DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 391 485 IR 017 638

AUTHOR Schiffman, Carole B.TITLE Visually Translating Educational Materials for Ethnic

Populations.PUB DATE [95]

NOTE 13p.; In: Eyes on the Future: Converging Images,Ideas, and Instruction. Selected Readings from theAnnual Conference of the International VisualLiteracy Association (27th, Chicago, IL, October18-22, 1995); see IR 017 629. Contains figures wilichmay not reproduce clearly.

PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom Use (055)Speeches/Conference Papers (150)

EDRS PRICE MFOI/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Behavior Standards; Comprehension; Concept Formation;

*Cultural Differences; Cultural Relevance; *EthnicGroups; Illiteracy; *Instructional Materials;Minority Groups; Misconceptions; Older Adults;*Printed Materials; Social Behavior; *Visual Aids;*Visual Literacy

IDENTIFIERS *Design Research; Health Hazards; Legibility;Multicultural Materials

ABSTRACTGrowing populations of older adults, ethnic

minorities, and the low-literate create unique concerns for thedesign of visual informatiori. Those for whom text presents a barrierwill respond most to legibility, use of familiar formats and symbols,and simplification. Guidelines for those processes are needed, andthis paper, in particular, identifies principles for designing andevaluating visual components of educational materials for ethnicpopulations in the United States. Educational print materials forethnic populations on food safety were solicited from over 50organizations. Guidelines that emerged from that study include, butare not limited to: (1) use pastels and very true-to-life skin toneswhen possible; (2) avoid using randomly decorative symbols; (3) beaware that symbols like the skull and crossbones, which Americansconsider universally recognizable, sometimes fail to communicate toother cultures; (4) use appealing typestyles; (5) reflect culturalnorms in the design, like including a wedding ring on the finger of apregnant Hispanic woman; (7) be alert to cultural differences ingestures and facial expressions; (8) stick to everyday situationswhen attempting to depict lifestyles; (9) keep silhouettes to aminimum, since they may suggest concealment or evil; and (10) arrangethe message in logical sequence and proportional scale. (Contains 17figures and 49 references.) (BEW)

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

OlficeolEftcfwonaiReseerchancimvrovernemEDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION

CENTER (ERIC)O This document has been reproduced as

received from the person or organization

originating it.

O Minor changes have been made to

improve reproduction quality

Points of view or opinions statLd in this

document do not necessarily represent

official OERI position or policy

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

Alice D. Walker

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

Visually Translating EducationalMaterials for Ethnic Populations

Carole B. Schiffman

Introduction

Population TrendsThe composition of our population is

changing. By 2010, the number of people over55 will climb by 34 percent. More foreign-bornpeople were reported entering the United Statesbetween 1985 and 1990 than in any previousfive-year period since 1960 (U.S. Bureau of theCensus, 1994, 1995), and results of a 1992National Adult Literacy Survey indicated that21 to 23 percent of adults in the U.S.demonstrate the lowest level of literacy (Kirsch,Jungblut, Jenkins, & Kolstad, 1993).Communication experts assert that thisdiversity, or fragmentation of the massaudience, signals the decline of mass media asa vehicle by which to reach audiences (Wilcox,Ault & Agee, 1992).

Print Materials andthe Importance of Visuals

While encumbered by challenges, printmaterials continue to be a primary format foreducation materials. Unlike many newtechnologies, they can be easily tailored to theneeds of special audiences (Zimmerman M..Newton, N., Frumin, L. & Wittet, S.)

In a society that is becomingincreasingly visually oriented (Wilcox, et al..1992) and diverse, few appreciate the criticalrole of visual literacy. A recognition of the needfor effective and appropriate visuals in

67

educational materials is necessary to the futuresuccess of public service education.Fragmented by the needs of a diversepopulation, funds no longer reach as far, andwe cannot afford to waste resources onineffective materials.

Special NeedsEach of the three growing special

populations, senior, ethnic and low-literate,carries with it special needs regardinginformation design. and specifically, visuals.For seniors, failing sight makes issues oflegibility critical, and a decreased ability toprocess and comprehend complex verbalinformation quickly can increase the importanceof visual messages. For ethnic populations.differences in familiarity with and affinity forcertain types of visuals can mean the differencebetween receptivity and irrelevance:comprehension and confusion. For verballlow-literate populations. text itself is likel topresent a greater barrier than visuals, andreading difficulties make legibility important.

Educators and designers haveincreasingly attempted to target materials byeducational level. Guidelines for the design oflegible information are well documented(Paterson & Tinker, 1931; Felker, Pickering,Charrow. Holland & Redish, 1981), andrecommendations for the simplification of te.tand visuals is widely available (Doak et al..1985; Zimmerman, et al.,1989). However.

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information pertaining to design based oncultural differences of populations in the U.S.is not easily isolated from the literature.

As a result, verbal translations, as inthe six brochures on the food label (see figures1.1 through 1.6) stop short of visual translations.We have failed miserably at demographicallydescribing and targeting our audience by visualliteracy and sometimes to even recognize adifference. Yet visual messages, like verbalmessages are not inherently self-explanatory(Fugelsang, 1973; Wileman. 1991) nor are theynecessarily cross-culturally appropriate. Whatis needed in information design today areguidelines for designing or evaluating visualsfor those who are culturally "differently visuallyliterate" from the dominant population; not justa simplification of information.

Comprehension and PreferenceA recognition as well as appreciation

of v isuals can be dependent on familiarity(Crone & Moos, 1991). Recognition of imagesdoes not guarantee comprehension (NDS, n.d.;Wileman, 1991) and comprehension does notguarantee preference.

Nely Galan, president of a newentertainment business targeted toward theHispanic market, notes that Latinos are part ofa distinctly different visual culture from otherAmericans (Garcia. 1994). Such differencesmust be taken into account for each audience.She claims that "[Latinos are] a status-orientedsociety, and to Latin Americans black-and-whiteequals flea market. In the U.S., you can launch

a whole channel of black-and-white movies andcall it American Movie Classics."

Purpose and ObjectivesWhile information design guidance for

low-literate populations usually addressesissues of cultural sensitivity to a limited extent.the emphasis is largely on simplification ratherthan adaptation. On the other end of thespectrum. designers of visual materials indeveloping countries may be attentive tocultural differences (Moynihan & Mukherjee,1981; Rana, 1990; Zimmer & Zimmer, 1978:Zimmerman, et al., 1989), but guidance isgenerally meant for working with pictoriallylow- or even il-literate populations. They failto directly address the needs of the ethnic peoplein a new culture.

This paper identifies guidelines fordesigning and evaluating visual components ofeducational materials for ethnic populations inthe U.S. Relevant principles from relatedresearch with verbally low-literate populationsin developed countries and visual literacy indeveloping countries will be used as a basis forthe guidelines.

Food safety, nutrition and related healthmaterials have been cited as examples withinthe text, as the nature of my work at the U.S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA) offers megood access to them.

To supplement this review, results fromfocus group tests on materials developed for anethnic population in the U.S. are cited.

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Concurrent with a growing need foiculturally relevant materials in the U.S.,developing countries have increasinglyrequested assistance from the U.S. in food safetyeducation as they institute food control systems.In response, a review of food safety educationalmaterials for ethnic populations in the U.S. andfor consumers in developing countries wasconducted to see if such materials could beadapted and shared to meet the needs both, ofrefugees in the U.S. and consumers indeveloping countries.

It should not be implied from this paperthat every project need address every visualtranslation guideline, but that designers shouldbe aware of visual blunders, and following someguidelines may facilitate communication crosscultural bounds. They may be seen as "redflags", or reminders, for editing purposes.Certain guidelines will be more important atcertain times. Rana (1990) claims that a guidewith broad generalizations, or instructions foradaptations of visuals to incorporate localvariations and educational levels, can bedeveloped and used to save project time,resources and money. I hope to provide a kernelof what could be used as such a guide.

Research

Literature ReviewA literature search was conducted to

identify research relating to visualcommunication and ethnic populations.Information retrieved focused primarily ondeveloping health education materials for low-literate audiences (especially in the U.S.) anddeveloping visual health education materials indeveloping countries.

Focus Group TestsA series of focus group tests during

development of a poster for Mexican-Americanwomen were performed by the FDA in 1992.Eight metropolitan areas across the U.S. and inPuerto Rico served as sites for approximately200 respondents.

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Initially, eight posters illustrating thefollowing message were designed. Most ofthese designs, however, were eliminated priorto testing based on many 'of the principlesidentified in this paper. Four new variationswere subsequently designed and tested (seefigures 2.1 through 2.4). These posters variedin image content, colors, symbols, layout, etc.Differences in text, language, headings, and thedisplay of English and/or Spanish text weretested as well.

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Although materials for this project werenot translated, but designed directly for theHispanic population, the study is relevant to thispaper in that over twelve variations wereproduced before identifying (the cornponentNof) one that was likely to be successful. Thisexcercise in revisions highlights the need forcross-cultural design guidelines.

Materials SearchOver fifty organizations were contacted

to request educational print material. (poster.,brochures, pamphlets. flyers. booklet.) on food

safety and related subjects for ethnicpopulations in the U.S. and for consumers indeveloping, countries. These were reviewed andcompared for similarities and differences (FDAcomparative study).

Findings and Guidelines

Symbols and CodesRepresentations of images, concepts

and actions are based on pictorial conventions.Fugelsang (1973) states that such conventionsare abstract symbols and therefore, notnecessarily intercultural. Interpretations arelearned. If there is a difference between thecodes of the creators of the signs (i.e., simplicityequals elegance) and the codes of the consumersof the signs (i.e., bright colors, gaudy, busydesigns equals high class) there will be poorcommunication. (Bereer, 1984, pp. 42-3)

Dichter (1964) differentiates betweenthree types of symbols: connotative symbolsare recognizable objects with both manifest andlatent meanings, such as the depiction of amiddle priced car in an upper class ad.Interpretive symbols invite interpretation..., andare concerned with deeper feelings (pp. 443-44). Intentional symbols are obvious symbolsconsciously and conventionally accepted by thepopulation.

With the exception of color, which wastoo difficult to classify as one type of symbol,

ariables are discussed under one of thesesymbol classifications.

ColorColor is both an artistic attribute as well

as a symbol with associated meanings.Preferences may be dependent on cultural andsocial backszrounds (Moynihan & Mukherjee.1981: NDS, n.d.; Pett & Burbank, 1991: Rana.1990; Zimmerman et al., 1989; Zimmerman &Perkin. 1982). and may be influenced by sex.culture. geography, and other demographicaspects of the target audience (Berryman. 1990).Affinity for certain color combinations was

70

evident in FDA focus szroup tests: pastels werepreferred to dark colors and bright colors, as infigures 2.3 and 2.4, were preferred to both darkor pastel colors.

When unsure about what colors to use.it is best to use true to life colors (NDS. n.d.:Rana, 1990), especially when renderiniz skincolor. For example, in India, black and yelloware the colors of a dead body (Moynihan &Mukherjee, 1981). One draft poster from theFDA study, used a skin tone which was too"gray". It was rejected in preliminary one-on-one research.

Intentional Symbols

DecorativeGuard ae.ainst the use of random and

noncommunicatve symbols. such as thosewhich distract from rather than facilitatecommunication (Griffin, Pettersson. Semali andTakakuwa, 1995). The double-helix type designof the dietary euidelines in figures 3.1 and 3.2is an example of a symbol which seems random.

Figures 3.1 and 3.2

LiteralComprehension or preference for such

symbols as crosses, arrows, checkmarks. skullsand cross bones, conversation balloons. etc.should be assessed (Rana. 1990: Zimmerman.et al., 1989; Zimmer & Zimmer, 1978). Theyare sometimes taken for granted as universallyunderstood or typically used (NDS. n.d.). Theskull and crossbones, taken from pirate tales

5

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(Morgan & Welton, 1992) has failed in tests inother cultures. Still, we see them used liberallyacross cultures, as in the lead preventionmaterials in figures 4.1 and 4.2. In the FDAfocus group tests, there was a slight preferencefor the -X" symbol, rather than the circle witha line through it, though both were understood.

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Text Within VisualsEnglish text incorporated within the

visuals., as in the health fraud brochures inEnglish, Spanish, Chinese, and Korean (seefigures 5.1 through 5.4) will not only limitcommunication, but the English becomes anelement of design which readers may view asunfamiliar and irrelevant.

Connotative Symbols

ConceptsThe Quackery brochures in (figure 6.1

and 6.2) represent a conceptual image: a certaintype of black hat upside down connotes toAmericans that it is a magician's hat. Magicfurther implies trickery, which is, in the U.S..synonymous with quackery and fraud. Thequestion is, does this concept translate acrosscultures?

Associative MeaningsIn the series of brochures on lead

poisoning prevention. figures 7.1 and 7.2 use

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an image of the facade of a house on the cover.However, this particular architectural style manot be familiar among an ethnic population.Also, the palladium window may he a symbolof an expensive house unlikely to be prevalentin neighborhoods of refugees and immigrants.

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Figures 7.1-7.2

TypestyleType carries with it meaning in the

style, layout and printing. Tomaselli andTomaselli (1984) chose to use letraset lettersinstead of handwriting for their media graphicson breastfeeding in a developing country. Theyrecognized that, to their audience, this gave thematerial a professional look, appealing tomothers.

Cultural NormsCultural norms, beliefs and customs

should be reflected properly in the message anddesign (Rana, 1990; RicL & Valdivia, 1991).For example, in figure 8 from the FDA fieldtests, care is taken to show the pregnantwoman's wedding ring. Within the Hispanicculture, family is very important, and the factthat the woman is married may be important tocommunicating a message about pregnancy.

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Localizing materials means utilizingthe local material culture within the image, andspecifically, familiar items and objects(McBean, 1989; Pettersson, 1993; Zimmer &Zimmer, 1978; Zimmerman & Perkin, 1982;Zimmerman et al., 1989). Showing details thatare not part of their -eulture, means they maynot see the materials as having relevance tothemselves (Moynihan & Mukherjee, 1981).

For example, the foods shown in theSpanish version of Keep your food safe (figure9.1) should be changed to reflect more culturallyappropriate foods, rather than retaining the samechoices as the American version (figure 9.2).

Figures 9.1 and 9.2

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72

4 FOIS

One of the most conspicuous subjectdifferences reflected by the FDA studycomparing U.S. materials to those of developingcountries involved variations in environmentalsettings. Materials from developing countriesfrequently incorporated outdoor settings withnature in the background. as in figure 10. fromIndia. Plumbing may not exist. handwashingand latrine usage often take place outside, asdoes procurement and even preparation.

In comparison. U.S. materials weretypically set in internal environments, kitchensand other parts of the interior (see figures 11and 12 for Hispanic Americans) and werecompletely devoid of nature. These areexamples of the types of visual issues based onlifestyle which become relevant when adpatingand sharing materials.

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developing countries, COCISUITICrti do not havean understanding of "safe" as it relates to food(FAO, 1993). When food control is not reliable,disease management may be a reality.

Such differences will influence andoften even dictate which images arid visualmessages are appropriate and relevant, and canbecome important considerations whenmiqerials are adapted for other cultures.

Facial RecognitionIt is important to depict people with

whom the viewer can identify (Doak. 1985).In the materials in figures 13.1 through 13.4, itis logical that the same baby cannot lookVietnamese, Portuguese, Haitian, etc., at thesame time. Respondents in the FDA focusgroup tests felt that the woman in figure 2.1did not look "Hispanic". But it is not alwayseasy to depict what we believe a person fromthe culture looks like. The dangers range fromdepicting people with whom our audience donot identify to stereotyping people.

Stereotypical ImagesAvoid stereotypical images that do not

relate to the content of the material. Do not usedecorative images without researching theirproper use and meaning, or inadiertently usethe images and designs in a stereotypical way.

Interpretive Symbols

Visual DialectVisual elements create a feeling

independent of meaning that resonates with theviewer. The socially or culturally influencedvisual language (color, line, shape. value, etc.)is the "visual dialect". It reflects, describes, andexpresses the social and cultural visual worldof the audience, making a piece familiar andcomfortable (Schiffman. 1995).

StyleEach culture has its own art and

graphics (Zimmerman & Perkin. 1982). Adultsin some parts of Asia best understand shaded

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line drawings; silhouettes may be better incertain African communities; and photos maybe more effective in countries wherephotonovelas are used such as Mexico .

In the FDA comparison of materials,cartoons were not used in the U.S. but were used

in some developing countries. There may besome avoidance by illustrators in the U.S. touse cartoons, as they are often perceived aschildren's art. However, this may notnecessarily be so in every population.(Silbermann & Dyroff, 1986, p. 7) Still,appropriate style cartoons should be used atappropriate times. For example.photonovelasare often associated with soap opera-type media,and may be appropriate for issues involving loveand sex, such as contraceptives or AIDS, butnot for food.

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Social Expressions,Body Language und Gesture

Gestures, facial expressions. posture,and personal space may vary across cultures(Morgan & Welton, 1992). They may not

73

necessarily universal in the way they areinterpreted and received (McBean, 1989:Zimmerman & Perkin, 1982; Zimmerman, etal., 1989). Body language, such as the way westand, walk, and sit can be interpreted differentlyby different cultures (Zimmer & Zimmer, 1978).

LifestyleImages should represent everyday

situations for the audience (Rice & Valdivia,1991; Zimmerman. et al., 1989). For example.the image of the couple dressed for a candlelightdinner in a fine restaurant in figure 11 is unlikelyto be a typical situation for a new refugee.

The need to show the correct people inthe correct roles was observed in studies inAfrica where the importance of the grandmotheras a family figure was undermined by depictingher as giving incorrect advice (Tomaselli &Tomaselli, 1984). Zimmerman & Steckel(1985) found that the image of the back of aman sitting in a contraceptive clinic wasdistracting to women. This is identified as"extraneous" detail but is really "inappropriate"detail. In other words, would the back of awoman have been distracting?

In the FDA focus groups, respondentswere asked whether they would prefer to seethe pregnant woman with her husband orwithout. They chose to depict her alone. Thewomen may have viewed pregnancy as awoman's issue.

Images must also be in line with whatpeople believe and understand within theirculture. In the FDA comparative review ofmaterials, the entire conceptual approach tofood safety differed. Developing countriesprimarily focused on "disease" specificall.causes and prevention; U.S. materials focusedon "safety" how to keep food safe. Whereasone is about maintaining the quality of aproduct, the other is about avoiding the harmfulimpact of a product upon the individual. Thesedisparate approaches may reflect principalneeds of the regions and existing know ledge..beliefs and experiences. For example. in

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Realism and AbstractionAbstractions are often culturally

specific and inherently require a greater levelof interpretation than realistic artwork.Stylizations and abstractions representartificially determined depictions of objects ormessages. However, in the FDA comparativestudy of materials, U.S. materials tended towardflat, stylized, abstract images.

SilhouettingSilhouetting is a common technique

among U.S. designers, where they are regardedas slick and simple. Yet they can be interpretedin complex ways. A UNICEF study amongvillagers in Nepal showed that silhouettes werethought to represent a black person, a monster,a devil or a ghost (NDS, n.d.). In the FDA fieldtests with Hispanic-Americans, shadowsilhouettes, as in figure 2.2, were identified withthe devil. They did not appreciate this beinglinked to pregnancy or to the baby. Respondentswere also disturbed by "faceless" faces, as infigure 2.3, and by faces in profile that showedone eye, as in figure 2.4 as these were thoughtto imply that they had something to hide.

Context vs. ConfusionDepicting parts of images out of

context, such as isolated parts of the body.should be used cautiously (Doak, et al., 1985;Moynihan & Mukherjee. 1981; Rana, 1990;Zimmerman et al., 1989). For example, seriesof brochures in figures 14.1 through 14.4 forEnglish-speaking, Vietnamese, Korean, 'andPuerto Rican groups may not be a universallyconventional way of depicting a baby in utero.Generally, it is best to retain detail which is notdistracting (McBean, 1989; Pettersson, 1993;Rana, 1990; Zimmerman, et al., 1989), but putsthe image in context (Moynihan & Mukherjee,1981; Zimmerman & Perkin, 1982).

Visual SyntaxThe relation of the picture's visual

elements to each other is visual syntax (Zimmer& Zimmer, 1978). It can encompass scale,dimension, time, motion and change.Browsing through magazines for Hispanic

75

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audiences, a cultural affinity for certain visualsyntax is apparent. There is a busy-ness andboldness in Hispanic printed material, whichNely Galan recognizes and captures in her work(Garcia, 1995). Arrangement ;ind organizationcan also be defined by symmetry or grids(Zimmer & Zimmer, 1978).

SequenceMessages should be arranged in a

sequence that is logical and prefened 11 theaudience. Viewers may he used to reading inanother language which follows a differentdirection, such as Arabic or Chinese (Doak et

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al. '085). Where photonovelas are popular,sequencing conventions may already exist.

PerspectiveVanishing point perspective is a

European-constructed convention (Fugelsang,1973: Morgan & Welton, 1992; Rana, 1990;Zimmer & Zimmer, 1978). Asian art and classicEgyptian art are good examples of differencesin representation of perspective. The use of suchdifferent pictorial conventions may not meanthat only one is understood, but rather that oneis more familiar and comfortable than another.

ScaleObjects depicted way out of scale,

especially smaller to larger, such as insects orgerms as in figure 15, can be misconstrued orconfusing (Moynihan & Mukherjee, 1981).

Fi2ure 15

FramingAll pictures show three dimensions in

two and crop the view at arbitrary borders(Zimmer & Zimmer, 1978). Images may becontained within frames on the page, may haveno frame, or may bleed off the page.

In the FDA comparative review ofmaterials, differences in framing were evident.Visual scope in developing countries tended tobe more inclusive, illustrated within the contextof part of a scene, or at least included the handsof a person, as in figure 16 from El Salvador.

U.S. materials more often containedisolated images of specific foods or actions. notset within a scenic context, showing foodsindependent of human interaction as in figure17. Again, this may reflect the fact that

76

Figure 16

Figure 17

Pinche el polio con un tenedor. Si losjugos son claros es serial de que yaestá bien cocido: si son de colorrosado, necesita más cocimiemo.

El pescado tambien dehe cocinarsccompletamente. Si al tocarlo con untenedor se separa cn escarnas y a estzllisto.

processing is primarily done in commercialplants. and the consumer's role in food handlingis diminished.

Layout of TextWhen text is translated into other

languages, word length changes (Spanish islonger) and layout and design must be adjustedto accommodate any additional clutter of text.

Conclusions

Visually translating health educationalmaterials will be critical to the success ofcommunication efforts, particularly as ourpopulation continues to change ethnically andless developed countries continue to develop.By understanding the types of issues which

become relevant when designing materialsacross cultures, we can avoid communicationblunders and repeated field tests. We can moreaccurately evaluate the potential success ofexisting materials among different cultures andedit design elements based on reason, ratherthan persorml taste.

This study leaves a number of areasopen for future research. Comparativeempirical tests of performance based on visuallyuntranslated versus visually translatededucational materials should be done. It wouldalso be interesting to find out how visual culturechanges and is adopted by ethnic populations.Do they retain certain aspects of visual culturemore fervently than others? Which types ofsymbols are adopted first intentional,connotative or interpretive? Are interpretivesymbols as important as intentional symbols tothe success of the communication effort?Finally, visual literacies are continually intransition, and exposure to and adoption of newmedia and media styles is inevitable.Absorption of the new culture is unlikely to belinear or predictable, but rather erratic andselective. How do people reinvent, as a group,new types of cultural expressions of the oldworld view within the new?

Visual translation needs will continueto become more important as our populationcontinues to change. New populations willalways carry greater demands for public serviceeducation. The more effective ourcommunication efforts are, the greater ourimpact will be.

The views presented in this paper are solely the viewsQf the author and do not necessarily represent those

af FDA.

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