ira 31 Detailed discussion of this tradition from Homer to Late Antiquity is to be found in Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) with 339-90 in particular focusing on psychic health cf also M Nussbaum The therapy of desire theory and practice in Hellenistic ethics (Princeton 1994) on Plutarch G Indelli and R Laurenti Plutarco Sul controllo dellrsquoira (Naples 1988) on Seneca J Fillion-Lahille Le De ira de Seacutenegraveque et la philosophie stoicienne des passions (Paris 1984) Nussbaum Therapy 402-38 and the recent translation and commentary by R Kaster in R Kaster and M Nussbaum Seneca anger mercy revenge (Chicago 2010) 3-129 For comparison of the approaches of Seneca and Plutarch see L van Hoof lsquoStrategic differences Seneca and Plutarch on controlling angerrsquo Mnemosyne 60 (2007) 59-86 (Seneca seeing eradication as part of a redefinition of virtue and Plutarch seeing



these writings focus solely on the angry person Plutarch for instance is concerned also with the impact of anger on those around wives children and slaves76 Nonetheless anger is presented very much as an internal problem albeit one that involves others both as catalysts of anger and its object But their relative unimportance is apparent in Plutarchrsquos suggestion that you can practise anger management on your slaves77 For Polybius anger is far more social paradoxical as that might appear His focus is on the Greek response to Roman anger rather than on the Romans themselves thus unquestionably on the interpersonal rather than the internal Even when we look at his history more broadly it is the interactive character of anger that tends to be to the fore Control of anger is not absent but it is far less in evidence than some have suggested78

Polybius is less concerned with control and more interested in whether the anger is appropriate Anger for Polybius is something that can be good or bad79 Contemporary philosophy does not seem to have had much influence on him in his treatment of anger or of other emotions Despite the proliferation of Hellenistic treatises entitled Περὶ παθῶν (On the Passions) Polybius hardly uses the word πάθος at all and when he does it is not in this specialized sense80 Philosophically his conception of anger would seem to have more in common with Aristotle than with the other philosophical schools Thus in the Nicomachean Ethics there is a right way for a virtuous person to get angry lsquoThe man who is angry at the right things and with the right people and further as he ought when he ought and as long as he ought is praisedrsquo81 Deviation from the mean leads to two failings being angry at the wrong things at the wrong people at the wrong time or for too long or alternatively not being angry at all when you should be But it does not follow from this that Polybius has a philosophical let alone a Peripatetic take on anger Aristotle consciously took account of common opinions when developing his ethical writings and it is these common opinions that Polybius is reflecting82 Hellenistic and Roman philosophy can encourage us to overlook the acceptability of anger in everyday discourse In the

control as the mark of a gentleman) and V Tsouna lsquoPhilodemus Seneca and Plutarch on angerrsquo in Epicurus and the Epicurean tradition (Cambridge 2011) 183-20 who also treats the essay on anger by the Epicurean Philodemus In contrast to the Stoics the Epicureans do make some allowance for anger D Fowler lsquoEpicurean angerrsquo in The passions in Roman thought and literature ed S M Braund and C Gill (Cambridge 1997) 16-35 (24-27) and Procopeacute lsquoEpicureans on angerrsquo (n 9 above) 76 Plut De cohibenda ira 11 (=Mor 459b-e) 77 Plut De cohibenda ira 11 (=Mor 459b) 78 Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 197-99 240 tends to overstress the role of anger-control in Polybius 79 G Longley lsquoThucydides Polybius and human naturersquo in Imperialism cultural politics and Polybius ed C Smith and L Yarrow (Oxford 2012) 68-84 (76-77) contrasts Polybius with Thucydides for whom lsquoanger is normally regarded as irrational and damagingrsquo 80 P Peacutedech La Meacutethode historique de Polybe (Paris 1964) 212-13 251 Excluding the Fragmenta ex incertis libris πάθος is only found 6 times (3532 3866 1047 11299 34310 3814) 81 Arist EN 45 1125b35-1126a1 (trans Ross) Nussbaum Therapy (n 75 above) 94-6 82 EN 71 (1145b2-7) Top 11 (100a18-23) on Aristotlersquos methodology in these passages T Irwin Aristotlersquos first principles (Oxford 1988) esp 29-39



Athenian lawcourts in the fourth century for instance juries were expected to feel anger at the guilty83

Polybius offers an insight into this more popular view of anger In sum he thinks anger should be justifiable directed at the right people and expressed in the right way Even a historian rather like a speaker in court can excite anger in his audience but if he is to do this it is important that he also give an account of why things are done and to what end In other words only if you know why something was done can you judge whether or not you are justified in feeling angry Phylarchus for Polybius is a prime example of a historian who tries to stir up emotion in the wrong way leading to anger that is not properly grounded84 Treachery bad faith impiety ingratitude and insincerity are all found as good reasons for anger in the Histories85 Polybius can even countenance his own Achaeans becoming angry although of course their anger is fully justified on one occasion it is directed at treacherous Mantineians on another at ungrateful Spartans86 But anger could also be irrational this kind of anger which would have no adequate justification would be more likely to occur among barbarians the masses or women87

But once anger is justified it has to be expressed in the right way The most negative presentation of anger in Polybius is the case of Philip V of Macedon who offers a case study in how not to be angry even when his anger is justified88 This is developed particularly at the beginning of book 5 where Philiprsquos anger at Aetolian sacrilege in looting and burning the sanctuaries at Dium and Dodona is held to be quite justified But Philiprsquos response exceeds what is acceptable attacking the Aetolian town of Thermum he exacts revenge by carrying out the same kind of acts of impiety as the Aetolians had inflicted on Dium and Dodona After describing Philiprsquos looting and destruction of Thermum Polybius imagines what a good reputation the king would have earned if instead of these actions he lsquohad expressed his piety towards the gods and his anger

83 Arist Rhet 22 (1380a) on the role of the orator in fomenting anger cf Aesch 3197-98 on the anger of the jury for the place of anger in the Athenian court see L Rubinstein lsquoStirring up dicastic angerrsquo in Law rhetoric and comedy in Classical Athens essays in honour of Douglas M MacDowell ed D L Cairns and R A Knox (Swansea 2004) 187-203 D Allen The world of Prometheus the politics of punishing in democratic Athens (Princeton 2000) 172-74 and the succinct remarks of N R E Fisher Aeschines Against Timarchus (Oxford 2001) 325 84 Plb 25613 D Levene lsquoPity fear and the historical audience Tacitus on the fall of Vitelliusrsquo in The passions in Roman thought ed Braund and Gill (n 75 above) 128-49 (133-35) cf J Marincola lsquoPolybius Phylarchus and ldquotragic historyrdquo a reconsiderationrsquo in Polybius and his world essays in memory of F W Walbank ed B Gibson and T Harrison (Oxford 2013) 73-90 (80) on acceptability of emotion for Polybius if treated appropriately 85 Treachery and bad faith Plb 258 1542 impiety 510-12 ingratitude 21317 22118 insincerity 1517 86 Plb 258 22118 cf also within Achaea against Callicrates 3029 87 For example barbarians 2212 3408 masses 65611 women 15301 cf Eckstein lsquoHannibal at New Carthagersquo (n 6 above) 6-7 88 For the centrality of anger to the Polybian picture of Philip see Peacutedech La Meacutethode historique (n 80 above) 223-24 lsquoLa clef de ses actes est la predominance du θυμός la faculteacute irascible sur la raisonrsquo



towards [the Aetolians] in a kingly and magnanimous wayrsquo (βασιλικῶς καὶ μεγαλοψύχως αὐτοῦ χρωμένου τῇ τε πρὸς τὸ θεῖον εὐσεβείᾳ καὶ τῇ πρὸς αὐτοὺς ὀργῇ) So appropriate even kingly use of anger is possible89 In contrast to Philip there is the behaviour of Scipio Africanus who felt anger at the treacherous conduct of the Carthaginians in trying to murder the Roman ambassadors and responded by attacking Carthaginian towns and enslaving the inhabitants This was an acceptable way of expressing anger but what was not acceptable was taking revenge on Carthaginian ambassadors which Scipio did not do even though he had the opportunity and so is accordingly praised for his conduct by Polybius90

Philiprsquos behaviour is repeatedly marked by anger anger that can be disproportionate or misdirected He destroys Thermum as observed above but he also massacres the people of Maroneia when the Romans order him to relinquish part of his kingdom and at Pergamum he directs his anger says Polybius not so much against men as the gods But on occasion his anger (ὀργή) and rage (θυμός) even serves his interests inspiring him to overcome previous defeats91 But there are no explicit statements that he failed to restrain or control his anger although this has not stopped translators from creating them a sign of the strength of the lsquocontrolling angerrsquo tradition The passage quoted in the previous paragraph where Philip is imagined as lsquoexpressing his anger in a kingly wayrsquo is translated by W R Paton and Robin Waterfield as lsquocurbing angerrsquo and lsquorestraining angerrsquo respectively92 Instead of the language of control or lack of it Philiprsquos excessive anger is several times spoken of in terms of madness93

I suggested earlier in this section that Polybiusrsquo presentation of anger was less concerned with control and restraint and tended instead to highlight its social character Here I am taking something of a cue from the 1996 paper by the psychologist Brian Parkinson lsquoEmotions are socialrsquo Parkinson while not neglecting the internal aspects of emotions stresses the importance of social context and interpersonal exchange for understanding them94 In particular he highlights the communicative character of

89 Plb 5117-121 My translation of the χράομαι τῇ ὀργῇ here is influenced by that of Manuela Mari in D Musti M Mari and J Thornton Polibio Storie vol III Libri V-VI (Milan 2002) 43 χράομαι τῇ ὀργῇ could also be qualified with κακῶς 1172 90 Plb 154 On the contrast between Polybiusrsquo treatment of Philip V and Scipio see A Erskine lsquoSpanish lessons Polybius and the maintenance of imperial powerrsquo in Polibio y la peninsula Ibeacuterica ed J Santos Yanguas and E Torregaray Pagola (Vitoria 2003) 229-43 and Peacutedech La meacutethode historique (n 80 above) 223-28 91 Maroneia Plb 22132-7 Thermum 510-12 Pergamum 161 cf 1173 inspiration 1628 92 Paton in the Loeb Classical Library edition (1923 also in the 2011 revision by F W Walbank and C Habicht) and Waterfield in the Oxford Worldrsquos Classics translation (2010) see further n 83 above This is not to say the language of restraint is never used in Polybius cf 15411 of Scipio (παρακατασχὼν τὸν ἴδιον θυμὸν) when faced with the Carthaginian ambassadors 93 Plb 1612 231016 94 B Parkinson lsquoEmotions are socialrsquo British Journal of Psychology 87 (1996) 663-83 cf the opening of S Schieman lsquoThe sociological study of anger basic social patterns and contextsrsquo in International handbook of anger ed M Potegal et al (n 22 above) 329-47 lsquoAnger is a highly social emotionrsquo Whereas Parkinson argues that emotions are fundamentally social others such as J Elster Alchemies of the mind rationality and the emotions (Cambridge 1999) see the social character of many emotions as only contingent Elster (139-42) nonetheless does include anger



emotions in the case of anger this might be a demand for some form of respect95 In Polybius too this is what we found The opening sections of this paper explored the Greek view of Roman anger in other words how someone reacts to and deals with the anger of another In effect the Romans assert their superior position the Greeks and other targets of Roman anger recognize it But even when Polybiusrsquo focus is on the angry person or state it is generally in relation to others the people who caused it for instance by their treachery or ingratitude

Two examples will help to illustrate the place of social exchange in the development of emotions On the occasion of the First Illyrian War Polybius presents an escalating exchange of growing anger that leads to the outbreak of war First the Illyrian queen Teuta speaks very arrogantly to the Roman ambassadors then the younger ambassador becomes indignant (δυσχεράνας) and bluntly tells the queen that Rome would force the Illyrians to change their ways Teuta in anger (ἐξωργίσθη) has the ambassador assassinated an act that causes further anger in Rome (διοργισθέντες) and leads to the mounting of an expedition against the Illyrians Teutarsquos anger here is without foundation ndash she reacts with a womanrsquos passion and irrationally (γυναικοθύμως καὶ ἀλογίστως) ndash while the Roman anger is fully justified by the outrageous killing of their ambassador96 Another time Polybius points out that when people display great and genuine emotion due to suffering some major disaster then the reaction of those who see or hear them is pity but when the same thing is faked and done with the intention of deceiving then the response is not pity but anger and hate97 This is not just about feeling anger but relating it very directly to other people and observation of their behaviour through hearing and seeing Polybius even has the damaging effects of anger on other people recognized by that model of anger Philip V who lectures his own sons on how their anger towards each other will not only destroy themselves but everything around them98 So for Polybius anger is no mere internal character problem it involves others and has consequences prominent among which is war Not only does anger play a significant part in the outbreak of the First Illyrian War but Carthaginian anger is identified as one of the causes of the Second Punic War and Aetolian anger lies behind Romersquos war with Antiochus III99 In some ways of course this is not surprising given that Polybius is writing history not philosophy but it does mean that he is offering a different more interactive angle on emotions in general and anger in particular

among the lsquoessentially social emotionsrsquo which he divides into emotions of comparison (such as envy) and emotions of interaction (such as anger) 95 Parkinson lsquoEmotionsrsquo (n 94 above) 677 the communicative agenda he suggests might be lsquotake me seriously and give me the respect I deserversquo 96 Plb 28 A Eckstein Rome enters the Greek east from anarchy to hierarchy in the Hellenistic Mediterranean 230-170 BC (Oxford 2008) 40 suggests that such angry exchanges were typical in ancient diplomacy 97 Plb 15171-2 98 Plb 2311 drawing a contrast with the harmonious Attalids 99 Plb 3105 371-2 on both P S Derow lsquoHistorical explanation Polybius and his predecessorsrsquo in Greek historiography ed S Hornblower (Oxford 1994) 73-90 (87-89) For Polybiusrsquo unfavourable view of the Aetolians Champion Cultural politics (n 52 above) 129-37



If we return briefly to those Greek attempts to turn aside Roman anger discussed in sections 2 and 3 above it can be seen that in these cases anger occurs mostly (though not always) as part of a longstanding relationship100 The Aetolians Rhodians Achaeans and others are all people who would have counted themselves as friends of the Romans and then suddenly find the relationship in jeopardy As such anger could here be seen as a response to ingratitude reflecting the blurred nature of Roman rule on the one hand the Romans are friends on the other hand they are rulers When Prusias fails to obey all Roman orders the Romans renounce their friendship and alliance and pointedly leave him and make their way to Attalus101 The language of friendship and estrangement thus overlays the reality of power and enforcement102 6 Livy reading Polybius

One of Polybiusrsquo readers was the Roman historian Livy who made extensive use of his Greek predecessor in his own account of the Roman conquest of the eastern Mediterranean Where the two survive it is clear that Livy followed Polybius fairly closely so it should be instructive to see how Livy handles the theme of the anger of the Romans103 It offers an opportunity to compare Greek and Roman treatments of anger especially as Livy makes considerable use of the language of anger Harris reports 321 uses of ira and 61 uses of irascor making it he says a lsquoleitmotifrsquo of Livyrsquos history104 But when the two historians are compared the results are surprising Where Polybius writes of Roman anger Livy has virtually nothing to say about it at all

In Polybius the Aetolians turn to the Athenians and Rhodians asking them to intercede on their behalf to deliver them from the anger of the Romans In Livy there is much of the same information and the idea of παραιτέομαι continues in Livyrsquos reference to prayers (preces) but the anger of the Romans has disappeared105 This could be dismissed as chance but when we reach the meeting in the Senate where the Athenians speak the anger of the Romans has again gone even though Livy follows certain aspects of the Polybian speech closely ndash for instance he uses the same lengthy storm simile that Polybius does106 Another incident considered earlier was Manliusrsquo encounter with the ambassadors

100 Moagetes is an exception as Cibyra appears to have had no earlier relationship with Rome cf E S Gruen The Hellenistic world and the coming of Rome (Berkeley 1984) 731-33 101 Plb 33125 102 Cf P J Burton Friendship and empire Roman diplomacy and imperialism in the Middle Republic (353-146 BC) (Cambridge 2011) esp 246-99 on the breakdown of friendship 103 On Livyrsquos use of Polybius note especially H Traumlnkle Livius und Polybios (Basel 1977) and most recently J Briscoe lsquoSome misunderstandings of Polybius in Livyrsquo in Polybius and his world ed B Gibson and T Harrison (n 84 above) 117-24 104 Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 15 cf 216-17 105 Plb 21259-10 Livy 3836-7 Trankle Livius und Polybios (n 103 above) 91-93 looks at the way Livy abridges Polybius here but neither he nor J Briscoe A commentary on Livy books 38-40 (Oxford 2008) 34-35 notes this particular contrast 106 Plb 21317-15 Livy 38104-6 Briscoe Commentary on Livy (n 105 above) 53 observes various ways in which Livy has adapted the speech found in Polybius but not the absence of anger



of Moagetes where again despite an almost identical narrative Roman anger has gone The phrase lsquoalarmed by this display of angerrsquo (καταπλαγέντες τὴν ἐπίφασιν τῆς ὀργῆς) is replaced by lsquoalarmed by this speechrsquo (perturbati hac voce)107 It is not always possible to make a comparison The Ilian intervention on behalf of the Lycians is not included by Livy nor is Metellusrsquo visit to the Achaean League

Only in the case of the falling out between Rhodes and Rome at the time of the Third Macedonian War does Livy make mention of Roman anger Comparison with Polybius is difficult here because of the large gaps in Polybiusrsquo narrative and because the text of Livy itself comes to an end in 168 during the telling of this dispute At those points where Polybius gives us Roman anger it is again absent from Livy where the latter survives But Livy does say that an arrogant speech by the Rhodians offering to mediate a peace settlement provoked anger in the Senate His initial reference to this is very personal in tone so it is unclear whether or not Livy is reflecting Polybius here he writes lsquoI am certain that even now it is not possible to read or hear these statements without indignation (sine indignatione) from this one can judge what the attitude of the Senate was as it listenedrsquo Later referring back to this speech he reminds his readers of lsquothe great anger of the Senatersquo (ingens ira patrum)108 What is clear however is that in contrast to Polybius the perspective here is firmly Roman and the reason for anger is given Rhodian arrogance

What does disappear in Livy however are those instances where the perspective is non-Roman where others are looking at the Romans and considering them to be angry This surely reflects Livyrsquos identification with Rome as ruler rather than with the subjects of Rome Thus he does not write about how anxious the Rhodians were to be relieved of the anger of the Romans but rather his concern is with how justified Roman anger was Where anger is especially prominent in Livyrsquos text is in the early books covering the regal period and the development of the Republic Much of the anger on display here is an expression of divisions within the state rather than directed outwardly whether it is Romulus killing Remus Tarquinius fuming at those overthrowing him the Senate deciding not to return royal property or numerous episodes in the conflict of the orders where the plebeians in particular are prone to anger109

The differences between Polybius and Livy may have been a consequence not only of a change of perspective and focus but also of the different social and intellectual environments in which the two were writing By the first century BC Roman writers were absorbing Greek philosophical ideas about the appropriateness of anger and that may in turn have influenced thinking about how to govern ndash and of course by Livyrsquos time the relationship with the Greek east was very much one of government rather than conquest Certainly the incompatibility of anger and government whether in Rome or beyond occurs in a number of late Republican texts Around 60 BC Cicero wrote a letter to his brother

107 Plb 2134 Livy 38148-9 neither Trankle Livius und Polybios (n 103 above) 106-09 nor Briscoe Commentary on Livy (n 105 above) 63-64 comments on this difference but it is noted by P G Walsh Livy Book XXXVIII (Warminster 1993) 141 108 Livy 441413 14354 cited by Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) see section 1 above 109 Romulus Livy 172 Tarquinius 26 Senate 251 Plebeians 235 242 2552 Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 216 notes that books 2 and 8 score particularly highly on the anger terms ira iracundia and irascor (43 and 29 instances respectively)



Quintus offering advice on how to govern the province of Asia Quintusrsquo main character fault Cicero opines is a tendency to anger a fault that was frowned upon in private life and even less desirable in a holder of high office Making reference to the works of learned men Cicero writes at length about how anger should be avoided or at least restrained110 The application of anger theory to the political sphere is also to be seen in Cicerorsquos De officiis a treatise influenced by the Stoic philosopher Panaetius Here after criticizing the Peripatetics for praising anger Cicero writes lsquoBut in truth anger is in all matters to be rejected and it should be hoped that those who are in charge of the republic are like the laws which are led to inflict punishment not through anger (iracundia) but through fairnessrsquo111 The unacceptability of anger among those who hold office is signalled also in the speech of Caesar in Sallustrsquos Bellum Catilinae lsquowhat is said in others to be anger (iracundia) is called arrogance and cruelty in the powerfulrsquo112 It may be that it is not merely a Roman perspective that Livy is offering but that he is influenced by arguments and opinions such as these which suggest that anger and government do not go together well

Nonetheless my main concern in this paper has been with Polybius whose approach to anger betrays little of contemporary philosophical debates The focus of these debates tended to be on the internal character of anger whereas Polybius is interested in how anger plays out in the relationships between the protagonists of his history He shows how from the subjectrsquos perspective at least anger and empire go together not least when that ruler is a barbarian Consequently as the Romans come to wield power in the Greek world so they are increasingly viewed as angry Greeks faced with the anger of the ruler must then try to bring it to an end and re-establish good relations but the onus is on them to achieve this Polybiusrsquo own success in achieving this was there inscribed on stone in Megalopolis for all to see University of Edinburgh

110 Cic ad Q Fr 1137-40 on which Harris Restraining rage (n 7 above) 204-06 111 Cic Off 189 112 Sall Cat 5114 lsquoquae apud alios iracundia dicitur ea in imperio superbia atque crudelitas appellaturrsquo



00x-erskine-03pdf

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ltFEFF004200720075006700200069006e0064007300740069006c006c0069006e006700650072006e0065002000740069006c0020006100740020006f007000720065007400740065002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400650072002c0020006400650072002000620065006400730074002000650067006e006500720020007300690067002000740069006c002000700072006500700072006500730073002d007500640073006b007200690076006e0069006e00670020006100660020006800f8006a0020006b00760061006c0069007400650074002e0020004400650020006f007000720065007400740065006400650020005000440046002d0064006f006b0075006d0065006e0074006500720020006b0061006e002000e50062006e00650073002000690020004100630072006f00620061007400200065006c006c006500720020004100630072006f006200610074002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020006f00670020006e0079006500720065002egt DEU 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 ESP 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 ETI 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 FRA 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 GRE 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 HEB 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 HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 50 i kasnijim verzijama) HUN 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 ITA 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 JPN ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt LTH 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 LVI 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 NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 POL 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 PTB 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 RUM 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 RUS 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 SKY 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 SLV 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 TUR ltFEFF005900fc006b00730065006b0020006b0061006c006900740065006c0069002000f6006e002000790061007a006401310072006d00610020006200610073006b013100730131006e006100200065006e0020006900790069002000750079006100620069006c006500630065006b002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002000620065006c00670065006c0065007200690020006f006c0075015f007400750072006d0061006b0020006900e70069006e00200062007500200061007900610072006c0061007201310020006b0075006c006c0061006e0131006e002e00200020004f006c0075015f0074007500720075006c0061006e0020005000440046002000620065006c00670065006c0065007200690020004100630072006f006200610074002000760065002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000200076006500200073006f006e0072006100730131006e00640061006b00690020007300fc007200fc006d006c00650072006c00650020006100e70131006c006100620069006c00690072002egt UKR 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 ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 50 and later) gtgt Namespace [ (Adobe) (Common) (10) ] OtherNamespaces [ ltlt AsReaderSpreads false CropImagesToFrames true ErrorControl WarnAndContinue FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false IncludeGuidesGrids false IncludeNonPrinting false IncludeSlug false Namespace [ (Adobe) (InDesign) (40) ] OmitPlacedBitmaps false OmitPlacedEPS false OmitPlacedPDF false SimulateOverprint Legacy gtgt ltlt AddBleedMarks false AddColorBars false AddCropMarks false AddPageInfo false AddRegMarks false ConvertColors ConvertToCMYK DestinationProfileName () DestinationProfileSelector DocumentCMYK Downsample16BitImages true FlattenerPreset ltlt PresetSelector MediumResolution gtgt FormElements false GenerateStructure false IncludeBookmarks false IncludeHyperlinks false IncludeInteractive false IncludeLayers false IncludeProfiles false MultimediaHandling UseObjectSettings Namespace [ (Adobe) (CreativeSuite) (20) ] PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector DocumentCMYK PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling UseDocumentProfile UseDocumentBleed false gtgt ]gtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [2400 2400] PageSize [612000 792000]gtgt setpagedevice

ltlt ASCII85EncodePages false AllowTransparency false AutoPositionEPSFiles true AutoRotatePages None Binding Left CalGrayProfile (Dot Gain 20) CalRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-21) CalCMYKProfile (US Web Coated 050SWOP051 v2) sRGBProfile (sRGB IEC61966-21) CannotEmbedFontPolicy Error CompatibilityLevel 14 CompressObjects Tags CompressPages true ConvertImagesToIndexed true PassThroughJPEGImages true CreateJobTicket false DefaultRenderingIntent Default DetectBlends true DetectCurves 00000 ColorConversionStrategy CMYK DoThumbnails false EmbedAllFonts true EmbedOpenType false ParseICCProfilesInComments true EmbedJobOptions true DSCReportingLevel 0 EmitDSCWarnings false EndPage -1 ImageMemory 1048576 LockDistillerParams false MaxSubsetPct 100 Optimize true OPM 1 ParseDSCComments true ParseDSCCommentsForDocInfo true PreserveCopyPage true PreserveDICMYKValues true PreserveEPSInfo true PreserveFlatness true PreserveHalftoneInfo false PreserveOPIComments true PreserveOverprintSettings true StartPage 1 SubsetFonts true TransferFunctionInfo Apply UCRandBGInfo Preserve UsePrologue false ColorSettingsFile () AlwaysEmbed [ true ] NeverEmbed [ true ] AntiAliasColorImages false CropColorImages true ColorImageMinResolution 300 ColorImageMinResolutionPolicy OK DownsampleColorImages true ColorImageDownsampleType Bicubic ColorImageResolution 300 ColorImageDepth -1 ColorImageMinDownsampleDepth 1 ColorImageDownsampleThreshold 150000 EncodeColorImages true ColorImageFilter DCTEncode AutoFilterColorImages true ColorImageAutoFilterStrategy JPEG ColorACSImageDict ltlt QFactor 015 HSamples [1 1 1 1] VSamples [1 1 1 1] gtgt ColorImageDict ltlt QFactor 015 HSamples [1 1 1 1] VSamples [1 1 1 1] gtgt JPEG2000ColorACSImageDict ltlt TileWidth 256 TileHeight 256 Quality 30 gtgt JPEG2000ColorImageDict ltlt TileWidth 256 TileHeight 256 Quality 30 gtgt AntiAliasGrayImages false CropGrayImages true GrayImageMinResolution 300 GrayImageMinResolutionPolicy OK DownsampleGrayImages true GrayImageDownsampleType Bicubic GrayImageResolution 300 GrayImageDepth -1 GrayImageMinDownsampleDepth 2 GrayImageDownsampleThreshold 150000 EncodeGrayImages true GrayImageFilter DCTEncode AutoFilterGrayImages true GrayImageAutoFilterStrategy JPEG GrayACSImageDict ltlt QFactor 015 HSamples [1 1 1 1] VSamples [1 1 1 1] gtgt GrayImageDict ltlt QFactor 015 HSamples [1 1 1 1] VSamples [1 1 1 1] gtgt JPEG2000GrayACSImageDict ltlt TileWidth 256 TileHeight 256 Quality 30 gtgt JPEG2000GrayImageDict ltlt TileWidth 256 TileHeight 256 Quality 30 gtgt AntiAliasMonoImages false CropMonoImages true MonoImageMinResolution 1200 MonoImageMinResolutionPolicy OK DownsampleMonoImages true MonoImageDownsampleType Bicubic MonoImageResolution 1200 MonoImageDepth -1 MonoImageDownsampleThreshold 150000 EncodeMonoImages true MonoImageFilter CCITTFaxEncode MonoImageDict ltlt K -1 gtgt AllowPSXObjects false CheckCompliance [ None ] PDFX1aCheck false PDFX3Check false PDFXCompliantPDFOnly false PDFXNoTrimBoxError true PDFXTrimBoxToMediaBoxOffset [ 000000 000000 000000 000000 ] PDFXSetBleedBoxToMediaBox true PDFXBleedBoxToTrimBoxOffset [ 000000 000000 000000 000000 ] PDFXOutputIntentProfile () PDFXOutputConditionIdentifier () PDFXOutputCondition () PDFXRegistryName () PDFXTrapped False CreateJDFFile false Description ltlt ARA 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 BGR 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 CHS ltFEFF4f7f75288fd94e9b8bbe5b9a521b5efa7684002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002065876863900275284e8e9ad88d2891cf76845370524d53705237300260a853ef4ee54f7f75280020004100630072006f0062006100740020548c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee553ca66f49ad87248672c676562535f00521b5efa768400200050004400460020658768633002gt CHT ltFEFF4f7f752890194e9b8a2d7f6e5efa7acb7684002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002065874ef69069752865bc9ad854c18cea76845370524d5370523786557406300260a853ef4ee54f7f75280020004100630072006f0062006100740020548c002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee553ca66f49ad87248672c4f86958b555f5df25efa7acb76840020005000440046002065874ef63002gt CZE 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 DAN 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 DEU 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 ESP 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 ETI 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 FRA 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 GRE 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 HEB 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 HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 50 i kasnijim verzijama) HUN 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 ITA 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 JPN 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maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 POL 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POLYBIUS AND THE ANGER OF THE ROMANS

ANDREW ERSKINE 1 Introduction

Towards the end of his history Polybius describes the fiasco of the Achaean War in the 140s which led to the Roman sack of Corinth and the dissolution of the Achaean League Polybius has nothing but contempt for the Achaean leaders at the time and has no hesitation in saying so He himself was not long back from a lengthy period of detention in Rome making him a suitable person to mediate between Greeks and Romans in the aftermath of the war1 It is his representation of his own actions that is of interest here He draws a distinction between writing history and political action A historian must value the truth above all but in real life so to speak there has to be more flexibility there are circumstances when it is necessary to be partial to make clear your allegiance and support a cause As he puts it

κατὰ μὲν γὰρ τοὺς τῶν περιστάσεων καιροὺς καθήκει βοηθεῖν τοὺς Ἕλληνας ὄντας τοῖς Ἕλλησι κατὰ πάντα τρόπον τὰ μὲν ἀμύνοντας τὰ δὲ περιστέλλοντας

τὰ δὲ παραιτουμένους τὴν τῶν κρατούντων ὀργήνmiddot ὅπερ ἡμεῖς ἐπ᾽ αὐτῶν τῶν πραγμάτων ἐποιήσαμεν ἀληθινῶς

In times of danger it is proper that those who are Greeks help the Greeks in every way whether by giving support by concealing faults or by pleading for deliverance from the anger of those in power This is something that I myself actually did at the time of these events2

So as a historian Polybius is highly critical of the Achaeans but as a politician at the time of the crisis he took the side of his people In particular he sought to plead for deliverance from the anger of those in power (ἡ τῶν κρατούντων ὀργή) that is to say the anger of the Romans This is an arresting way of representing the relationship between Rome and Achaea especially for a historian who is often considered to be very pragmatic and utilitarian one who sees power in terms of the ability to enforce obedience Rome he

In addition to being read at the Tallahassee conference this paper was also given to the Oxford Emotions workshop I am grateful to John Marincola for impersonating me at the first reading to Angelos Chaniotis Daniel King and Criacutestobal Paacutegan Caacutenovas for comments at the second and to Douglas Cairns for his careful reading of the draft version 1 A Erskine lsquoPolybius among the Romans life in the Cyclopsrsquo caversquo in Imperialism cultural politics and Polybius ed C Smith and L Yarrow (Oxford 2012) 17-32 on detention and return 2 Plb 3847 for Polybiusrsquo actions see Plb 393-5 Plut Philop 21 D Baronowski Polybius and Roman imperialism (London 2011) 135-37

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Edinburgh Research Explorer · POLYBIUS AND THE ANGER OF THE ROMANS*. ANDREW ERSKINE . 1....

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