ED 383 683 SP 036 023 AUTHOR Darling-Hammond, …DOCUMENT RESUME ED 383 683 SP 036 023 AUTHOR...

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DOCUMENT RESUME ED 383 683 SP 036 023 AUTHOR Darling-Hammond, Linda, Ed.; Cobb, Velma L., Ed. TITLE Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members: A Comparative Study. INSTITUTION Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat (Singapore).; Department of Education, Washington, DC. Office of the Under Secretary. REPORT NO APEC-95-HR-01.1; ED/OUS-95-22 PUB DATE May 95 NOTE 248p.; Published for the APEC Education Forum, Human Resources Development Working Group by the U.S. Department of Education. PUB TYPE Collected Works General (020) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Beginning Teacher Induction; Comparative Education; Elementary Secondary Education; *Faculty Development; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; *Inservice Teacher Education; Preschool Education; *Preservice Teacher Education; Student Teaching; Teacher Certification; Teacher Characteristics; Teacher Distribution; *Teacher Education Programs; Teacher Employment; Teacher Salaries; Teacher Shortage; Teacher Supply and Demand; *Teaching (Occupat!.on) IDENTIFIERS Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation; Australia; Brunei; Canada; China; Hong Kong; Japan; Korea; Malaysia; New Zealand; Singapore; Taiwan (Taipei); United States ABSTRACT This document is the final report of Phase I of a comparative study of teacher-training practices among 12 nation members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The purposes of the study were to: (1) provide concrete, comparable descriptions of teacher-preparation systems useful to educators, researchers, and policymakers in all APEC member countries; (2) identify the key issues and challenges facing members with respect to teacher preparation and professional development; and (3) identify practices conducive to preparing teachers whose vision and methods of teaching enable students to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The reports prepared by the APEC members, following a common framework, describe each member s teaching force and labor-market conditions, teacher-preparation programs, licensing provisions, induction practices or internships, and ongoing professional development for teachers. An introductory section, "Highlights of the Study," summarizes the similarities and differences among the 12 nations. Chapter 1 is "Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members: An Overview of Policy and Practice" (submitted by Office of the Under Secretary, U. S. Department of Education; prepared by V. L. Cobb, L. Darling-Hammond, and K. Murangi). Chapters 2 through 13 are the individual reports on teacher training and professional development from the participating countries: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, and the United States. (ND)

Transcript of ED 383 683 SP 036 023 AUTHOR Darling-Hammond, …DOCUMENT RESUME ED 383 683 SP 036 023 AUTHOR...

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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 383 683 SP 036 023

AUTHOR Darling-Hammond, Linda, Ed.; Cobb, Velma L., Ed.

TITLE Teacher Preparation and Professional Development inAPEC Members: A Comparative Study.

INSTITUTION Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat(Singapore).; Department of Education, Washington,DC. Office of the Under Secretary.

REPORT NO APEC-95-HR-01.1; ED/OUS-95-22PUB DATE May 95NOTE 248p.; Published for the APEC Education Forum, Human

Resources Development Working Group by the U.S.Department of Education.

PUB TYPE Collected Works General (020)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC10 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Beginning Teacher Induction; Comparative Education;

Elementary Secondary Education; *Faculty Development;Foreign Countries; Higher Education; *InserviceTeacher Education; Preschool Education; *PreserviceTeacher Education; Student Teaching; TeacherCertification; Teacher Characteristics; TeacherDistribution; *Teacher Education Programs; TeacherEmployment; Teacher Salaries; Teacher Shortage;Teacher Supply and Demand; *Teaching (Occupat!.on)

IDENTIFIERS Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation; Australia; Brunei;Canada; China; Hong Kong; Japan; Korea; Malaysia; NewZealand; Singapore; Taiwan (Taipei); United States

ABSTRACTThis document is the final report of Phase I of a

comparative study of teacher-training practices among 12 nationmembers of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The purposes of thestudy were to: (1) provide concrete, comparable descriptions ofteacher-preparation systems useful to educators, researchers, andpolicymakers in all APEC member countries; (2) identify the keyissues and challenges facing members with respect to teacherpreparation and professional development; and (3) identify practicesconducive to preparing teachers whose vision and methods of teachingenable students to meet the challenges of the 21st century. Thereports prepared by the APEC members, following a common framework,describe each member s teaching force and labor-market conditions,teacher-preparation programs, licensing provisions, inductionpractices or internships, and ongoing professional development forteachers. An introductory section, "Highlights of the Study,"summarizes the similarities and differences among the 12 nations.Chapter 1 is "Teacher Preparation and Professional Development inAPEC Members: An Overview of Policy and Practice" (submitted byOffice of the Under Secretary, U. S. Department of Education;prepared by V. L. Cobb, L. Darling-Hammond, and K. Murangi). Chapters2 through 13 are the individual reports on teacher training andprofessional development from the participating countries: Australia,Brunei Darussalam, Canada, China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Malaysia,New Zealand, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, and the United States.(ND)

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APEC Education Forum

-S,

(2?

TEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN APEC MEMBERS

ASIA - PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This document has been reproauced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.Minor changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in thislocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

711:11 1%; 11. Iti I I I, Y f l p,

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TEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN APEC MEMBERS

A COMPARATIVE STUDY

Edited by

LINDA DARLING-HAMMONDand

VELMA L. COBB

TEACHERS COLLEGE

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

U.S.A.

FOR ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION

APEC EDUCATION FORUM

HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT WORKING GROUP

MAY 1995

PUBLISHFD FOR APEC BY THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

3

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0 APEC 1995

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permissionfrom APEC. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should beaddressed to:

Asia-Pacific riconomic Cooperation Secretariat438 Alexandra Road#19-01/04 Alexandra PointSingapore

APEC Number: #95-HR-01.1

Education Forum Number: EF9

The findings and conclusions presented herein do not necessarily represent theofficial positions or policies of the funders.

4

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Preface

Highlights of the Study

Chapter 1 Teacher Preparation and Professional Development in APEC Members:An Overview of Policy and Practice

SUBMITTED BY: Office of the Under Secretary, U.S. Department ofEducation

PREPARED BY: Velma L. Cobb, Linda Darling-Hammond, andKavemuii Murangi, Teachers College, Columbia University, U.S.A.

vii

1

Chapter 2 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Australia 17

SUBMITTED BY: Teaching Policy Section, Schools and CurriculumDivision, Department of Employment, Education and Training,Canberra, ACT, Australia

Chapter 3 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Brunei Darussalarn 29

SUBMITTED BY: Ministry of Education, Brunei Darussalam

Chapter 4 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Canada 35

PREPARED BY: Louise Bussiere, Ministry of Education, Quebec,Canada

Chapter 5 Teacher Training and Professional Development in China 57

SUBMITTED BY: Department of Teacher Education, State EducationCommission, People's Republic of China

Chapter 6 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Hong Kong 89

SUBMITTED BY: Education and Manpower Branch, GovernmentSecretariat, Hong Kong

Chapter 7 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Japan 113

SUBMITTED BY: International Affairs Planning Division, Ministry ofEducation, Science, and Culture, Japan

Chapter a Teacher Training and Professional Development in Korea 131

SUBMITTED BY: International Education and Cooperation Division,Ministry of Education, Republic of Korea

PREPARED BY: Chung-Wha Suh, College of Education,Hong-Ik University, Republic of Korea

5 III

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iv CONTENTS

Chapter 9 Teacher Training and Professional Development in Malaysia 143

SUBMITTED BY: Teacher Education Division, Ministry of Education,Malaysia

Chapter 10 Teacher Training and Professional Development Practices in 147New Zealand

SUBMITTED BY: Ministry of Education, New Zealand

Chapter 11 APEC Report on Teacher Education and Professional Development:The Case of Singapore

PREPARED BY: Joy Oon Ai Chew and Ruth Yeang Lam Wong,National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,Singapore

179

Chapter 12 Teacher Training in Chinese Taipei 207SUBMITTED BY: Dr. Kuo-shih Yang, Department of Higher Education,

Ministry of EducationPREPARED BY: Bih-jen Fwu, Department of Secondary Education,

Ministry of Education, Chinese Taipei

Chapter 13 The Teaching Profession and Teacher Education in the United States 221

SUBMITTED BY: Office of the Under Secretary, U.S. Department of EducationPREPARED BY: Linda Darling-Hammond and Velma L. Cobb, Teachers College,

Columbia University, U.S.A.

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APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) is an organ-ization of 18 economies that border the Pacific Ocean. Itaims to promote economic growth, development, andimproved living standards in the Asia-Pacific region andthe world through cooperation on trade and other issues.The APEC Education Forum promotes dialogue andcooperation on education issues among APEC members.

A comparative study of teacher-training practiceswas one of the original projects proposed by APECmembers at the first meeting of the APEC EducationForum in January 1993. Eleven members joined theUnited States in carrying out this study. Members agreedthat teachers are the key to success in achieving theireducation goals and that a broader understanding ofteacher-training practices across the region could helpmembers strengthen their own policies to enhance theprofession, from initial training and induction to ongo-ing professional development. Until now, very littlecomparative information was available.

The purposes of the study were to provide con-crete, comparable descriptions of teacher-preparationsystems useful to educators, researchers, and policymak-ers in all APEC members; to identify the key issues andchallenges facing members with respect to teacher prepa-ration and professional development; and eventually, toidentify practices conducive to preparing teachers whosevision and methods of teaching enable students to meetthe challenges of the 21st century. This publication is thefinal report cf Phase I of the project; Phase II, whichfocuses on teacher induction, is now underway.

At the core of this publication are the 12 reportsprepared by APEC members following a jointly devel-oped, common research framework. Each reportdescribes a member's teaching force and labor-marketconditions, teacher-preparation programs, licensing pro-visions, induction practices or internship, and ongoingprofessional development for teachers. The followingmembers contributed reports:

AustraliaBrunei DarussalamCanadaPeople's Republic of China

Preface

Hong KongJapanRepublic cf KoreaMalaysiaNew ZealandSingaporeChinese TaipeiUnited States

The contribution of these member economies,and in particular the work of the authors of each mem-ber's report, is gratefully acknowledged. In addition,special thanks are extended Linda Darling-Hammond(co-principal investig:'.tor), Velma L. Cobb (co-principalinvestigator), and Kavemuii Murangi, all from theNational Center for Restructuring Education, Schoolsand Teaching at Columbia University Teachers College,the United States. Several individuals provided ongoingadvice to the project: Harry Judge (Oxford University),Lynn Paine (Michigan State University), Harold Steven-son (University of Michigan), Gary Sykes (MichiganState University), and Michael Timpane (formerly Pres-ident of Teachers College, Columbia University). For theU.S. Department of Education, Lenore Yaffee Garcia,project officer for the study, and Christy Smith, both ofthe Office of the Under Secretary, also contributed tothis report.

NOTES ON TERMINOLOGY USED IN THIS REPORT

This report follows APEC conventions regarding termin-ology. In the APEC context, "countries" are alwaysreferred to as "memberz," and terms implying recogni-tion of members as sovereign states (such as nationalauthorities or central governments) are not used. Thenames of the members are those agreed upon for usewithin APEC. For the purposes of this report, "APECmembers" and "APEC member economies" refer to the12 respondents listed above. "Schools" means both pri-mary (elementary) and secondary schools. The word"regions" means provinces, states, or territories in Cana-da or Australia.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEACHING FORCE

The characteristics of the present teaching force acrossAPEC members are similar in many respects, particular-ly in terms of age and gender composition.

Most APEC members report an increase in theaverage age and experience of their teachingforCe over the last decade, with most teachersnow having over 10 years of experience andaverag:ng between 35 and 45 years of age.Across APEC members, women make up thebulk of the teaching force at the pre-primary andprimary school levels. While this pattern alsoapplies at the secondary level in many members,in Japan and the Republic of Korea, men makeup the bulk of the teaching force in secondaryschools. In most APEC members, men continueto dominate employment in senior administra-tive positions such as principalships.In many APEC members, teaching salariesincrease as school level increases, both as a func-tion of school level and of the greater education-al level typically attained by secondary schoolteachers. Teacher wages often compare unfavor-ably with salaries in other professions.

For example, in New Zealand, on average, "aprimary teacher with the same qualificationsand teaching and doing similar tasks receivesabout 10 percent less than her secondaryteacher colleague."In the People's Republic of China and theUnited States, teachers earn less than domembers of the general, college-educatedwork force and of other professions. In Chi-nese Taipei and Japan, on the other hand,annual wages for teachers are competitivewith those for other profession,i1 occupa-tions. In both of these APEC members, teach-

8

Highlightsof the Study

ers' wages compare favorably with wages ofcivil servants. Teacher shortages rarely occurin these members.

While teacher supply exceeds demand in somemembers and falls short of demand in others,across APEC members, unmet demand is greaterfor secondary than for primary teachers. A num-ber of members report shortages of secondaryschool teachers in subjects such as mathematics,science, and various foreign languages.Further, several members find it more difficult tomeet demand for teachers in remote areas. Somemembers provide additional compensation toteachers who will teach in high-need areas. Onthe other hand, the United States is experienc-ing its highest demand for teachers in centralcities and in growing regions of the countrywhere immigration is highareas typically offer-ing lower teacher salaries relative to the labormarkets in surrounding districts.Members facing teacher shortages use a varietyof ad hoc solutions, including hiring teacherswtihout full preparation by establishing emer-gency and alternative routes to licensing.

CANDIDATE SELECTION

All APEC members but one now require thecompletion of secondary education for entryinto teacher preparation programs. Entry intoteacher preparation programs tends to dependheavily on the candidate's prior academicachievement.In many APEC members, student intake is deter-mined by government bodies in collaborationwith teacher preparation programs. In thesecases, APEC members underwrite some or all ofthe costs of education for candidates.

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viii HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STUDY

PROGRAMS

In many members, elementary teachers havebeen trained in normal schools or teacher col-leges operating below the bachelor's degreelevel, while secondary teachers have beentrained in bachelor's degree programs in col-leges and universities. But if there is a commontrend, it is toward more extensive preparationfor teachersespecially elementary teachersacross virtually all members.While for the most part primary teachers prepareas "generalists" to teach all content areas, thereare exceptions. In Alberta, Canada and in ChineseTaipei, for example, those studying to becomeprimary teachers are required to focus on a spe-cific subject area, and in Hong Kong, they arerequired to specialize in two subject areas.Funding arrangements for teacher educationrange from wholly national or centrally fundedprograms in Malaysia, Japan, Chinese Taipei,Singapore, :ind Brunei Darussalam, to NewZealand, the United States, and Canada, whereteacher educa ion is financed in part by state orprovincial go ierriments with additional fundscoming from student tuition, endowments,donations, and research.

STUDENT TEACHING OR INTERNSHIP

The duration of practice teaching differs consid-erably across members, ranging from a fewweeks in some members, to one year for allteachers in Chinese Taipei. While student teach-ing occurs most frequently toward the end of thepreparation program. increasingly, clinicalexperiences are spread over the period of pre-service training.Increasingly in Japan, the United States, Canada,Australia, and the Republic of Korea, someteacher preparation programs are affiliated withprimary and secondary schools that are orga-nized and supported to provide sites for practiceteaching and for year-long internships.

INDUCTION

Interest and support for providing beginningteachers with a transition period from formalpreparation to practice is growing among APECmembers. New Zealand and Japan offer exam-ples of highly developed induction or internshipprograms.

In New Zealand, though registration is not acompulsory requirement, new teachers are noteligible to become fully registered until theyhave completed at least two years' classroomexperience. An "advice and guidance" pro-gram is available to all beginning teachers dur-ing their initial two years. The programincludes resources and personal support fromcolleagues; a program of visiting and observ-ing experienced teachers; meetings with otherstaff; appraisals of the beginning teacher'sprogress, and a written record of the inductionprogram. In addition, primary schools thatemploy beginning teachers receive 0.2 teach-ing entitlement per week for each newteacher's first year, to facilitate released timefor the beginning teachers or senior Staffworking with th...m.In Japan, beginning teachers maintain alighter work load of teaching duties; attendin-school training two times per week, withassistance from designated guidance teach-ers; and receive out-of-school training onceper week. Out-of-school training covers awide range of activities including volunteerwork, lectures, seminars, and visits to otherschools, child welfare facilities, and privatecorporations. To support induction activities,schools employing one beginning teacher areassigned a part-time lecturer; those employ-ing two beginning teachers are assigned afull-time teacher.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Professional development practices vary widely.As one example of the range of practice, Japan-ese, schools provide teachers with 20 or morehours each week for collegial work and plan-ning, visitations to other classrooms and schools,and demonstrations of teaching strategies. Bycontrast, U.S. teachers are allotted almost no in-school time for professional development or col-legial work. Almost all professional developmentoccurs in formal workshops or in courses afterschool, on the weekend, or on a small numberof specially designated professional days.The range of professional development activitiesinclude those designed to upgrade the educationlevel and qualifications of the current teachingforce; familiarize teachers with national, state/provincial, and local curriculum developments;and to help experienced teachers keep pacewith the ever-increasing knowedge base in sub-

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HIGHLIGHTS OF THE STUDYix

ject areas and pedagogy, and with the use oftechnology as an aid in instruction.

LICENSURE

While licensing or registration systems are com-mon, several APEC members have no licensuresystems. In Singapore and Brunei Darussalam,there is one teacher training program under gov-ernment control that maintains strict admissionsand academic preparations standards. In thesemembers and in the People's Republic of China,completion of a preparation program constitutesauthority to practice.In many cases, APEC members have differentlicense categories depending on position level,subject area, and school level and type. In theRepublic of Korea, teachers can obtain a higherrank license and an increase in salary through in-service training. Teacher licensing consists of fourstructures or levels: Grade 2 teacher, Grade 1teacher, vice-principal, and principal. However,with the exception of Korea and Japan, mostAPEC members' licensing structures tend to be flat.APEC members report differing license or regis-tration renewal policies, ranging from two tothree years in Australia to lifetime registration/licensure in Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea,and Malaysia.

TRENDS

Some APEC members report that teaching is currentlystill a field with little opportunity for advancement andpromotion; to advance in the field one must leaveteaching. The number of administrators needed in thefield is small, and, other than salary increments or cre-dentialing for advancement, there are reported to befew external incentives to participate in professionaldevelopment activities.

In New Brunswick, Canada, and the UnitedStates, there is great interest in creating a careerpath that would yield a coherent, progressiveconception of teachers' growth toward highlyaccomplished practice over the course of theteaching career.There is also increased emphasis on revising andimproving the nature and quality of teacherpreparation. In Chinese Taipei, for instance, anew law "requires that all new teachers belicensed like lawyers and doctors."Teaching in most APEC members is a highly reg-ulated profession. However, efforts are under-way in several members to provide teachersgreater professional autonomy and greater voicein creating standards for preparation, licensure,and practice.

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Teacher Preparation and ProfessionalDevelopment in APEC Members:An Overview of Policy and Practice

Submitted by: Office of the Under Secretary,U.S. Department of Education

Prepared by: Velma L. Cobb,Linda Darling-Hammond, and Kavetnuii Murangi,Teachers College, Columbia University

This analysis provides a brief synopsis of the trends,issues, and challenges identified by Asia-Pacific Eco-nomic Cooperation members with respect to teacherpreparation and professional development. It is basedon reports prepared by APEC members following ajointly developed, common research framework.Reports provided by participating APEC members var-ied widely in terms of detail and availability of data toanswer each of the research questions; thus, specificsare noted here as they are available. Documents usedfor this analysis include reports (Chapters 2-13) fromAustralia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, the People'sRepublic of China, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, NewZealand, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, ChineseTaipei, and the United States.

Across APEC members, the preparation of newteachers and the professional and academic growth ofexperienced teachers are reported to be major priorities.While the educational attainment and qualifications ofteachers have steadily increased over the last decade,there are many social, demographic, economic, and

Support for this overview was provided by the Office ofthe Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education. The find-ings and conclusions presented herein do not necessarily rep-resent the official positions or policies of the Department.

1

technological changes affecting APEC members. Educa-tion is seen as an important avenue toward growth anddevelopment in meeting the needs of an increasinglyglobal society in the 21st century. A qualified teachingforce is thought to be integral to this vision.

Following a brief discussion of the characteristicsof the present teaching force across APEC members, thischapter looks at three central themes: the preparationof teachers, the induction of teachers, and licensure andother policy issues. The chapter concludes with a sum-mary of future goals and trends.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEACHING FORCE

The characteristics of the present teaching force acrossAPEC members are similar in many respects, particular-

in terms of age and gender composition. However,there are differences across APEC members in terms ofsalary scales and relative attractions of teaching and interms of how teaching is perceived. Also, qualificationsfor entering teaching differ across APEC members. Thetypes of qualifications required to teach at different lev-els are discussed later in this chapter.

Most APEC members report an increase in theaverage age and experience of their teaching force overthe last decade, with most teachers now having over 10

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2 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

years of experience and averaging between 35 and 45years of age. Japan, the United States, and Canada havethe most experienced teachers. In these APEC members,the modal teacher has over 15 years of experience.

APEC members such as the United States, Singa-pore, Canada, Australia, and Chinese Taipei report thatthe teaching force is primarily composed of women,ranging from 59.8 percent of the teaching force in Chi-nese Taipei to 72 percent in the United States. AcrossAPEC members, women make up the bulk of the teach-ing force at the pre-primary and primary school levels.In APEC members like Singapore, Chinese Taipei, NewZealand, and Australia, women constitute the majorityof the teaching force at the secondary level (62.8% inSingapore, 52 percent in Chinese Taipei, 51 percent inNew Zealand, 50.4 percent in Australia). However,Japan and the Republic of Korea report that men makeup the bulk of the teaching force in secondary schools.In most APEC members, men continue to dominateemployment in senior administrative positions such asprincipalships. For instance, in New Zealand womenconstitute 51 percent of the secondary teaching forcebut only 19 percent of secondary school principals.

Variations in teacher salaries can result from dif-ferences in schooling level, years of experience, andlevels of responsibility, as well as from the social statusof teaching. In many APEC members, teaching salariesare higher for secondary than elementary teachers,either due to separate salary scales or to the greater edu-cational le vel typically attained by secondary schoolteachers. New Zealand is not unusual in that "on aver-age, a primary teacher with the same qualifications andteaching and doing similar tasks receives about 10 per-cent less than her secondary teacher colleague."'

In Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia the major-ity of teachers are employed by the government or gov-ernment aided organizations and are salaried accordingto civil servant or government pay scales. In Japan, themajority of teachers are employed by local govern-ments. However, in order to help equalize salary scalesthroughout the country, the national government payshalf the salaries of all teachers. In the United States andCanada, teachers are employed by governmental schooldistricts or by private schools, and while salaries con-form to local salary schedules, they vary from one loca-tion to another.

Teacher wages do not always compare favorablywith salaries in other professions. In the United Statesand in the People's Republic of China, for example,teachers earn less than do members of the general, col-lege-educated work force and of other professions. Inthe United States, teachers earn 20-30 percent less than

'Quotations in this chapter are taken from the relevantAPEC member chapter.

others in occupations requiring similar educationalpreparation. In the People's Republic of China,the aver-age income of a teacher in 1991 was 9.8 percent lowerthan that of workers in industrial trades, 15 percentlower than those in scientific and technological jobs,and 17.6 percent lower than workers in architecture.

In Chinese Taipei and Japan, teaching is a respect-ed profession and annual wages for teachers are com-petitive with annual wages in other professional occu-pations. In Chinese Taipei, teachers earn more than civilservants. (Teachers are not considered civil servants,although their basic pay scale is fixed on the same stan-dards as those for civil service employees.) This is part-ly due to the fact that teachers receive a researchallowance, and they also receive "13.5 monthly pay-ments, even though they don't work in summer and win-ter sessions." Also, primary and junior high school teach-ers earn tax-free income for working in compulsoryeducation (the nine years of schooling required of allstudents).

In Japan, teachers' salaries compare favorably withthose of other government employees. For instance:

As of the 1992 academic year, the starting monthlysalary for a government employee engaged in generaladministration was yen 161,400 (at the exchange rateconcurrent with this writing, one U.S. dollar was equiv-alent to 100 yen) while teachers at national elementaryand lower secondary schools received yet., 180,800.Teachers at national elementary and lower secondaryschools also receive a special allowance for compulso-ry education teachers. (Chap. 7)

Japan tries to equalize teachers' salaries across its threetypes of schools: national, public, and private. Nationalschools are those schools founded by the national gov-ernment. Most other schools are public and are foundedand administered by local governments at the city, town,or village level. In order prevent salary disparitiesresulting from varying local l ..idgets, the prefecture gov-ernment is responsible for the salaries of teachers at theseschools. The national government aids in these efforts byproviding 50 percent of the salaries of all teachersengaged in compulsory education. As a result, the com-pensation of teachers in the various prefectures is com-parable to the compensation of teachers at the nationalschools.

Supply and Demand

Before discussing the characteristics of the teaching force,it is important to note that accurate projections regardingthe supply and demand of teachers and ways of attract-ing and retaining highly qualified teachers are challengeseach APEC member is currently attempting to address.Changes in teacher supply and demand are largely

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1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 3

dependent on economic and demographic factors, suchas size of the student population, immigration and emi-gration rates, and turnover or retirements. Teacher attri-tion, one component of turnover, is often related tounemployment rates in other occupations as well.

APEC members such as Brunei Darussalam, thePeople's Republic of China, and the United States reportan overall rising demand for qualified teachers. InBrunei Darussalam, expanding enrollments and a grow-ing number of specialized areas, including the bilin-gualism policy of the Ministry of Education, haveincreased eacher demand. In the People's Republic ofChina, the 9-year compulsory schooling requirementhas increased the demand for teachers. In the UnitedStates, increased immigration and rising birth rates, cou-pled with growing retirements, are dramatically raisingthe number of new teachers hired each year.

Other APEC members report a declining demandfor teachers. Japan, for example, is currently experienc-ing a decline in student population, and fewer teachersare needed. New Zealand is also experiencing static ordeclining student populations in primary schools.Falling attrition rates contribute to decreasing overalldemand for teachers in New Zealand and Canada. NewZealand attributes decreasing attrition rates for teachersto an overall high level of unemployment in the widereconomy. In Canada, turnover has decreased given therising age of teachers; most teachers are in their mid-career years, when attrition is generally quite low.

Geographic factors also influence supply anddemand. APEC members like Australia, the People'sRepublic of China, and Canada, for instance, report thatthe unmet demand for teachers is consistently higher inremote areas of their countries. Some members provideadditional compensation to teachers who will teach inhigh-need areas, so as to avoid shortages of teachers.On the other hand, the United States is experiencing itshighest demand for teachers in central cities and ingrowing regions of the country where immigration ishigh. Typically, areas with unmet demand offer lowerteacher salaries relative to the labor markets in sur-rounding districts.

Supply-ad-demand levels also vary considerablyaccording to school level and subject area. Across A.PECmembers, the unmet demand for secondary teacherstends to be greater than the unmet demand for ele-mentary teachers. APEC members such as the UnitedStates, Singapore, Hong Kong, Canada, the Republic ofKorea, and Australia reported having shortages of sec-ondary school teachers in subjects such as mathematics,science, and various foreign languages. In the UnitedStates, fields like computer science, education for stu-dents with disabilities, bilingual education, and earlychildhood education also join the list. Hong Kongreports shortages of teachers in literature, English lan-

guage, and computer studies as well. In Canada, areasof teacher shortage vary by province, but in generalCanadian schools have some difficulty hiring qualifiedstaff to teach French, English, mathematics, and science.Australia also reported persisting shortages in the areasof mathematics and the sciences.

Supply and demand are in some cases influencedby structural and demographic changes affecting theschool system. Singapore has experienced a surplus ofteachers for the primary education cycle since 1993.This surplus was created by a structural change in theeducation system when the Preparatory Year Project, apre-school program that had been part of the primaryschool phase, was discontinued. In the People's Repub-lic of China, due to a program of "reform and openingto the outside world as well as modernization," therehas been a great emphasis on vocational education,which has led to a sudden increase in the number ofvocational secondary schools. In turn, this has increasedthe demand for teachers and created a situation where-by teachers without the necessary qualifications arehired on an emergency basis. Similarly, structural fac-tors contribute to teacher shortages in the United States.Recent reforms requiring more mathematics and sciencecourses for graduation from high school have height-ened demand for teachers in those subjects, while fed-eral programs requiring bilingual and special educationhave increased demand in these areas.

In APEC members such as the United States, Sin-gapore, Hong Kong, the People's Republic of China,Australia, and Canada, teacher shortages are addressedwith a variety, of ad hoc solutions, such as droppingcourses, increasing class sizes, and/or lowering qualifi-cations for those entering the profession in order to fillvacancies. In the United States, for example, an under-supply of teachers is often met by reducing standardsfor entry by establishing emergency and alternativeroutes to licensing. Candidates in many of these shorterterm routes engage in little or no education courseworkor student teaching prior to entering the classroom. InHong Kong as well, "schools are permitted to take onless qualified staff.... When teachers for specific subjectscannot be found, schools have to make do by fallingback on teachers with closely related training."

Alternative programs for recruiting teachers arealso found in Singapore. The Cadet Graduate TeacherScheme recruits students who are enrolled in theteacher preparation institute but who have not yet hadprofessional training. Similarly, under the ProvisionalGraduate Teacher Scheme, "untrained candidates" areoffered a temporary contract for one year. The Ministryof Education of Singapore also recruits teachers fromabroad, especially mathematics and English teachers.

The extent to which supply and demand vary bylocality depends in part on the degree of centralization

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4 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

of teacher employment. APEC members report manydifferent recruitment and hiring practices. In APECmembers where teachers are considered governmentemployees or civil servants, recruitment is often cen-tralized and handled by the Ministry of Education or theequivalent. This is the case in Korea, Malaysia, Singa-pore, and Brunei Darussalam. Singapore and BruneiDarussalam have a single teacher training institution thatserves and responds to the needs of the central gov-ernment. By contrast, in the United States, Canada, andAustralia, education is a function of the state orprovince, and hiring and recruitment operations are del-egated to city, town, and local school districts, wherehiring practices and salaries differ substantially. As aconsequence, some districts may experience shortageswhile others in the same region are experiencing sur-pluses of teachers.

In New Zealand, hiring and recruitment are theresponsibility of the local board of trustees, which,except for senior positions, most often delegates thisresponsibility to the principal. Other than those ofsenior staff members on contract, teachers' salaries aregoverned by the national collective agreement betweenthe teacher unions and the State Services Commission(representing the government). Variations in salaries aredue to different levels of qualifications, teaching expe-rience, school level, and degree and types of responsi-bilities. In some cases regional and local authoritiesoffer incentivessuch as low-rent housing or higherlevels of responsibilityto attract teachers to remoteareas or to teach subjects in which there is a shortageof teachers.

In Japan, as was discussed earlier, differences inteachers' salaries are prevented by the prefecture gov-ernment's paying the salaries of teachers at the variouslocal levels: city, town, and village. In order to ensurenationwide uniformity in terms of salaries, salaries ineach prefecture are matched to the pay received bynational school teachers, which is determined by law.While the impact of teaching compensation and statuson the supply of teachers is difficult to assess, there aresome indications that high status and competitive com-pensation do have positive effects on supply. Accord-ing to the Chinese Taipei report, "because school teach-ers are well paid, highly respected, and have high jobsecurity, teaching tends to be their profession for life."While occasional teacher shortages occur in ChineseTaipei, these are attributed to unpredictable events, suchas the inability of the teacher. preparation system toadjust quickly to changes in demand, since teachertraining institutions recruit and prepare a fixed numberof students. At present, Japan is reporting a decline inthe demand for new teachers due to a decline in the stu-dent population and low attrition of current teachers.Shortages of teachers are quite rare.

THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS

Goals and Institutions

APEC members report similar goals and aims for teachereducation: All APEC members see the professionalpreparation and development of "quality teachers" as amajor aim for teacher education. Quality teachers aredescribed as having some combination of the followingattributes:

Pedagogical knowledgeSubject area content knowledgeThe skills and attitudes necessary for effectiveteachingA strong understanding of human growth andchild developmentEffective communication skillsA strong sense of ethicsA capacity for renewal and ongoing learning

The social missions of teacher preparation arebroad. New Zealand, Hong Kong, the People's Repub-lic of China, and the United States cited the importanceof training a teaching force that is well equipped to pre-pare students to function competently within an increas-ingly competitive and interdependent global society.Brunei Darussalam and the People's Republic of Chinadiscuss the key role of teacher preparation in fosteringnational unity, pride, and identity.

For the most part, institutions set their own guid-ing principles for their teacher preparation programs,although it is likely that this may occur within a frame-work of national goals in some cases, or throughstate/province guidelines in others. In Japan and thePeople's Republic of China, the Minister of Education,Science, and Culture and the State Education Commis-sion, respectively, set national goals for teacher educa-tion. In Quebec, Canada, the province's Ministry of Edu-cation is currently defining the "orientations andprinciples teacher training programs must comply with,as well as the competencies expected of new teachersat the end of their studies."

In the United States, each state sets standards forrecruiting, preparing, and licensing teachers. Recently,more than half the states joined together to developmodel standards for licensing beginning teachers thatwill be compatible with the standards for advancedcertification established by a national professionalbody, the National Board for Professional TeachingStandards. About 40 percent of the teacher preparationprograms in the United States, representing about 70percent of teacher candidates, are professionallyaccredited by the National Council for Accreditation ofTeacher Education (NCATE), which uses a common set

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1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 5

of standards tc evaluate programs. In the United States,professional education accrediting organizations forlaw, medicine, architecture, teaching, and other pro-fessions are recognized by the U. S. Department ofEducation.

The APEC members' reports reflect a wide rangeof qualifications for entry into teaching, from those whoacquire a bachelor's or master's degree at universities tothose who have received no special preparation forteaching at allalthough no country has the latter as abasic policy. All APEC members, with the exception ofthe People's Republic of China, now require the com-pletion of secondary education for entry into teacherpreparation programs. In the People's Republic of China,pre-primary and primary school teachers typically havecompleted junior high school plus a three- to four-yearteacher training program. (See Table 1.1 for an outlineof qualifications required by the APEC members partic-ipating in this report.)

Secondary education ranges from three to sevenyears in duration. Six years of secondary educationseems to be typical of many APEC members (Republicof Korea, Japan, the United States, Chinese Taipei, andmany provinces in Canada). The People's Republic ofChina and Hong Kong have three years of compulsorysecondary education. In Hong Kong, about 85 percentof the relevant age population also receive a noncom-pulsory, two-year upper secondary level education, and28 percent go on to receive an additional two years, or"sixth form," matriculation education.

Candidate Selection

Across APEC members there is considerable variety inthe ways in which teaching candidates are selected andprepared to enter the field of teaching. Within any givenAPEC member, there are a multitude of entry points forteaching candidates. These vary by the type of prepar-ing institution and by the school level at which candi-dates plan to teachelementary or secondary.

Examinations are widely used to determine can-didates' readiness and capacity for teacher educationprograms. In APEC members like the Republic of Korea,Malaysia, the People's Republic of China, and Singa-pore, national examinations are taken by all graduatesof secondary education. Minimum scores for entry intoteacher preparation programs are established by thepreparatory institution, and may vary according to thetype of preparatory program and the educational leveland subject area to be taught. New Zealand, Canada,and Japan report that there are no national examina-tions, and teacher preparation institutions have theirown criteria for entry. In the United States, an increas-ing number of states require some form of testing beforeentry into a teacher education program. Usually, a min-

imum score on a nationally normed college entrancetest is required. In addition, 15 states and over 70 per-cent of colleges have set minimum grade-point averagesfor entry into teacher education.

In most APEC members, entry into teacher prepa-ration programs depends heavily on the candidate's aca-demic achievement in secondary school (or in the firstyears of college, if teacher preparation occurs in the lat-ter years). Grades and test scores are often used as indi-cators of academic achievement. Some APEC membersalso assess the language and communication skills ofcandidates, conduct interviews, and consider aptitudesfor leading cocurricular activities.

Admission interviews for the purpose of judging acandidate are also used in some universities in the Unit-ed States, Canada, and New Zealand. Interviews are alsoused in some Japanese prefectures' Teacher Employ-ment Selection Tests for the purpose of assessing gen-eral qualities and attitudes toward the profession. InNew Zealand, involvement in cultural, sporting, social,and welfare activities, and attitudes that affirm NewZealand's equity and bicultural values, are also consid-ered. Some universities in the United States and Cana-da require confidential statements from referees thatattest to the candidate's suitability for admission.

In many APEC members, including BruneiDarussalam, the People's Republic of China, Singa-pore, Malaysia, the Republic of Korea, Hong Kong,and Chinese Taipei, student intake is determined bygovernment bodies in collaboration with teacherpreparation programs. In these cases, APEC membersunderwrite some or all of the costs of education forcandidates. The total number of candidates admittedis typically based on the supply and demand of teach-ers and/or the funding available for candidates. InChinese Taipei, the number of entrants into teacherpreparation programs is fixed at the same level eachyear and is not responsive to supply-and-demandtrends. This causes some difficulties in responding tochanges in demand.

In the United States, Canada, and Japan, there areno established processes for determining the number ofstudents admitted to teacher education programs. In theUnited States and Canada, program size largely dependson the number of interested candidates meeting entryrequirements and the admission policies of individualinstitutions. In many Canadian provinces, faculties ofeducation have intake quotas for specific areas of con-centration. Canada's report notes that "except in thearea of mathematics and sciences, applicants outnum-ber available quota slots." While teacher education pro-grams receive some government funds in the UnitedStates and Canada, much of the cost of preparation isborne by candidates themselves, in the form of tuitionpayments.

o

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TA

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1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE7

Programs

Several decades ago, attendance at a normal schoolfor one to three years was deemed to be sufficienttraining for teachers. More recently, normal schoolshave been transformed into regular four-year collegesin many APEC members. The duration and quality ofthe training progams have increased and the missionof many teachers' colleges has changed so thatteacher preparation is no longer their only function.Increasingly, teachers are also trained in multipurposeuniversities.

The nature of teacher preparation programs acrossAPEC members often differs according to the educa-tional level to be taught. Elementary school teachershave frequently had lower levels of education than sec-ondary school teachers, and the two types of teachershave frequently been educated in different types ofinstitutions: In many members, elementary teachershave been trained in normal schools or teachers' col-leges that often operate below the bachelor's degreelevel, while secondary teachers have been trained inbachelor's degree programs in colleges and universities.Many APEC members are questioning whether require-ments for teaching elementary and secondary schoolpupils should differ so markedly in organization andduration, especially in view of the importance of pri-mar school as preparation for later grades. If there is acommon trend, it is toward more extensive preparationfor teachersespecially elementary teachersacrossvirtually all members. This often means embeddingteacher preparation in an undergraduate degree pro-gram, or, for members that already require undergradu-ate degrees for all teachers, extending preparationrequirements into graduate school programs.

Across APEC members, institutions responsible forteacher education vary considerably in type, level, andduration, and generally fall into three categories:

1. Certificate or degree programs housed in normalcolleges, normal schools, and colleges of educa-tion established solely for the purpose of trainingteachers: These programs are usually for ele-mentary school teachers and emphasize peda-gogical preparation more than subject areapreparation. In most cases these are two- to four-year programs leading to a certificate or diplomain teaching.

2. Degree programs housed at general, multipur-pose universities: These programs tend to entailgreater subject matter preparation and relativelyless pedagogical preparation. These are gener-ally three- or four-year programs leading to abachelor's degree, with the teacher preparationportion lasting one to two years.

3. Master's degree and/or fifth-year programs:These programs are open to candidates whohave completed a bachelor's degree and lead toa master's degree or postgraduate diploma ineducation. The duration of these programsranges from one to two years.

In the United States, Canada, and Japan, therequirements for the preparation of teachers are thesame for all school levels. In these countries, both ele-mentary and secondary school teachers are prepared inbachelor's degree programs or fifth-year programs thatcan lead to a master's degree. In the United States, vir-tually all teachers (98 percent) have at least a bachelor'sdegree and most (53 percent in 1991) now have a mas-ter's degree or higher. In Hong Kong and Australia, sec-ondary school teachers earn a bachelor's degree plus aone- or two-year diploma/certificate in education.

In Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kongreforms in the last decade reveal a trend toward prepar-ing primary teachers as well as secondary teachers inbachelor's degree programs. New Zealand has recentlybegun preparing primary teachers in programs yieldinga four-year Bachelor of Education degree. This trend hasbeen supported and facilitated by changes in govern-ment policies to raise primary teacher preparation todegree status, and to encourage nondegree colleges tobecome affiliated with degree-granting universities. InAustralia, all Colleges of Advanced Education, whichprovided initial teacher training, are now universities. InHong Kong, Bachelor of Education (Primary) degreeprograms have recently been introduced.

Across APEC members, the length of teacherpreparation programs generally ranges from one to twoyears, depending on the school level at which candi-dates are expected to teach and the type of programs inwhich they are enrolled (whether undergraduate or post-

. graduate). In some instances, programs are embeddedin four-year undergraduate degrees and teacher educa-tion coursework may be carried out in a less concen-trated manner throughout the four years, or may be con-centrated in the last two years. For primary-levelteaching, teachers' postsecondary education may befrom two to four years, with the portion devoted to spe-cific preparation for teaching comprising about twoyears. For secondary level teaching, coursework tends totake place in a four-year undergraduate degree program,with a smaller proportion (about one or two years)specifically devoted to education coursework.

While there is some variability in terms of curricu-lum content, teacher preparation programs generallyprovide students with some combination of courseworkin subject matter, teaching methods and materials, childgrowth and development, and other education courses,such as educational psychology, history and philosophy

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8 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

of education, and practical teaching experience. (SeeTable 1.2 for selected examples of the content of teacherpreparation programs in APEC members participating inthis report.) In Alberta, Canada, students are alsorequired to take some educational administration cows-es. The extent of education coursework tends to varyfor elementary and secondary teachers, with elementaryteachers pursuing a relatively greater number of cours-es on teaching and learning and secondary teachers pur-suing a relatively greater number of courses in the sub-ject area(s) they plan to teach.

Many APEC members report that primary teachersdo not concentrate in a specific subject area but prepareas "generalists" to teach all content areas. There are,however, several exceptions to this trend: In Alberta,Canada, and in Chinese Taipei, for example, students inprimary education are required to focus on a specificsubject area in addition to the generalist focus. In HongKong, primary education students are required to spe-cialize, in two subject areas. And in the United States afew states no longer permit students in elementary edu-cation to major in education but require them to majorin a liberal arts discipline in college while they are alsotaking the requisite courses for teacher preparation.

The reports of APEC members indicate that sec-ondary school teachers are generally required to majorin the subject area they will ultimately teach. The lib-eral arts programs are, on average, four years in dura-tion, with one of the four years spent on teacher prepa-ration. In members like the People's Republic of China,Chinese Taipei, Japan, Singapore, and Canada, the cur-riculum for secondary teacher preparation involves acombination of general education, teaching pedagogy,psychology courses, and practice teaching. The num-ber of education courses seems to vary among APECmembers and depends on the program. For instance,in the United States, education courses typically con-stitute one-fifth of the total courses for secondary edu-cation majorsan average of about 26 credits out of atotal of 135. Elementary education majors take about 50credits of education courses out of a total of 125 cred-its. The examples cited below were selected because ofthe amount of detail provided on the content of pre-service curricula.

In the People's Republic of China, the curriculumfor secondary school teachers' preparation consists offive components: political theory (philosophy, eco-nomics, etc.); foreign languages; education courses(educational theories, psychology, and methodology ofteaching); physical education; and specialized coursesin major fields (basic specialized courses and electivecourses). Students are also expected to do an eight- toten-week student teaching practicum, depending onwhether they are in a three- or a four-year program.

In Chinese Taipei, education for both primary and

secondary school teaching requires four years of course-work (general and professional coursework) and oneyear of teaching practicum. During these four years, pre-service students are required to take 148 credits-20credits more than the number required at other univer-sities and colleges. Of the 148 credits, professional edu-cation coursework consumes 20 and primary and sec-ondary school teaching consume 16 credits each. InChinese Taipei, professional training for primary schoolteachers includes "courses in primary education, edu-cational psychology, teaching principles, types of teach-ing materials and methods in language arts, social stud-ies, mathematics, natural sciences, music, fine arts,crafts, and teaching practice." For secondary schools,professional training includes courses such as "the intro-duction of education, secondary education, education-al psychology, teaching principles, teaching method andteaching practicum; and four credits of elective courses,chosen from educational philosophy, educational soci-ology, vocational guidance, audio-visual education, andmoral principles." Completion of preservice secondaryprograms usually yields a Bachelor of Education degreeor a Bachelor of Science in Education degree.

In British Columbia, Canada, a strong emphasis isplaced on the theoretical bases of modern educationalpractice, as well as on intensive opportunities for prac-tice. "Studies include analysis of the nature and objec-tives of education and of the developmental character-istics of learners. Attention is given to candidates' owninterpersonal and communication skills and to strategiesand methods of teaching." Practicurn experiences,including 12 or more weeks of student teaching, areinterwoven with courses on teaching methods acrosssubject areas, educational applications of learning,development, and measurement theories, and socialfoundations of education across a two-year period forelementary teachers and a one-year period for sec-ondary teachers. This model is similar to prevalent mod-els in the United States as well.

In APEC members like the United States, Australia,Singapore, Japan, New Zealand, Canada, and HongKong, some students enter teacher education programshaving already completed a bachelor's degree. In thesecases, preparation programs are usually one to twoyears in length and students are awarded postgraduatediplomas in teaching and/or a master's degree (see Table1.1). For example, in Australia, the general pattern ofsecondary teacher preparation consists of a three- tofour-year university degree program in which the stu-dents specialize in the subject areas they will teach, fol-lowed by a one-year master's degree program in educa-tion. Alternately, prospective teachers pursue a four-yearBachelor of Education degree, integrating subject disci-plines, education, and teaching practices. Most universi-ties in Australia are gravitating toward a two-year add-

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1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 9

TABLE 1.2

Professional Content of Teacher Preparation Programs in some APEC Members*

APEC Members Elementary Teachers Secondary Teachers

BRITISH COLUMBIA,CANADA(2-YEAR PRO(3RAM)

THE PEOPLE'S

REPUBLIC OF CHINA

JAPAN**

SINGAPORE

CHINESE TAIPEI

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Analyses of education;principles of teaching; pre-practicum experience;communication skills in teaching; educationalapplication of developmental theories; develop-ment and exceptionality in the regular classroom;introduction to reading and language arts instruc-tion; curriculum and instruction (art, physical edu-cation, elementary, language arts, mathematics,music, reading, science, social studies). STUDENTTEACHING: about 12 weeks.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Psychology; methodolo-gies of: primary mathematics, primary science,physical science, music, fine arts. STUDENT TEACH-ING: 8-10 weeks.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Essence and goals of edu-cation; physical and mental development and thelearning process of students; education systemand management; educational methods and tech-niques (including the use of computers and educa-tional materials); subject teaching methodology;moral education; special activities; student guid-ance and educational consultations. STUDENTTEACHING: about 4 weeks.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Teaching of English;teaching of mathematics; third methodologycourse (chosen from electives); pupil development;social context of schooling; applications of psy-chology in teaching and learning; instructionaltechnology. STUDENT TEACHING: B.A.-25 weeksover 4 years. Post-Graduate Diploma-9 weeksover 1 year. Diploma in Education-15 weeks over2 years.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Primary education; educa-tional psychology; teaching principles; teachingmethods and materials (language arts, social stud-ies, mathematics, natural sciences, music, finearts, crafts). PRACTICUM: 1 full-year internship.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Analyses of education;principles of teaching; orientation school experi-ence; education during adolescent years; develop-ment and exceptionality in the regular classroom;courses related to first teaching subject; coursesrelated to second teaching subject; communica-tion skills; school organization in its social context;learning measurement, and teaching; languageacross the curriculum; educational anthropology,history of education; philosophy of education;social foundations of education; educational soci-ology; credits for prescribed courses related toteaching subject(s). STUDENT TEACHING: about 10

weeks.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Education coursesedu-cational theories, psychology, methodology ofteaching: Physical Education. STUDENT TEACHING:.8-10 weeks.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Essence and goals of edu-cation; physical and mental development and thelearning process of students; educational methodsand techniques (including the use of computersand educational materials); subject teachingmethodology; moral education; special activities;student guidance and educational consultations.STUDENT TEACHING: about 2 weeks.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Teaching methods of 2subjects graduated (majored) in from respectiveuniversities; pupil development; social context ofschooling; applications of psychology in teachingand learning; instructional technology. STUDENTTEACHING: B.A.-25 weeks over 4 years. Post-Graduate Diploma-9 weeks over 1 year. Diplomain Education-15 weeks over 2 years.

PROFESSIONAL COURSES: Secondary education;educational psychology; teaching principles; teach-ing method; 4 credits of electives chosen fromeducational philosophy, educational sociology,vocational guidance, audiovisual education, andmoral principles. PRAcncum: 1 full-year internship.

*These APEC members were selected because of the amount of detail provided in the initial reports. The lists of courses for individual members arenot necessarily complete or comprehensive.

**For upper secondary school teachers, moral education is an elective.

on degree program instead of the one-year course. Someuniversities are also considering preparing elementaryschool teachers, who are currently prepared in three-year diploma/degree college programs. In New Zealand,the normal route for most secondary school teachers isa university degree plus one year of teacher preparation.

Student Teaching

Student teaching is seen as a key component of teacherpreparation across APEC members. The duration of a stu-dent teaching experience differs from one member toanother and for elementary and secondary teachers. Prac-

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tice teaching assignments for primary school teachersrange from several sections of 4 weeks (constitutingabout one-third of a year's training) in New Zealand to afull-year internship in Chinese Taipei. The duration ofpractice teaching at the secondary level also varies wide-ly, from about 2 weeks in Japan to a minimum of 12weeks in Canada, to one year in Chinese Taipei. Fre-quently, student teaching occurs toward the end of theprogram, after the completion of coursework. However,increasingly, clinical experiences are spread over the peri-od of preservice training. In a growing number of mem-bers, elementary and secondary school teaching candi-dates go through field experiences in which they observeclasses or serve as tutors or teacher aides prior to studentteaching. In Canada and the United States, there is nowa trend toward requiring students to undertake observa-tion or practicum experiences earlier in their programs.

In some instances the length of a student teachingexperience also depends on the nature of the pro-gramfor example, an undergraduate two- to four-yearprogram or a postgraduate diploma or certificate. In Sin-gapore, for example, the practicum for a program lead-ing to a baccalaureate degree can be as much as 25weeks over the course of the four-year university pro-gram. One-year programs leading to a postgraduatediploma in education and two-year programs leading toa diploma in education have practicums 9 weeks and15 weeks in duration, respectively. In the United States,the duration of student teaching programs ranges from8 weeks to two full semesters, with most programsrequiring 12-15 weeks. New gradui:*e-level programsrequire the most sustained and intensive practice teach-ing experience in the form of a year-long school-basedinternship conducted alongside coursework.

New Zealand and Australia report that cooperatingteachers, associate teachers, or tutor teachers are respon-sible for mentoring and evaluating the skills of newteachers. In Canada, the United States, and Singapore,faculty from the preparation program and school-basedcooperating teachers work together to assess students.In Wellington, New Zealand, cooperating teachers takethe Advanced Studies in Teaching course to help pre-pare them for their role. Japan, the United States, Cana-da, and the Republic of Korea report that some teacherpreparation programs are affiliated with primary and sec-ondary schools that are organized and supported to pro-vide sites for practice teaching. Schools of education inthe United States and Australia are increasingly creatingprofessional development school relationships with localschools. These school and college partnerships createsites for preparing new teachers in a manner that inte-grates theory and practice while also supporting researchand stimulating reforms of both schools and schools ofeducation. By working with expert teachers to strength-en the quality of the practice teaching experience, an

environment is created for the ongoing professionaldevelopment. and growth of experienced teachers.

Linkages Between Teacher Education andOther Curriculum Standards

Only a few APEC members (Malaysia, Japan, and Sin-gapore) report strong connections between teachereducation curricula and curricular standards for schoolsand students. Teacher preparation programs in NewZealand, Hong Kong, Canada, Chinese Taipei, andBrunei D'arussalam are encouraged to take into con-sideration curricular standards for schools and studentsin the design of their own curriculum. In addition, theintroduction of new government curricula is an impor-tant factor in setting priorities for professional devel-opment activities undertaken by schools in NewZealand. In the United States, some states are definingcurricular standards for what students should know andbe able to do and are then using these standards todetermine what beginning teachers should know. Aus-tralia, too, is bringing "stakeholders in education"together "in order to standardize education outcomesacross the country."

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Many APEC members feel that the social, demographic,economic, and technological changes taking place callfor greater connections between the aspects of teachereducation that deal with subject-area content knowl-edge, pedagogical knowledge, and clinical or practicalexperiences in teaching. These trends also requireongoing professional development for veteran teachers,whose knowledge is continually challenged by newdemands of subjects and students.

Induction

APEC members report that they increasingly recognizethe first years of teaching as a critical time for develop-ing effective skills and positive attitudes regarding theprofession. As a result, interest and support for provid-ing beginning teachers with a transition period from for-mal preparation to practice is growing among APECmembers. APEC members such as Hong Kong, the Peo-ple's Republic of China, the Republic of Korea, the Unit-ed States, Canada, New Zealand, and Japan have or aredeveloping induction programs, transition periods, andon-the-job support for beginning teachers. In ChineseTaipei, teacher candidates go through a year-long intern-ship following their coursework and prior to licensure.

New Zealand and Japan offer examples of highlydeveloped induction programs. In New Zealand "it is

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1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 11

generally accepted that the first years in the classroomare a continuation of the preservice training studentsreceived in college, and the first stage of their ongoingprofessional development."

New 7.ealand's Advice and Guidance Program isprovided f, nr all beginning teachers during their initialtwo years in the classroom. In fact, new teachers are noteligible to become fully licensed (registered) until theyhave completed this two-year experience. Although theprogram may vary from school to school, it mustinclude the following elements to receive approval bythe New Zealand Teachers' Registration Board:

1. Resources and personal support from colleaguesin the same curriculum area, school, or educa-tional center

2. Classroom visitations and written appraisalsregarding the beginning teacher's progresstoward meeting registration criteria

3. A program of visiting and observing experi-enced teachers

4. leetings with senior staff and beginning teach-ers to "clarify the wider aspects of the beginningteacher's work and responsibilities"

5. A written record of the induction program withthe advice and guidance received and the extentof participation in planning the corporate life ofthe school or [early childhood] center (Chap. 10)

In addition, primary schools that employ begin-ning teachers in New Zealand receive an additional 0.2teaching entitlement per week for each new teacher'sfirst year, to facilitate released time for the beginningteachers or senior staff working with the beginningteachers. At the secondary level, released time is forthe beginning teacher only, who has a workload thatis 0.8 of the teaching entitlement of a fully registeredteacher.

In Japan, newly appointed teachers receive for-mal induction training during their first year of teach-ing. Beginning teachers: (1) maintain regular teachingduties with a "lighter work load"; (2) attend in-schooltraining two times per week; and (3) receive out-of-school training once per week. During in-school train-ing, "designated guidance teachers" (usually experi-enced teachers) offer support and assistance to thebeginning teachers. Out-of-school training covers awide range of activities, including volunteer work, lec-tures, seminars, and visitations to other schools, childwelfare facilities, private corporations, and social edu-cation facilities. To support induction activities, schoolsemploying one beginning teacher are assigned a part-time lecturer; those employing two beginning teachersare assigned a full time teacher. The appointing author-ities cover funding for induction programs, and the

national government covers one half of all related per-sonnel and out-of-school training costs.

Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, and the Peo-ple's Republic of China also reported having inductionprograms for beginning teachers. However, availableinformation is not sufficient to allow an in-depth discus-sion of these programs. In Canada, the provinces of Que-bec and New Brunswick are currently piloting inductionprograms. And in the United States, approximately 25states have started some kind of induction program,although only a few have provided funding for mentors,released time, or graduated responsibility for new teach-ers. In these programs, teachers are generally employedfull time on provisional licenses and are observed andevaluated on their teaching performance as a conditionfor receiving a professional license after one to threeyears.

Singapore and Australia have no formal inductionprograms. Recently, the Australia Education Union, anational teacher union for government-sector teachers,has created policy guidelines for launching inductionprograms. These policies recommend:

1. An induction period of one year2. Placement in a supportive school environment

with senior teachers3. A reduced teaching load, 0.8 of a fulltime load4. A period of reflection5. Review and informal appraisal and professional

development6. Formal appraisal for permanency or full regis-

tration (Chap. 2)

Many APEC members continue to explore how they canfurther enhance and develop these programs to meetthe needs of beginning teachers in general, and begin-ning teachers working with specific populations, in spe-cific subject areas, or in especially challenging (urbanor rural) geographic locations, in particular.

Ongoing Professional Development

In most APEC members, efforts to upgrade standards forstudents have created new demands for investments inteacher knowledge. Most APEC members are faced withtwo equally challenging and important concerns in thedevelopment of a quality teaching force: (1) the recruit-ment, preparation, and induction of highly qualifiednew teachers; and (2) the ongoing growth and devel-opment of their existing teaching force. Balancing theeducational needs and financial demands of supportingcontinuing learning for both groups is a concern inmany member nations.

In this chapter the term professional developmentis used broadly and refers to a wide array of activities:

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12 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBER!'

workshops designed to introduce new policies andpractices; activities designed to keep teachers abreastof new developments in education; ongoing in-schoolopportunities for collegial sharing, observation of otherclasses, and discussion of teaching; and courses toupgrade the qualifications of teachers. While all ofthese activities are viewed as important to APEC mem-bers in ongoing professional development, there aredifferences in terms of which activities are more preva-lent and how professional development opportunitiesare structured.

As one example of the range of practice, Japaneseschools provide teachers with 20 or more hours eachweek for collegial work and planning, visitations toother classrooms and schools, and demonstrations ofteaching strategies. By contrast, U.S. teachers are allot-ted almost no in-school time for professional develop-ment or collegial work. Almost all professional devel-opment occurs in formal workshops or in courses afterschool, on the weekend, or on a small number of spe-cially designated professional days.

Ongoing professional development programs maybe supported at the national, state/provincial, or localgovernment levels, and include university-based,nonuniversity based, and school-site options. Ongoingprofessional development occurs within extensive for-mal structures in some APEC members. Some profes-sional development opportunities, including those inHong Kong, the Republic of Korea, and the People'sRepublic of China, are designed to upgrade the educa-tion levels and qualifications of the current teachingforce. Professional development opportunities are alsoaimed at familiarizing teachers with national,state/provincial, and local curriculum developments.This was explicitly mentioned by Australia, Singapore,and New Zealand. Still other programs are concernedwith helping experienced teachers keep pace with theever-increasing knowledge base in subject areas andpedagogy, and with the use of technology as an aid ininstruction.

Some APEC members cite increases in salary andcareer advancement as the major incentives for teach-ers to participate in professional development activities.A concern raised in the .Z:port from the Republic ofKorea is the view that many teachers may prefer to par-ticipate in professional development activities in orderto be promoted and/or to improve their earnings, butthat these activities might not affect teacher growth andcompetence.

Some APEC members report a trend towardincreasing expenditures and released time for profes-sional development activities. New Zealand, for exam-ple, identified a 30 percent increase in funding for pro-fessional development between 1991 and 1993. In NewZealand in 1992, primary and secondary schools spent

approximately $14 million on professional development.The bulk (53 percent per teacher) was spent on teacherreleased time.

In 1993, Australia announced the federally fundedNational Professional Development Program, which pro-vides $60 million for staff development activities over athree-year period, in addition to that provided by teacheremployers. Several Canadian provinces report an aver-age allotment of 15 days per school year for activitiesother than teaching. In the United States, inroads towardfunding professional development have been made inonly a few states, where 5-10 days per year are allottedfor teacher development. In general, U. S. school districtsspend less than one-half of 1 percent of their budgets onprofessional development.

LICENSING (REGISTRATION) ANDOTHER POLICY ISSUES

The diversity among APEC members regarding teacherpreparation and professional development k.; reflectedin the wide variety of approaches to governance struc-tures, accreditation, the financing of teacher education,and licensing requirements. Central to these differencesis whether teacher education is perceived as a national,provincial, state, or local responsibility, or some combi-nation of these.

Licensing Requirements

In order to maintain standards for teachers, APEC mem-bers report a wide array of systems for teacher registra-tion or licensing. (Unless otherwise indicated, the termsregistration, and licensure are used synonymously torefer to government systems for ensuring minimal quali-fications of candidates allowed to practice.) While licens-ing or registration systems are common, several APECmembers have no licensure s],stems, including Singapore,the People's Republic of China, and Brunei Darussalam.In Singapore and Brunei Darussalam, there is one teachertraining program under government control that main-tains strict admissions and academic preparation stan-dards. The People's Republic of China, too, has set upnational requirements and standards for primary and sec-ondary school teachers. Completion of a preparation pro-gram in these members constitutes authority to practice.

In Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia,and Chinese Taipei, teacher registration is governed bythe ministry of education or national education depart-ment. New Zealand has a Crown (state) entity called theTeacher Registration Board whose function is to m in-taM a register of teachers. In New Zealand registrationis not a compulsory requirement. However, being reg-istered is considered favorably in hiring decisions and

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has a bearing on being recognized as a professionalteacher. Most private schools require registration.

The United States, Australia, and Canada maintainstate or provincial licensing systems rather than anational framework for licensing. In the United States,for example, state requirements vary so substantiallythat a teacher licensed in one state frequently does notmeet the licensing requirements in another and isrequired to take additional coursework or meet otherstate-specific requirements on moving from one state toanother.

However, even in members with decentralizededucation systems, the idea of national standards isbecoming more prevalent in education discussions. Anindependent professional body in the United States, theNational Board for Professional Teaching Standards, hasrecently begun to offer advanced certification for high-ly accomplished veteran teachers. (Certification in thiscase refers to professional recognition of advanced skillsas the term is used in professions such as law, medicine,or architecture.) Additionally, over 20 states have joinedtogether to develop model licensing standards andassessments for beginning teachers that are in line withthe National Board's standards. In Australia, a new pro-fessional body for teachers was created in 1993. Amongthe responsibilities of this body is that of establishingprofessional standards for teachers and giving teachersa voice in professional development issues. In NewZealand, there is now a national register of teacherswho have fulfilled certain additional professionalrequirements, similar to those kept for lawyers andmedical doctors.

In many cases, APEC members have differentlicense categories depending on position level, subjectarea, and school level and type. One highly differenti-ated approach is exemplified by Japan, where there arethree types of licenses, or certificates: standard, special,and provisional Standard certificates are the regular cer-tificates granted to candidates who possess the appro-priate number of subject-matter and education courses.There are three categories of standard certificates(advanced, first-class, and second-class) for each schoollevel, except for upper secondary teachers, to whomonly advanced and first-class certificates are issued. Thebasic requirements for an advanced certificate are amaster's degree or one year's residence and 30 creditsin a subject specialty. The basic requirements for thefirst-class and second-class certificates are a bachelor'sand an associate's degree, respectively. There is also aspecial certificate "established to allow the utilization ofindividuals from society at large who possess specialskills or expertise."

In Japan, in the rare cases where there is a short-age of teachers with stand:1rd certificates, those whohave provisional certificates become assistant teachers.

24

Typically, provisional certificates are issued to teacherswho already have standard certificates for other cate-gories. Both the special certificate and the provisionalcertificate have a limited lifetime and are valid onlywithin the prefecture or province where they wereissued. Special certificates are valid for a period of threeto ten years, while the provisional certificates are validfor a period of three years.

In the Republic of Korea, teachers can obtain ahigher-rank license, which means advanced profes-sional ability, through in-service training. Teachers whoget a higher-rank license receive an increase in salary.Teacher licensing consists of four structures or levels:Grade 2 teacher, Grade 1 teacher, vice-principal, andprincipal. In the absence of any probation, most teach-ers start at the Grade 2 teacher level. Higher-level licens-es are based on both seniority and merit. Teachers canbe promoted to a higher-rank license after completing180 hours of in-service training. Also, promotion isbased on a positive evaluation of such aspects as career,performance appraisal, and in-service training rating.Thus, teachers can be promoted from the classroom tothe position of vice-principal or principal.

With the notable exceptions of Japan and theRepublic of Korea, most APEC members' licensingstructures tend to be flat rather than hierarchical. In theUnited States, for instance, licensing for teachers is notgraduated, except that teachers without full preparationmay receive provisional, temporary, or emergencylicenses of various kinds. Teachers do have to acquireadditional training and an administrative certificate tobecome a school principal. Requirements for teaching inprivate schools do not differ significantly from those forpublic school teaching. In some states, teachers in pri-vate schools have to be licensed, while in others theydo not.

APEC members report differing license or regis-tration renewal policies, ranging from two to three yearsin Australia in those states that require registration tolifetime registration/licensure in Hong Kong, the Repub-lic of Korea, and Malaysia. In Chinese Taipei, teachersmust re-register if they leave the profession for morethan ten years. Until recently, most states in the UnitedStates had few requirements for teachers to satisfy oncethey were initially licensed. However, most states nowdisallow the "lifetime" license and require teachers tocontinuously renew their credentials every three to fiveyears with additional formal college course work or in-service training.

While test scores are widely used to determineentry into teacher education programs in many APECmembers, testing for licensure was not as widely dis-cussed in most reports, with the exception of the Unit-ed States and Chinese Taipei. In the United States, moststates no,. require some form of testing for licensure

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upon completion of a teacher preparation program. Thenature of these tests is now changing to include moreperformance-based methods. In Chinese Taipei, there isnow a new law requiring all new teachers to belicensed, a process that involves doing an internshipand passing a licensing test at the end of the internship.

Governance

The extent of government involvement in setting andguiding policy regarding teacher education varies wide-ly. In the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand,and Japan, policy is not exclusively guided by one par-ticular body, given the highly decentralized nature ofeducation policy and teacher education programs inthose countries. In the United States, for instance,teacher education programs are influenced by the col-leges and universities in which they reside as well as bystate government agencies and other state bodies, suchas professional standards boards. Professional organi-zations of teachers and a national accrediting body arealso very influential. By contrast, teacher eaucation iscentralized and the direct responsibility of the member-wide governments in Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Repub-lic of Korea, Singapore, New Zealand, Chinese Taipei,and Brunei Darussalam.

in the People's Republic of China, policy guidancetakes place at four levels: the State (National) EducationCommission, the provincial education commission, theprefecture education commission, and the county-leveleducation commission. The state is responsible for plan-ning teacher training programs as a whole, and directlycontrols six key universities at which model teachereducation programs are run. Local commissions areresponsible for carrying out state policy and instruc-tions. Divisions within provinces, regions, and munici-palities are set up to make specific policies regardingthe development of secondary teacher education, andto supervise and evaluate the implementation of poli-cies concerning local normal schools.

Financing for Teacher Education

Teacher education is primarily funded by state/provin-cial governments, or national/central governments. InNew Zealand, the United States, and Canada, teachereducation is financed in part by state or provincial gov-ernments. In these cases, other forms of funding includestudent tuition, endowments, donations, and researchmonies. Preparation programs in Malaysia, ChineseTaipei, Singapore, and Brunei Darussalam are fundedalmost wholly by the national or central governments.In Australia, too, teacher education programs are fund-ed by recurrent grants provided by the CommonwealthGovernment; however, each institution determines how

the funds are allocated. In the People's Republic ofChina, there are variations in sources of financial sup-port from the central government, depending on insti-tutional level and type. Initial teacher education that isprovided at normal universities and colleges is fundedby the central government. Funding levels are deter-mined according to the number of students enrolled ineach institution. Funds for continuing or higher teachereducation are provided by state budgets for higher edu-cation; normal colleges under direct provincial supervi-sion are locally funded.

Though some APEC members have experiencedoverall economic growth in the last decade, others arefaced with slow or zero growth. Balancing the recruitmentand preparation of teachers with the upgrading and con-tinuous development of experienced teachers has creat-ed considerable financial challenges for many.

Accreditation

In general, APEC members report three types of accred-itation systems for teacher training programs and institu-tions: self---xreditation, government-supervised accredi-tation, and external professional accreditation.

Self-accreditation appears to be a form of assess-ment focused on the institution as a complete entity.The institution assesses itself against its own missionand goals. Self-accreditation systems are prevalent inNew Zealand, Australia, and Hong Kong. In these cases,the process of accreditation is the responsibility of thecollege or university and is aided by a wide range ofinternal and external constituents, including employeeexaminers, peer review groups, and relevant employersand professional associations. Australia is currentlyexamining a system of external accreditation throughthe newly formed Australian Teaching Council.

All teacher education programs in Malaysia, Chi-nese Taipei, and Japan are under the direct supervisionof the government. In these cases, the governmentdevelops and maintains standards for entry, preparation,and graduation of new teachers.

Singapore's and Brunei Darussalam's teacher train-ing institutionsthe National Institute of Education,Nanyang Technological University, and the Universityof Brunei Darussalam, respectivelyengage externalexaminers in the review of academic performance ofgraduates and in determining the quality of degree pro-grams. In the United States, there is a dual-track systemfor reviewing teacher preparation programs. Each stateplays a major role in deciding standards for entry,preparation, and the licensure of teachers and has a pro-cedure for approving individual programs. Also, pro-fessional accreditation in teaching is conducted by anexternal, nongovernmental agency, the National Coun-cil for Accreditation of Teacher Education, through a

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1 / POLICY AND PRACTICE 15

peer review process involving external examiners. Inmost states, NCATE accreditation is voluntary.

TRENDS

APEC members report many strategies aimed at recruit-ing and retaining quality teachers, effectively preparingteachers in a rapidly changing global economy, and pro-fessionalizing the field of teaching. Efforts are underway to strengthen preparation programs and inductionsupports for new teachers. In addition, current licen-sure/ registration policy structures are under review.

While in some APEC members, teaching is a high-ly regarded occupation, most APEC members report thatteaching is currently still a field with little opportunityfor advancement and promotion; to advance in the fieldis to leave teaching. The number of administrators need-ed in the field is small and, other than salary incrementsor credentialing for advancement, there are reported tobe few external incentives to participate in profession-al development activities.

In some APEC members, there are efforts to estab-lish national frameworks for professional developmentto expand its use beyond licensure or registration andcredentialing for promotion, and to encourage profes-sional development as an integral and ongoing compo-nctnt of the profession. What is hoped for is a continu-um of professional development and growth for teachersthat spans the career from preparation to retirement.

In New Brunswick, Canada, and in the UnitedStates, a great deal of discussion has recently occurredon the need to create a career path that would focus onthe "knowledge base and its practice," and would yielda coherent, progressive conception of teachers' growthtoward highly accomplished practice over the course ofthe teaching career. In the United States, the recent cre-ation of a system of voluntary National Board certifica-tion for veteran teachers who pass standards of accom-plished practice provides a benchmark for thiscontinuum. The report from the Republic of Korea notesthe importance of creating a teaching-oriented careercontinuum that would reward teachers for becomingmore accomplished by acknowledging levels of teach-ing expertise rather than by promoting teachers out ofthe classroom into administrative positions:

It is urgent that a new teaching-oriented licensing sys-tem be established, reforming the current management-oriented licensing system, both to discourage adminis-tration-driven teacher expectations and to expediteprofessional development. One proposal ... would beto replace the present system with Grade 2, Grade 1,senior, and master teacher categories, eliminating thevice-principal and principal positions. (Chap. 8)

20

There is also an increased emphasis on revisingand improving the nature and quality of teacher prepa-ration. In Chinese Taipei, for instance, a new law"requires that all new teachers bP licensed like lawyersand doctors." Prospective teachers are required to takean additional 20 credits beyond the required amount forthe bachelor's degree. After completing coursework.students have to do an internship for one year. On com-pleting the internship, candidates must pass a licensingtest to become a licensed teacher. By the end of thiscentury the People's Republic of China is hoping toincrease the number of primary school and middle-school teachers with "state-issued certificates of school-ing record and specialty qualification" to 95 percent and90 percent, respectively, and to increase the proportionof teachers with a college education.

In 1993, Hong Kong began the first phase of reformsintended to improve the quality of teaching in primaryschools. The intentions of the program are to increase thequalifications of at least 35 percent of primary schoolteachers to a bachelor's degree by the year 2007, and toturn colleges of education into an autonomous institu-tionInstitute of Educationwith powers to offer degreeprograms subject to external academic accreditation.

Teaching in most APEC members is a highly reg-ulated profession. Efforts are under way in some APECmembers (the United States, Manitoba and Quebec inCanada, and the Republic of Korea) to provide furgreater professional authority and responsibility than iscurrently the case. Various initiatives are attempting togive teachers greater voice in creating standards forpreparation, licensure, and practice in the field. Greaterprofessional autonomy in teaching would requireincreased professional accountability. Consequently,means to ensure initial competence and continuingcompetence and growth are part of the accountabilitydiscussion in many APEC members. Continuous profes-sional development is seen as an important part ofgreater professionalism by many.

There are efforts in some APEC members (the Unit-ed States, Australia, and some provinces in Canada)toward greater collaboration among institutions of highereducation, school districts, and teacher organizations inefforts to improve teacher preparation and support. Pro-fessional development school relationships and mentor-ing programs in the United States and Australia are exam-ples of increased collaboration between schools andcolleges of education. In New Brunswick, Canada, thedepartment of education is collaborating with universitiesto revise the criteria for admission to the teaching profes-sion, and "to change the preservice program in order togive greater attention to the study of teaching and learn-ing.... It is also working with the universities, school dis-tricts and teacher organizations to revise the practicumand emphasize a team approach to professional growth."

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16 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

APEC members are employing a number of strate-gies to achieve these goals and to combat teaching's flatcareer ladder. The more common strategies and trendsinclude some combination of the following:

Upgrading the level and quality of teacherpreparation programsFostering greater links between academic prepa-ration and clinical experiencesProviding induction or transition supports andtraining for beginning teachersProviding ongoing professional developmentopportunitiesCreating national frameworks to guide initialteacher preparation and ongoing professionaldevelopment

Creating forums to ensure teachers a greatervoice in teacher preparation and professionaldevelopment issues

Notwithstanding the differences in terms ofapproaches and emphasis, APEC members seem to beunified in their recognition of the importance of teachersin achieving their educational goals. Efforts to strengthenteacher preparation programs, supports for beginningteachers, and opportunities for the continuous develop-ment and growth of experienced teachers are evidenceof the important role attached to teacher preparation andteacher development in national development.

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Teacher Training andProfessional Developmentin Australia

Submitted by: Teaching Policy Section, Schoolsand Curriculum Division, Department ofEmployment, Education and Training

CONTEXT

Definitions

Definitions for year (grade), age, and qualification to teachat different stages of Australian education are presentedin Table 2.1. The definitions of preschool and school edu-cation, in terms of starting year or grade, differ amongstates and territories (defined in Table 2.1 as groups ofstates). Thus, group D students have one less year of sec-ondary schooling than do students from other states.

Age levels are approximate. Formal (compulsory)schooling begins at the first year of primary school (year1) in each state and ceases at age 15 (usually year 9 oryear 10). Postcompulsory secondary education is pro-vided for 16-18-year-olds and normally includes years11 and 12 of school. About 76 percent of Australia'syoung people complete year 12. Postsecondary educa-tion comprises the university and vocational educationand training sectors.

Educational Systems and Student Population

School Systems

The primary responsibility for delivering school educa-tion lies with state and territory governments. There areeight state and territory school systems, which areknown as the government sector. Those schools not

2

within a state government system are referred to as thenongovernment sector.

The major nongovemment systems are the Catholiceducation systems in each state. However, a large numberof schools are run by other religious denominations and,together with a number of nondenominational, non-government sector schoolssuch as schools offering alter-native approaches to educationthey make up thediverse schooling sector of Australian education.

Generally, curriculum and senior school assess-ment are similar across sectors within a state. However,there are significant differences from state to state.

Since the mid-1980s, there has been devolution ofgreater responsibility from central system authorities tothe school level, including growing parental involve-ment, greater local school autonomy in school man-agement, and greater responsibility for teachers insenior secondary assessment.

The federal government provides significant sup-plementary funds to state government and to non-government schools. Funds for government schools aredetermined on a state basis, while funds for non-government schools are determined on a school systemor individual school basis.

The federal government also addresses nationalpriorities for schools and provides leadership in facili-tating cooperative efforts between the various schoolsectors and other key players, such as universities andteacher organizations.

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18 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 2.1

Education Stages in Australia by Year, Length of Time, Age, and Qualification to Teach

Year (Grade) Years Taken Age (Years) Qualification To Teach

Preschool-A* N/A 2 3 to 4 Post-school diploma

Preschool-B N/A 3 3 to 5Primary-C Kindergarten to year 6 7 5 to 1 1 University degree

Primary-D Year 1 to year 7 7 6 to 12Secondary-C Year 7 to year 12 6 12 to 17

Secondary-D Year 8 to year 12 5 13 to 17TAFE Year 10 (junior secondary) 1 or more 15 N/A

University Year 12 (senior secondary) 3 or 4 18 N/A

Preservice training University 18 N/A

*Group A States: New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania, Australian Capital Territory, Northern Territory.Group B States: Queensland, Western Australia.Group C States: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, Australian Capital Territory.Group D States: Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia, Northern Territory.Source: National Report on Schooling in Australia (ANR), 1989.

The forum for this national collaboration and forthe development and implementation of school educa-tion policy is the Ministerial Council for Education,Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). TheMCEETYA comprises federal, state and territory ministersfor education, employment, training, and youth affairs.

Student Populations

In 1993, there were 9,865 schools in Australia, with3,098,375 full-time students, most of whom (58.6 per-cent) were drawn from the primary level (see Table 2.2).The government sector was responsible for 71.9 pei , -!ntof full-time students and 75 percent of schools. A sig-nificant number of students (19.3 percent) were locatedin Catholic systems.

Student Retention

Participation in the noncompulsory years of schooling hasincreased dramatically, with an increase in the year-12apparent retention rate from 46 percent in 1985 to 76 per-cent in 1993.

Year-12 completion rates have also increased dra-matically during this period, although they tend to be high-er for urban areas and lowest for remote areas. Theincrease in completion rates has been fairly evenly distrib-uted between areas of low and high socioeconomic status.

It is generally assumed that increased participationhas altered the composition of the school student pop-ulation over the past decade in terms of abilities and ofcultural and linguistic background. In addition, there isa growing trend toward mainstream participation of stu-dents with disabilities. Australia's substantial immigra-tion program has also resulted in a steady influx of stu-

dents whose primary language is not English and whohave different cultural assumptions and practices.

Postsecondary Education

Students who leave school at age 15 may seek entry intothe vocational education and training sector, a large partof which lies within the government-funded Technicaland Further Education (TAFE) system. Students under-take prevocational and year-12 courses, as well as pre-apprenticeship and work traineeships. Students whocomplete year 12 may seek entry to TAFE to obtain pro-fessional, paraprofessional, or trades qualifications.Those who also complete matriculation requirementsmay seek entry to university.

There is a wide range of subjects available to stu-dents who continue to year 12. They include matricula-tion subjects and those offered for general interest andspecial needs. Some subjects in year 12 can be creditedfor future study at TAFE. The range of subjects andmethods of assessment vary across states and territories.However, in general, year-12 assessment is based oncombinations of the following methods:

Statewide syllabus external examinationsAn external, statewide scaling test set by anindependent research body and designed tomeasure general skillsLocal, school-based assessment, determined bylocal teachers using exam results, assignments,observation, and so onModerated school-based assessment where allstate school-based assessments for the one subjectare scaled, removing those variations in marksnot due to differences in student achievement

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2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 19

TABLE 2.2

Number and Percentage of Full-time Students; Category of School (and Nongovernment Affiliation) and Level ofEducation, 1993, by State and Territory

Level ofEducation NSW Vic Old SA WA Tas NT ACT(a) Total

GovernmentNUMBER

Primary 446,911 303,985 260,493 124,802 143,871 37,380 19,400 22,583 1,359,425Secondary 311,064 222,651 143,770 59,818 78,580 27,347 7,437 17,964 868,631Total 757,975 526,636 404,263 184,620 222,451 64,727 26,837 40,547 2,228,058Nongovernment-AnglicanPrimary 7,335 6,781 3,899 3,661 899 879 26,616Secondary 15,800 17,622 8,416 3,874 6,828 1,904 2,656 57,100Total 23,135 24,403 12,315 7,535 9,990 2,803 0 3,535 83,716Nongovernment-CatholicPrimary 120,570 99,864 52,661 22,349 28,844 7,565 3,280 8,438 343,571Secondary 96,028 73,767 14,175 20,313 5,531 1,397 7,333 225,716Total 216,598 173,631 89,833 36,524 49,157 13,096 4,677 15,771 599,287Nongovernment-OtherPrimary 26,728 20,884 15,783 10,471 7,647 2,754 1,165 1,022 86,454Secondary 27,660 32,043 21,537 8,077 7,494 2,381 1,193 477 100,862Total 54,388 52,927 37,320 18,548 15,141 5,135 2,358 1,499 187,316Nongovernment-TotalPrimary 154,633 127,529 72,343 36,481 39,653 11,218 4,445 10,339 456,641Secondary 139,488 123,432 67,125 26,126 34,635 9,816 2,590 10,466 413,687Total 294,121 250,961 139,468 62,607 74,288 21,034 7,035 20,805 870,319All SchoolsPrimary 601,544 431,514 332,836 161,283 183,524 48,598 23,845 32,922 1,816,066Secondary 450,552 346,083 210,895 85,944 113,215 37,163 10,027 28,430 1,282,309Total 1,052,096 777,597 543,731 247,227 296,739 85,761 33,872 61,352 3,099,375

PERCENTAGE

GovernmentPrimary 14.4 9.8 8.4 4.0 4.6 1.2 0.6 0,7 43.9Secondary 10.0 7.2 4.6 1.9 2.5 0.9 0.2 0.6 28.0Total 24.5 17.0 13.0 6.0 7.2 2.1 0.9 1.3 71.9Nongovernment-AnglicanPrimary 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.9Secondary 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 1.8Total 0.7 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 2.7Nongovernment-CathollcPrimary 3.9 3.2 1.7 0.7 0.9 0.2 0.1 0.3 11.1Secondary 3.1 2.4 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.2 8.3Total 7.0 5.6 2.9 1.2 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.5 19.3Nongovernment-OtherPrimary 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1 2.8Secondary 0.9 1.0 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.1 3.3Total 1.8 1.7 1.2 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.1 6.0Nongovernment-TotalPrimary 5.0 4.1 2.3 1.2 1.3 0.4 0.1 0.3 14.7Secondary 4.5 4.0 2.2 0.8 1.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 13.4Total 9.5 8.1 4.5 2.0 2.4 0.7 0.2 0.7 28.1All SchoolsPrimary 19.4 13.9 10.7 5.2 5.9 1.6 0.8 1.1 58.6Secondary 14.5 11.2 6.8 2.8 3.7 1.2 0.3 0.9 41.4Total 34.0 25.1 17.5 8.0 9.6 2.8 1.1 2.0 100.0

Source: 1993 Schools Australia: Australia Bureau of Statistics.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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20 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

In 1991, there were 199,532 full-time equivalent (FTE)teachers in Australian schools (see Table 2.3), as well as46,827 FTE nonteaching staff (e.g., counselors, teacheraides, clerical and maintenance staff). Teachers are fair-ly evenly divided between primary and secondary lev-els. A majority (62 percent) are female, although this pro-portion is much higher for the primary than for thesecondary level, especially in the nongovernment sector.

Nearly three quarters of all teachers (145,895)work in the government sector. The largest teacheremployers are state governments. For example, 23 per-cent of all FIE teachers in Australia in 1991 wereemployed by the New South Wales State Government.

Australia is a highly urbanized nation and mostteachers are employed in the major urban areas alongthe eastern and southeastern seaboard. However, in allstates and territories, teachers in the government sectorare actively encouraged to undertake a period ofemployment in rural and remote areas.

In 1989, a national sample survey, Teachers inAustralian Schools (TAS), was undertaken by aresearch team from the University of Queensland toexamine the characteristics and qualifications of Aus-tralian teachers. Data were gathered by questionnairefrom separate national samples for primary and sec-ondary teachers, each stratified by state and sector. Thetotal sample size was 9,895, with a response rate of65.4 percent (6,478).

The average age of teachers surveyed was 37.4years, with two-thirds aged between 31 and 50 years.

The age profile was somewhat younger for the non-government sector.

Almost half (46.7 percent) of those surveyedreported four or more years of preservice training. Near-ly one-third (31.6 percent) completed three years of pre-service training, obtaining either a degree or a diploma,while the remainder had completed one to two years oftraining. The latter group varied across states.

Teachers are registered to teach, either by a statu-tory board in some states, or by employers themselves.Registered teachers are generally recruited centrally inboth the government and the Catholic school systems,and then allocated to schools. In the case of some non-government schools, teachers are recruited individuallyby school boards.

Under devolution policies being introduced insome government school systems, regional managersmay be given some responsibility for recruiting newteachers. School principals in some states already havesignificant responsibility for selecting replacementteachers for their schools.

The TAS survey indicated that in 1989, 90 percentof teachers were employed on a permanent, full-timebasis, with the remainder on temporary, or short-termcontract basis. The proportion of the latter groups var-ied across states.

The lack of uniformity in registration requirements,the industrial relations framework, and the political pref-erence to offer employment to locally trained teachersall have helped create state-based teacher labor markets,making it difficult for teachers to move easily from onestate to another. It is generally easier to move betweendifferent sectors within the same state, although condi-tions of service entitlements may not be transferable.

TABLE 2.3Australian FTE* Teachers by Sector, Level, and Geneer, 1991

Male Female Persons

GOVERNMENT

IPrimary 20,474 53,742 74,216

Secondary 36,353 35,327 71,679

Total 56,826 89,068 145,895

NONGOVERNMENTPrimary 4,942 17,621 22,564

Secondary 14,598 16,476 31,074

Total 19,540 34,097 53,638

TOTALPrimary 25,416 71,363 96,779

Secondary 50,951 51,803 102,753

Total 76,367 123,166 199,532

*Estimated full-time equivalent staff. Does not include special support, teacher aides, and nonteaching staff.Source: ANR Statistical Annex, 1991.

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2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 21

Characteristics of 1.'aching Employment

Under Australia's industrial relations framework, salariesand conditions for teachers are determined through asystem of conciliation and arbitration. Generally, salariesand conditions for government and nongovernmentteachers are set out in state industrial awards, or con-tracts, which are adhered to by all but a few smalleremployers in the nongovernment sector.

However, an emerging trend in Australia is thedevelopment of enterprise bargaining, in which employ-ees and employers negotiate directly on wages and con-ditions. Enterprise agreements already have been negoti-ated and implemented in a small number of non-government schools.

One state government recently abolished theprocess of conciliation and arbitration in that state,ended the state teaching award, and introduced directcontracts for government teachers. In response, teacherunions are seeking to obtain an award at the federallevel. If successful, this may lead to federal awards forall teachers.

In general, classroom teacher salary levels areincremental and based on qualifications and years of ser-vice. The top salary increment level, referred to as thebenchmark level, is now almost uniform across Australiaat A$38,950 for most states. However, there are differ-ences in increment levels between sectors and states.

Outstanding classroom teachers may be promot-ed to the new Advanced Skills Teacher (AST) classifica-tion. AST salary levels are fairly consistent across Aus-tralia, ranging from A$38,242 to A$41,205. Teachers mayalso gain promotion into executive or administrativepositions in schools, or into administrative positions instate Education Departments or Catholic EducationCommissions.

Government-sector teachers have access to stategovernment superannuation schemes (to which employ-ers make a contribution) for retirement income. Non-government teachers may have access to similar funds orelse make private arrangements. All teachers are eligiblefor benefits available through federal government pro-grams. Health coverage is provided under the compul-sory national medicare system, supplemented by volun-tary private health insurance, while all retired personswho satisfy a means test are eligible for a pension.

Australian teachers in the government sector, andmost in the nongovernment sector, enjoy a high level ofemployment stability. Except for individual cases ofincompetence, negligence, or other unacceptablebehavior, major employers rarely dismiss teachers.When required to reduce teacher numbers, they usual-ly restrict the intake of new teachers, or offer voluntaryredundancy packages to older teachers.

Many teachers belong to either a government sec-tor- or nongovernment-sector industrial union at thestate level, which in turn are affiliated with national gov-ernment- and nongovernment-sector teacher unions. Ofthose surveyed for the TAS, 61 percent belonged to anindustrial union (higher for the government than non-government sector).

Historically, teacher unions have been very activein seeking to improve teacher salaries and conditions,and have been heavily involved in more general school-related issues. Unions are formally recognized in theconciliation and arbitration process.

The TAS also indicated that 38 percent of teachersbelonged to subject associations. These provide profes-sional development support for teachers in specific sub-ject areas, but otherwise are not involved with profes-sional issues.

In late 1993, the Australian Teaching Council (ATC),a new professional body for teachers, was established.Some of the responsibilities of the council will be to:

Provide a national voice for teachersHelp develop a system of national teacher reg-istrationImprove initial teacher education ar. -I developguidelines for best practice in relatior. to induc-tion and probationImprove professional developmentEstablish professional standards, as well as rightsand obligations for teachers

The ATC will not be involved in negotiatingsalaries and employment conditions; it will focus insteadon professional rather than on industrial issues.

Patterns of Supply and Demand forTeaching Positions

The demand for teachers fluctuates according to a num-ber of factors. These include:

Funds available to employersSeparation rate of teachers (resignations, retire-ments, etc.)Trends in student enrollmentEmployer policies regarding class size, promo-tion structure, introduction of new curriculumareas, and so on

Some of these are in turn influenced by factorssuch as the current labor market for alternative occu-pations, the age profile of the current teaching force,and availability of alternatives to resignation (e.g., leaveprovisions).

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22TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

For a number of years, the overall demand forteachers has been exceeded by the supply of teachergraduates at the national level. However, this patternhas varied considerably according te school level, sub-ject area, and geographical area. The existence of state-based labor markets has led to significant differences inthe demand for teachers across states, such that teachershortages and surpluses can occur simultaneously in dif-ferent states. There are also considerable regional dif-ferences. The demand for teachers is usually higher inremote areas than in coastal regions.

Generally, demand has been relatively low for pri-mary teachers and secondary teachers of humanities andsocial science. However, there have been consistentshortages of qualified secondary teachers in mathemat-ics and science across all states, and there is a growingdemand for teachers qualified in Asian languages.

Recruiting strategies for areas of shortage haveincluded:

Retraining current teachers to teach new areas,e.g., primary teachers retrained to teach sec-ondary subjectsRecruiting nonteachers with tertiary qualifica-tions in mathematics and science and providingshort-term education trainingRecruiting qualified teachers from overseas

A suggestion within one state system to pay mathand science teachers a higher level of salary was discussedbut not implemented. There is considerable teacher sup-port for salaries to be ranked according to existing crite-ria rather than varied according to specific subject areas.

Data from the 1991 Graduate Destination Survey,which focuses on the first destination of graduates in thelabor market a few months after the completion of theircourse of study, is provided in Table 2.4. The groupsthat would be expected to include most of the graduateteachers (e.g., arts, science, and education) had a lowerproportion of graduates in full-time employment (from54 to 65 percent) than other groups.

Data available from other national surveys, whichwere carried out between 1984 and 1990, suggest thatabout 50 percent of university graduate teachers hadobtained full-time employment at the time they weresurveyed.

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions

Prior to 1972, most teacher education was provided byTeachers' College institutions, which were controlled by

state education authorities. The numbers of studentsenrolled varied in response to each state's perceivedstaffing requirements.

After 1972, teacher education was provided byautonomous Colleges of Advanced Education, resultingin a male . change whereby the employer authority wasseparate from the training authority.

Since then, Colleges of Advanced Education haveamalgamated with universities or with other higher edu-cation institutions. This has resulted in a rationalizationof the number of teacher education courses available.

Thirty-five of the 37 higher education institutionsin Australia offer teacher education courses. Enrollmentnumbers per institution vary considerably. In 1993, theyranged from 269 to 2,852 per institution.

Teacher education funding is derived from recur-rent grants provided by the Commonwealth governmentfor the general operation of higher education institu-tions. Institutions are autonomous and determine thedetailed distribution of these resources among theiractivities. In 1992, approximately A$420 million wasallocated to teacher education, A$310 million to preser-vice education, and A$110 million to professional devel-opment. This represents 4.2 percent of the total expen-diture of Commonwealth funds in the higher educationand school education sectors.

Policy Guidance

The highly devolved nature of the education systems inAustralia, together with the autonomy of higher educa-tion institutions, means that preservice and inserviceteacher education is not exclusively guided by the poli-cies of any one particular body.

The Commonwealth government has in place anumber of strategies that, through its funding initiatives,

TABLE 2.4Full-time Employment Rate of 1990 Graduates inAustralia by Field of Study, 1991

EmploymentRate (%)

Agriculture 73

Architecture 61

Arts 54

Business 75

Education 65

Engineering 74

Health 91

Law 91

Science 65

Vet Science 88

Source: 1991 Graduate Destination Survey.

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seek to influence the future direction of these programs.They are described in the last section of the chapter.

Accreditation/Approval

Generally, courses are self-accredited by universitiesthemselves within an agreed-on framework that requires:

Periodic assessmentGuarantee of appropriateness of staff experi-ence, and of qualifications and facilities availableMinimum standards for admission and levels ofcompetence achieved, and national standards ofcourse length and nomenclature

Assessment is usually undertaken in consultationwith relevant employers, professional associations, andother bodies.

The Commonwealth government, while not anemployer of teachers, does exert some influence overteacher education. This is achieved through the fundingof special projects that further the implementation ofnational initiatives. The recently formed AustralianTeaching Council (see previous section on characteris-tics of teacher employment) may accept the accredita-tion of teacher education courses as one of its respon-sibilities for the future.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

Although teacher education courses differ across thecountry, there are common threads from which a com-mon goal can be formulated.

This common goal is to produce graduate begin-ning teachers who are professional in their knowledge,competence, and attitudes, that is, teachers who are:

Knowledgeable about their subject discipline,their pupils, the curriculum, and pedagogyResourceful and adaptable to change and ableto reflect on their teaching practicesInformed in their judgments, rational in theirdecisions, ethical in their behavior, and account-able for their actions

In an effort to further articulate these outcomes,National Competency Standards for beginning teachersare being prepared. These competencies have beendeveloped in close consultation with teachers, teachereducators, and employers, and will be useful in devel-oping curriculum for initial and in-service training ofteachers. The draft framework identifies five areas ofcompetence for teachers:

Using and developing professional knowledgeand valuesDeveloping relationships and working with othersPlanning and managing the teaching and learn-ing processMonitoring and assessing the teaching and learn-ing processReflecting, evaluating, and planning for contin-uous improvement

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

Admission to teacher education courses, in the main,depends on an appropriate tertiary entrance score. Eachstudent is given a score based on their year-11 and year-12 assessments at secondary school. Individual highereducation institutions determine the minimum scoreunder which students will not be accepted into acourse. These scores may vary across institutions, evenfor the same subject disciplines.

Quotas, set by the institutions after consultationswith state higher education advisory bodies, exist for alleducation courses.

Institutions do not generally interview prospectiveteacher education students. There may be exceptions inreligious institutionswhere an indication of a person'sfaith may be considered important to their work as ateacheror in some institutions with small intakes ofteacher education students.

There is concern that poor employment prospectsand poor publicity for teaching may result in a drop indemand for places in teacher education. This has so farnot been the case. There is, however, some real con-cern that teacher education courses do not attractentrants with academic achievements comparable tothose of entrants in most other professions.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Preparation Curricula

The general pattern for secondary teacher preparationinvolves either a university degree (three or four years)specializing in the subject disciplines to be taught, fol-lowed by a one-year Graduate Diploma of Educationprogram, or a four-year Bachelor of Education degreeprogram, which integrates studies in subject disciplines,education, and teaching practices.

Recently, the trend for secondary-trained teachers istoward the phasing out of integrated courses and the revi-talization of Graduate Diploma courses. Some universitiesare looking at two-year, add-on courses (rather than at thetraditional one-year course) to enable students to spendmore time in the classroom to integrate their pedagogical,individual discipline, and practical experiences.

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24 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Most primary and early childhood students have,in the past, undertaken a three-year diploma course ora three-year Bachelor of Teaching. This is graduallychanging, so that as of 1994, most primary courses willbecome four-year Bachelor of Education degrees, whichintegrate subject disciplines with pedagogical studies,and offer extended practicum experiences in the finalyear. Some universities are also investigating the train-ing of primary teachers using the secondary GraduateDiploma model.

Practicum arrangements differ enormously. Thenumber of school experience days required in differentstates or territories ranges from 50 to just over 100.Although there is general agreement that more is betterthan less, the cost of supervising students in schoolsconstrains the extent of the school experience.

To overcome this, some teacher education facul-ties have collaborated with schools, unions, and teacheremployers to develop an extended practicum; for exam-ple, one day a week all year, four days a week for aterm or a semester, or every day for a term. In this sit-uation, teachers have agreed to waive the supervisionpayment in return for nonfinancial benefits, such asrequiring less classroom time to free teachers for otheractivitiesthat is, attending courses for accreditationtoward a higher degree.

During an extended practicumor internship, asit is often calledstudents are expected to undertakeall the responsibidties associated with having a full-timeteaching position.

Assessment of a student's practicum performanceis carried out mainly by the supervising teacher. In somecourses, university lecturers also observe the student inthe school and have input into the final assessment.There is usually no attempt to seek parity of assessmentoutcomes across institutions, or even within the sameinstitution.

Differences in the Nature and Content '.JfTeacher Preparation Programs

Overall, there is considerable variation in teacher pre-service training across institutions, for example, in:

The amount of time required for initial trainingcourses, especially for primary preparationThe number of required days of practice teach-ing undertaken by trainee teachersThe proportion of practical and theoretical com-ponents of teacher education courses.

Teacher education courses within a state are close-ly aligned to the state curricula and to educational prac-tices in which they operate.

Status of Teacher EducationCurricular Standards

Under the terms of the Australian constitution, state andterritory governments are responsible for education intheir regions. They are the largest employers of teach-ers, set curricular frameworks, provide most of the pro-fessional development for their teachers, and work withhigher education institutions to determine the contentof university courses.

The federal government, while not an employerof teachers, provides state governments with funds foreducation, and consequently plays an important part insetting policy.

For some time, efforts have been made at the fed-eral level to bring together all the stakeholders in edu-cation in order to standardize education outcomesacross the country. National Competency Standards forbeginning teachers are being formulated (see sectionabove on teacher preparation), national curriculumstatements and profiles have been devised, key compe-tenciesto be achieved by all studentshave beenidentified, and work has commenced on establishingthe Australian Vocational Certificate. See the last sectionin this chapter for further details.

The best of teacher education courses incorporatestate and territory education initiatives and federal gov-ernment priorities. Universities are encouraged to applyfor federal grants that further the national agenda. Forexample, during 1993, universities conducted summerand winter schools for teachers where they wereinstructed about the national curriculum statements andprofiles, and about other national initiatives. federalfunding has also been used by universities for disciplinerenewal courses for teachers, covering mathematics,secondary science, and Australian history. Beginning in1994, universities have been able to apply for fundingto conduct similar professional development courses inthe areas of English, physical education and health, pri-mary science, and technology.

LICENSING

Initial Requirements

In general, teachers who seek employment in the gov-ernment sector, and most schools in the nongovernmentsector, must be registered in that state. Registration isdetermined either by a statutory body (established understate legislation) or by employers, usually during therecruitment of teachers. In most cases, registration hasminimum requirements. An outline of the registrationprocess is given in Table 2.5.

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2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 25

TABLE 2.5

Outline of the Registration Process by State and Sector

StatutoryRegistration

Employer-regulated with Employer-regulated WithoutMinimum Requirements Minimum Requirements

VictoriaQueenslandSouth Australia

VictoriaQueenslandSouth AustraliaTasmania

GOVERNMENT

New South WalesWestern AustraliaAustralian Capital TerritoryNorthern TerritoryTasmania

NONGOVERNMENT

Australian Capital TerritoryNorthern TerritoryWestern Australia*

New South WalesWestern Australia**

*The WA Catholic Education Commission.**Independent, nongovernment schools in WA (i.e., excludes Catholic Education Commission).Source: D. McR :t, A National Teaching Council for Australia, NPQTL, 1992.

TABLE 2.6

Registration Criteria by State and Sector

NSW VIC

Unregistered3-year training X X (a)

4-year training X (b)Provisional (training) XProvisional (experience/

appraisal)Registration categories

Unregistered/noqualifications

3-year training4-year trainingProvisional (training)Provisional (experience/

appraisal)Registration categories

QLD WA SA TAS NT ACT

GOVERNMENT

XX X X X

X X XX X X X X

X X

X X

NONGOVERNMENT

X X

X (a)X (b)X

X

X

X (c)X (d)

X

(a) Primary teaching.(b) Secondary teaching.(c) Catholic primary teaching.(d) Catholic secondary teaching.Source: D. McRae, A National Teaching Council for Australia, NPQTL, 1992.

In general, the statutory Teacher RegistrationBoards include representatives of the state Ministry (orDepartment) of Education, teachers and nongovernmentemployers, where relevant. One state also includes rep-resentatives from universities and parents' associations.

In two states, registration for the government sec-

for is determined by nonstatutory bodies that have asimilar structure to the Registration Boards. For theremaining employers, qualification to teach is deter-mined as part of the recruitment process.

The general criteria for registration are set out inTable 2.6.

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26 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Full registration is generally dependent on mini-mum qualification requirements, although unregisteredteachers can be authorized to teach in certain circum-stances in Queensland. Persons without teaching qual-ifications may be registered as specialist teachers in Vic-torian nongovernment schools, while persons withoutqualifications may be registered for nongovernmentschools in some other states, although in these cases,future salary increases and promotion would be depen-dent on obtaining qualifications.

Most authorities allow provisional registrationwhere teachers have begun Lt not completedteaching qualifications. In addition, final registration isalso subject to a successful completion of a minimumperiod of teaching, in some states involving, at times,appraisal or probation.

Some states have separate registration categoriesfor teachers with primary, secondary, and specialistqualifications. One state allows registration restricted tocertain subject areas.

There is no nationally consistent process ofteacher registration, although some states have bilater-al agreements in relation to government-sector teachers.There are considerable minor differences betweenemployersfor example, in the areas of registrationperiods, documentation requirements, and assessmentof previous teaching experience. One state requires for-mal testing of language competency.

At present, state and territory governments arereviewing their legislative registration requirements 'fora wide range of occupations. It is expected that ormany occupations, those requiring registration in onestate will automatically receive mutual recognition in allother states. It is anticipated that teaching will be includ-ed in this process.

In the longer term, it is envisaged that the Aus-tralian Teaching Council will develop a national teacherregistration process. There is no guarantee that employ-ers will accept this classification.

Licensing Reauthorization

The period of authorized registration varies: from one-to-three years to permanent status. It is not knownwhether re-registration is automatic in these circum-stances, or whether a specific process is followed.

Status of Qualifying Conditions

As indicated above, nongovernment authorities in a num-ber of states have the flexibility to register or employ per-sons with little or no formal teaching (or other) qualifi-cations. This may occur to fill a serious shortage (e.g.,specialist teachers) or because some schools (e.g., reli-gious schools) seek teachers with other qualities.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Postqualification Processes

Across Australia, defined periods of induction, transi-tion, or on-the-job training mainly devolve to regions orto individual schools, and the process is not dealt within any uniform way.

The Australian Education Union does, however,have policy guidelines, which it adopted in 1991. Theseinclude the following:

An induction period of one yearPlacement in a supportive school, with seniorstaff responsible for the induction programA reduced teaching loadA period of reflection, review, and informalappraisal and professional developmentFormal appraisal for permanency or full regis-tration

The small amount of research conducted in Aus-tralia indicates that few teachers experience a formalinduction program, although large numbers receivesome informal help, such as a friendly chat or a touraround the school. Many others do not even receive this.

The importan :e of this phase of teacher educationis now being recognized across Australia.

Professional Development Opportunities

A wide range of in-service professional developmentactivities are undertaken by teachers. They include:

Courses delivered at different levelsthat is,school-based, systemwide, professional subjectassociations, and universitiesCourses designed for differing needs, includingthose of individual teachers, specific schoolneeds, and emerging system needsCourses varying from short-term, informal cours-es to long-term, formal courses where a certifi-cate, diploma, or degree is awarded

Until recently, professional development activi-ties were the sole responsibility of the various systemswithin individual states and territories. Priorities forcontent, frequency, and funding have therefore variedacross Australia.

Universities have contributed by upgrading coursesfor two-year trained teachers to three-year trained teach-ers, as required by systems across Australia. Most recent-ly, the trend has been toward upgrading three-year Diplo-ma courses to four-year Bachelor of Education degrees.The offering of master's and PhD degrees in education

37

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2 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN AUSTRALIA 27

also has become more widespread in the last ten years.In 1993, the federal government announced the

National Professional Development Program (NPDP),which will provide A$60 million over the next threeyears to enhance professional development activities forteaching staff in Australian schools. Education systems,universities, and teacher organizations can apply forfunding under this program, which aims to improveeducational outcomes for young people, includir:g stu-dents experiencing educational disadvantage.

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Present Concerns for Change and Improvement

Toward the end of 1992, the Commonwealth Depart-ment of Employment, Education, and Training releaseda discussion paper on teacher education. The followingissues were raised:

Concern over the lack of recent teaching expe-rience on the part of teacher educatorsThe relevance of teacher education programs,particularly the need for practical pedagogicalorientation in course content, the amount oftraining time spent in the classroom, and theneed to keep pace with the substantial changesocLurring with curriculumThe need for teachers to keep abreast of contentknowledgeThe need for a national framework for profes-sional development that will meet both the wideand growing range of professional needs forteachers and the specific training needs of princi-pals, with the trend toward self-managing schools

Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement

Since 1989, the federal government has focused strong-ly on improving the quality of teaching through a num-ber of policies. The federal government brought togeth-er the key parties involved in teacher awardrestructuring at the national level. The aim was toimprove the quality of teaching, with attention to bothteachers' skills and their qualifications, and throughchanges in remuneration and career-path policies.

As a result, state Ministers of Education agreed toa national salary benchmark for four-year trained teach-ers, and agreed on establishing the category ofAdvanced Skills Teacher (see previous section on char-acteristics of teaching employment). The federal gov-ernment agreed to assist government and nongovern-

ment authorities in meeting the additional financial costsfrom teacher award restructuring.

In collaboration with government and non-government teacher employers and teacher unions, thefederal government helped to establish the NationalProject for the Quality of Teaching and Learning(NPQTL). The NPQTL, which concluded its work inDecember 1993, brought together in one forum the keyparties involved in the quality of teaching and learning.The main areas of activity were:

The National Schools Project, which involvesschools in action research projects, investigatinghow changes in work organization for teacherscan lead to improvements in student learningoutcomes. In 1994, this project will continue asthe National Schools Network, with involvementfrom all states and territories.The establishment of the Australian TeachingCouncil, a national professional body for teachers,which will have a voice in such matters as teacherpreservice education, in-service training, registra-tion, and professional conduct (see previous sec-tion on characteristics of teaching employment).The development of National Competency Stan-dards for beginning teachers (see previous sec-tion on goals of the teacher preparation system).

Other reforms that will impact on professionaldevelopment for teachers and principals, as well as onchanges to teacher preservice training, include:

The work of the Finn and Mayer committees,which will result in the integration of key employ-ment-related competencies into all curriculaThe introduction of the Australian Vocation Cer-tificate in secondary schools, which is designedto expand opportunities for students to beginvocational training and experiences at schoolThe introduction across Australia of commoncurriculum statements and profiles for eight keylearning areasThe implementation of the National Policy forthe Education of Girls in Australian Schools

During late 1993, an accord was struck betweenthe Commonwealth government, the Australian Educa-tion Union, and the Independent Teachers Federation.Part of the agreement relates to professional structuresand career development for teachers. It includes sup-port for the Australian Teaching Council, the continua-tion of the National Schools Project as the NationalSchools Network, and support for the work associatedwith the National Competency Standards for beginningteachers.

3 S

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Teacher Training andProfessional Developmentin Brunei Darussalam

Submitted by: Ministry of Education

CHARACTERISTICS OFTEACHER PREPARATION INSTITUTIONS

The Universiti Brunei Darussalam

The idea of establishing a university in Negara BruneiDarussalam first came up during a comprehensive reviewof the country's higher educational needs in 1976. Subse-quent discussions led to the appointment of a steeringcommittee, which, with the assistance of the British Coun-cil, engaged a group of experts to study and advise on theestablishment of an institution of higher learning in thecountry. Once academic links with several overseas uni-versities were set up, English-language and Malay-lan-guage medium first-degree programs were designed. In1985, His Majesty Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mui'zzadinWaddaulah, Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Negara BruneiDarussalam, and the Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD)Chancellor, formally announced the establishment of theUniversity with an initial intake of 176 students.

Governance of the university rests mainly with theUniversity Council. The Chief Executive Officer, whodirectly controls the activities of the university, is theVice Chancellor, who is ably supported by the Perma-nent Academic Adviser and Registrar in managing andadministering the affairs of staff and students. The aca-demic programs are offered by five faculties: Arts &Social Sciences, Education, Management & Administra-tive Studies, Islamic Studies, and Science. These facul-ties are administered by a dean, a deputy dean, andheads of departments.

3

The Faculty of Education

The education of teachers and their regular supply tothe rapidly expanding school system in terms ofabsolute numbers, and the growing multiplicity of spe-cialized areas, have become major priorities of the Min-istry of Education in Negara Brunei Darussalam. TheBruneization policy and the state's policy to "acceleratehuman resources development" to meet the demands ofan increasingly sophisticated economy, together withthe bilingual policy of the Ministry of Education (MOE),warrant an urgent and aggressive demand for efficientand effective teacher education.

At present, the Universiti Brunei Darussalam is thesole institution in the country entrusted with the respon-sibility of meeting many of the ministry's needs. Amongthese are professional preparation and upgrading of stu-dents by offering them courses at the certificate, degree,postgraduate, and master's levels. In addition, UBD alsosees its responsibility as updating the skills and knowl-edge of teachers and education personnel in the Min-istry of Education through continuing education and in-service education programs.

While the Universiti Brunei Darussalam has theoverall role of organizing teacher education in responseto the MOE's requirements, the Faculty of Education (FOE)is given the principal role of professionally preparingteachers for schools in Negara Brunei Darussalam. Teachereducators in the FOE at present comprise local and expa-triate staff, recruited internationally to provide the neces-sary training for preservice and in-service teachers.

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30 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

The needs of the ministry by and large havebeen expressed in quantitative and operational terms.That is, requests from the ministry are channeled toUBD in terms of the number of teachers required andthe types of teachers needed in the areas and levels ofspecialization.

The subsequent direction in which teachers' edu-cation programs are developed and the philosophic andqualitative aspects of such programs are formulated inconsonance with the aspirations of the country and ofits overall plan. It is also recognized that teachers work-ing in the primary and secondary schools need subjectcontent in varying depth. They also need a clear graspof the skills to be applied to the processes of learningthe content. The challenge is to provide them with abalance between process-oriented and a purely content-oriented curriculum. There is an authentic collaborationamong the university's academic scholars in the disci-pline of education and other subjects.

TABLE 3.1

Education Student Enrollment, 1990-1993

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

The teacher education programs and the number of stu-dents enrolled in each can be seen in Table 3.1. Thereare three degree programs and they cater to both theEnglish-language medium and Malay-language mediumstudents. The B.A. Education (TESL, Geography, Eco-nomics), B.Sc. Education (Maths, Biology, Chemistry,Physics), and B.A. Primary Education are all conductedin the English language. The B.A. Pendidikan (Sejarah.Bahasa Melayu, Kesusteraan Melayu), B.A. PendidikanPengajian Islam, and B.A. Pendidikan Rendah are alltaught in Malay language. The degree programs are offour-year (eight semester) duration for preservice edu-cation students and from three (six semesters) to 3.5(seven semesters) years for in-service teachers.

Certificate and Post-Graduate Certificate in Educa-tion (PGCE) programs are also offered for serving pri-

EducationProgram

1993/94 Intake 1992/93 Intake 1991/92 Intake 1990/91 Intake

TotalPre-service

Up-graders

Pre-service

Up-graders

Pre-service

Up-graders

Pre-service

Up-graders

ENGLISH MEDIUMBSC Education 13 16 26 21 76

BA Education 3 11 15 11 22 7 24 94

BA Education 3 3

(Islamic Studies)BA Primary Education 33 21 1 34 41 130

MALAY MEDIUMBA Pendidikan 17 18 24 20 23 104

BA Pendidikan 15 17 16 14 11 12 2 10 99

(Pengajian Islam)BA Pendidikan Rendah 25 29 27 86

OTHER PROGRAMS

PGCE (secondary English) 24 24

PGCE (secondary Malay) 19 19

PGCE (secondary-Irk)_ 7 7

PGCE (primary) 12 12

CERTIFICATE PROGRAMS

Early Childhood Ed. 17 17

Education 52 63 59 174

Teaching Malay Language 29 29Educational Management 26 26

MASTER'S DEGREE

Master of Educational 26 26Management (M.ED M)

Total 198 175 136 83 147 80 51 57 926

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mary and secondary teachers, as well as for religiouseducation teachers. Preset-vice students pursue a three-year Certificate in Education program, which enablesthem to become primary teachers after certification. ThePostgraduate Certificate in Education programs are forsecondary serving teachers in the primary or secondarylevels. Other PGCE programs cater to religious teachers'training for teaching Islamic Religious Knowledge (IRK)in primary or secondary schools. At these levels, IRK isa compulsory subject for students, from primary 1 toupper-secondary level. Certificate and PGCE studentsfollow either a two-semester or a three-semesterPGCE/Certificate model in their areas of specialization.Due to the university's limited facilities in the presenttemporary campus, the intake of students in one acad-emic year per program is limited to only 15-20 students,except for the Certificate in Education preservice stu-dents, whose intake has always been about 50-60. Allof the students are government-sponsored scholars.

Universiti Brunei Darussalam is a governmentinstitution and is wholly financed by the government.

Policy Guidance

UBD's response to the ministry's needs has been quanti-tative in kind and largely implemented in operationalterms. Such a response has been dictated by pragmatismand immediacy and has proved adequate up to a certainpoint, when the needs are small. With the expandingneeds of the ministry and the increasing complexity of itsrequirements logistically and qualitatively, UBD's responsein the next planning period of five years may have to bedifferent. There is now a perceived need for a formal pol-icy for teacher education in Brunei and a more explicitlystated set of expectations, including projections of needsfor the next two or three cycles of training.

Accreditation/Approval

The academic performance of the graduates and thequality of the degree programs are examined by Exter-nal Examiners. This system ensures that the degreesawarded in similar courses by international universitiesare comparable in standard with those of UBD. The sys-tem also ensures that the assessment and classificationof degrees awarded are fair.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

Any educational program may be viewed as a deliber-ate intervention, designed to achieve selected broad

4 1

goals and related specific objectives. The goals andrelated specific objectives of the teacher education pro-grams are the most important curricular criteria, for theyprovide standards, or guidelines, on which are basedthe designs for these programs.

The main purpose of the Faculty of Education isthe preparation of personnel for teaching, educationaladministration, and other related fields in primary andsecondary schools. The FOE sees its responsibility inteacher education as crucial to the overall quality ofeducation in Brunei Darussalam. Essential to the suc-cessful pursuit of teaching according to today's stan-dards is a knowledge of the nature of teaching, oflearning the processes involved in the function of edu-cation in a changing Asian-Islamic society, and of themanagement of educational institutions in accordancewith modern educational thinking and practices. Thecourses offered are designed to produce graduateswho would be well qualified as teachers and officersin a wide range of positions in the country's educationsystem.

In addition to the preparation of teachers, anoth-er goal of the Faculty of Education is the acquisition,and extension, of the store of fundamental knowledgeabout the educational enterprise. Through the continu-ous study of educational problems by academic staff,the Faculty of Education hopes to increase existingknowledge about education, particularly in the BruneiDarussalam context.

Given such aims and goals, it is clear that the Fac-ulty of Education is obligated to prepare teachers withmultiple professional competencies. Graduates in theteacher education p:ograms are expected to acquireproficiencies in at least five areas.

First, they are to be models of competence incommunication, using either the Malay or English lan-guages, or both. Second, they are to be exemplary prac-titioners of the tenets of Islam and effective transmittersof the values and cultural norms of Brunei Darussalamsociety. Third, they are expected to become profes-sionals who are self-confident, creative, innovative, andsensitive to the needs of the fast-changing society.Fourth, they are to be teachers who have acquired theability to assume multiple roles as educational leadersin their community and country. Fifth, they are expect-ed to acquire and develop skills needed to put intooperation multifarious roles they are expe,:ted toassume, both in and outside the classroom and school.

The aim of the new B.A. Primary Education andCertificate in Education Programs introduced for the firsttime in August 1993, after a comprehensive review ofthe programs, is to "train qualified and competent teach-ers dedicated to their work and responsive to the needsof the country." Specifically, the programs will producegraduates who are

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32 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

1. Equipped with a strong foundation of knowl-edge necessary for the overall training/teachingof their pupils

2. Equipped with the basic pedagogical skills thatwould enable them to effectively impart knowl-edge and facilitate the general development oftheir pupils in terms of attitudes and values

3. Equipped with analytical and creative thinkingskills to enable them to solve day-to-day prob-lems related to their profession

4. Confident, flexible, sensitive, and able to enjoytheir work and take pride in their profession

In summary, the teacher education programs in theFOE aim to produce teachers who are skillful, wellinformed, and reflective strategists with specialized skillsand attributes that make them effective instructional deci-sion makers in the classroom. These skills and attributescomprise four areas of competence that we consideressential for a teacher. These include the following:

The display of attitudes that foster learning andgenuine human relationshipsConfidence and adequacy of knowledge of thesubject matter to be taughtIn-depth theoretical knowledge about learningand human behaviorControl of skills of teaching that facilitate andenhance student learning

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

The university admission requirements for degree pro-grams are as follows:

Four credit passes in the BruneVCambridge orSingapore/Cambridge School Certificate Exami-nation, including Bahasa MelayuTwo GCE A-level passes, preferably with goodgrades in relevant subjects, excluding art andGeneral Paper (For example, for the B.Sc. Edu-cation program, students must have at least twoA-level passes from any of the four followingsubjects: biology, chemistry, mathematics, andphysics. For the B.A. Education program, stu-dents must have at least two A-level passes fromany of the following three subjects: geography,economics, and English. For the B.A. PrimaryEducation program, 0-level and A-level passesin relevant subjects would include English,mathematics, science, geography, and historysubjects.)A school certificate pass (Grade 8) in Englishlanguage at GCE 0 level

For Certificate programs, the admission require-ments are:

Four credit passes in 0-level subjects, includingBahasa MelayuPreference is given to those who have obtainedcredit passes in English-language medium subjects,particularly English, mathematics, and science.

Applicants to the Masters in Educational Managementprogram are required

To have a degree (normally a second-class hon-ors degree) from a recognized institutionTo have a minimum of five years working exper-ienceTo demonstrate a reasonable level of Englishduring an interview, which will enable them tocomplete the course successfully.

In addition to the general admissions requirementsof the university, the Faculty of Education maintains a setof admissions criteria that must be met before studentsare accepted in the degree programs. Interviews andscreening of applicants are conducted at the Faculty Com-mittee level. The selection criteria include the applicant'sacademic and other relevant qualifications; English-lan-guage proficiency, determined through an English Profi-ciency Test; spread of 0 level subjects; additional cours-es attended; and personality characteristics.

The student intake is relatively small at present,due to the limited facilities of the university in its tem-porary campus. Since the majority of the students areunder a scholarship arrangement with the Ministry ofEducation, the number of slots is determined by theMOE in consultation with the UBD.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Preparation Curricula

Teachers are required to teach not only different con-tent areas, but also at different levels of education, rang-ing from early childhood through early and middle tolate adolescence. These varied levels of education,because of the differential nature of the learners, havedifferent specific objectives, different content, and dif-ferent psychological and social aims. Subject matter con-tent in the teacher education programs is treated differ-ently in terms of depth, methodology, and assessmentrequirements in order to meet the developmental needsof learners. The unique expectations placed on teach-ers in Brunei Darussalam require special programs ofteacher education. The varied entry qualifications of stu-dents also call for different treatments to raise them toexpected levels of performance.

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3 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN BRUNEI DARUSSAI.AM 33

In order to effectively prepare teachers to teach atvarious levels, different teacher education programswere designed and developed. They are as follows:

A. Group 1 Programs designed to fulfill basiceducational needs: B.A. Prim Ed; B.A. Pen-didikan Rendah; Certificate in Early ChildhoodEducation; Certificate in EducationB. Group II Programs designed to fulfill generaland semi-specialized secondary educationalneeds: B.Sc. Education; B.A. Education; B.A. Pen-didikanC. Group III Programs designed to fulfill highlyspecialized professional educational needs: Post-graduate Certificate in Education; Sijil Penguru-san Pendidikan; Sijil Pengajaran Bahasa Melayu;Mast !r. in Educational Management

Overview of Education Programs

Each of the degree programs offered by the FOE is offour years' duration. The programs have three majorcomponents, which are the education courses; contentcourses taken in other faculties, such as history, geog-raphy, economics, TESL, mathematics, biology, chem-istry, and physics, which relate to student's futureteaching specialization; and the University RequiredCourses, namely Critical Thinking, English language,and Malay Islamic Monarchy (MIB). Critical Thinking(four units) in the degree and certificate programsfocuses on the principles and techniques of argumentanalysis, argument structure, and use of arguments.The course aims to develop logical skills and to fostercognitive skills that are necessary for rational thoughtand research in university work. En-glish Language(eight units) aims to improve student's ability to studyeffectively through the medium of En-glish and to pre-pare students to use English accurately and fluently asfuture educators and communicators. Malay IslamicMonarchy (MIB) (four units) aims to inculcate amongstudents the national philosophy of Melayu IslamBerafa as a national concept that integrates the lan-guage, culture, and Malay customs; teaching of Islam-ic laws and values; and the monarchy system ofadministration.

The educational studies in each of the three sec-ondary teaching degree programs account for approxi-mately one-third of the total program of 124 units. Thebalance (apart from the university-required courses)comprises coursework in other faculties, which isintended to provide students with both a liberal educa-tion and a knowledge of specialized subject matter,which they will be required to teach in the secondaryschools. The education component is similar both in theMalay and the English secondary education programs.

The B.Sc. Education/B.A. Education/B.A. Pendidikan Programs

The B.Sc. Education is a four-year degree programdesigned to prepare students for teaching science (math,biology, chemistry, physics) in secondary schools. Onlyschool leavers are admitted into the B.Sc. Education pro-gramme. The B.A. Education and B.A. Pendidikan pro-grams are of eight semesters' duration for preservice stu-dents and seven semesters' duration for upgradingstudents. These programs are designed to produce grad-uates with specialized knowledge of arts and social sci-ence subjects to be taught in the secondary school.

The B.Sc. Education course consists of 9.6 percentuniversity-required courses, 58.1 percent subject stud-ies, and 33.3 percent education courses. The B.A. Edu-cation program consists of 12.9 percent university-required coumes, 53.2 percent subject studies, and 33.9percent education courses. Within the Faculty of Edu-cation, methods courses comprise 28.6 percent of thetotal units; 19.0 percent is field experience of teachingpractice and 52.4 percent is theory-oriented courses.

The B.A. Primary Education Program

The B.A. Primary Education program caters to both pre-service and in-service students. Preservice students areschool leavers gaining entry into the university directlyafter Form 6. They follow a four-year or eight-semesteruniversity primary education program. In-service orupgrader students are serving teachers gaining entryinto the university after at least five years of teachingexperience. In-service teachers would have a three-yearCertificate in Education qualification on entry. Theseteachers are given course exemptions in the four-yearB.A. Primary Education program, and receive theirdegrees after three years or six semesters of universitywork.

The new program structure of the B.A. PrimaryEducation preservice program carries a load of 124 unitsspread out proportionately over four years. The Certfi-cate in Education and B.A. Primary Education upgraderprograms carry a load of 94 units spread out propor-tionately over three years of university work.

The B.A. Primary Education and Certificate in Edu-cation programs are in line with the bilingual policyimplemented by the Ministry of Education in the schoolsystem. Since the bilingual nature of the primary edu-cation system required that about half of the subjects inupper primary be taught in Malay and the other half inEnglish, students are trained in one of the two lan-guages, depending on their competency in the lan-guage. In the implementation of bilingual education,subjects in the lower primary level are taught entirely inMalay, with English offered as a subject in the school

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34 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

curriculum. This is followed by a switch to English formajor subjects (science, mathematics, geography) in theupper primary level. Other subjects in the school cur-riculum (Sejarah, art, physical education, civics) contin-ue to be taught in Malay.

In the new B.A. Primary and Certificate in Educa-tion programs, there is an increase in total units of timeallocated to subjects deemed important in the primaryschool curriculum. Students in the programs undertakecourses depending on their chosen strand, that is, strandA, which focuses on teaching subjects in the lower pri-mary level in Malay language, and strand B, whichfocuses on teaching subjects in the upper primary levelin English.

There are three main elements in the programs.These include the university-required courses, teachingpractice or field experience, and teaching skills. Theuniversity required courses are the same as other degreeprograms in the university. Teaching practice is a sec-ond element and is central to the programs, as it allowsstudents to observe and understand school operationsand demonstrate the application of theories of teachingand learning to actual classroom situations. The teach-ing skills element in the programs is made up of twomajor components. One is Pedagogical Studies (9 units),which examines teaching strategies, types of assess-ment, classroom organization, and the use of educa-tional technology. The second is methodology courses(21 units), taken in the different curricular subjects,according to the strand chosen by the students.

Differences in the Nature and Content ofTeacher Preparation Programs

Since UBD is the only teacher training institution in thecountry, there is no comparison to be made in terms ofthe nature and content of teacher education programs.Graduates of UBD are immediately employed by theMinistry of Education.

Linkages Between Curricular Standards forTeacher Education and

Curricular Standards for Students

The teacher education curricula at the UBD are notlinked to the state curriculum standards. However,teacher educators take into account the objectives of

both the state and the system of education when design-ing and developing teacher education programs at UBD.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction or Transition Processes

After graduating from UBD, students are immediatelyposted to schools. There is no formal induction, transition,or "on-the-job" training before graduates are employed.

Professional Development Opportunities

Both the Faculty of Education and the Ministry of Edu-cation recognize the need to support and assist in theprofessional development of teachers and that initialtraining is only the beginning, and should be supple-mented with subsequent training to be given from timeto time. Within the Faculty of Education, the Depart-ment of in-service Education & Training (INSET) has for-mulated the following goals:

To help teachers upgrade their professionalknowledge and skillsTo enable teachers to keep abreast of the lat-est developments in the field of educationalresearchTo provide a forum for teachers to exchangeviews and share experiences with regard to con-tent and methodology in specific subject areasTo assist teachers in developing interpersonal skillsand effective interaction with students, colleagues,and others involved in the education of childrenTo enhance teachers' individual and corporateprofessionalism

Conducting in-service courses is a major concernof staff in the Faculty of Education, but academic stafffrom other faculties contribute to the activities of INSET.The program of activities characteristically varies inobjectives, strategies, duration, and modalities. Practi-cally all of the in-service short-term courses deal witheither content or methodology for particular curriculumsubjects for primary and lower secondary teachers. Acertificate is given to participants who successfully com-plete the in-service course.

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Teacher Training andProfessional Developmentin Canada

Prepared by: Louise Bussiere, Ministry ofEducation, Quebec

Education in Canada is entirely under the jurisdiction ofthe provincial governments. As a consequence, thereare as many educational systems as there are provinces.This is also true of teacher training. Seven Canadianprovinces have agreed to contribute to the ComparativeStudy of Teacher Training and Professional Develop-ment in. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

Members: British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario,Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. The follow-ing report is a summary of the information submitted byeach of these provinces in answer to the APEC ques-tionnaire. It does not provide information on teachertraining in Saskatchewan, Prince Edward Island, andNewfoundland, nor in the Territories.

CONTEXT

Definitions

Table 4.1 below provides information for definitionalpurposes.

Educational System and Student Population

School Jurisdictions

Each province has its own education system, the orga-nization of which varies somewhat from one provinceto another. All provinces have public and privateschools, but the vast majority of students attend public

4

schools. As a general rule, private schools must adhereto provincial curriculum and guidelines, and must hirecertified teachers in order to be accredited and toreceive a portion of the provincial funding. Homeschooling is allowed in some provinces but must takeplace under the supervision of a school jurisdiction.The different edur ation systems also provide for voca-tional training, adult education, special needs studentseducation, and, in some cases, distance educationthrough correspondence courses.

In some provinces, schools have an official reli-gious affiliation (Protestant or Roman Catholic) but thetendency is toward secular jurisdictions. All provincesoffer schooling to their Francophone or Anglophoneminorities: one-third of the students in New Brunswickreceive education in French and 10 percent of Quebecstudents are enrolled in English schools. In Ontario, theproportion of French students is about 5 percent.

In most provinces, the responsibility for educationis shared between a ministry (or department) of educa-tion and school districts (or school boards). Schoolboards are elected bodies responsible for implementingprovincial policies and guidelines in the area of educa-tion. They function at the local level and are empow-ered to levy taxes to supplement provincial funding tomeet local needs, preferences, and so forth. The func-tioning and responsibilities of each level of jurisdictionis usually described in each province's Education Act.As a general rule, formal advisory groups exist in eachschool district: boards of trustees, home-and-school-typeassociations, student councils, and so forth.

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TABLE 4.1

Grade Levels, Age Ranges, and Type and Level of Education Required to Teach at Each Level

Definition Grade Levels Age Range of StudentsType and Level of EducationRequired to Teach at This Level

Pre-elementaryschooling

Elementaryschooling

Secondaryschooling

Postsecondaryeducation

Preserviceteacherpreparation

In general, pre-elementary school-ing is referred to as kindergarten,or early childhood services, and nograde levels are attached to thisconcept. In Manitoba, the periodcovering kindergarten to grade 4is referred to as the "early years."

The situation varies from oneprovince to the other. The passage.from elementary to secondaryschool can be in grade 3 (B.C. andN.B.), grade 6 (Alta., Que., N.S.) orgrade 8 (M., 0.). In Manitoba,grades 5 to 8 are referred to asthe "middle years."

In many provinces, secondaryschool covers grades 7 to 12. InB.C., it includes grades 4 to 12; inManitoba and Ontario, grades 9to 12; in Quebec, grades 7 to 11.In Manitoba, it is referred to as the"senior years."

Any training beyond high school isconsidered postsecondary. In allprovinces except Quebec, studentscan enroll in university programsafter high school and bachelor'sdegree programs are four-yearprograms. In Quebec, there is anintermediate two years in college(CEGEP) before entering three-year bachelor's programs. Someprovinces also have colleges forvocational or technical training. Allprovinces offer master's and doc-torate degrees.

In most provinces, teacher trainingprograms are B.Ed. programs inwhich students can enroll afterhigh school (three- or five-yearB.Ed. programs) or after a firstdegree.

Depending on services offered,ages vary from 0 to 6 years. Ingeneral, kindergarten is offered tochildren 5 years of age. In Manito-ba, the "early years" range from 5to 10.

Depending on grade levels, theage range varies from 6 to 8,11,12 or 13.

The most frequent age range is12-13 to 17-18. Depending onthe grade levels included in sec-ondary school, the range can varysomewhat. In B.C., for example, itextends from age 9 (grade 4) to17 (grade 12).

Depending on the length of sec-ondary schooling, 17 and over.

In most provinces, the require-ments are the same for kinder-garten and elementary school: aB.Ed. degree or the equivalent.

All provinces require a B.Ed. or theequivalent, requiring a minimum of4 years of postsecondary studies.Some provinces have a specificteacher certificate for teaching atthe elementary level; others haveonly one certificate for elementaryor secondary school teaching.

All provinces require a B.Ed or theequivalent, requiring a minimum offour years postsecondary studies.Some provinces have a specificteacher certificate for teaching atthe secondary level.

Master's and doctoral degrees. Nospecific training in education orteaching.

Requirements as set by theuniversities.

Funding is accomplished through grants from theministry and, in some cases and to a minor extent,through property taxes raised at the local level.

Education systems in Canada are more or lessdecentralized, depending on the provinces. In BritishColumbia, for example, school-level policy is primarilydetermined by the school district rather than by the min-istry. In most provinces, districts are geographicallydiverse and face different types of educational challenges,

and such differences are the reason for the decentraliza-tion of many policy and most staffing decisions.

In all provinces, the ministry develops and distrib-utes core curriculum at all levels of the system and setsgraduation requirements. In some provinces, graduationexams are administered by the Ministry of Education ona provincial basis. In British Columbia, the ProvincialLearning Assessment Program evaluates the success ofthe curriculum and tests students at specific grade lev-

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els to ensure that the core subjects are being mastered.Accountability of school districts or school boards

is usually achieved through measures such as the sub-mission of an annual report to the ministry.

Number of Schools and Student Enrollment

British Columbia has 75 school districts, and enrollmentranges from a low of 389 to a high of 54,036 in Vancou-ver. The total number of elementary and secondary pub-lic schools is 1,645. Total enrollment of students is554,590: 342,129 at the elementary level and 212,461 atthe secondary level. Special education counts 53,638 stu-dents and schooling for native French-speakers is offeredto 2,314 students. In addition to the latter, 53,638 studentsare enrolled in French immersic_: programs. Averageclass size is 23.1 at the elementary level and 24.6 at thesecondary level. Independent schools receiving govern-ment support have a total enrollment of 43,339: 29,709 atthe elementary level and 13,630 at the secondary level.

Alberta has a total of 1,592 public schools and 175private schools for elementary, junior and senior highvchool, and special education. A certain number ofother schools can be added to that number, for a totalof 2,040. Total enrollment is 493,590 students.

Manitoba has 703 public schools and 95 privateschools for a total enrollment of 208,913 students,196,619 of whom are enrolled in public schools, 11,640in private schools, and 654 in home schooling. Morethan half (55 percent) of the student population is foundin urban Winnipeg, 30 percent in rural regions, and 10percent in the north.

Ontario's publicly funded school system consistsof 5,136 schools: 2,948 public elementary and 200 pub-lic secondary schools, and 1,396 Roman Catholic ele-mentary and 192 Roman Catholic secondary schools.Total enrollment adds up to just under 2 million stu-dents, with over 120,000 full-time teachers. Of this,about 5 percent are French-language schools. TheGreater Toronto area accounts for over 40 percent of thetotal student population in Ontario. The western andeastern regions of the province account for another 40percent, and the three northern regions comprise theremaining 20 percent, although they are the largest geo-graphic part of the province.

Quebec's publicly funded school system consistsof 158 school boards: 137 Roman Catholic, 18 Protes-tant, and 3 providing schooling to native Indians. Thereis a total of 1,663 public schools and 190 private schools(12 of which are for special-needs students). The totalenrollment in the youth sector is approximately1,150,000 full- and part-time students: 427,260 at thekindergarten and elementary level and 412,788 at thesecondary level. Moreover, 228,000 adults are enrolledin courses leading to a diploma, and 210,000 in com-munity education courses. Finally, 49,358 young and

adult students are enrolled in vocational training.New Brunswick has a total of 407 public schools

organized in 18 school districts along geographic andlinguistic lines. Almost all of New Brunswick's 140,000students (98 percent) are educated in the public schoolsystem.

In Nova Scotia, the management of the school sys-tem is the responsibility of 22 district school boards.There are 493 schools, for a total enrollment of 165,421students. The average class size is 23.8 and the student-teacher ratio is 15:9. Moreover, Nova Scotia Communi-ty College provides a postsecondary, nondegree-grant-ing system of education throughout the province thatfocuses on occupational-oriented technical and voca-tional programs, courses, and services. It providesapproximately 130 programs, or courses, to the equiva-lent of approximately 7,000 full-time students. Anapprenticeship program also trains apprentices in des-ignated trades to meet the needs of industry. Employersprovide practical experience and on-the-job training forapprentices. The program involves 31 designated trades,in which approximately 4,200 apprentices are enrolled.

Cultural Diversity

Cultural diversity is a characteristic of the Canadian pop-ulation as a whole, due to its history, geography, andthe growing importance of immigration over the pasttwo decades. All provinces are characterized by geo-graphic diversity of population concentrationsheavi-ly populated urban areas and sparsely populated distantrural regions. All provinces have a more or less impor-tant population of native Indians. The presence of lin-guistic minorities !Anglophone in Quebec and Fran-cophone in the other provinces) must also be noted.Linguistic duality is most important in New Brunswick,Quebec, and Ontario, but other provinces, such as NovaScotia, also have an important French minority.

Immigration also accounts for a great racial andethnic diversity in provinces like British Columbia, Alber-ta, Ontario, and Quebec, especially in the great urbanareas. Provinces like New Brunswick or Nova Scotia, onthe other hand, have a relatively small immigrant popu-lation and do not face the same kinds of issues. Theseprovinces are instead more preoccupied by the declin-ing proportion of young people in their population.

Immigration over the past two decades has comemainly from non-English-speaking countries, particular-ly the Pacific Rim, the Indian subcontinent, the MiddleEast, and, to a lesser extent, Africa and Central Ameri-ca. This has increased the need for qualified teacherswitn expertise in the teaching of English or French as asecond language. It also emphasizes the need for inter-cultural education and for the development of specialskills for teaching classes with a high concentration ofstudents of different races and ethnic origins. In Mon-

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treal, for example, one out of every three students in theCommission des ecoles catholiques de Montreal is froma different cultural community.

Another factor that needs to be emphasized is thetrend toward integration of handicapped and disabledstudents in regular classroom settings with their peers.Teachers are responsible for instructing exceptional stu-dents in their classes and, as a result, have becomeinvolved in using a variety of teaching and organiza-tional strategies to meet this challenge.

Graduation Rate

Data on graduation or school retention rate are not avail-able in all provinces, and, where available, figures arenot necessarily comparable, since the streaming of stu-dents is not the same in all provinces once they enter sec-ondary school. Schooling is mandatory from age 6 untilage 16 in all provinces, and, therefore, a vast majority ofstudents complete their grades but do not necessarilyobtain a secondary school diploma. Some provincesdeliver different levels of secondary school diplomas, notall of which can lead directly to university.

Alberta does not keep centralized records of com-pletion rates at the pre-elementary, elementary, and sec-ondary levels. A data base is currently under development.

In British Columbia, graduation rate is 69.1 per-cent for the public schools (the eligible grade 12 grad-uation rate is 84.4 percent), while the graduation rate is93 percent for independent schools.

In New Brunswick, a number of policies and pro-grams have been instituted in recent years to addressthe issue of student retention. It has climbed steadily toa high of 85.6 percent in 1991-1992.

In Quebec, approximately 65.4 percent of youngpeople and 12 percent of adult students receive theirSecondary School Diploma; 61 percent of graduates inthe youth sector go on to the College d'enseignementgeneral et professionnel (CEGEP) level. The graduationrate for the province and for most school boards hasbeen gradually improving over the years. In 1992, theMinister of Education's Plan of Action on EducationalSuccess set as its main goal an increase in the gradua-tion rate of those under 20 years of age; the goal is torise from 65 percent to 80 percent within five years.

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

The number of teachers employed varies greatly fromone province to another. Ontario and Quebec have thelargest teaching forces, with approximately 120,000 and60,000 teachers, respectively. The number of teachers in

the other provinces is approximately the following:35,000 in British Columbia; 30,000 in Alberta; 12,000 inManitoba, and 8,600 in New Brunswick (the number ofteachers in Nova Scotia is not available).

Between 60 percent and 65 percent of teachers arewomen; their presence is even more notable at the ele-mentary level. Although women represent almost two-thirds of the educators, male educators continue todominate positions of responsibility in most provinces.

The average age of teachers varies from 40 to 42,and women emerge statistically as a few years youngerthan the average; men a few years older.

The average number of years of experience variesbetween 10 and 16, with men showing a somewhathigher average (up to 19 years in Ontario).

The majority of teachers in Canada have a univer-sity first- degree education; a B.Ed. (Bachelor of Educa-tion), or equivalent, is a minimum requirement forteacher certification in every province. Beyond the basicteaching certificate, teachers can raise their level of qual-ification by taking specialist courses or throughadvanced academic standing. Many teachers have fur-ther qualifications, but data are not available on thenumber or percentage of teachers having a master's ordoctoral degree.

Teacher Certification

In all provinces, a professional teaching certificate isissued to graduates of university preservice educationprograms and, with certain conditions, to both experi-enced and inexperienced teachers from other provinces.The certificate is generally issued by the province's min-istry, or Department of Education, except in BritishColumbia, where this responsibility has been transferredto the British Columbia College of Teachers.

The professional teaching certificate may be tem-porary or permanent. In some provinces, a permanentcertificate is issued to graduates of an approved univer-sity education program, while in others (Manitoba andQuebec), an interim certificate is first issued to gradu-ates from universities and the permanent certificate isissued after one or two years of successful teaching, onthe recommendation of the school or school boardauthority, or of another provincial official.

In all provinces, an interim certificate or temporarypermit is issued to persons coming from outside theprovince or the country, and one or two years of suc-cessful teaching are required before they can obtain apermanent certificate. Bilateral agreements exist betweenmany provinces regarding certification of teachers.

In some provinces, like Alberta and Manitoba,there is only one teaching certificate and it allows hold-ers to teach all subject disciplines at all grade levelsfrom elementary to the end of secondary school (grade

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12). In other provinces, like Nova Scotia, Quebec, andOntario, a teacher certificate entitles the holder to teachonly specific levels, grades, or subjects.

In a certain number of provinces, teachers areclassified according to categories. The following classi-fications apply, for example, in Manitoba: administra-tors, clinicians and counselors, consultants and coordi-nators, and classroom teachers. The practice differs inother provinces, like Quebec, where no such categoriesexist and where the administrators are not classified asteachers.

Teacher Recruitment and Contracts of Employment

As a general rule, teachers are hired directly by schoolboards or by local authorities. They are not consideredpublic servants or provincial government employees,but are part of the public sector that receives much ofits funding from government.

Recruitment, hiring, layoff, and type of employ-ment tend to vary more or less, depending on thedegree of decentralization of the education system in theprovince. Even though hiring is a local responsibility,working conditions can be set by collective agreementsat the provincial level, as is the case in provinces likeQuebec and New Brunswick. In other provinces, likeAlberta and British Columbia, districts are relatively self-determining and have their own policies on teacher hir-ing and recruitment. In these provinces, collective bar-gaining is accomplished at the local level. Generally, thetype of employment ranges from one-year contracts topermanent positions. Districts also have lists of teacherson call to substitute as necessary.

There is no centralized recruitment agency in anyprovince. Each teacher is free to seek and accept employ-ment in any school jurisdiction or private school any-where in the province. Typically, school jurisdictions inand around urban areas receive more applications in ayear than there are vacancies to be filled. Recruitment ismore difficult in remote and isolated school jurisdictions.

Once hired, the successful applicant enters into atemporary contract. Within one or two years, theemploying board must decide whether or not to offerthe teacher an ongoing contract of employment.

Salary

In all provinces, teachers are classified, for purposes ofremuneration, according to their level of schooling andtheir number of years of experience in education in theprovince. As a general rule, the same grid is applied toall teachers in the province, but the number of categoriesdiffers from one province to another. In Alberta, forexample, teachers' salaries are located across a 6-by-12grid: one to 6 years of education beyond high school

and zero to 13 years of teaching experience. In Manito-ba, teacher classification for salary purposes is based onseven classes of professional and academic qualifications(class 1 corresponds to senior matriculation plus oneyear of professional study, whereas class 7 correspondsto senior matriculation plus seven years of study in adegree or postbaccalaureate program, including at leastone year of professional study).

In some provinces, like Quebec or NewBrunswick, the grid is applied to all teachers, at all lev-els and in all districts, while in other provinces, likeBritish Columbia, these descriptions are used only asguidelines by local authorities and the classificationmay vary from one district to another. The level of payis determined by a collective bargaining process; it cantherefore vary from one district to another in theprovinces, where collective bargaining is done only atthe local level. Working conditions and salaries aregenerally consistent and more or less uniform; theteachers' unions set the overall working conditions andsalary levels for all teachers or give sufficient informa-tion and support to local unions when collective bar-gaining occurs.

In most provinces, standardized certification pro-grams and equity policies have leveled the salary scalesbetween elementary and secondary school teachers.

Special allowances may exist for additionalresponsibilities or for working in conditions of isolation.In provinces where salaries are determined at the locallevel, like Manitoba, educators in the north or in remoteareas tend to have better working conditions andsalaries to compensate for their additional responsibili-ties and for the hardships associated with the geo-graphic location.

Average salaries (please note: the exchange rate inAugust 1994 was approximately US$1.00 = C$1.35)range from a low of C$20,000C$25,000 for beginningteachers with a minimum of teacher education prepa-ration and experience to a high of C$55,000C$69,999for experienced teachers with higher qualifications.

The following information was submitted by theparticipating provinces:

In Alberta, salaries range from C$20,284 (noexperience and one year of teacher preparation)to C$58,410 (11 years of experience and 6 yearsof teacher preparation). The average salary ofteachers who have completed a B.Ed. degree isC$30,836 in their first year of teaching.In British Columbia, the average teacher salaryis C$51,855. Included in this figure are princi-pals' and vice-principals' salaries. For maleteachers, the average salary is C$51,994, and forfemale teachers, C$47,607.In Manitoba, the average salary is C$46,911.

LID

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In New Brunswick, teachers' salaries rangefrom C$27,573 to C$50,849. Teachers holdingpositions of responsibility (principals, vice-prin-cipals, department heads, subject coordinators)are entitled to extra allowances based on thenumber of persons under their supervision.In Ontario, the average salary of male elemen-tary school teachers is slightly under C$60,000and just under C$50,000 for female teachers.Male secondary school teachers earn approxi-mately the same as their elementary schoolcounterparts, whereas female secondary schoolteachers earn around C$55,000 on average.In Quebec, salaries range from a low ofC$25,729 (14 years of education and one year ofexperience) to a high of C$59,979 (20 years ofeducation and 15 years of experience or more).

Employment Benefits

Employment benefits form part of the collective agree-ments negotiated at the provincial or local levels. Evenin cases where collective agreements are negotiated atthe local level, teachers have access to similar benefitpackages that include pension plan, life insurance, andhealth benefits.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

Collective Bargaining

In all provinces, teachers are members of local teachers'unions, whici) are usually grouped under a provincialassociation. In some cases, the provincial teachers' asso-ciation is seen as a union and as a teachers' profession-al organization, as is the case for the Alberta Teachers'Association (ATA). It is interesting to note that in Alber-ta, under the School Act, membership in the ATA ismandatory; it is also available to students in the provin-cial faculties of education and to persons contributingsignificantly to education. In Quebec, there are threeteachers' associations: one for French-speaking teachersand two for English-speaking teachers (one Protestantand one Catholic).

Contracts may by negotiated individually, byschool districts, with local teacher unions (as is the casein Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario), orby the provincial government and employers' associa-tions at the provincial level (as is the case in Quebecwhere little is left for local bargainingor in NewBrunswickwhere there is no local bargaining). Whennegotiation is carried out at the local level, the teachers'provincial association may provide locals with salarycomparisons, guidelines, information, and training. As a

consequence, salaries and benefits tend to be similaracross the province, but not identical.

Beyond salaries and benefits, collective bargain-ing processes may also deal with issues such as classsize, preparation time, nonteaching duties, hours ofinstruction, clerical assistance, special education supportand integration, professional development, and so forth.

Patterns of Supply and Demand forTeaching Positions

In most provinces, teacher mobility and turnover havebeen decreasing over the last few years and, as a result,there has been a steady increase in the average age ofteachers. A significant proportion of the teacher popu-lation will be eligible for retirement over the next fiveto ten years. Demand is expected to begin rising againin the late 1990s.

All provinces indicate a higher turnover rate inmore remote areas, with the result that some schoolsexperience difficulty in hiring and retaining teachers.British Columbia has developed a strategy to deal withshortages of qualified teachers in rural and remoteareas by establishing local teacher education programsdesigned for students resident in those areas who willlater take up teaching positions there. Through part-nerships involving the regional community college,one of the universities, and several school districts, itis now possible for students to complete a teacher edu-cation program without relocating to a southern urbanarea.

Even if no shortages are expected in the nearfuture, some schools experience difficulties in hiringqualified teachers for specific fields. The situation variessomewhat from one :province to another but the sci-ences, mathematics, and French or English as a secondlanguage are the fields in which the most critical short-ages occur. Many provinces seem to have some diffi-culty recruiting qualified teachers for biology, music, art,physical education, and special education, whileQuebec experiences surpluses in many of these fields,especially in physical education and art.

Surpluses are also identified in other provinces: InAlberta, there is a significant surplus of elementaryschool generalist teachers and secondary school lan-guage arts and social studies teachers. In Quebec, thenumber of elementary school teachers is also high.

The following section supplies more specific infor-mation submitted by different provinces on the issue ofsupply and demand.

In British Columbia, approximately 2,500 newteachers are hired annually, which accounts for 7 per-cent of the total number of educators in the province.Of these, approximately 550 to 650 are new graduatesof teacher education programs offered in British Colum-

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4 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL. DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA 41

bia. Another 500 to 700 are individuals from otherprovinces in Canada. Issues of supply and demand havebeen addressed by the development of a computer-based, regionalized, supply-and-demand projectionmodel. Based on the model framework, future teacherrequirements are being investigated through a studyinvolving

1. a comprehensive analysis of teacher and stu-dent characteristics and behavior over the peri-od 1986-1991;

2. an examination of elementary and secondaryteacher requirements to the year 2011 for theprovince and for four specialized regions;

3. a review of expected changes in the teacherworkforce;

4. an examination of two "alternate" scenarios, oneassuming an increase in class size, the otherreviewing the effects of a hypothetical earlyretirement program.

In Manitoba, the Teacher Supply and DemandTask Force was established in January 1993 to investi-gate the magnitude of a possible teacher shortage, toexamine possible strategies to deal with it, and to rec-ommend a plan of action to the minister. The conclu-sion of the investigation is that there will be a continu-ing strong demand for teachers within the province overthe next decade. In 1989-1990, 1,063 teacher acquisi-tions were required, and of these 47 percent werebeginning teachers newly certified in the previous year.It is expected that yearly teacher acquisitions will beslightly in excess of 1,000 until 1999-2000. .

New Brunswick and Nova Scotia have not expe-rienced any shortage for some time and no shortage isprojected for the next 20 years in New Brunswick.Hence, there has been little need to establish specialstrategies to attract teachers to certain fields, nor hasthere been a need to review certification standards toaccommodate shortages. The situation in Nova Scotia issimilar: The predicted need for teachers in future yearsis small and can be filled by current teaching traininginstitutions and by the existing pool of substitute teach-ers. Small surpluses in some areas could cushion theimpact of shortages in others.

In Ontario, the demand was on the increasebetween 1980 and 1990, when it peaked at approxi-mately 12,000, or 10 percent. Faculties of educationgraduated about 5,000 teachers that year. Approximate-ly 1,500 came from out of the province, about 4,500were re-entering the profession, and the remainderwere part-time and supply teachers accepting full-timejobs, or teachers from other sources.

Faculties base their course offerings on generaltrends and on expressed areas of need coming from the

school systems and from professional associations. Thenumber of new teacher graduates has varied, fromunder 3,000 to just above 5,000 over the past decade,depending on system demands.

In Quebec, it is expected that, over the next 15years, about half of the teaching force will have to bereplaced: Between 1992 and 2004, 45,000 full-timeteachers will be needed to teach kindergarten and at theelementary and secondary levels (excluding vocationaleducation and adult education). But it is also knownthat recruitment will not exceed 3,000 teachers a year,even when the most numerous cohorts begin to leave.

However, there is an existing pool of part-timeand substitute teachers of over 17,000 persons, which isstill growing, since universities are graduating approxi-mately 4,000 teachers annuallysignificantly more thanthe actual need. As a result, no shortages are expected.The need for better planning is felt by all partners:teachers' unions, the ministry, and faculties of educa-tion, as well as by school or school board administra-tors. Questions related to teacher supply and demandShould measures be taken to encourage students to gointo teaching, and in what fields? In which regions?What of the thousands of graduates who have not yetfound full-time jobs? Should faculties of education limitenrollment in teacher training programs?will beaddressed by the ministry and its partners over the nextyear. Faculties of education have already agreed to limitenrollment in order to adjust to system demands.

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions

All teacher preparation programs in Canada are univer-sity-based degree programs offered through faculties ofeducation or, in specific cases, through other institu-tionslike university colleges or community collegesin partnership with universities.

Universities receive block grants from the provin-cial governments to offer their academic programs. Theyalso have access to additional funds through sourcessuch as endowments, student tuition, research funding,or donations.

As a general rule, faculties of education are sub-ject to the governance of the university, and the financ-ing of education programs is similar to that of programsoffered by other faculties within the university setting.In each province, a Universities Act sets out the struc-ture under which universities operate.

In British Columbia, three universities and threeuniversity colleges offer teacher preparation programs.Presently, the university colleges offer programs leading

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42 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

to a B.Ed. for elementary teaching only. In addition, ruralteacher education consortia offer programs designed forstudents resident in rural and remote areas who will latertake up teaching positions there. These programs wereimplemented in 1988 and are offered through partner-ships involving the regional community college, one ofthe universities, and several local school districts.

In 1993-1994, 1,746 students were enrolled in ele-mentary or secondary teaching preparation programsthrough one of the universities (either in an on-campusprogram or through one of the rural programs offeredin partnership with a university college or with aregional community college).

In Alberta, three universities offer teacher prepa-ration programs, but they do not all offer the samespecializations. Preparation for early childhood edu-cation, for example, is offered only at the University ofCalgary, while only the University of Alberta offersprograms for teacher preparation in industrial arts orvocational education. The University of Lethbridgeoffers only a five-year teacher preparation program inwhich students earn two degrees concurrently, one ofwhich is a B.Ed.

In Manitoba, there are six teacher preparationinstitutions: three universities, a university college, acommunity college, and the Winnipeg Education Center.Different programs are offered at the undergraduate andgraduate levels: the four- or five-year B.Ed., the after-degree B.Ed., the certified teachers' B.Ed., the postbac7calaureate certificate in education, the master of educa-tion, and the Ph.D. Faculty of education enrollment isapproximately 5,000, 4,400 of which is at the under-graduate level; 800 students afe enrolled in graduateB.Ed. programs, and 100 in master's or Ph.D. programs.Agreements exist among the universities and the collegesto allow students to earn a B.Ed. degree on the basis ofwork completed in more than one institution, but all pro-grams require at least one year at the university.

In Ontario, ten universities offer teacher trainingprograms. Of these, the University of Ottawa deliversprograms in both French and English, and LaurentianUniversity delivers programs in French only. All teachertraining institutions must comply with government reg-ulations regarding minimum entry requirethents andmust seek ministry approval for new course offeringsthat lead to teacher certification.

Graduate studies in education are offered in someof the faculties, for example, at York University, the Uni-versity of Western Ontario, and the University ofOttawa, as well as the Ontario Institute for Studies inEducation, whose principal role is to further research inthe field of education. Master's degrees are a require-ment for entry to programs leading to qualification asschool principal and school board supervisory officer.

While only faculties of education may provide the

program leading to qualification for school principal, anew program to qualify supervisory officers, establishedin 1990, is being offered by various other organizationsapproved by the Ministry.

Twelve universities offer teacher preparation pro-grams in Quebec. Three of these deliver programs inEnglish. The number and type of programs offered varybetween different institutions, but all universities offerprograms preparing for teaching at the pre-elementaryand elementary level, and most of them also offer pro-grams for secondary school teaching. More specializedareas, such as physical education, art, special education,adult education, or vocational education, are not offeredby all universities. Master's degrees and the Ph.D. arealso offered in most universities, but they are notrequired for certification.

Four institutions provide teacher training in NewBrunswick, but the University of Moncton is the soleinstitution providing teacher training for Francophoneteachers. It has an enrollment of 750 students. The Uni-versity of New Brunswick is the primary training insti-tution for teachers in the Anglophone sector. It has anenrollment of approximately 800 students and offersprograms at all levels and in all subject areas. St.Thomas University and Mount Allison University offerlimited enrollment B.Ed. programs to students whoalready hold a Bachelor's degree.

In Nova Scotia, preservice teacher education isoffered at eight universities or university colleges. Theprograms may be concurrent or sequential, and theyvary in length (one, two, four, and five years). Moreover,all institutions do not offer the same options. Six of theuniversities offer master's programs, but the only doc-toral program is offered at Dalhousie University.

In addition, a specific program has been establishedfor preparing and qualifying community college teachersand to service the personnel of trade schools and institutesof technology, and intermediate industrial educators.

Policy Guidance and Accreditation

Universities are autonomous institutions that operateunder provisions set by legislation giving them respon-sibility for setting academic and admission policies andfor keeping the programs they offerincluding teachereducation programsup-to-date.

In all provinces except British Columbia, the Min-ister of Education has retained the responsibility ofdelivering teacher certificates. As a general rule, somestandards are set at the ministry level to guide the uni-versities in the preparation of their preservice teachereducation programs. In some cases, specific proceduresfor teacher education program accreditation are set.

In some provinces, the ministry or department ofeducation plays an important role in the setting of stan-

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dards for teacher education programs leading to certifi-cation. This is the case in Ontario and Quebec.

In Ontario, the Ministry of Education and Train-ing has the principal responsibility for policies govern-ing teacher education and for programs leading to var-ious levels of accreditation for teachers and educationaladministrators. The Teacher Education Policy Unit of theministry is responsible for the review, development, andcoordination of programs and policies on teacher edu-cation. The unit works closely with school board per-sonnel and faculties of education. It interprets policyand regulation changes pertaining to teacher education.It also maintains close liaison with the Curriculum Pol-icy Team to ensure consistency in curriculum mattersaffecting teacher education. The Registrar Services Unitmaintains and updates all teacher certification recordsand also is responsible for the evaluation of candidateswith out-of-province teacher certification.

The situation in Quebec is slightly different. Theminister awards a teaching permit to individuals whohave successfully completed an approved teacher train-ing program in recognized institutions. The ministry'sRegulation respecting teaching permits and teachingdiplomas describes the minimum requirements theapproved programs must meet. The Minister of Educa-tion sets orientations and standards for teacher training.Unix ersicy program must comply with these require-mentF in order to be accredited for certification pur-poses. In coMboration with its partners, the ministry iscurrently in the process of reviewing the broad orienta-tions and guiding principles of initial teacher trainingand of determining the competencies future teachers areexpected to have at the end of their initial training. Inundertaking the review, the ministry is also reaffirmingthe professional nature of teaching and the urgent needto raise the requirements for admission into teachertraining programs, and for entry into the profession.

Until recently, the Ministry of Education had theresponsibility of approving all programs and majorchanges to programs leading to teacher certification. Theminister has retained this responsibility but has createdan advisory committee, the Comite d'agrement des pro-grammes de formation a l'enseignement, which is man-dated to examine university programs and make rec-ommendations to the minister regarding theiraccreditation for certification purposes. This committeewas created in September 1992, and is composed of rep-resentatives of universities, schools and school boards,teachers' unions and professional associations, and theministry.

An advisory committee, the Comite d'orlentationde la formation du personnel enseignant, also has beenrecently created to propose orientations and make rec-ommendations with respect to matters such as prioritiesin the area of teacher training, the requirements and pro-

cedures for teacher certification, orientations of teachertraining, and professional development. The main goalof this committee is to promote participation and coop-eration among the partners in defining the key issues inthe area of teacher training, to contribute to improvingquality of teacher training, and to ensure cohesion in theactions of the various partners evolved in teacher train-ing. The committee is made up of 15 members repre-senting teaching professionals, employers, universities,the ministry, and those served by the school system(parents, adults, and business and industry).

In British Columbia, teacher licensing has beendelegated to the British Columbia College of Teachers.According to the Teaching Profession Act, the councilof the British Columbia College of Teachers may"approve for certification purposes the program of anyestablished faculty of teacher education or school ofteacher education." It may "cooperate with the teachertraining institutions in the design and evaluation ofteacher training programs leading to certification by theCollege." It may also make by-laws respecting the train-ing and qualification of teachers, the issuance of certifi-cates of qualification, the classification of certificates intoone or more types, and the standards of fitness for theadmission of persons as members of the college.

The college has adopted by-laws that authorizepolicy on criteria that all teacher education programsexisting and proposedmust eventually meet in orderto be approved for certification purposes. Programsmust meet the following criteria:

Context: Aepropriate institutional setting in termsof depth and breadth of personnel, researchactivity, and commitment to teacher educationSelection: Selection and admissiOn policies thatrecognize the importance of academic standing,interest in working with young people, and suit-ability for entrance into the profession of teachingContent: Base of academic knowledge of suffi-cient breadth and depth to prepare students foran appropriate teaching assignment in theschool system:1. A minimum of 36 semester hours of profes-

sional education and pedagogical course-work, including a minimum of 12 weeks insupervised student teaching, the major partof which must normally be undertaken inpublic schools

2. Recognition of the advantages of an extend-ed practicum in one school

3. Base of pedagogical knowledge informed bycurrent research

4. Base of pedagogical skills informed by princi-ples of effective practice and current research

5. Content that recognizes the diverse nature of

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44 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

society and addresses philosophical, ethical,and societal concerns, with specific attentionto English as a second language, "FirstNations" (Native Indian Peoples of Canada)issues, gender equity, multiculturalism, andstudents with special needs

6. Base knowledge about the administrative,legal, and political frai.Lework within whichteachers work

7. Content that provides for inquiry and dia-logue regarding ethics, standards, and prac-tices of teaching as a profession

Integration of Theory and Practice:1. Integrated theory and practice in all major

areas of the programsuch as practicum,educational studies, and pedagogical knowl-edge and skillsto encourage the develop-ment of reflective practice

2. Recognition that the integration of theory andpractice is enhanced by valuing good teach-ing and appropriate modeling of teachingmethodologies, by ensuring that those whoteach and supervise practica have recentexperience and significant involvement inschool classrooms, and by encouraging thedevelopment of education theories andresearch grounded in professional practice

Program Review: Established process for contin-uing review of teacher education programs inorder to initiate changes or to respond appropri-ately to changes arising from curricular, research,societal, and governmental policy directions

In New Brunswick, responsibility and authorityfor the training, licensing, and certification of teachersfor the public school system rests with the Minister ofEducation. In 1972, the responsibility for preservicetraining was delegated to the universities. The Depart-ment of Education is responsible for the actual issuingof licenses and certificates, while the Minister's Adviso-ry Committee on Teacher Licensing and Certificationreviews policies, programs, and procedures, and peri-odically recommends changes.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

Goals of the teacher preparation programs are notalways explicitly set on a provincial basis. As a generalrule, teacher preparation programs are expected todevelop the students' entry-level knowledge and skills,and the attitudes they will need to fulfill the responsi-

bilities common to all schoolteachers in the context ofa rapidly evolving society.

During the program, the prospective teachershould acquire a broad, general education, in additionto specific knowledge and skills in subject fields appro-priate to the public school curriculum and to the art ofteaching. Programs should address the systematic devel-opment of skills and instructional techniques. Theyshould be based on sound educational pedagogy andreflect the interrelationship of subject matter and theway in which students acquire knowledge. They shouldalso develop in students the skills and attitudes relatedto the professional dimensions of teaching: a criticalmind, a sense of ethics, and a capacity for renewal.

Some provinces' guidelines respecting teachereducation are explicit, as is the case in Quebec, wherea series of documents is actually being published (aftera thorough consultation of its partners) by the ministryto define the orientations and principles teacher train-ing programs must comply with, as well as the compe-tencies expected of new teachers at the end of theirstudies. The goals set for teacher preparation programsin that province can be explained as follows:

Teacher training should be considered profession-al training, directed toward the mastery of teachingpractices appropriate to the subjects taught.A teacher's competence essentially reside,' in hisor her ability to stimulate and guide each studententrusted to him or her through the learningprocess. Teaching is a complex activity requir-ing a set of special competencies that can beacquired only through solid training: knowledgeof human development and learning processesand conditions; knowledge and skills related tothe subjects taught; skills related to the act ofteaching. to the cultural and social dimensionsof education, and to professional ethics.The autonomy and responsibility that character-ize teachers' work require that their training allowthem to acquire a broad, general education, todevelop a critical mind, and to contribute to theadvancement of research related to the practiceof teaching. Teachers also must be prepared tocontinue their training throughout their careers.Teacher education cannot truly be consideredprofessional if it does not include a practicaldimension, that is, systematic, planned, and crit-ical training that will foster the development offuture teachers' ability to integrate and apply, inreal situations, the principles that form the basisof their daily practice. In consequence, univer-sities should ensure that sufficient time beallowed for practical training; that objectives,supervision methods, and content of the

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practicum be specified; and that students be rig-orously monitored and systematically evaluated.To favor the development of teachers as profes-sionals, it is indispensable that the various aspectsof teacher training be organically linked andcomplementary. Practical training must be coor-dinated with training in educational psychology,and the latter with subject-matter training.

In each province, faculties of education developtheir own statement of principles or ideals to guide theirprograms and their faculty members. Those principles arein close relationship with the main goals of teacher train-ing defined at the provincial level, but may differ fromone university to another. The principles outlined by theFaculty of Education of the University of Lethbridge,Alberta, are given here as an example. The faculty:

Is committed to the concept of liberal educationand the development of learners who engage ina lifelong pursuit of knowledgePromotes the concept of a teaching professioncommitted to understanding children andyouth, working with them, and relating posi-tively with themIs committed to preparing learners and teach-ers for the present world and for a betterworld in the futurePromotes the development of attributes andskills necessary for effective communicationPromotes in students an understanding of howknowledge is generated, evaluated, and revised,and an ability to reflect critically on the nature ofknowledge, its transmission, and its interpretationFacilitates the integration of knowledge fromgeneral education, disciplinary education, pro-fessional education, and field experiencesPromotes in students the development of intel-lectual and effective strategies for making peda-gogical decisionsPromotes an understanding of the personalnature of teaching and recognizes that the devel-opment of professional knowledge is a person-al and a professional responsibilityPromotes the integration of theory and practicein university courses and in schools and throughexperience, study, and reflectionSeeks to support and to foster in students a spir-it of inquiry, intellectual advancement, humanevalues, environmental conscience, aesthetic sen-sitivity, a sense of physical and mental well-being,the ability to establish interpersonal relationshipsand sensitivity to others' interests and feelfrigs,and encouragement to apply these qualities infulfilling their responsibility in a global society

Fosters a close collegial and reciprocal relationshipwith other members of the teaching professionSupports faculty members who exemplify theabove principles and ideals by developing andmaintaining expertise in their disciplines andfields of study and in the pedagogy of teachingand teacher education, in their teaching, in theirresearch and scholarly pursuits, and in theirinterpersonal interactions

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

There are different entry routes to teacher trainingdepending on the province, the university, and the pro-gram. Students can be admitted straight out of sec-ondary school (or CEGEP in Quebec, which is equiva-lent to grade 13), after completing courses in otherfaculties; after a first degree (B.A., B.Sc.), or after com-pleting studies in other faculties or universities. In addi-tion, special provision is often made for persons whomay not have taken traditional routes, such as mature,nonmatriculated students and persons from selectedtrades who have journeymen status. Native Indian stu-dents also may be given special attention.

Admission requirements are usually set by eachfaculty of education. Criteria differ depending onwhether applicants wish to enroll in a four- or five-yearB.Ed. program after secondary school, or in a one- ortwo-year after-degree teacher diploma, or B.Ed. Require-ments also may differ between elementary school andsecondary school teacher preparation programs.

There are no standardized examinations or crite-ria for screening applicants to faculties of education but,in more than one province, faculties of education haveintake quotas for specific areas of concentration and,except in the area of mathematics and sciences, appli-cants outnumber available quota slots.

As a general rule, eligible applicants are rankedaccording to their university or college grade points orhigh school marks. Demonstrated competence in oraland written English (or French) is often an additionalcriterion.

Some universities have other requirements, suchas confidential statements from referees qualified toattest to the applicant's suitability for teaching and/or anadmission interview for the purpose of judging the suit-ability of the candidate for the teaching profession.

Admission committees often will give considera-tion to such factors as maturity, experience, emotionaland physical characteristics relevant to the demands ofthe program, writing and speaking abilities, expressedmotivation, and demonstrated interest in the teachingprofession.

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46 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Education Curricula

Preservice teacher preparation programs are university-level programs leading to B.Ed. degrees (first-degreethree-, four-, or five- year B.Ed.; after-degree one- ortwo-year B.Ed. or Diploma). Their content variesaccordingly. It may also differ when specific programsare offered to prepare for elementary or secondaryschool teaching. Differences also exist between teacherpreparation for general studies and for vocational ortechnical teaching. Moreover, each university developsits own programs within the more or less explicit guide-line set by provincial authorities.

The following examples provide an overview ofthe general content of, and main differences between,programs in different universities.

British Columbia: Elementary School TeachingPreparation

The elementary school teacher education programsallow candidates to focus their preparation on either pri-mary or intermediate school teaching. The following isa description of the two-year program in elementaryschool education offered at the University of British

Columbia, and will serve as an example of the teacherpreparation curriculum.

Year ITerm I. Prospective teachers are intro-duced to the theoretical bases of modern edu-cational practice (see Table 4.2). Studies includeanalysis of the nature and objectives of educa-tion and of the developmental characteristics oflearners. Attention is given to candidates' owninterpersonal and communication skills and tostrategies and methods of teaching. Structuredclassroom observations and teaching experi-ences (such as tutoring, peer teaching, andmicroteaching) are provided.Year ITerm II: Table 4.3 below lists courses forthis term, which also includes an intensive, two-week school placement in which candidatesconsolidate their understanding of the first-termprinciples and approaches. This classroom expe-rience provides a basis for further studies ofways of organizing knowledge for instructionand of methods and strategies for teaching. Can-didates will prepare to teach all subjects at spe-cific grade levels.Year IITerm I: Candidates spend this term inselected elementary schools (the course require-

TABLE 4.2Year I, Term I Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits

EDST 314 3

EDUC 310 4

EDUC 315 0

EDUC 316 3

EPSE 313 3

EPSE 317 3

READ 310 3

Title

The Analysis of Education

Principles of Teaching: Elementary

Pre-Practicum Experience

Communication Skills in Teaching

Educational Application of Developmental Theories

Development and Exceptionality in the Regular Classroom

Introduction to Reading and Language Arts Instruction

TABLE 4.3Year I, Term II Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

ARTE 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Art

EDUC 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Physical Education

EDUC 321 0 Orientation School Experience: Elementary

ENED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Language Arts

MAED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Mathematics

MUED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Music

READ 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Reading

SCED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Science

SSED 320 2 Curriculum and Instruction: Social Studies

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ment is listed in Table 4.4). Each candidateworks closely with a team of experienced teach-ers who have been specially prepared for thissupervisory and instructional responsibility. Fac-ulty support, advice, and assessment are pro-vided on a regular basis.Year II---Term II: Following completion of theextended practicum, candidates undertake pro-fessional studies (see Table 4.5) to put theirteaching competence in a more comprehensiveframework of knowledge and understanding.This term includes electives or prescribed stud-ies appropriate to each candidate's academicand professional interests.

British Columbia: Secondary School TeacherPreparation

The secondary school teacher education program pre-pares candidates to teach one or two subjects,depending on their prior background. The followingprogram, offered at University of British Columbia, is12 months long (three semesters) and will serve as anexample.

Term I (September-December): Prospectiveteachers are introduced to the theoretical basesof modern educational practice and to strategiesand methods of teaching, both in general and in

relation to the subject or subjects they arepreparing to teach (see Table 4.6). Studiesinclude analysis of the nature and objectives ofeducation and of the developmental character-istics of adolescent learners. Structured class-room observations and teaching experiences(such as tutoring, peer teaching, and microteach-ing) are provided.Term II (January April): This term begins withan intensive, two-week communications course(see Table 4.7) in which attention is given tothe candidate's own interpersonal and commu-nication skills in relation to the demands of thesecondary classroom. The remainder of theterm is spent in a selected British Columbia sec-ondary school where the candidate works witha team of experienced teachers who have beenspecially prepared for this supervisory andinstructional responsibility. Faculty support,advice, and assessment are provided on a reg-ular basis.Term III (May-August): Following completion ofthe extended practicum, candidates return to thecampus for studies designed to put their teach-ing competence in a more comprehensiveframework of knowledge and understanding(see Table 4.8). An opportunity is provided forthem to enhance their subject-matter and/orpedagogical competence.

TABLE 4.4

Year II, Term I Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDUC 418 18 Extended Practicum : Elementary

TABLE 43

Year II, Term H Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits

EDUC 420 2

EPSE 423 3

One of:

EDST 425 3

EDST 426 3

EDST 427 3

EDST 428 3

EDST 429 3

Plus 9-12

Title

School Organization in Its Social Context

Learning, Measurement, and Teaching

Educational Anthropology

History of Education

Philosophy of Education

The Social Foundations of Education

Educational Sociology

Credits of academic, curriculum, and professional electives

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48 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 4.6Term I Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits

EDST 314 3

EDUC 311 4

EDUC 315 0

EDUC 319 0

EPSE 306 2

EPSE 317 3

Plus: 42-4

Title

The Analysis of Education

Principles of Teaching: Secondary

Pre-Practicum Experience

Orientation School Experience: Secondary

Education During the Adolescent Years

Development & Exceptionality in the Regular Classroom

Credits related to first teaching subjectCredits related to second teaching subject

TABLE 4.7Term II Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course

EDUC 316

EDUC 329

Credits

3

18

Title

Communication Skills in Teaching

Extended Practicum: Secondary

TABLE 4.8

Term Ill Education Courses by Title and Number of Credits

Course Credits Title

EDUC 420 2

EPSE 423 3

ENED 426 4

One of:

EDST 425 3

EDST 426 3

EDST 427 3

EDST 428 3

EDST 429 3

Plus: 9

School Organization in Its Social Context

Learning, Measurement, and Teaching

Language Across the Curriculum: Secondary

Educational Anthropology

History of Education

Philosophy of Education

The Social Foundations of Education

Educational Sociology

Credits of prescribed courses related to teaching subject(s)

Alberta

Teacher preparation programs are structured to permitspecialization in major and minor areas of subject dis-cipline concentration. There is a close relationshipamong the faculties of education in terms of the objec-tives they seek to meet. Each faculty develops its ownprograms; areas of concentration and terms used todescribe content vary. The following outline (Table 4.9,Table 4.10, and Table 4.11) suggests the content of allteacher preparation programs offered in the province.

All teacher preparation programs must include a

practicum of a minimum 12 weeks' duration. Most cur-rent programs offer significantly longer practicum expe-riences. Cooperating teachers receive a small stipendbut generally view their p..rticipation in teacher prepa-ration as a professional responsibility and as a form ofprofessional/personal development. In addition, facul-ty members and graduate students are assigned to pro-vide each student teacher with further assistance andsupervision through classroom visits, consultations, con-ferencing with cooperating teachers, and engaging stu-dent-teachers in reflective practice. Evaluation instru-ments vary but tend to contain standard criteria, such as

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TABLE 4.9

Elementary B.Ed. Program

Year One Year Two

1. Introduction to Teaching I: Theory andIntroduction to Teaching II: Application

2. Major (Art, Drama, Language Arts, etc.)3. Non-Education Option

4. Non-Education Option5. Open Option

1. Education and Individual Development andInterpersonal Communication in the School

2. Two courses selected from Art, Drama

3. Music and Physical Education

4. Major5. Major6. Introduction to Computers in Education & Open Option

Year Three Year Four

1. Theory and Practice In Teaching Language Artsin the Elementary School

2. Theory and Practice in Teaching Sciencein the Elementary School and Theory and Practice in TeachingSocial Studies in the Elementary School

3. Theory and Practice in Teachin- Mathematicsin the Elementary School and Practicum in Elementary School I

4. Practicum in Elementary School II

5. Measurement of Classroom Learning and Administrationof Education and the Role of the Teacher

1. Special Education for Teachers in Regular Classroomsand Non-Education Option

2. Education Major (Methods)

3. Any two senior-level Educational Policyand Administrative Studies Courses

4. Senior Education Option5. Open Option

TABLE 4.10

Seconder/ B.Ed. Program

Year One Year TWo

1. Introduction to Teaching I: Theory, andIntroduction to Teaching II: Application

2. Major3. Major4. Major5. Non-Education Option

1. Education and Individual Development andInterpersonal Communication in the School

2. Major3. Major4. Major5. Introduction to Computers in Education and Open Option

Year Three Year Four

1. Educational Major (Methods)

2. Measurement of Classroom Learning

3. Practicum in Secondary School I, andPracticum in Secondary School II

4. Learning from Text in the Secondary School andSpecial Education for Teachers in Regular Classrooms

5. Practicum in Secondary Schools III, andPracticum in Secondary Schools IV

1. Any two senior-level Educational Policyand Administrative Studies courses

2. Senior Education Option3. Open Option

4. Open Option

5. Major

Note: Content specializations differ between elementary and secondary B.Ed. programs.

classroom management, pacing, planning, communica-tions, questioning techniques, and so forth.

There is also growing interest in having faculty ofeducation students undertake clinical observation orpracticum experiences in the schools early in their

teacher preparation programs. One faculty requires stu-dents to undertake such an experience as a prerequi-site. One faculty seeks to assist in bridging the difficulttransition from the theoretical aspect of teacher prepa-ration to the realities of the classroom by offering its stu-

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50TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 4.11

Content Specializations

Elementary Secondary

MAJOR FIELDS

Art EducationDrama EducationFrench (Basic and Immersion)Language Arts EducationMathematics EducationMusic EducationPhysical EducationScience EducationSocial Studies EducationSpecial Education (General and Severe)

MINOR FIELDS

Art EducationComputer Applications in EducationHealth EducationLanguage Arts EducationMathematics EducationNative Language EducationReligious Studies and Moral Education

Science EducationSocial Studies EducationTeaching English as a Second Language

MAJOR FIELDS

Art EducationDrama EducationEnglish EducationFrench (Basic and Immersion)

Mathematics EducationMusic EducationPhysical EducationScience Education (Biological)Science Education (General)Science Education (Physical)

Social Studies Education

MINOR FIELDS

Computer Applications in EducationEnglish EducationHealth EducationLanguage Arts EducationMathematics EducationMusic EducationNative Language EducationReligious Studies and Moral EducationScience EducationSocial Studies EducationTeaching English as a Second Language

dents the opportunity, during the final year of the five-year program, to spend a full semester in a regular class-room under the supervision of a certified teacher or aschool staff member.

Manitoba

The University of Manitoba's elementary school teachereducation program allows candidates to focus theirpreparation for teaching from kindergarten throughgrade 6. The program usually consists of 120 credithours of course work. Sixty hours, or ten full courses ofthis work, is done in faculties or in schools other thanthe Faculty of Education, and is designed to provide stu-dents with general academic backgrounds and withsome limited specialization in teachable subjects. Teach-able subjects include art, biology, chemistry, geologicalsciences, English, French, general science, geography,a "heritage" language (spoken by members of a cultur-al community established in Manitoba, other than Eng-lish or French), aboriginal language or another worldlanguage, nistory, mathematics, physical education,physics, and theater.

The secondary school teacher education programallows candidates to focus their preparation for teach-

ing on both junior high and secondary schools. Theprogram consists of 120 credit hours of coursework.Seventy-two hours, or 12 full courses of the work, aredone in faculties or in schools other than the Facultyof Education, and are designed to provide studentswith general academic background plus specializationin at least two teachable subjects. Candidates usuallyelect five courses (30 credit hours for a teaching major)in one subject and three courses (18 credit hours for ateaching minor) in a second subject. Teachable sub-jects include art, biology, chemistry, computer science,English, French, general science, geography, a her-itage, aboriginal or world language, history, humanecology (after-degree B.Ed. only), mathematics, phys-ical education (after-degree B.Ed. only), physics, andtheater.

Ontario

Currently, a preservice program is offered by ten facul-ties of education. In most cases, the program is given inone academic year and follows a bachelor's program.Teacher candidates choose the grade levels in which toconcentrate, and may also choose specific teaching sub-jects if they choose Grades 7 to 12 Ontario Academic

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Courses as an area of concentration. According to reg-ulation, the program includes:

1. A concentrated study of the primary and juniordivisions, the junior division, the intermediateand senior divisions, or technological studies

2. Studies in education, including learning anddevelopment throughout the primary, junior,and senior divisions

3. Teaching methods designated to meet individualneeds of students

4. The acts and regulations in respect to education5. A review of the curriculum guidelines issued by

the Minister, related to all of the divisions, and astudy of curriculum development

6. A minimum of 40 aays of practical experience inschools or in other situations approved by theminister for observation and practice teaching

Quebec

The whole area of teacher training in Quebec is mov-ing in new directions that will lead to far-reachingchanges in the years to come. The changes cover pre-service training, induction, and professional develop-ment, as well as the profession as a whole. The reformis being led by the Ministry of Education, in close rela-tionship with its partners: the universities, school andschool board authorities, and teachers' unions and pro-fessional associations.

The first step in this reform has been the definitionof competencies expected of different categories of school .

teacherspreschool and elementary, secondary, specialeducation, vocational education, and adult education, aswell as specialists in the teaching of arts and music,French or English as a second language, and physical edu-cation. The competencies expected of secondary teachershave already been set out and the universities must devel-op new programs accordingly for September 1994.

The main orientation is that of professional train-ing: Faculties of education are asked to reinforce admis-sion requirements, to ensure the integration of and bal-ance between the three components of teacherpreparation (subject matter training, training in method-ology, and practical training). They must also provide aminimum of 700 hours of practice teaching in schoolsunder the supervision of both the university and anexperienced teacher.

As a result of the new requirements, the B.Ed. pro-grams will be extended from three to four years afterCEGEP. The one-year, or 30-credits certificate, which ispresently offered by universities to candidates whoalready have a bachelor's degree, should be abolished inthe near future. Future candidates will then be integratedin the four-year B.Ed., with appropriate equivalencies.

New Brunswick

All courses proposed in the education component ofall degree programs are considered pedagogical cours-es in which the content and methodology are inter-twined. In addition, required and elective coursesallow students to choose a constellation of courses thatprovide them with opportunities to broaden theirunderstanding of education as a process. Studentsselect foundation courses and subject areas or cur-riculum studies on an equal basis. Subject concentra-tions are available and encouraged. Students in con-current programs will mix honors programs in subjectareas with foundations in education curriculum andpedagogy.

Student internships of 12 weeks' duration will besupplemented through participation in seminars con-ducted by faculty and cooperating teachers in hostschools. Technological developments will allow stu-dents, faculty, and cooperating teachers to communicateusing Internet, E-mail, and audiographics to supplementthe process of supervision. The model becomes collab-orative and less supervisory in nature as all parties tothe experience develop together.

Courses at all learner levelsfrom preprimary toadultprovide a broad perspective of the educationalcontinuum. The requirement for all students to study attwo learner levels and the opportunity to experienceeducation on at least two levels through practica con-tribute to providing students with a solid background inteaching.

Nova Scotia

Approved bachelor's degree programs must include aminimum of 30 semester hours of teacher education,with coursework in the following areas: educationalfoundations, educational psychology, teaching method-ology, and special education, and a practicum of at least200 hours. Half the course work must be in subjectstaught in the public schools.

Differences in the Nature and Content ofTeacher Preparation Programs

Differences may exist between teacher preparation pro-grams offered in different provinces, but within eachprovince, there are no significant differences betweenprograms offered for the same teaching certificate. Dif-ferences exist between programs specifically designedto prepare for different levels, or types of teaching (ele-mentary school, secondary school, vocational educa-tion, special education, arts, physical education). Pro-grams for elementary and secondary school teachers aresignificantly different.

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52. TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Linkages Between Curricular Standards forTeacher Education and

Curricular Standards for Students

As a general rule, there is no formal, specific linkbetween teacher education programs and the provincialschool curricula, but the faculties of education usuallykeep in mind changes in the public school curricula andin public education policy when they prepare or reviewtheir programs.

LICENSING

Initial Requirements

Depending on the regulation in each province, gradu-ates of teacher preparation programs are issued interimor permanent professional teaching certificates on therecommendation of deans of education. No exams arerequired to obtain the teaching permit, but in Quebec,candidates from outside the province may be asked topass an exam in oral and written French or English.

As a general rule, certification is provided forteachers, but in some provinces, other educators areequally certified. This is the case for principals and vice-principals in Ontario, and for school administrators,teachers of trades/occupations, and a variety of non-teaching professionals who provide services within thepublic school system in Nova Scotia.

Candidates may be certified to teach at all gradelevelsfrom kindergarten to grade 12in certainprovinces, while in others certification is restricted tocertain levels or subject areas.

In most provinces, there are no differencesbetween certification for elementary and secondaryschool teachers, and there is generally only one level ofcertification for all teachers. This is not the case, how-ever, in Nova Scotia, where there are nine levels of cer-tification, some of which are no longer issued as initialor first-time certificates. Each level of certification cor-responds to different requirements in terms of training.

In Ontario, additional qualifications may be listedon the Teacher's Qualification Card. They are acquiredthrough courses offered by faculties of education dur-ing fall/winter evening sessions and during intersessionevening courses for teachers. Additional qualificationcourses may lead to specialist, honor specialist, or prin-cipal's qualifications. Teachers who wish to be eligiblefor appointment to the position of vice-principal or prin-cipal must hold Ontario principal's certification. Thiscertification is achieved through successful completionof the Principal Qualification Program, which consistsof two one-session courses and a practicum. Ontariohas recently introduced the Supervisory Officer's Qual-

ifications Program to certify eligible candidates forsupervisory officer and business supervisory officer cer-tification. The objective is to provide candidates with theknowledge, skills, and orientation to function effective-ly as leaders in school boards that have grown in com-plexity and diversity.

In all provinces, interim or temporary certificatesare issued to experienced or inexperienced teacherswho have completed their training outside the province.

Holders of an interim certificate qualify for perma-nent certificates once they have completed one or twoyears of successful teaching. Permanent certification is

issued on the recommendation of the applicant's super-intendent of schools or of another provincial officer.

In each province, processes are in place to ensurethat allegations of unprofessional conduct and incom-petent teaching are investigated and addressed fairly,and to provide teachers with avenues of appeal.

Licensing Reauthorization

There is no requirement for recertification in any of theprovinces. In some provinces, additional qualificationsare required for positions such as principal and super-visory officer.

In Alberta, three separate legislative acts serve toensure that teachers have high levels of knowledge,skills, and attributes: the Teaching Profession Act, theprovincial Teacher Evaluation Policy, and the PracticeReview of Teachers Regulation.

Under the Teaching Profession Act, the AlbertaTeacher Association is required to maintain andenforce a code of professional conduct thatdeals primarily with acceptable behaviors forteachers in their non-teaching roles.Under the provincial Teacher Evaluation Policy,all school jurisdictions and accredited privateschools are required to have and to implementteacher evaluation policies that meet guidelinesestablished by Alberta Education.The Practice Review of Teachers Regulation pro-vides an orderly means for the Minister of Edu-cation to hear and address complaints of allegedincompetent or unskilled teaching practices.

Status of Qualifying Conditions

In all provinces except British Columbia (where certifi-cation and licensure have been transferred to the BritishColumbia College of Teachers), the Minister of Educa-tion has the authority to alter certification requirementsat his discretion.

In practice, requirements are altered only in caseswhere no qualified certified teacher is available to fill a

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vacant teaching position. A temporary letter of approval(or equivalent), usually valid for one year, may be grant-ed to the local school authority for the appointment ofa person without teacher's qualifications to fill the spec-ified teaching position.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction or Transition Processes

As a general rule, there are no formal, provincewideprograms to provide support to beginning teachers.Individual school districts are free to implement any ora variety of support programs, and some jurisdictionshave done so in many provinces. The type of orienta-tion programs offered range from a single meeting to along-term induction and mentorship program. The needfor more systematic practices to support beginningteachers is felt in many provinces.

In British Columbia, the ministry has beeninvolved with five districts in pilot programs to developformal, detailed induction and mentorship programs.The evaluation of these programs is in the early stagesand no real information is currently available.

In Alberta, two pieces of legislation promoteincreased supervision and evaluation for beginningteachers and indicate to teachers that significant profes-sional growth is required early in their careers:

1. The School Act requires that the first year ofemployment in a school jurisdiction must beunder temporary contract. At the end of the firstyear, the jurisdiction must decide whether tooffer the teacher an ongoing contract.

2. Under the Certification of Teachers Regulation,teachers can move from interim to permanentcertification only on the recommendation oftheir superintendent after two years of success-ful teaching.

As a result of those requirements, most locallydeveloped evaluation policies reflect the need forincreased supervision and evaluation of teachers duringthe first two years of their careers.

In Ontario, the Teacher Education Review Com-mittee and the Teacher Education Council both recom-mended that there be a mandatory, two-year period ofinduction for all teachers who have completed a pre-service program.

In Quebec, initial preservice training is followedby a two-year probation period, but there is no formalinduction program. Probation will be replaced, startingin 1998, by an induction program for beginning teach-ers. It can be expected that the systematic implementa-

tion of this new policy will require some kind of finan-cial support. Pilot projects are currently being carriedout in a certain number of school boards with the coop-eration of faculties of education to prepare for the gen-eral implementation of this new policy.

In New Brunswick, an induction program forbeginning teachers is in its first year as a pilot program.Currently, it is experimental and no definitive answersare available to the questions raised.

Professional Development Opportunities

In most provinces, teachers have access to differenttypes of professional development opportunities: Theycan upgrade their classification and salary levels byenrolling in courses/programs offered by universities.They also have access to informal professional devel-opment programs or to courses offered by teachers' fed-erations and subject associations, by local school author-ities, or by the ministry or department of education (forprogram and policy implementation purposes). Suchprograms include conferences, seminars, workshops,and so forth, offered at the provincial, regional, or locallevels. Universities can be asked to collaborate in suchprograms but, as a rule, only formal academic coursescount for classification and salary purposes. Someprovinces are considering changes in this policy to per-mit formal recognition of in-service training.

Participation in professional development is usu-ally not linked to years of experience, level of respon-sibility, salary, or career opportunities. However, it maylead to additional qualifications, as in Ontario, whereuniversity courses may be listed on Ontario's Qualifica-tion Record Card, and may lead to specialist, honor spe-cialist, or principal qualifications.

In most provinces, professional development isrecognized in the provincial school calendar. The offi-cial number of days in a school year include up to 15days for activities other than teachingmany of whichare used by schools and school boards to plan in-ser-vice work.

The following gives more specific information onin-service training in certain provinces:

In British Columbia, the British Columbia Col-lege of Teachers is entitled, under the Teaching Profes-sion Act, to carry out and facilitate professional devel-opment programs designed to ensure currency andgeneral competence.

Alberta believes that professional development isthe responsibility of individual teachers and of theiremploying school jurisdiction. A recent study indicatesthat teachers and school jurisdiction can cooperate inenhancing teachers' professional development throughtighter links with teacher evaluation. Steps are beingtaken to provide provincial guidelines on how this can

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be achieved. Alberta Education has provided support for

the development of a consortium of school jurisdictionsto determine the need for, and to develop and provide,professional development. While the consortium has afull-time coordinator, the board of directors is predomi-nantly comprised of teachers. In the future, this modelmay be emulated in other regions of the province.

In Quebec, the collective agreement provides forthe annual allocation of a specific amount of money(C$160) for each full-time teacher for professional devel-opment purposes. A joint committee in which the localunion and the local authorities are represented decideson the way the money is spent each year.

The ministry is actually preparing guidelines forthe continuing education of teachers. These guidelinesare based on the following principles: Responsibility fordetermining professional development needs rests pri-marily with the teachers; professional developmentshould be accessible to all teachers and take intoaccount the personal, professional, and organizationaldimensions of teaching; professional developmentshould be based on the involvement and cooperationof all educators concerned and draw on the expertiseand the competency of teachers.

Moreover, professional development should takeinto account the particular characteristics of school pop-ulations and educational sectors; recognize the diversi-ty of possible sites, procedures, and sources of training;and rely on the involvement of teachers and schoolorganizations.

In recent years, professional development in NovaScotia has centered around curriculum in-service train-

ing led by the Department of Education to implementnew programs and new teaching methodologies. Inrecent years, the department has also sponsored sum-mer institutes in different subject areas.

Part of the mandate of the Nova Scotia Teachers'Union is to provide professional development opportu-nities for its membership. It provides assistance to pro-fessional associations, supports educational researchprojects, and gives individual grants for travel and studypurposes. Since 1987, the union has promoted the con-cept of school-based staff development. To encourageschools across the province to adopt this collaborativeapproach to decision making, it has been providingconsulting services and has set up a program for schoolleadership teams.

Under a negotiated provincial collective agreement,the Nova Scotia Teachers' Union receives an annual sumof C$150,000 (Program Development Assistance Fund),which is distributed to teachers who apply for innovativeclassroom projects. In addition, under many local agree-ments, a sum of money is allocated for the professionaldevelopment of teachers and is generally distributed bya committee made up of teachers and central office staff.

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

In British Columbia, the main issues and activitiesconcerning teacher education are the following:

1. Development of a computer-based, regionalizedteacher supply-and-demand model

2. Development and implementation of a decen-tralized system of teacher education programs,including programs offered in three universitycolleges and in rural teacher education pro-grams

3. Evaluation of pilot induction programssevenschool districts have received funds to run pilotinduction programs. Such programs have beenidentified as having great potential for positiveeffects on teacher retention, on the status of theteaching profession, and on the nature and rateof change in the system

4. Production of a teacher recruitment video toattract highly qualified candidates who reflectthe pluralistic nature of British Columbia society.The video focuses on recruiting members of vis-ible minority groups, First Nation people, men(to teach at the elementary level), and women(to teach mathematics and science).

In Alberta, the main policy issues are linked withthe provincial government's debt-reduction program.Expenditure reduction measures target pre-elementary,elementary, oecondary, and postsecondary education.To meet its goal, the government is carrying out a wide-ranging public consultation, which began with discus-sion on what the "basic education" supported by pub-lic funds should comprise, and on which part of servicescurrently being provided in schools should be support-ed by private funds and/or through local taxation. Theimplications of this anticipated reduction in governmentfunding will significantly affect all aspects of schooling,teaching, teacher preparation, and teacher professionaldevelopment.

Given the consultation currently under way, onecan only speculate on the range of implications. How-ever, two trends emerged prior to the government'sdebt-reduction scheme, and are ongoing:

1. Alberta is now working to specify the standardsof performance students are expected to meet atall grade levels and in all subject disciplines.

2. The trend toward government deregulation mayresult in the evolution of a range of educationalnolicies that emphasize desired outcomes ratherthan input and process variables.

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In Manitoba, all partners in education are con-cerned with improving the school environment for bothteachers and students. Manitoba Education and Train-ing is addressing the problem of violence in schoolsthrough actions such as providing in-service training toteachers and parents on how to deal with violent behav-ior, appointing a full-time consultant to deal with theproblem of violence in the classroom, and providingconsulting services to address violence.

More closely linked with teacher training is thetrend toward recognition of teaching as a profession.The Manitoba Teachers' Society has proposed that itsorganization be given statutory recognition as a pro-fession. Central to this proposition is the desire tohave control over teacher certification and disciplineissues. Manitoba Education and Training is still dis-cussing this issue with the Manitoba Teachers' Society.Related issues of teacher autonomy, discipline, andcertification continue to be the subject of meaningfuldiscussion.

Teacher training is another area c' .ncern amongall partners. Manitoba's teachers muss lble to keeppace with the changing knowledge and skill demandsof their jobs. All actions in this regard will be support-ed and undertaken through partnership. Partnersinclude the Department of Education and Training, edu-cational institutions in Manitoba, the faculties of educa-tion, the Manitoba Teachers' Association, and teachersthemselves. Manitoba Education and Training, in con-junction with its partners, is considering:

Reviewing existing teacher preservice trainingprograms to ensure that teachers develop theability to change.Establishing an internship program for teachers.A proposal will be drafted in cooperation withall partners. This would allow teachers to com-plete a period of training under the supervisionof a skilled and experienced teacher.Developing, with its partners, a plan for coor-dinated in-service training delivery and profes-sional development.

Ontario has undertaken a number of cost-cuttingmeasures that are having an impact on current teacherdemand. In efforts to reduce spending, school boardshave lowered their staffing levels and, as a result,teacher intake has dropped across the province.

The Royal Commission on Learning has beenestablished to examine the broad issues aroundOntario's education system. Among these will be cur-riculum and teacher education. The commission's reportwas released in January 1995.

The main issues identified in New Brunswick arethe following:

Entry into the profession: What criteria shouldbe used for the admission of students to teachereducation programs?Preservice programs: What should be thenature and content of preservice teacherpreparation programs?The practicum: How can this potentially valuableexperience for student teachers be improved?An induction program: How could a meaningfulinduction program that New Brunswick canafford be designed?Teacher recertification: Should teachers berequired to recertify periodically? This questionleads to discussions on continuing educationunits and how to record and reward them.Mid-career: Should there be concern about thefact that the only clear career path in education atthe moment is in administration? Recently a gooddeal of discussion has taken place regarding theneed for a career path that would concentrate onthe knowledge base of teaching and its practice.

New Brunswick Education is working on thesequestions with its partners. It is currently working withuniversities to change the criteria for admission to theprofession and to change the preservice program inorder to give greater attention to the study of teachingand learning. It is also working with the universities,school districts, and teacher organizations to revise thepracticum and emphasize a team approach to profes-sional growth. Other actions envisaged a. z. increasingsupport for peer coaching and mentorship training andbeginning a review of teacher certification requirementsthat will lead to discussions on recertification. Finally,New Brunswick Education has instituted an extensivevoluntary summer institute program for teachers, theresponse to which is very encouraging.

In Nova Scotia, there is an increasing demand forefficient and effective universities. The rationalizationprocess will involve four main components: vision andlong-range planning, institutional renovation, programreview, and shared systems and services. Education iscounted among the identified priority areas. Other areasare business, management, commerce; earth/environ-mental sciences; and engineering computing sci-ences/computer engineering.

In teacher education, the concerns are the following:

There are only general requirements for initialteacher certification. As a consequence, institu-tions interpret these guidelines, and there are nostandards for programming.The perception of the public is that teachershave not received the preparation they need todo the job.

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The province would be better served by estab-lishing fewer, more specialized teacher educa-tion institutions.The effectiveness of a one-year B.Ed. program hasbeen challenged by both teacher educators andprofessionals in all facets of public education.There has not been a vigorous examination ofteacher education in Nova Scotia for many years.

In Quebec, a major reform of teacher training,which is based on the recognition of teaching as a pro-fessional activity, is currently being implemented by theministry in close partnership with the universities, theschool administrators, and the teachers' unions and pro-fessional associations.

In 1992, the Minister of Education published adocument entitled "The Challenge of Teaching Todayand Tomorrow: Renewal and Recognition of the Teach-ing Profession." It outlines the main courses of action tobe undertaken in the near future for the renewal of theteaching profession. The actions focus on three themes:teacher autonomy and accountability, teacher training,entry into the profession and career prospects. Theyseek to provide answers to the following questions:

How to ensure quality teacher training thatincludes knowledge of the disciplines to betaught and knowledge of methodology andpractical training, and that prepares future teach-ers to meet the new challenges of teaching intoday's changing society?How to ensure quality, practical training basedon true' partnership between university facul-ties of education and the schools receivingstudent teachers?How to receive new teachers into the profes-sion and support them during their first yearsof teaching?How to improve prospects for career advance-ment and diversification and avoid the disillu-sionment and discouragement to which manyteachers fall victim?

How to make it easier for teachers to takeresponsibility for their own professional devel-opment throughout their teaching careers?How to ensure better planning with respect tothe employment situation in teaching?

Considerable work has already been done, or isbeing done, in the above areas, in particular withrespect to the definition of the competencies expectedof teachers at the end of their initial training; experi-mentation with different models of partnership betweenuniversities and schools in the practical training of stu-dent teachers, and the publication of guidelines for bothpartners in the process; the modification of the proba-tion system in favor of an induction system designed tosupport new teachers in their first years of teaching; andthe development of a policy regarding teachers' profes-sional development.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This comparative study is based on reports submittedby the participating provinces. These reports wereprepared by:

Eulala Mills-Diment, British Columbia Ministry of Edu-cation

Barbara Forsyth, British Columbia Ministry of Skills,Training and Labour

Alberta Education, with the cooperation and assistanceof Alberta Advanced Education

Valerie-Drawn Girhiny, Maurice Lamontagne, andEvelyn Shapka, Ministry of Education and Train-ing of Ontario

Katherine Wong, Manitoba Education and TrainingThomas F. Hanley, New Brunswick Department of Edu-

cationDavid G. Richardson, Nova Scotia Department of Edu-

cation

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Teacher Training andProfessional Developmentin China

Submitted by: Department of TeacherEducation, State Education Commission

ECONOMY AND EDUCATION

China is a developing country with a vast territory anda huge population. It has a total land area of. 9.6 millionsquare kilometers. According to the census for the year1990, its total population was 1,130,510,638; the birthrate was 20.98 percent; and the net growth rate was 1.47percent. The agricultural population constitutes a largeproportion of the nation-73.59 percent of the total.There are 56 nationalities in China. The minority nation-alities constitute 7 percent of the total population. Thedistribution of population is unbalanced, ranging fromover 2,200 people per square kilometer in Shanghai Cityto 1.8 people per square kilometer in the TibetAutonomous Region.

In 1991, China's gross national product wasRMB1.9855 trillion yuan (for the purposes of this report,RMB100 yuan equals US $447.66, as reported in thePeople's Daily, Overseas Edition, September 7, 1990); thetotal national income was RMB1.6117 trillion yuan; theaverage per-capita income was RMB1,401 yuan; and thetotal government expenditure was RMB1.6601 trillionyuan, of which RMB41.04 billion yuan was spent oneducation, which made up 2.6 percent of governmentspending.

Since 1978, when the more than ten-year period

5

of reforms and opening up to the outside world began(especially the realization of nine-year compulsoryschooling, begun in 1986), China has rapidly developedits basic education system. In 1992, there were 729,158primary schools throughout the country, with121,641,538 students enrolled. Of these, 88,440 werelocated in cities and towns, encompassing 29,130,575students; 640,718 were located in rural areas, with92,510,963 students. There were 70,680 junior secondaryschools, with 39,606,496 students enrolled. Amongthese, 16,009 were located in cities or towns, encom-passing 14,218,547 students, and 54,599 were in ruralareas, with 25,387,949 students. The entrance rate forschool-age children was 97.187 percent, and the pro-motion rate was 76.42 percent.

The Chinese government has attached greatimportance to teachers. In 1992, there were 5.53 mil-lion full-time primary school teachers. The ratio ofteachers to students was 1:22. The percentage of pri-mary school teachers with qualifications was 82.7 per-cent of the total. The number of teachers who gradu-ated from secondary normal schocls (normal schools,like normal colleges and normal universities, are insti-tutes for training teachers; most of them focus mainlyon preservice training programs) was 2.97 million, or53.8 percent of the total of qualified teachers. There

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58 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

were 2.52 million full-time junior secondary schoolteachers, with a qualification rate of 55.6 percent. Theteacherstudent ratio was 1:16 (junior secondary schoolteachers are those who have attained the State's pre-scribed level of education: completion of, or above,teachers' college or other colleges). In 1992, there were1.12 million teachers who had received professionaltraining from teachers' colleges, representing 44.5 per-cent of the total qualified junior secondary schoolteachers. In addition, there were also 474,078 primaryschool Minban teachers (teachers financially support-ed by the community, or Minban), which accountedfor 8.6 percent of the total, and 127,740 Minban teach-ers from junior secondary schools, accounting for 5 per-cent of the total. Minban teachers were mainly situat-ed in rural primary schools, many of which (especiallythose located in mountainous areas) conduct schoolingthrough multigrade teaching in one classroom; a con-siderable number of these schools, furthermore, are runby one teacher.

Since 1978, Chinese teachers' salaries have beensignificantly increased and their living conditions havebeen greatly improved. In addition to salaries, teach-ers can receive subsidies based on the length of timeteaching, as well as bonuses that are calculated at 10percent of salary. Furthermore, they receive the sameincome after retirement. However, teachers' incomesare still lower than those of other professionals.According to data for 1991 provided by the StatisticsBureau, the annual income for teachers was an aver-age yuan 2,186 per teacher, which was 9.8 percentlower than salaries for workers involved in the indus-trial sector; 17.6 percent lower than salaries for work-ers in the architectural trade; and 15.04 percent lowerthan salaries for worker in the scientific and techno-logical sectors. In addition, Minban teachers do notreceive the same payment as regular, full-time teach-ers, which has had negative effects on this teachingsector. This factor can be seen as one of the obstaclesto the implementation of cc inpulsory education inrural areas.

In order to meet the requirement of popularizingnine-year compulsory schooling, a nationwide net-work of teacher training has been established, aimingat upgrading and improving the quality of school-teachers. Within 14 yearsfrom 1978 to 1992thequalification rate for primary school teachers increasedfrom 43 percent to 82.7 percent, and for junior highschool teachers, from 9.8 percent to 55.6 percent. Onthe other hand, for a variety of historical and economicreasons, there has been a great shortage of education-al expenditure, resulting in low teacher salaries and ina low quality of teachers, many of whom find them-selves unable to keep up with the needs of social andeducational development.

THE PRESENT STATUS OFTEACHER EDUCATION IN CHINA

The System

In order to meet the different needs of teachers of var-ious subjects and at different levels in basic education,there has been a rapid development in teacher educa-tion in China. Stable bases for new teachers have beenset up. At the same time, a network of in-service train-ing has been formulated in provinces, municipalities,and counties. A preliminary system of teacher educa-tion, combining preservice with in-service training, hasthus far been established.

Preservice Training

Standard methods and other channels of preserviceteacher training are displayed, respectively, in Table 5.1and Table 5.2, by institution, length of time enrolled,objective of training, and degree obtained.

In-service Training

Standard methods and other channels of in-serviceteacher training are displayed, respectively, in Table 5.3and Table 5.4, below, by institution and objective oftraining.

The General Aims of Teacher Education

To address the needs of building socialist mod-ernizationTo address the needs of reform and develop-ment of basic education and vocationaVtechni-cal educationTo gradually formulate a system of teacher train-ing with unique characteristicsTo establish primary schools, middle schools,and vocationaVtechnical teaching contingents ofsufficient quantitiy, reasonable structure, goodquality, and expertise in education and teaching

At present, China has established requirementsand standards for primary and high school teachers:(1) Primary school teachers should have normal schoolcertificates; (2) junior high school teachers should begraduates of normal college; and (3) senior highschool teachers should have educational backgroundsincluding normal universities. Furthermore, the Chi-nese government stipulates that teachers must receivein-service training that is closely related with theircareer development while they are teaching at schools.Generally speaking, the nounal university, normal col-lege, and normal school are the foundations of pre-

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TABLE 5.1

Standard Methods of Preservice Teacher Training

Institution Length Enrolled From Objective Degree

Normal university

Vocational normal

Normal college

Normal school

Normal schoolfor special education

Preschool normal school

4 yrs

3-4 yrs

2-3 yrs3-4 yrs3-4 yrs

3-4yrs

Senior high graduates

Senior high graduates

Senior high graduates

Junior high graduatesJunior high graduates

Junior high graduates

Senior high teacher

Junior & senior high teacher

Junior high teacher

Primary school teachers

Teachers of primary schoolfor children with special needs

Kindergarten teacher

B.A. or B.S.

B.A. or B.S certificate

Certificate

Certificate

Certificate

Certificate

TABLE 5.2

Other Channels for Preservice Teacher Training

Institution Length Enrolled From Objective Degree

Teacher training classesin universities

4 yrs Senior high graduates Senior high teacher B,A. or B.S.

Department of educationin universities

4 yrs Senior high graduates Senior high teacher B.A. or B.S

Teacher training classesin TV universities

3 yrs Senior high graduates Junior high teacher Certificate

TABLE 5.3

Star;:'ard Methods of In-service Teacher Training

Institution Providing Training For

Provincial teacher training college

Regional or municipal teacher training colleges

Teacher training school at county level

Senior and junior high school teachers

Junior high school teachers

Primary school teachers

TABLE 5.4

Other Channels for In-service Teacher Training

Institution

Department of Adult Education in universities

China T.V. Normal College

Self-study for teacher qualification

Providing Training For

Senior and junior high school teachers

Senior and junior high school teachers

School teachers

service teacher training, while teacher training collegesand schools mainly bear the responsibility for in-ser-vice training. In recent years, more and more institu-tions dealing with preserve training have beeninvolved in conducting in-service teacher training pro-grams. There is, therefore, some overlap betweenthese two kinds of institutions.

The Objectives

Preservice Training

Normal University: These institutions provide four-yeartraining to senior high school graduates and to thosewith equivalent schooling records. After study, students

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60 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

are awarded bachelor's degrees and state-approvedqualification for teaching in senior high schools.

Normal College: These colleges mainly conductthree- or two-year training programs for senior highschool graduates and for those with equivalent schoolingrecords. The graduates are awarded certificates and state-approved qualification for teaching in junior high schools.

Normal School, Preschool Normal School, and Nor-mal School for Special Education: Preservice trainingtakes place in these schools for junior high school grad-uates and for those with equivalent schooling records.Through three- or four-year study programs, the studentsare awarded certificates and state-approved qualificationfor teaching in primary schools and in kindergartens, aswell as in primary schools for children with special needs.

In-service Training

Provincial Teacher Training College: This kind of insti-tution provides diploma courses to (1) senior highschool teachers who have not attained the state's pre-scribed level of education and (2) qualified junior highschool teachers who are seeking further study in orderto reach normal university level. Teachers are trainedthrough full-time or correspondence study, and receivequalification after their training is completed.

Regional/Prefectural Teacher Training College:These colleges conduct remedial training for junior highschool teachers who have not received normal collegeeducation. In addition, they are also engaged in extend-ed training of "key" primary school teachers, who servethe same function as "backbone" teachersteacherswho hold a leading place in their profession. Full-timeand correspondence study are the main types of train-ing, and these institutions also award teaching certifi-cates to graduates.

Teacher Training School at County Level: Thoseteachers working in primary schools without state-issued qualification are expected to seek additional in-service training in teacher training schools through part-time or correspondence study.

In addition to remedial courses, in-service teachertraining institutions are also responsible for conductingcontinuous education and induction training for newteachers. Some of the training programs are of three-month duration, while others take place over only sev-eral days.

Data on Teacher Training

Table 5.5 provides statistics on preservice teacher train-ing institutions in 1992.

From 1981 to 1990, according to statistics, normaluniversities trained 430,000 student teachers, normalcolleges trained 905,000, and normal schools trained

1,922,000 (including 89,000 graduates from preschoolnormal schools).

Table 5.6 provides statistics on in-service teachertraining institutions in 1992. From 1981 to 1990, accord-ing to statistics, teacher training colleges trained1,160,000 high school teachers and teacher trainingschools trained 1,500,000 primary school teachers. Table5.7 provides statistics on staff distribution in teachertraining institutions in 1992.

The Content1

Normal universities, normal colleges, and teacher trainingcolleges train teachers in specialized subject matter areasgenerally based on the curriculum of secondary schools.In normal schools and teacher training schools, on theother hand, there are no specialized divisions of study.

Division of Subject-Matter Areas of the HigherTeacher Institutions

In recent years, there have been great changes in theprovision of programs at many teacher universities andcolleges. In addition to the subject-matter areas corre-sponding to the curriculum of secondary schools, theseuniversities and colleges have also established manynew specialized courses, in accordance with therequirements of social development and construction,and the growth of science, technology, and education.These new courses are not exclusively designed fortraining teachers; they also include such offerings ascomputer science, radio electronics, biochemistry, edu-cational media, and library science.

As specified in the General Programs for Institutionsof Higher Education (rev. ed., 1963), there previously were17 subject-matter areas for higher teacher education pro-grams: language and literature (Han), Chinese minoritylanguages and literature, Russian, English, history, politi-cal education, school education, preschool education, psy-chology, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geog-raphy, physical education, music, and fine arts. By 1981,however, the number of areas of study for teacher educa-tion programs had already grown to 37. The additionalfields include Japanese, German, French, philosophy, arts,computer science, astronomy, economics, library science,biochemistry, radio electronics, geomorphology, educa-tional media, mechanical manufacturing, and industrialautomation (State Education Commission, 1985).

The addition of specialized fields of study contin-ued, resulting in a total of 67 study areas by 1985. Thetotal number of all specialized program offerings in all

'This section is taken from Z.-L. Young, Lin, B., & Su,W.C., 1989. Teacher Education in the People's Republic ofChina. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press.

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TABLE 5.5

Data on Preservice Teacher Training Institutions, 1992

InstitutionNo. ofInstitutions

No. of No. ofGraduates Enrollment students

Normal universityand college

Normal school

Preschool normal school

253 167,713 166,364 470,186

880 230,691 216,117 623,360

68 13,184 13,158 37,995

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

TABLE 5.6Data on In-service Teacher Training Institutions, 1992(for Diploma and Certificate Courses Only)

InstitutionNo. ofInstitutions

Provincial and regionaVmunicipal teacher training college

Teacher training schoolat county level

254

No. of No. ofGraduates Enrollment students

104,816 60,334 185,591

2,061 200,620 141,072 463,204

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

TABLE 5.7

Data on Teacher Educators of Training Institutions, 1992

InstitutionTotal No.of Staff

No. of Teachers

SubtotalSeniorProf. Lec.

Assit.Lec. Lec. Teacher

Normal univ. and collegeNormal schoolPreschool normal schoolTeacher training collegeTeacher training school

152,48794,422

7,06444,35471,769

75,48453,1884,033

23,29440,290

1,616 14,293 28,171 26,138 5,2665,271 14,047 20,745 13,125

424 1,132 1,544 90392 4,711 8,400 7,701 2,390

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

institutions increased from 641 in 1981 to 747 in 1985.Programs were offered in classical literature, Chinese asa foreign language, economic management, law, jour-nalism, systemic physics, environmental science, inter-national finance, mechanical drafting, electronicaccounting, economics, mathematics, computer usage,industrial business management, Chinese secretaryship,and arts and crafts. The specialized programs with thegreatest increase in participation are school education,which was offered in 24 institutions in 1985 as con-trasted with only 5 in 1981; preschool education, offeredin 10 institutions in 1985 and in only 5 in 1981; and

computer science, offered in 14 institutions in 1985 andin only one in 1981.

Programs of normal university-preserviceteacher education: Curriculum generally consists of fivecomponents-political theory (philosophy, economics,etc.); foreign languages; education courses (education-al theories, psychology, and methodology of teaching);physical education; and specialized courses in majorfields (basic specialized courses and elective courses).Student teaching consists of classroom teaching and workas a home-room teacher. No diploma is awarded to thosewho are disqualified through poor performance in stu-

t"1

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62 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

dent teaching. Term examinations are administered andregular assessments are conducted; on the whole, two tothree subjects are examined during a term. Skills in lab-oratory work and its supervision are required for thosewho are majoring in the sciences. Research training isconducted for the graduation thesis during senior year.

Programs of normal collegepreservice teachereducation: Curriculum consists of political theory, for-eign languages, education courses, physical education,and specialized courses in the major field. The programof study is the same as that of undergraduate programs.Programs of normal schoolpreservice teacher educa-tion: Curriculum consists of political science, Chineselanguage (ethnic minority language for ethnic minorityteacher training schools), mathematics, physics, chem-istry, biology, hygiene, history, geography, foreign lan-guage, psychology, educational theory, teachingmethodology of primary mathematics, teaching method-ology of primary science, physical education and itsteaching methodology, music and its teaching method-ology, fine arts and its teaching methodology.

Student teaching is conducted for final practiceteachinga total of eight weeks is required in the three-year program and ten weeks in the four-year program(including regular observation and participation and thefinal practice teaching). This can be scheduled in one timeblock or in several sections. However, in the final term,the time allotted should not be less than four weeks.

In-service Training

The general goal of in-service training for primary andhigh school teachers is to improve teachers' professionalquality; to train a number of "backbone" teachers, forexample, to have some of the teachers become leadersin academic subjects and experts in education andteaching; and to build a qualified teacher contingent tosatisfy the need of nine-year compulsory education, ateacher contingent that adheres to socialist directionwith noble moral character, reasonable structure, andgood quality. Based on this general goal, schools for pri-mary and middle-school teachers take pride in follow-ing in-service training programs.

Teaching materials and methodologies: During theten years from 1966 to 1976, the primary school and mid-dle-school teacher contingent was badly damaged. Manywho had never received any professional training wereinvolved in teaching. Since 1k 82, the state has begun totrain primary school and middle- school teachers and toexamine teaching materials and teaching methods, toensure that teachers have a good command of subjectteaching materials and are able to transmit the correctknowledge to their students. By 1985, 90 percent of pri-mary school and middle-school teachers throughout thecountry took part in training, passed examinations, and

were awarded a "Certificate of Teaching." The training andexaminations broadened teachers' range of knowledge.

In-service training for college qualification: In1979, the number of full-time primary school teachersthroughout the country who had completed the state-prescribed level of education in normal schools was 47percent of the total. Only 10.6 percent of full-timejunior middle-school teachers met these state require-ments. According to the requirements of the State Edu-cation Commission, teacher training schools and edu-cation colleges had offered supplementary educationto teachers in primary schools and junior middle-schools, respectively, in order to help them attain statestandards for normal school education levels. Teachershad been allowed to leave their posts to study, or toobtain systematic training through correspondence.Since 1986 however, the state has introduced a newexamining system in which primary and middle-schoolteachers who have not attained the qualifying level ofschooling can choose to sit professional teaching andteaching skills examinations and, if they pass, beawarded a "Certificate of Professional Qualification."Through this system, primary school teachers canobtain schooling-record equivalency up to the level ofsecondary normal school graduates, and junior middle-school teachers can obtain schooling-record equiva-lency up to the level of tertiary professional normalschool graduates. By the end of 1992, 475,862 primaryschool teachers and 105,723 iunior middle-schoolteachers had participated in examinations and obtainedCertificates of Professional Qualification.

Continuing Education

Due to a number of factorsa shortage of backboneprimary and middle-school teachers; the fact that manyteachers' abilities in education and teaching were notup to the professional standards of the posts they held;and because many young teachers badly needed train-ing in teaching ethicsthe State Education Commissiondecided that primary and middle-school teachers withqualifying schooling records should receive continuingeducation. The decision was made that this kind of con-tinuing education would be primarily carried out inplaces where the rate of teachers with qualifying school-ing records was relatively higher. Because of the lowrate of teachers with qualifying schooling records injunior middle-schools all over the country, the stress oncontinuing education would be put on primary schools,where the rate is over 80 percent. This continuing edu-cation is guided by the following principles, accordingto attendant circumstances and conditions:

1. Induction training of new teachers: New gradu-ates who are assigned to primary schools and

t~s)lw

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TABLE 5.8The Administration of Teacher Training

Administration Institutions

Education Commission (national level)

Education Commission (provincial level)

Education Commission (prefecture level)

Education Commission (county level)

6 key normal universities72 normal universities175 normal colleges

948 normal schools

Source: Yearbook of Chinese Educational Statistics, 1993.

who have qualifying schooling records for nor-mal school education or above are trained sothat they can meet the needs of teaching in ashort period of time

2. Professional qualifications: On the basis ofdemand for primary school teachers' professionalqualifications at present, and of demands for high-er levels, primary school teachers are trained sothat they can be competent at their present jobs.

3. All-around training: Apart from the main cur-riculum, teachers are also trained in subjects suchas moral education. society, nature, art, music,physical training, physical education, and so forth.

4 Training for backbone teachers: Young teachersare trained in accordance with the demands ofbecoming backbone teachers and leading per-sons in different subjects.

5. Knowledge renewal and application of new tech-nology training: New knowledge should bepassed on to teachers and they should learn touse new education skills so that they can meetthe new demands of social development for pri-mary school education.

6. Train im qlscientific research abilities: Throughthe study of teaching materials, teaching meth-ods, and scientific research methods in primaryschool education, teachers can acquire a correctunderstanding of the national education guidingprinciple, teaching plan, and syllabus. They canmaster teaching materials, teaching methods,and general research methods.

Administrative System ofTeacher Education in China

In general, educational administration takes place at lourlevels: the State Education Commission, the ProvincialEducation Commission, the Prefecture Education Com-mission, and the t :ounty-level Education Commission.

At present. of the 78 normal universities, six key uni-versities arc directly under the control or the State Educa-tion Commission, while the remainder, and 175 normal

colleges, are dominated by the Provincial Education Com-missions or by the Prefecture Education Commissions; theCounty-level Education Commissions are responsible for948 normal schools. Table 5.8 below shows the distribu-tion of administration for teacher training.

The role of the State Education Commission isintended to be one of guidance. It plans teacher train-ing programs as a whole, holds conferences to discussproblems, and allocates funds to local authorities. More-over, the six key normal universities also serve as mod-els for other institutions that the State Education Com-mission hopes to put into place. Local authorities,however, are responsible for the actual provision ofteacher training, as well as for carrying out the instruc-tions of the State Education Commission.

The establishment, alteration, or termination ofnormal schools is decided by provincial-level govern-ments, although the State Education Commission mustbe notified of all decisions. There is a designateddepartment (the Department of Teacher Education)within the State Education Commission that overseesgeneral policies and macroplanning for normalschools. Similar divisions exist within provinces,autonomous regions, and municipalities for establish-ing specific policies and planning regarding the devel-opment of secondary teacher education and supervis-ing and evaluating implementation of policiesconcerning local normal schools.

Education Expenditure2

All institutions for initial teacher educationincludingnormal universities, normal colleges, vocational normalcolleges, and normal schoolsare state-run, and thusfinancial support is provided by the government. Likeexpenditures for other schools, those for teacher edu-cation can be divided in ,) two categories: instructionaland capital expenditure. Instructional expenditure refers

2This section is taken from Z.-L. Young, Lin, B., R Su,NIC.C., 1989. Teacher Education in the People's Republic ofChina. Beijing: Beijing Normal University Press.

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to such things as staff salaries and benefits, financialassistance for students, equipment installation, booksand periodicals, operating expenses, instructional sup-port services, research, administrative services, and part-time education. Capital expenditure refers to capitalconstruction of school buildings. Specific financialsources for teacher training institutions in China dependmainly on the level and type of institution. Funds forhigher teacher education are provided for in the Statebudget of higher education, while secondary teachertraining schools are funded as part of general education.Financial support for normal colleges and normal uni-versities under the direct control of the DepartmentCommittees of the State Council is sponsored by thecommittees themselves. The six normal universitiesmentioned above, for example, are funded by the StateEducation Commission. However, most of the normalcolleges, normal universities, and vocational normal col-leges are controlled by provinces, autonomous regions,and municipalities, and thus are funded locally as partof the local budget for higher education. Similarly, fornormal schools, the expenditure is part of the local bud-get for general education.

Normal universities, normal colleges, and normalschools are generally funded according to the numberof students enrolled and designated by the state plan.This is to encourage the full use of the potential ofeach school and college, in order to promote theexpansion of enrollment and to expedite growth. Thestandards for funding varyfrom those of the centralto the local governments, from provinces to munici-palities, arid from year to year. Funding for normal uni-versities directly under the State Education Commis-sion is generally an average of RMB4,925 yuan perstudent annually (1994 statistics). Policy dictates thatthe funding standard for local normal colleges and nor-mal universities be the same as that for institutionsdirectly under the State Education Commission. Fund-ing for normal schools, while not equivalent, is admin-istered in a similar way.

However, because of the differences in econom-ic strength among provinces and regions, the actualaverage annual funding per student varies from placeto place. Some of the richer regions contribute morefor educational expenditure, while the poorer provideless. For instance, in Shanghai, the average expendi-ture for each student in teacher training schools isabout RMB3,465 yuan annually, whereas in some poordistricts, the average expenditure for each student isonly RMB1,107 yuan per annum. The average isaround RMB1,586 yuan per year per student in anaverage district (statistics reported by the Departmentof Educational Planning, 1991). Under special circum-stances, the state may also subsidize equipment instal-lation and maintenance, or provide additional funds to

solve exceptional difficulties encountered in enroll-ment, teaching, research, or living. These expendituresgenerally depend on the overall financial capacity ofthe central and local governments, and on the statusof the schools.

As regards in- service teacher education, fundingat different levels is allocated by the local governmentson the basis of actual conditions, and is reflected in thelocal budget as education and capital constructionexpenditure. In practice, the allocation of these fundsis generally designed to meet the actual requirementsof teacher education and its specializations. In princi-ple, it should be formulated in accordance with stateregulations.

CHALLENGES AND STRATEGIES

The Situation and Challenges Faced byTeacher Education in China

China's energetic drive for reform and for opening tothe outside world, as well as its modernization, hasarrived at a new stage. In this new stage, China isengaged in active efforts to establish a socialist marketeconomy system, and is speeding up the pace of reformand modernization. As a result, economic constructionand social progress are making big strides. The new sit-uation has not only provided China with a rare chanceto accelerate reform and all-around development ofeducational enterprise, but has also posed significantchallenges. One of the challenges is to find out ifteacher education can adapt itself to measures for thesystematic reforms of a socialist market economy, andto the rapid rate of social economic change. Another isto find out if teacher education can keep abreast ofreform and development of basic education in China.

Education must serve socialist economic con-struction. In fact, challenges to teacher education stemfrom China's economic development. The accelerationof reform, of opening up to the outside world, and ofmodernization rely on scientific technology and educa-tion. The key link lies in the improvement of laborers'competence, which mainly depends on the quality oftheir basic education. Therefore, urgent demand is pri-marily posed for speeding up development and for theimprovement of basic education. Consequently, thedemand is put forward for the development of teachereducation and the improvement of teacher competence.

In order to meet the need for various talented per-sonnel to participate in economic construction andsocial developmentespecially on the junior and inter-mediate levelsthe educational structure will be, to alarge extent, readjusted. In an effort to accomplish thisgoal, the number of senior secondary vocational and

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technical schools will be significantly increased, whilejunior middle-school graduates with nonqualifying cer-tificates for higher learning will receive proper voca-tional and technical training. How tertiary teacher edu-cation can cultivate new types of professional teachersto grasp the knowledge and skills of vocational andtechnical education is an important question.

The gradual establishment of a socialist marketeconomy will have a profound influence on the sys-tems and models of basic education, and on vocation-al and technical education. What has become anurgent issue in teacher education is the question ofhow it can accelerate its development, deepen itsreforms, and set up a corresponding new system in theprocess of changing from a highly planned economicsystem to a socialist market economy. Additional chal-lenges are those posed by the reform and develop-ment of basic education.

By the year 2000, in the light of China's plan foreducation, nine-year compulsory education (includingvocational and technical education at the junior highschool level) will be popularized in the country, andsenior secondary education will have been universalizedin developed areas. The demand for preschool educa-tion will be satisfied in most large and medium-sizedcities, while in rural areas, preschool education will havemade big strides. To realize these objectives, new andstrict requirements should be placed on the size and thequality of various kinds of teacher education institutions.

Primary and secondary education in China is nowundergoing reform and changing from "the educationof preparing for examinations" to the orbit of "the edu-cation of competence cultivation." The former placesparticular stress on imparting knowledge while the lat-ter aims at improving students' morality, knowledge ofscience and technology, working skills, and psycholog-ical competence. Such a change will pbse a challengeto current teacher education in the areas of guidingprinciples, ideas, building teacher contingents, special-izations, and curriculum.

Social progress and development of science andtechnology require teachers to keep abreast of the lat-est developments and achievements in their specializedfields; to have a grasp of modern educational thought,educational theories, and methods, and the moderntechnology of teaching; and to acquire specific abilitiesin conducting educational research. Questions regard-ing this process are; How to further overcome, to a cer-tain extent, improper aspects of teacher educationaffecting social progress and basic educational devel-opment? How to further emancipate people's minds andchange their educational ideas in the light of the prac-tical needs of the socialist modernization drive? How toreadjust the structure of curriculum and renew teachingcontents and methods? These are problems in need of

urgent solutions. Teacher education in China is facingvery significant challengeschallenges that also providesignificant opportunities for progress.

The Aim and Strategy for the Development ofTeacher Education in China

The Essentials for China's Educational Reform andDevelopment, a document jointly promulgated by theCentral Committee of the Communist Party of China andthe State Council on February 13,1993, offers a blueprintfor the reform and development of teacher education inthe 1990s. The general aims for normal education devel-opment by the end of this century are: (1) to establisha basic framework of socialist teacher education, withChinese characteristics, that meets the needs of thesocialist modernization drive and is compatible with thereform and development of basic education and voca-tional and technical education; (2) to lay a solid base forthe development of teacher education in the 21st cen-tury; and (3) to train a well-structured and compara-tively stable contingent of teachers with professionalmorality and competence. The concrete objectives forthe reform and development of teacher education areas follows:

1. The model of teacher education should bereformed and a new system developed in whichvarious independently established institutes fortraining teachers at all levels would serve as themain foundation; other types of colleges andschools would also play a role in training teach-ers, and preservice training and in-service train-ing of teachers would be well integrated.

2. As regards the management system of teachereducation, the relation between government andschool would be rationalized in order to enableschools to have decision-making powers of theirown, and to establish a mechanism of self-development, self-restriction, and self-adjust-ment for serving the needs of the society and ofbasic education.

4. Various kinds of normal schools at all levelswould adhere to the standardized conditions forrunning schools and enhance their administrationand management with their own styles. Effortswould also be concentrated on running a num-ber of good quality normal schools and collegesto serve as models. In the early 21st century, anumber of normal schools, colleges, specializa-tions, and disciplines will be well developed inrespect to their educational quality, research, andmanagement.

5. A system of continuous education for primaryand middle-school teachers, and a complete and

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integrated network for training teachers at theprovincial, regional and county levels, as wellas in other kinds of schools, will be established,with teacher training schools and colleges as themain channels. The institutions of broadcasting,TV, and audiovisual education would be used assupplementary channels, with linkups to stan-dard teacher educational outlets.

6. Along with the goal of completion of extra edu-cation for the schooling record by the end of thiscentury, the proportion of primary school teach-ers and middle-school teachers with state-issuedcertificates of schooling records and specializa-tion qualifications would surpass 95 percent and90 percent, respectively. Consequently, the over-all quality of teachers with education below col-lege level would be improved. The proportionof primary school teachers with college educa-tion would increase year by year. The propor-tion of the same kind of teachers in the countiesand small towns across the country wouldincrease by a large margin.

To realize the above objectives, the theory ofestablishing socialist characteristics in China must beemployed as a guideline for emancipating people'sminds and for encouraging them to do an earnest andsolid job. In carrying out The Essentials for China's Edu-cational Reform and Development efforts should bemade to speed up educational reform in light of China'spractical conditions, and to broaden channels ofexchange with other countries. The new methods ofdeveloping teacher education under the system of asocialist market economy should be explored, accord-ing to the objective laws of education, so as to meet therequirements of accelerating reform and developmentof secondary education. Finally, the educational guid-ing principles must be comprehensively implementedfor improving educational quality, so that we can bringteacher education in China up to a new level in respectto its quality, structure, and effectiveness.

Concrete and Effective Measures

Enhancing the professional position of teachers andestablishing the strategic standing of teacher education:Corresponding policies and appropriate measuresshould be adopted to make teacher education more sci-entific and specialized. We should improve the socialposition and well-being of primary and middle-schoolteachers and make teaching into an admirable profes-sion. This is a prerequisite for establishing the strategicposition of teacher education.

Formulating the development program for teachereducation and reforming the management system of

teacher education: Under the state's macrolevel guid-ance, the provinces, autonomous regions, and munici-palities should play the major role in making a scientif-ic calculation of the future demand for teachers belowthe secondary education level, and guaranteeing thecoordinated development of various kinds of teachereducation in terms of speed of development, size, struc-ture, and distribution. In developing teacher education,measures suitable to local conditions should be taken,and the overall plan should be conceived in order toachieve the greatest possible benefits. Developed areasshould be encouraged to proceed in developing teachereducation and in increasing the proportion of primaryschool teachers with formal schooling records from sec-ondary normal schools, as well as the number of juniorhigh school teachers with normal college degrees. Someundeveloped areas will receive help to reach this goal.As far as the country as a whole is concerned, the keypoint in developing education is to satisfy the demandfor teachers in order to popularize nine-year compul-sory education. At the same time, the problem of short-age of teachers for specialized courses in vocational andtechnical education, and for special education, shouldbe solved through rationalization of the structure ofteacher education. Appropriate attention should also bepaid to the demand for qualified teachers in senior sec-ondary education.

Increasing the educational budget and furtherimprovement of the conditions of teacher training: Thestate will focus financial aid on some selected areas.Local financial allocation will play a major role in run-ning schools. Local governments at all levels shouldincrease budgets for teacher education every year toguarantee the superior strategic position of teacher edu-cation. In order to change the former centralized systemof state financial allocation to teacher education, morechannels and more means should be utilized to raisefunds. Organizations, enterprises, and individuals areencouraged to donate money to teacher education.International projects of bilateral and multilateral coop-eration should receive special attention. Foreign loansand funds must be utilized properly. Through jointefforts, normal schools and colleges will be able toattain the national unified standards.

Broadening the channels of teacher training: Theold system of training teachers through normal schoolsand colleges should be reformed and replaced by a newmodel. In the near future, a new system of pre-fixedservice orientation will be adopted in some independentsecondary normal schools, and in specialized normalschools, to meet the demands of compulsory education.The normal colleges will be supported in efforts tomake pilot experiments and to implement majorreforms aimed at improving social benefits and the qual-ity of education. The advantages of ordinary colleges

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and universitiesespecially colleges of science, engi-neering, agriculture, and medicineshould be broughtinto full play for training teachers in specific subjects. Anetwork of teacher training at four levelsschool, coun-ty, region, and provinceshould be set up for voca-tional education teacher training. By rationalizing thesystem and by linking up different training channels, theinstitutions of adult educationsuch as teacher trainingschools, correspondence schools, broadcast and TVschools, and certificate examinations for independentstudycan make a comprehensive effort to help trainprimary and middle-school teachers.

Deepening the reforms of teaching with theimprovement of teaching quality as a core goal: Activemeasures should be taken to satisfy the needs of thereform and modernization program, and to adapt to thereform and development of secondary education.These include establishing new ideas of education,changing the concepts, and renewing teaching contentsand methodologies. The classified standards of teachertraining quality must be worked out, and the rationalstructures of knowledge and ability requirements forteachers must be developed. Students in normalschools and colleges should be provided with rein-forced preservice trainingwhich should include val-ues such as professional consciousness, ethics, knowl-edge, ability, and self-developmentso as to cultivatethem for functioning as the qualified teachers requiredby society.

The normal schools and colleges should makeenergetic efforts in curriculum reform. The system andcontent of teaching materials should be renewed toreflect both the excellent traditions of Chinese andworld civilization and the latest developments of mod-ern science and technology. Academic and profes-sional characteristics should be unified. The unevendevelopment of different areas in China should betaken into full consideration when contemplatingreform of curriculum. Since over 80 percent of thepopulation of China live in rural areas, the focal pointof basic education and the main object of teacher edu-cation reside in rural areas. Therefore, teacher trainingshould serve the needs of rural development, which isone of the difficulties for teacher training in China.Accordingly, the structure of specializations, curricu-lum, and teaching content must be reformed. Programsof teacher training suitable to the demand of rural edu-cation for teachers at different levels should beexplored. As to potential teachers for rural areas, theyshould be taught with the teaching materials appro-priate to the local conditions. They can be cultivatedas all-around teachers with a command of both knowl-edge and practical skills. In the minority nationalityareas, special attention should be given to the trainingof bilingual teachers.

Reforming systems of admission and distributionof teacher education: The former centralized model ofenrolling new students according to the state plan mustbe replaced by integrating the state-assigned plan as amain task. The state assigned the fixed-training task formeeting the needs of underprivileged areas, and fornine-year compulsory education. Special policiesshould be formulated for encouraging middle-schoolgraduates who excel at their studies to choose normalcolleges for advanced studies. To enable students fromunderprivileged areas to return to their places of originafter graduation, the effective method of preorientedadmission and distribution must be continuously imple-mented, and the proportion of admissions of in-servicetraining personnel with rich practical experience shouldbe increased. Some local teachers can be enrolled bynormal colleges for further training, thus improving thestatus of new sources of students at normal colleges. Acompulsory period of service, as teachers in general,for graduates from normal colleges should also beestablished.

Reinforcing educational research and strengthen-ing international cooperation and exchange in teachertraining: Theories of teacher education can be drawnfrom study and analysis of historical development, andfrom the present situation and future tendency ofteacher education. All normal schools and collegesshould study requirements and guidelines of schoolmanagement and teacher training, accumulate theteaching experiences of excellent teachers, and cultivatenew theories of teaching.

The research and study of teacher education inother countries should be strengthened. The wealth ofexperience from high standards of achievement in allcivilizations, and of successful experience in manag-ing teacher education in other countries, should beutilized as a learning tool for improving the level ofteacher training in China. Further effort should bemade to broaden the extent of opening to the outsideworld, and to create conditions for expanding inter-national exchange and cooperation in the field ofteacher education. Normal schools and collegesshould establish relations with their counterparts inother countries so that we can utilize information fromvarious channels to promote international exchangeand reform and development of teacher education inChina.

In order to present a complete picture of China'ssystem of teacher education, the following sectionswill address the structure of curricula in normalschools and the implementation of continuing educa-tion and other efforts to improve the quality of prima-ry and secondary school teachers. An overview of edu-cational reform as conducted in Fujian Province can befound in Appendix 5-A.

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THE STRUCTURE OF CURRICULA OF NORMALSCHOOLS IN THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

At present, preservice training of primary school teachersis largely carried out by normal schools. These schoolsrecruit their students from graduates of junior secondaryschools who have completed Nine-Year CompulsorySchooling (NYCS). They mainly offer three-year courses.New entrants have little preparation in knowledge andskills relevant to the initial education of teachers. In orderto prepare qualified primary teachers in a course with aduration of three years, the State has adopted a numberof measures related to the recruitment of new entrants,school management, improvement of physical facilities,and teaching staff development. Curriculum develop-ment, especially in terms of the structure of normalschool curricula, is a crucial issue with a bearing on thequality of education and training provided by normalschools. Over the years, we have endeavored to find acurriculum structure for normal schools that can:

1. Better realize the goal of primary teacher train-ing within a course of three-years duration,based on NYCS

2. Adapt, at the same time, to the vast disparity ineconomic and educational development amongvarious loc?''''-s (with concomitant varyingdemands made on the qualifications of primaryteachers)

3. Meet the needs of overcoming the danger ofexcessively examination-oriented primary edu-cation

4. Create conditions conducive to the all-arounddevelopment of the new generation

The curricula of all normal schools in China arebased on the Three-Year Normal School TeachingScheme (TYNSTS), formulated and promulgated by theState Education Commission in 1989, which was the out-come of extensive experiments and reforms conductedin the previous year with a view to creating a more ratio-nal curriculum structure. This document provides the ref-erence for subsequent discussions concerning educa-tional reform carried out in Chinese normal schools.

The TYNSTS serves as a guide to curriculumdesign adapted to local conditions, with the followingcharacteristics in its structure:

The aims and objectives of the normal schoolsconstitute the foundation of the teaching plan,which consists of a core of obligatory subjectsto be complemented or supplemented by elec-tives conceived to facilitate the integration ofacademic subjects with activity subjects andpractical subjects.

The underlying idea of this plan is to make thestructure of normal school curriculum a dynam-ic one, subject to modifications in the course ofits implementation in response to changing cir-cumstances and local conditions.

Thus, local authorities enjoy a large measure ofautonomy in making necessary modifications in an effortto optimize the plan's implementation and effects, andin the spirit of combining unity with flexibility. It there-fore seems to us that it contributes to creating more ratio-nal relationships between academic subjects and pro-fessional subjects, between the acquisition of knowledgeand the acquisition of skills, and between theory andpractice, and that it also embodies the characteristics ofpreservice education. For a more detailed presentationof the plan and its implementation on local levels, seeAppendix 5-B (Three-Year Normal School TeachingScheme), Appendix 5-C (Typical Teaching Plan of Nor-mal Schools in Jiangsu Province), and Appendix 5-D(Plan of Teaching and Learning Activities Formulated byNantong Normal School in Jiangsu Province).

The structure of curriculum refers to the modes ofinstruction of various categories of subjects, and to theirinternal relationships. The curriculum of normalschools in China comprises the following four cate-gories of subjects: (1) obligatory, or required, subjects;(2) elective subjects; (3) activity-oriented subjects (anumber of the activity-oriented subjects cater mainly toextracurricular activities; others cater mainly to activi-ties centered around teaching practicum); and (4) prac-tice-oriented subjects. Internal relationships include aproper combination of obligatory and elective subjectsand a proper combination of academic subjectsincluding both obligatory and elective subjects on theone hand and activity-oriented subjects on the other.Within this framework, the obligatory subjects repre-sent the core, because they provide student teacherswith the major means of receiving a well-balanced ini-tial teacher training, and because they are the basicguarantee of the quality of primary teacher training. Atthe same time, obligatory subjects should be taught insuch a way that they play an exemplary role in theteaching of other subjects, serving as a guide to theirorientation. The other three categories of subjects func-tion in relation to the obligatory subjects in a way anal-ogous to the relation that exists between a wheel'sspokes and its axlethat is, extending or radiating out-ward as a natural outgrowth of the core. The activity-oriented subjects and the practice-oriented subjectsboth have their own irreplaceable functions and,together with the obligatory subjects, provide preser-vice training to student teachers (see Table 5.9, con-structed with a view to giving a clearer description ofthe structure of our normal school curriculum).

(8

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TABLE 5.9Three-Year Normal School Teaching Scheme (TYNSTS) Courses, by Content and Function

Courses and Content Function Remarks

OBLIGATORY SUBJECTS

Basic academic subjectsProfessional subjectsPhysical ed. and arts subjectsLabor and technology

ELECTIVE SUBJECTS

Knowledge-based electivesSkills-based electivesElectives on teaching materials

and methodsOther electives

EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES

Lectures on specific topicsAcademic activitiesAthletic and recreational activitiesSocial activitiesOther activities

EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE

Visits to schoolsEducational surveys or

investigationsObservation of classroom teaching

of experienced teachersEducational practiceConsultancy services

They constitute the main body of the teachingand learning activities in normal schools, pro-viding all-around general education and preser-vice training of primary teachers. The maininstruments used in realizing the state's basicrequirements for primary teacher training.

They constitute a supplement to and an exten-sion of the obligatory subjects, conceived witha view to reinforcing the interpenetration andintegration of different subjects and wideningthe student's scope of knowledge, and develop-ing their interests and aptitudes, as well as fos-tering their competencies in teaching.

They constitute an integral part of teaching innormal schools, being instrumental in promot-ing the development of students' personality,and fostering a variety of useful skills and com-petencies, especially the ability of self-educationand self-management.

They constitute an important part of the preser-vice education of primary teachers, conceivedwith a view to promoting the integration oftheory and practice, creating opportunities forstudent-teachers to apply their knowledge,skills, and competencies in various settings,being indispensable in fostering the practicalability of students in coping with education andteaching in primary schools.

The list of required courses, essential require-ments in teaching, sequential order, and sug-gested range of teaching hours are all regulatedby the state. Local educational authoritiesdesign the curriclum used in local normalschools in accordance with the above-men-tioned regulations, and in the light of local con-ditions.

The scope of electives, essential requirements inteaching, and suggested range of teachinghours are all regulated by the state. LocalAuthorities decide on the list of electives to beoffered, their sequential order, and teachinghours, in the light of local conditions.

Essential requirements and guidelines are laiddown by the state, and local authorities decideon the list of activities to be conducted, theircontent, time scheduled, and possible modes ofexecution.

Content of activities, modes of execution,essential requirements, and guidelines are laiddown by the state. The total duration of educa-tional practice and their distribution in the threeyears are also given for reference. Local authori-ties decide on the specific programs to be con-ducted.

The implementation of the TYNSTS in the past fewyears has provided ample proof of the ability of this cur-riculum structure to raise the quality of normal schooleducation, and of the positive role it has played in thepreparation of well-rounded primary teachers. Thesecharacteristics are evident in the correct handling ofsome fundamental relationships.

Relationship Between Academic orGeneral Educational Subjects and

Professional Subjects

Beginning with the aims and objectives of primaryteacher training, and in the light of the basis of suchtraining, the curriculum structure must fulfill a dual role,that is, meeting the needs both for an adequate basis ofgeneral education and for preservice teacher training.Therefore, undoubtedly, the subjects provided mustinclude both academic or general educational subjectsand professional subjects. In view of the fact that the

educational preparation of new entrants is restricted tothe completion of junior secondary school, academicsubjects taught in normal schools must have enoughbreadth and depth to meet the needs of primary schoolteaching. Accordingly, the TYNSTS stipulates that teach-ing time allocated to academic subjects should accountfor at least 60 percent of all obligatory subjects, thusguaranteeing that academic subjects occupy a legitimateplace in the curriculum, and enabling these subjects tofulfill their functions. Preservice training of primaryteachers, on the other hand, necessitates that profes-sional subjects must also be allocated an amount ofteaching time commensurate with their role. As regardsthe arrangement of these subjects, we deem it advisableto spread them throughout the three years rather thanconcentrate them at the end of the course. Furthermore,in some institutions, efforts have been made to breakdown the barrier between academic and professionalsubjects by reforming the teaching of the former andrequiring a reinforcement of training in basic skills,

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which are indispensable for a primary teacher. Thus, theproper handling of the relationships between academ-ic and professional subjects enables both categories tofulfill their preservice training functions.

Relationship Between Disciplinary Subjects andIntegrated Subjects

In our curriculum design, due consideration must begiven to the following factors. Fulfillment of the duty ofa primary teacher necessitates a solid foundation of gen-eral education based on a systematic and coherentsequence of subjects. In view of the current qualifica-tions of most normal school teachers, a disciplinaryapproach is more appropriate for most subjects taug:it,and the TYNSTS has decided to adopt the disciplinaryapproach for most subjects. However, within the shortspan of three years, it is neither advisable nor desirableto offer all subjects along disciplinary lines, and a cleardemarcation between academic and professional sub-jects would require more time than is available; it alsotends to overburden students. To adopt a strictly disci-plinary approach in curriculum design not only contra-dicts the worldwide trend of adopting an integratedapproach, but also ignores the realities of primary edu-cation, in which a number of subjects are integrated.The TYNSTS provides room for the development ofintegrated courses among the electives and extracurric-ular activities (e.g., a topical series of lectures), particu-larly by extending a relatively large degree of freedomin offering integrated courses in light of local econom-ic and cultural development, and in response to specif-ic needs arising from the requisites of primary educa-tion, and through a proper reduction in the number ofobligatory subjects. Thus, in China, although the devel-opment of integrated courses is still in an early stage, anew path has been opened for curriculum reform innormal schools in the context of a framework in whichthe disciplinary approach is dominant, although sup-plemented by a few integrated courses.

Relationship Between Subjects (Courses)Explicitly Provided by the Curriculum and

Curriculum-Related Extracurricular Activities

Classroom teaching is still the main form of teaching.Teaching obligatory subjects and electives is mainlybased on classroom teaching, and these courses remainthe main educational provision for preservice trainingof primary teachers for graduation requirements. Butcurriculum in a broader sense should not be limited tothose courses explicitly provided by the curriculum. Itshould be noted that a number of extracurricular activ-ities in normal schools have, or may be required toestablish, close relations to formal courses offered.

These extracurricular activities have particular signifi-cance in the context of normal school operation. First,primary schools should be staffed not only with basi-cally qualified teachers, but also with teachers equippedwith special skills at which they are proficient. Althoughformal courses should be instrumental in uncoveringand developing potential ability or aptitude in individ-ual students, only rich extracurricular activities can helpto adequately develop their potential. Looking at thisissue from the perspective of the full development ofpersonality, all kinds of school education, including thatprovided by normal schools, should strive to realize thefull development of students' personality. The TYNSTSnot only affirms the significance of extracurricular activ-ities in promoting students' learning in academic sub-jects, and in developing their competence and individ-uality (confirming their role in activity-orientedsubjects), but also stipulates their content, organizationalforms, and schedules, and allocates a definite propor-tion of time to these activities, so that they may becomean integral part of the "whole" curriculum, and com-plement the functions of the more formal courses,which also confi rms their irreplaceable function.

Relationship Between Knowledge-transmitting,or Imparting, Subjects andPractice-Oriented Subjects

To be a qualified primary teacher, one must beequipped with a certain amount of general culturalknowledge and specialized knowledge, and, in addi-tion, with certain basic skills and competencies in edu-cation and teaching. Therefore, the course offerings ofnormal schools should include basic academic subjects,professional subjects with a theoretical bias, and prac-tice-oriented subjects aimed at fostering the competen-cies needed in education and teaching through appli-cation of theoretical knowledge in real-life situations,and in other practical activities. Thus, the TYNSTS hasadopted a two-pronged strategy. On the one hand, itseeks to ensure that academic subjects and profession-al subjects constitute the core of the curriculum andoccupy a rational proportion of teaching time; on theother hand, it emphasizes the required strengthening bythese courses of training in basic skills and fostering ofcompetencies, especially the mastery of Putonghua (or"commonspeech") skills of oral communication.Putonghua is prescribed by law as the standard in lan-guage for modern Han Chinese, both m terms of pro-nunciation and in grammar. It is compulsory for teach-ers to use Putonghua in their classroom teaching, whilebilingual teaching is encouraged in minority schools(Han Chinese and Putonghua are essentially the samelanguage). Training is also geared to competency inwriting with brushes, pens, and chalk; to developing

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social skills, habits of and skill in independent study,and so forth, while stressing the practicality and manip-ulability of knowledge and skills learned. At the sametime, the TYNSTS confirms the special place and roleplayed by educational and social practice, allocatingaltogether 13 weeks for these purposes (including 10weeks of teaching practicum and 3 weeks kept inreserve for various kinds of social or collective activi-ties), accounting for 11 percent of the effective teachingand learning time available in the three-year course. Itis also stipulated that, in scheduling these activities,effort should be made to arrange time allocated to edu-cational practice so that it keeps pace with the progressof academic and professional subjects, and is alsospread out over the three years of the course in orderto integrate knowledge-imparting with practice- orient -ed courses and create a curriculum structure in whichthese two categories interpenetrate and complementone another.

Outstanding Issues for the Improvement of theThree-year Normal School Teaching Scheme

Primary teacher training provided by normal schoolshas had a history of more than 90 years in China. Yet,only a few years have elapsed since the TYNSTS waspromulgated and implemented in 1989. Although theexperience of the past few years does indicate that thisscheme is better than previous ones, and that it hasplayed a positive role in raising the quality of normalschool education, there are a number of outstandingissues to be tackled so that this curriculum structure maybe further improved in the course of practice.

Giving full scope to the role of subject categories withobligatory subjects as the mainstay: One of the underly-ing ideas of the new curriculum structure is that all sub-ject categories will fulfill their functions in the light of theaims and objectives of normal schools, and show syner-gistic and holistic effects. In the new curriculum structure,obligatory subjects are expected to play a leading role inraising the quality of training. The basic requirements ofnormal school education can be ensured only if obliga-tory courses are effectively t ansmitted and compre-hended, with concomitant reforms in content and meth-ods of teaching. At the same time, the other threecategories of subjects have their own proper and irre-placeable functions. The quality of training will beadversely affected if they are neglected or weakened.However, in China's formerly dominant pattern of cur-riculum structure, all course offerings were obligatory,with no place for the electives, and this legacy has hadundesirable effects on the leadership and on the teach-ers in some normal schools where electives and activity-and practice-oriented subjects are not being given dueattention, or where they may be formally offered but

without any conscientious effort to give full scope to theirroles. There are also instances in which the effort beingmade to break the yoke of traditional patterns of teach-ing has meant that too much attention is being given tothe development of electives, extracurricular activities,and practice-oriented activities, with the result that theteaching, and reform, of obligatory courses is neglected.These deviations are partly due to ideological reasonsand partly to the lack of experience. At the same time, itmust be pointed out that effective mechanisms have notyet been developed to ensure that the curriculum struc-ture is really operative. Although the TYNSTS containsprovisions concerning the functions, roles, basic require-ments, and allocation of teaching time for each of thefour categories of subjects, a mechanism of checks andbalances is lacking. This is an outstanding issue that mustbe explored so that feasible solutions may be found thatcontribute to effective functioning of all categories of sub-jects and to an optimal realization, in a balanced manner,of the aims and objectives of normal schools.

Ensuring that all subject categories blend harmo-niously and function as an organic whole: The new cur-riculum structure has broken the old pattern of provid-ing obligatory courses only and clarified the relationshipbetween various categories of subjects, providing a the-oretical framework for making them function as anorganic whole as well as guidelines for the implemen-tation of the curriculum in operational terms. However,since there are no basic regulations concerning thesequence of closely related parts of different subjectsand the number of teaching hours devoted to theirinstruction, administrators of normal schools are givenample freedom to make their own arrangements, asthey see fit, concerning the curriculum. This autonomymay also be misused, giving rise to arbitrary decisionsconcerning the provision of electives and activity- andpractice-oriented courses. It is desirable, therefore, inthe interests of ensuring that all subject categories func-tion as an organic whole, to correctly assess both posi-tive and negative experiences in order to draw the cor-rect conclusions and to formulate useful guidelines forthe optimization of the curriculum.

Ensuring a scientific and sound system of curricu-lum evaluation through the imperative of reform of teach-ing management: Because the traditional curriculum pat-tern of exclusively obligatory subjects has been replacedby a new structure, there should be corresponding mod-ifications in the management of teaching. As far as themanagement of curriculum design is concerned, changesin the structure of curriculum necessitate changes in itspractice. The scope of routine management of courseofferings must be extended from covering obligatorycourses only to covering four categories of courses. Asregards the evaluation of the quality of teaching in nor-mal schools, modifications must be made to cope with

Si

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the new situation by developing a new evaluation sys-tem covering the assessment of students' progress in theacquisition of knowledge and skills, and of their perfor-mance in teaching, so that the process of teaching all sub-ject categories, as well as the final outcome of normalschool education as a whole, can undergo scientific eval-uation. A well-conceived and effective system of evalua-tion is conducive to the comprehe sive and effectiveimplementation of the new curriculum.

Furthermore, the implementation of the new cur-riculum structure poses new requirements for theimprovement of the physical facilities of normal schoolsand for the development of qualified staff. It should benoted that during the past decade, normal schools havebeen given high priority in the allocation of resourcesfinancial, human, and materialby government at variouslevels. Consequently, there have been significant improve-ments in physical facilities and staffing during recent years.In spite of the progress made, however, we must admitthat so far, the input of new resources has been usedmainly to meet the requirements of obligatory subjects,leaving the needs of the newly offered electives largelyignoredespecially the courses offered in response tolocal needs. There are few qualified teachers to undertakethe new tasks. Therefore, it is imperative to increase finan-cial input for the development of normal schools. Muchwork remains to be done to create conditions for the pro-vision of four categories of courses, and this includes pro-vision of better facilities and of more qualified teachers.The shortage of qualified teachers is even more difficultto overcome than is the lack of facilities.

The adoption of a new curriculum structure for ournormal schools has opened a new path for deepeningcurriculum reform, and has provided a strong impetusfor raising the quality of instruction in normal schools.The implementation of the new curriculum structure isa systems engineering project, and we will spare noeffort in furthering curriculum reformin the areas ofcontent, structure, correct interrelationships among sub-ject categories, management of course offerings, andquality evaluationso that a curricular pattern befittingChinese normal schools may gradually take shape.

IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTINUING EDUCATIONAND IMPROVEMENT OF THE QUALITY OF

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

The rapid development of the worldwide technologicalrevolution will bring with it a more internationalizedand informed society in the 21st century. It has becomethe strategic task of our country at the end of this cen-tury, and the beginning of the next, to establish a social-ist market economy system, to speed up reform, the

opening up to the outside world and modern construc-tion, and to further liberate and develop productiveforces so as to improve our national economy and ouroverall national strength to a higher degree. The suc-cessful fulfillment of this task depends not only on theproduction of a large number of senior special techni-cal and administrative talents, but also on the high levelof training of a new type of productive force that isknowledgeable, capable, and proficient at thinking cre-atively. These are the reasons why, after the implemen-tation of nine-year compulsory basic education, wehave put forward new, overall goals for education.These goals are to significantly improve the education-al level of the entire nation; to further develop pre- andpostvocational education of both urban and rural labor-ers in order to foster a quantity of special talents of var-ious types, to establish a mature and ideal socialist edu-c::tional system; and to realize socialist modernizationsafter several decades of efforts.

To implement these strategic tasks, we are con-ducting an overall reform of the educational structureand system. As far as the reform of teaching materialsfor primary and secondary school is concerned, theState Education Commission has initiated a plan for pro-ducing talents of different types and at different levels,based on the need for the construction of both a mate-rial and a spiritual civilization. We are also breakingthrough the conventions of traditional teaching materi-als by introducing reforms based on successful experi-ences both inside and outside China, and attempting tomake the transition from traditional to modern educa-tion a smooth one by giving priority to the reform ofeducational ideas, concepts, and contents and shiftingthe emphasis on examination-oriented learning to learn-ing based on the improvement of the quality of thenation as a whole.

In order to satisfy the needs of modern educationand of society in the coming decades, we need to pro-duce new types of qualified teaching contingents. Thatis the reason we have decided henceforth to conductcontinuing education for teachers in possession of state-issued qualifications.

The continuing education program consists of thefollowing types of training:

In-service training: for teachers in the presentservice and for those who will be promoted toa higher levelTraining for "key" teachers: targeted at promisingmiddle-aged teachers and those pioneering teach-ers who excel in their own subject, and at teach-ers who wish to pursue more advanced degrees

O Training for new teachers in field practice: toenable new teachers to adapt to the teaching

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work; includes training for theory of teachingand methodology

The task of continuing education for secondaryand primary school teachers is: to improve teachers'level of theory and their teaching abilities and to pro-duce a quantity of "key" and pioneering teachers, someof whom will be trained as specialists in teaching andeducation, in order to foster secondary and primaryschool teaching contingents with correct needs and highstandards of quality and morality

Under the guidance of the State Education Com-mission, the municipalities and provinces of Beijing,Shanghai, Tianjin, Liaoning, Jilin, Sichuan, Zhejiang,Hunan, Jiangsu, Heilongjiang, Hubei, and Shandonghave conducted research into and initiated the practiceof a continuing education program, particularly in termsof policy, contents, approaches, and institutional sys-tems. These efforts have initially paid off.

In Shanghai, for instance, achievements in termsof policy, content, and approaches to teacher trainingcan be characterized by measures stipulated by themunicipal government under the Regulations on Train-ing for Secondary and Primary School Teachers, issuedin December 1989. These include:

1. Teachers with elementary and intermediate lev-els of academic qualifications should participatein at least 540 hours of training every five years(in any case, they must participate in no lessthan 240 hours of training every five years), 300hours of which are earmarked for research onspecial topics.

2. Outcomes of training and resulting certificates ofqualification will be the basis on which to judgeperformance in teaching, evaluation of teachingtitles, salary increases, and selection for awardpresentation.

3. Continuing education v ill consist of five suit-able, appropriate, practical, and scientific sub-jects: (1) training for accomplishment; (2) edu-cational theory; (3) research on teachingpractices; (4) training for teaching approachesand skills; and (5) scientific research.

4. Responsibilities, requirements, and standards forteachers' colleges, training centers, andadvanced schools for teachers will be defined.

5. Responsibilities and requirements for secondaryand primary school administrators at differeAtlevels will be defined.

6. Rules and regulations for the quality a:--d scien-tific administration of training will be defined.

7. Special funds for secondary ,..nd primary schoolswill be provided.

Contents of the Continuing Education Program

Rules for Designing Curriculum

Based on scientific principles, the curriculum guideshould be based on educational philosophy and theo-ries, psychology, pedagogy, and sociology. The cur-riculum should also meet the needs of in-service teach-ers at different levels, as well as those who are at thesame level but who have different needs. In Shanghai,for example, the curriculum guide has been designedwith the following considerations in mind:

1. Teachers who, because of specific needs, areshifted from their own subjects to the teaching ofothers, or of several other subjects, are requiredto have the capacity to teach multiple subjects.

2. To satisfy the need of producing teaching con-tingents in echelon formation, backbone teach-ers must receive further training. Some teachersshould be promoted to higher posts, and trainedto the requirements of higher levels.

3. The need for secondary and primary schoolteaching material reform requires updating edu-cational theory, approaches and skills, andteachers' professional knowledge.

4. Due to a number of historical and social reasons,some teachers are in possession of academic tidesbut without the practi6l abilities to match them.

5. Based on the characteristics of teaching workand the need for educational development, con-tinuing education programs should include newcontents and an emphasis on the developmentof practical teaching and research ability, whileat the same time recognizing the need forresearch on knowledge structure through con-sideration of past experiences, future possibili-ties, and present needs. These are the reasonswhy, on the basis of the present situation in edu-cation, teaching contingents, and individualteachers, the develo?ment of teaching materialsis geared to the needs of secondary and prima-ry school teachers, absorbing fresh ideas fromeducational development and reform.

6. Training curricula should be implemented on aregular basis that is systematic, scientific, practi-cal, and able to stand the test of time.

The Characteristics of the Curriculum

The curriculum for the continuing education programhas the following characteristics.

Synthetic qualities: Continuing education is life-long

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education for teachers, integrating moral education intothe capabilities of teaching and research. Training foraccomplishments, educational theory, teaching for pro-fessional knowledge and skills, and educational researchare the four different subjects that represent different but,on the whole, interrelated aspects of education.

Diversification.' The development of the curriculumis aimed not only at the improvement of society and theachievements of educational and scientific research, butalso at different interests, attitudes, capabilities, and per-sonalities inherent in different teachers. Therefore, diver-sified subjects are made available for teachers' choice.

Problem-solving: In-service training is practice-ori-ented. On the basis of the problems existing in societyand in education, we carefully identify the experiences,relevant problems, theories, and results of teaching thatare integrated into the curriculum, and present them toteachers as a way of problem-solving. Courses in thecurriculum include, for instance, Psychological Researchon Secondary and Primary School Students, Formationand Development of Children's Morality, Difficult Prob-lems in Teaching Materials, and Research on Illegal andCriminal Offenses of Secondary School Students. Thesecourses are closely related with teaching and there is nomistaking what the curriculum is aimed at. By using ascientific approach, they also enable teachers to sum-marize experiences, discuss questions, and develop cre-ative and cognitive abilities.

Microteaching: This was introduced to teachertraining colleges and normal schools in China in themid-1980s, as a scaled-down practice teaching situationin which the teacher can concentrate on one specifictraining skill and receive a.great deal of feedback on hisor her performance. Microteaching is now used widelyas a component of teacher education and training pro-grams. Continuing education in Shanghai includes30-60 hours of microteaching exercises as a practice set-ting for teachers to improve their teaching.

New curricula: New courses originate in the con-text of successful and informed international experiencethat matches the objectives and characteristics of thecontinuing education program. Courses in the curricu-lum include Information Technology, Problems in Pres-ent International Relationships, Comparative Researchon Education Inside and Outside China, PopulationResearch, and Environmental Education. These subjectsare both systematically theoretical and practically oper-ative in social investigations and in educational practice.

Developing curricula: The contents of the cur-riculum are developed in an upward spiral, in accor-dance with the needs of teachers at different levels. Thecontents of individual subjects will also be developedin accordance with changes in teaching and improve-ment of teacherswith a view to higher levels of under-standing and greater scientific and social values.

Flexibility: In accordance with the characteristicsof continuing education, and the increasing futurerequirements for teachers, the curriculum of continuingeducation in Shanghai consists of two categories: regu-L. 'zed training courses that encompass all the above-mentioned characteristics and irregularized trainingcourses that are very flexible. These last include the fol-lowing special attributes:

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1. Individual achievements in educational reformand research in local areas will be used as spe-cial subjects in continuing education and will be,on the one hand, subjected to scholarly and the-oretical evaluation to improve the quality ofeducational research and, on the other hand,disseminated into educational practice in orderto deepen educational reform. The conceptionof the process is that as individual, local effortsbegin to result in an ideal standard of achieve-ment, they will be accordingly documented andthe documentation will be integrated into theregular curriculum of continuing education forteachers everywhere in the municipality. Coursenames for documented success stories like thesemight be, for example, Education for Happinessin No. 1 Primary School Affiliated to No. 1 Nor-mal School; Education for Success in Zhabei No.8 Secondary School; or Gu Lengyuan's Experi-ences in Educational Reform in Qingpu Sec-ondary School.

2. The availability of Emergency Training for thedissemination of new teaching materials. Emer-gency Training usually focuses on some newteaching skills or knowledge that teachers mayfeel is difficult to deal with. Teachers arerequired to go to special classes to receive short-term training, which normally takes three to tendays. This includes training for how to useteaching materials, how to teach selective cours-es, and how to organize activities in classes.

3. Training of "key" teachers, based on specificcharacteristics of different regions and on theirspecific requirements for training. This type oftraining includes a master-degree course with amajor in educational theory and approaches;workshops on specific topics, with an emphasison subjects relevant to those topics; a tutoringsystem utilizing highly qualified and proficient,experienced teachers as supervisors; and long-term follow-up training.

4. Availability of material supplementary to stan-dard teaching materials in the regularized train-ing courses, adapted to the different character-istics of trainees and to different regions in orderto better accommodate individual needs.

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Training Approaches

The principles involved in developing trainingapproaches are:

1. Educative: It is an obligation for training agen-cies to initiate trainees' interest in learning andto enable them to see the need for improvementby creating a satisfactory and stimulating envi-ronment for training. It is also an obligation tohelp trainees develop correct attitudes towardtraining, such as always reaching for the ideal,actively participating in training, and workingdiligently.

2. Democratic: Training agencies must create freeand democratic environments for trainers andtrainees alike; initiate trainees into freeexchanges; and create new ideas among them-selves. In communications between trainers andtrainees, problems should be openly aired andthen analyzed, synthesized, and, finally, solved.

3. Voluntary. Training agencies must emphasizevoluntary learning. In the course of training,trainees' abilities to teach themselves, toobserve, to think, and to operate, can bestrengthened by allowing them to experiencethe whole process of knowledge-seeking, sothat they will become more creativeformingeducational ideas and concepts of their ownand also more confident. Trainees must also beallowed to fully express and reveal themselves,in a variety of ways and under different circum-stances, in order for them to satisfy their needfor self-respect and achievement, and to be fullyinitiated into their learning.

4. Comprehensive: Trainers should be proficient atcombining all the relevant factors in the trainingprogram that are beneficial to the developmentof trainees' abilities and awareness, with the aimof helping trainees reach their full potential.Training should also be combined with researchwork, to more actively involve both the intelli-gence and the creative abilities of trainees.Rather than providing training in teaching skillsonly, they will thus be equipped with a depth ofknowledge on scientifk: theory, applicable to thevarious situations in education and teaching towhich they will be exposed. In addition, train-ing agencies should make full use of all facilitiesfor integrated education, such as libraries andother sources of literature, audiovisual centers,and different kinds of labs. Finally, trainersshould attempt to integrate research results withtraining in various ways, in order to encouragetrainees to go beyond the limits of their respec-

tive specializations. The integration of new andrelevant knowledge with their own specializa-tion will promote higher quality training andalso stimulate trainees to use their initiative, togain enthusiasm for learning, to enrich theirknowledge, and to strengthen their skills atadapting to diverse situations.

5. Practical: Trainers should encourage trainees,through the use of pedagogical theories and ofpsychology, to practice curriculum guidance andeducational reform on a trial basis. They shouldalso be encouraged to create new teachingapproaches that can be used flexibly in practice.The combination of theory and practice is theideal result of training. Operational skills thathelp trainees to improve their teaching, andenable them to develop their own teaching aids,should also be encouraged. Trainees should, inaddition, receive instructions on how to conductoutside class activities for their students. It is dif-ficult for many trainees to break teaching habitsand to change conventional ideas that havebecome embedded during the past. New prac-tice and training will enable them to constructbeneficial comparisons and to make syntheticanalyses. Trainees should also be provided withopportunities for scientific research on educationin combination with their training, which canfurther the objectives and the quality of training.Finally, educational practice should be conduct-ed under realistic circumstances.

Advanced Classes for Research

These classes are aimed at key teachers. In Shanghai,for example, training approaches are divided as follows:240 hours for training on systematic theories, and 300hours for research on specific topics, some of which areput forward by the trainers themselves, with the remain-der either identified by researchers or constituting top-ics for scientific research. Trainees carry out researcheither in groups or individually, combining theories theyhave learned in the course of their teaching practice.Each group or individual has a supervisor for theoreti-cal guidance. In the case of master-degree courses onpedagogical theory and teaching approaches, for exam-ple, students will be guided for topic research or ess,writing by senior-level teachers or by tutors identifiedfrom higher institutions, colleges for advanced study,secondary schools, or the departments of educationaladministration. These persons are highly experiencedand highly qualified in both the theory and practice ofeducation. One popular method of key teacher training,known as "Three Periods of Training," encompasses thefollowing: theoretical learning, teaching practice, and

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topic research. Of these three "periods," the last two areconducted under the guidance of tutorsone-on-one,with one tutor for several students, or with several tutorsfor several students. After a period in which studentsattend classes and write essays that are evaluated bytheir senior-level teacher or tutor, there follows a peri-od of practice and research. After several cycles like thisof classroom work, practice, and research, the traineeswill have made a leap forward both in theory and inpractice, also making rapid progress in their develop-ment. Advanced Research Classes have the followingcharacteristics:

Clear standards for training, systematic guidelines,topic research with particular values, ease of com-munication between trainers and trainees, andmutual benefits for teaching and learning. Withthe tutors' assistance, the students, primarilythrough teaching themselves, can sort out, ana-lyze, and digest what they have learned, whichthen helps them to foresee the need for and tocreate new ideas on education in the future, usingcorrect concepts of science and correct values.The training is combined with research onteaching and education. Learning and researchare conducted simultaneously and are guided bytheory. The research deepens the theory, pro-duces key teachers, and greatly promotes reformand the quality of teaching and education in sec-ondary and primary schools.

The above are examples of the approaches usedin continuing teacher education that emphasize discus-sion, use of questionnaires, and investigation supervisedby trainers acting as organizers for communications.This type of training helps trainers and trainees gainvaluable experiences in the following ways:

1. It reveals the rules by systematizing and regu-larizing the knowledge of trainees, and raisestheir experiences to the level of theory.

2. It emphasizes exemplary roles, which includethe trainer's exemplary role in maintaining ameticulous attitude toward scholarship, pro-found knowledge, and creative ability. Alsoincluded is the exemplary role of links andapproaches to teaching and learning.

3. It strengthens training for thinking. In buildingstrong capabilities, rich imaginations, and theability to think abstractly, trainees are guidedto discover the rules themselves, and aretrained to draw inferences from various cases.Training in proficiency at making comparisonsencourages them to deepen their thinking andtheir understanding of the world. By fostering

trainees' analytical ability (creating puzzlc andproblems for the trainees to solve), trainersguide them to become involved in activethinking.

4. The trainers have an overall understanding of thetrainees and divide them into different groups fordiscussions, based on their different personalities.

5. The trainers make a careful curriculum guideand stimulate trainees to take the initiative onresearch questions by using various teachingaids and teaching media.

6. The trainers make significant efforts to stimulateand encourage trainees' creativity.

Cooperative Teaching

In addition to full-time trainers, the continuing educa-tion program also involves audiovisual personnel, librar-ians, highly qualified secondary and primary schoolteachers, and specialists from higher institutions in itscourses. These part-time trainers participate in cooper-ative teaching with their full-time trainer colleagues,based on course and training requirements. Anotherfacet of cooperative teaching involves trainees them-selves in teaching classes on special topics. This expe-rience enables them, on the one hand, to give full playto their special knowledge and talents and, on the otherhand, to stimulate communication, cooperation, andmutual understanding with their trainers.

Practical Classroom Teaching Experience

Following their research and training activities, traineesare invited to observe, evaluate, and participate in teach-ing activities in classrooms where the teaching is con-ducted either by the trainers or by the trainees. Empha-sis is placed on the most common problems faced bytrainees, so that the objectives and aims of teachingbecome clearer and more operative. In Shanghai, forexample, teacher training in continuing education hasinvolved many classroom hours of this type. Practicalclassroom experience has become one of the mostimportant training approaches there, and its effects havebeen significant. For example, one trainer who teachesthe course, Aesthetics Education in Chinese LanguageTeaching and Initial Research on Psychology in Compo-sition Writing asked his trainees to give demonstrationclasses in a secondary school and then to make a theo-retical analysis and evaluation of them, according towhat they have learned. In another example, three train-ers who teach, respectively, Logic in Maths, Mathemat-ics Methodology, and Psychology in Maths jointlydesigned a class and made an analysis of it from differ-ent points of view. It is the common understanding oftrainers like these that practices of this type represent a

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high level of teaching and learning activities, and a levelnever experienced before, which not only consolidatestrainees' knowledge but also promotes the work ofteaching and research in secondary and primary schools.

Audiovisual Lessons

Long-distance or correspondence education hasbecome one of the forms of continuing education, andaudiovisual aids play a part in transmitting training. Inaddition, microteaching is often employed in trainingnew and younger teachers. In this case, a seg.nent ofa trainer's teaching is shot with a video camera, andcomparisons and analysis are conducted with them.These types of activities also help trainers to quicklyimprove their teaching skills. Continuing educationprograms also utilize audiovisual aids in classroomteaching. These aids break through the limit of timeand space in classroom teaching, enabling trainees toreceive more information and to gain a greater effectfrom training.

Conclusions

Under the leadership of the State Education Commis-sion, and based on local conditions, all provinces andmunicipalities concerned have respectively worked outnear-, medium-, and long-term programs of their ownfor continuing education, and integrated them into thelong-term and annual education plans of local regions.

These programs refer not only to schools but to schoolpersonnel as well. Administrative files for continuingeducation have been established. In accordance withthe characteristics of teachers, and of their work in dif-ferent areas, continuing education will be conducted ina variety of ways, including group training, one-on-oneinstruction, correspondence education, and self-teach-ing. To combine this training with secondary and pri-mary school teacher training, we have taken the fol-lowing definitive measures:

1. To establish networks at four different levels:provincial, municipal, county, and the level ofsecondary and primary schools themselves. Sec-ondary and primary schools act as training sitesfor teachers.

2. The trainers in teachers' colleges for advancedstudies are composed of full-time and part-timeteachers. Most of the part-time teachers arethose who are highly qualified and highly rec-ommended from their secondary and primaryschools.

3. To establish a system whereby trainees from col-leges conduct investigation, research, and teach-ing in secondary and primary schools, with theaim of enriching the training in their colleges oforigin through these experiences.

4. To closely combine training with teaching andresearch in secondary and primary schools.These two can be mutually beneficial.

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Appendix 5-A

AN OVERVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL REFORMCONDUCTED IN SHORT-CYCLE TEACHERS

COLLEGES IN FUJIAN PROVINCE

In accordance with the Ten-Year Plan for ImplementingCompulsory Education at the junior secondary level(grades 7-9), total enrollment in junior secondary schoolswill reach its peak in the years 1996-1997. To meet thedemand for junior secondary teachers, total enrollmentin Fujian's short-cycle teachers colleges will reach 11,000by 1995. A large proportion of the province's populationis concentrated in the coastal areas, giving rise to a largegap between the supply and demand of junior secondaryteachers, owing to the smaller capacity of the Short-CycleTeachers Colleges (SCTCs) located in these areas. In viewof this fact, during the Eighth Five-year Plan period(1991-1995), the provincial government intends to solvethis problem by keeping the distribution of tertiaryteacher training institutions (including SCTCs and four-year teachers colleges) basically unchanged, properlyexpanding the capacity (total enrollment) of existingSCTCs and their service areas, and channeling part of thegraduates from SCTCs located in mountainous areas tocoastal areas, so as to make teacher training more cost-effective. At the same time, reforms will be carried out inthe areas examined in the following sections.

Qualifications of GraduatesExamined and Readjusted

Teacher training conducted by SCTCs is characterized bythe following features: (1) It pertains to short-cycle high-er education and (2) it serves local junior secondaryschools. The main task of SCTCs is the preparation ofjunior secondary teachers and it directly serves the needsof the implementation of nine-year compulsory school-ing. The aims and objectives of SCTCs are embodied inthe clearly defined qualifications of its graduates. Inorder to do a good job of teacher training in the SCTCs,it is imperative first of all to properly define the trainingobjectives and qualifications of SCTC graduates in thelight of the needs of developing junior secondary edu-cation and of the actual needs of teachers' jobs. It mustbe pointed out that the moral integrity of teachers andtheir exemplary role can never be overemphasized.

As a preliminary step to overhauling and readjust-ing the current qualifications of the graduates of SCTCs,we have made inquiries into the work and performanceof a large number of SCTC graduates by follow-up stud-

ies conducted during the past few years. Our findingsindicate that the preparation of teachers should not befocused on academic qualifications only, and it is high-ly desirable to train multipurpose teachers who are will-ing to stay in the countryside, and who are able to teachacademic subjects and to assume the duty of head-teacher of a class, as well as to teach some courses onmanual labor and technologythat is, a composite-typeteacher should be trained instead of the tradition-typeteacher who can only teach academic subjects. In orderto realize these goals, we have started a pilot project inNanping Short-Cycle Teacher College, located in thenorthern part of Fujian Province. Our studies will beconducted over a period of three years, extending fromAugust 1993 to September 1996, and we have the fol-lowing goals in mind.

Theoretically, we would like to explore properways to adjust the orientation of SCTCs in northernFujian in the context of developing a socialist marketeconomy by focusing on the preparation of qualifiedjunior secondary teachers, so that we may provide asound basis for policy making in the field of staff devel-opment in rural junior secondary schools, as well as inthe SCTCs themselves.

As regards the educational practices prevailing inSCTCs, we would like to see that our studies on the prop-er qualifications of SCTC graduates could yield usefulresults that would help deepen educational reform andteaching in SCTCs by formulating a new set of criteria onqualifications and a new knowledge structure adapted tothe needs of future junior secondary teachers. Our stud-ies also deal with ways to speed up the preparation ofjunior secondary teachers. It is expected that our findingsmay help produce a valid pattern for running all SCTCsin Fujian Province, and a set of qualification standards forall programs (specializations) provided in SCTCs.

According to our research plan, the followingresearch reports on specific themes will be produced:(1) a report on the demand for junior secondary teach-ers in northern Fujian and an analysis of the quality ofSCTC graduates; (2) a proposal on the training qualifi-cations of SCTCs in the northern mountainous areas ofFujian and guidelines on curriculum design; (3) sug-gestions on course offerings in Nanping Short-CycleTeachers College, and ways of implementing educa-tional programs combining obligatory and electivecourses and combining a major and a minor; and (4) ageneral report on studies of training qualifications inSCTCs in northern Fujian.

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Improvements of the Structure of EducationalPrograms Provided in SCTCs

Currently, there are 12 subject areas, with 81 programs,provided at short-cycle level in all tertiary teacher train-ing institutions (mainly SCTCs), of which 11 are three-year programs and 70 are two-year programs. There aresome inconsistencies in the distribution of these pro-grams, giving rise to imbalances in the supply anddemand of graduates, with oversupply in some pro-grams and shortages in the others. The current situationis this: English teachers are in extreme shortage, fol-lowed by teachers of Chinese and music and fine arts(especially in rural schools); the supply and demand ofteachers of mathematics, biology, and geography arebasically balanced; teachers of political education andhistory are a little in oversupply; and teachers of chem-istry are seriously oversupplied, followed by teachers ofphysics and physical education. These problems havearisen partly out of our inadequate awareness of theimportance of supplying rural junior secondary schoolswith teachers capable of teaching in a major subject areaas well as in several minor areas, in response to theneeds of local economic development, and partly out ofour insufficient efforts in this direction.

During the current period of the Eighth Five-YearPlan, we will endeavor to close the gap between sup-ply and demand of graduates by readjusting our recruit-ment plan in accordance with future demand, by furtherimproving the distribution of educational programs, andby improving the structure of subject areas and theduration of study, so that we may be able to prepare aquantitatively adequate and qualitatively improved sup-ply of SCTC graduates to meet the needs of new teach-ers in the peak years (1996-1997) of development ofjunior secondary education. Specifically, the followingmeasures are to be taken:

1. Chinese, Mathematics, and English are the threemain subjects taught in junior secondaryschools, and there are now 29 programs forthem in the whole province, with an annualintake of new entrants of over Their dura-tion of study will be kept unchanged at twoyears for the time being.

2. There are eight SCTCs, all providing two-yearprograms of political education and history. Weplan to merge them into an integrated programof political education and history and to prolongthe duration of study from two to three years,and to cancel five single-subject programs. Theannual intake of new entrants will be kept atabout 800.

3. There are eight SCTCs, all providing separateprograms for biology and chemistry. We intend

to merge them into an integrated program ofbiology and chemistry, and prolong the durationof study to three years. Thus, the number of pro-grams will be reduced by four, and the annualintake of new entrants will be kept at about 400.

4. The program of physical education in LongyanShort-Cycle Teachers College and the programof chemistry in Fujian Short-Cycle Teachers Col-lege will be canceled. The annual intake of newentrants for each of these subjects will be keptat about 200 for the whole province.

5. In all SCTCs offering separate two-year pro-grams of physics and chemistry, new integratedprograms combining one major and one minorwill take their place, with concomitant length-ening of the duration of study to three years.

6. In view of the fact that there is a large demandfor arts teachers by junior secondary schools,and that the training of music and fine artsteachers is time-consuming and painstaking, wehave already prolonged the duration of study ofthe music and fine arts programs provided byJimei Short-Cycle Teachers College to three yearsand increased the annual intake of new entrantsof these two programs to over 120. At the sametime, teacher training classes for training teach-ers of music and fine arts have been institutedin other specialized colleges of arts.

Thus, through a process of readjustment of thestructural pattern of educational programs provided bySCTCs, the total number of SCTC-level programs willbe 70 (18 three-year programs and 52 two-year pro-grams), which is a reduction of 11 compared with theold pattern, resulting in a more rational distribution ofprograms. By 1995, the total intake of SCTC newentrants will reach 5,500. We expect that the newarrangement will be better adapted to the needs ofjunior secondary teachers arising from the rapid expan-sion of junior secondary education, both quantitativelyand qualitatively.

Reform of Curricular Content andTeaching Methods

After the readjustment of the structural pattern of theeducational programs, a new round of curriculumdevelopment is now in progress, involving revisions ofteaching plans and syllabuses, and rewriting of text-books. As a preliminary step, teachers of the relevantprograms (specializations) are asked to make in-depthstudy of the demands on the quantity and quality ofjunior secondary teachers set forth by the service areasconcerned. In the case that a new program involves amajor and a minor, effort has to be made to gradually

S'a

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BO TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

develop scientifically sound new curriculum. In the casethat a new program involves two subject areas of equalweight (so-called dual-subject program or specializa-tion), it is imperative to enable students enrolled inthese programs to be able to teach two subjects ongraduation, with knowledge and skills commensuratewith SCTC qualifications.

A priority area of reform of curricular content is toincrease the relevance of subject matter taught, withproper attention paid to local features. Another area ofreform is the provision of electives in the curriculum,helping SCTC students to be better adapted to the needsof economic development in the rural areas. Continuedefforts to improve educational practice will be made,with concomitant reform. Mastery of basic skills will bestressed, and, accordingly, new criteria on the standardsof handwriting involving the use of brushes, pens, andchalk, and new criteria on the standards of the masteryof Putonghua (commonspeech) will be formulated andenforced. Effort will also be made to enhance abilitiesin organization and management.

Another area of reform consists of the organiza-tion of various kinds of social practice involving exten-sive participation of students, such as the organizationof investigative surveys of basic education, especiallythe situation of junior secondary education in the coun-tryside, and participating in the educational reform con-ducted in junior secondary schools.

Teaching Staff Development to Be Strengthened

At present, looking at the teaching staff working in allSCTCs in the province in its entirety, it must be admit-ted that their qualifications are far from being adequateto satisfy the requirements of the reform and develop-ment of tertiary teacher training, and to meet the needsof basic education for supplying junior secondaryschools with teachers both socialist-minded and pro-fessionally competent. The main issues are as follows:

1. Low percentage of teachers with higher acade-mic standingsamong the full-time teachers,only 11 percent are of professorial standingdis-tributed highly unevenly among different subjectareas.

2. Abnormal age structure of the teaching staff;consequently, in some institutions, when thesenior staff in certain fields reach retirement age,there may be no younger qualified staff to suc-ceed them. Even now, there are some subjectareas that suffer from the lack of qualified coremembers and leaders of scholarly pursuits.

3. A portion of teachers lack experience in socialpractice and are not highly motivated in theirwork.

4. A portion of young teachers do not have a solidfoundation in their training, yet do not pay dueattention to the study of pedagogical theoryand methods of teaching and the improvementof other essential skills. Furthermore, theyknow very little about the reform and devel-opment of basic education and vocational-tech-nical education.

During the period of the Eighth Five-Year Plan, themain goals and tasks of staff development in the Short-Cycle Teachers Colleges are as follows:

1. Great effort should be exerted to enhance theideological and political consciousness andmoral integrity of teachers, to significantlyimprove their competencies in education andteaching, to develop their ability in conductingresearch work, and to improve their profes-sional ethics. Teachers 35 years of age andyounger are required to undergo job-relatedtraining and to take part in social practice.

2. A variety of in-service training activities are to beorganized and a network of in-service trainingof the teaching staff of tertiary teacher traininginstitutions is to be gradually built up and per-fected. It has been decided that teachers under40 years of age should systematically take partin the study of the main graduate-level courses,so that they may reach the level of the comple-tion of master-degree programs. Even the coremembers of the staff and leaders of scholarlypursuits are required to take part in moreadvanced forms of training congruent and com-mensurate with their qualifications.

3. Steps should be taken to gradually raise theproportion of full-time staff with senior stand-ing, up to the level of 20 percent. It is highlydesirable to have more full professors underthe age of 50, and more associate professorsunder the age of 40.

4. Consistent effort should be made to raise theproportion of teachers with graduate trainingand advanced degrees. It is especially importantto insist that, among full-time teachers newlyrecruited, the proportion with advanced degreesshould increase year by year.

5. Management of teaching staff is to be gradual-ly institutionalized in accordance with carefullyformulated norms and standards. A self-con-tained system for the management of SCTCteaching staff should be instituted concerningtheir recruitment, appointment, promotion,evaluation, in-service training, and reward andsanction.

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5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 81

To Reform the Recruitment of New Entrants byRaising the Quality of Potential New Recruits

We deem it feasible and desirable to take the followingmeasures:

1. Prospective students will be recruited chieflyfrom target service areas in the light of fore-casted future needs for junior secondary teach-ers, and the graduates will accordingly bereturned to these areas for job placement. Torealize this goal, the plan for student sourceswill be drawn up accordingly, with plannedrecruitment figures allocated to counties (dis-tricts) pertaining to the service areas of theSCTC in question.

2. Preparatory classes for entry to tertiary teachertraining institutions will be set up in part of the"key" secondary schools (those with good rep-

utations in terms of teaching quality), recruit-ing their students from the graduates of juniorsecondary schools in minority areas and outly-ing, insular, and secluded mountainous areasrecruits who are willing to dedicate themselvesto the cause of education; graduates of thesepreparatory classes will be admitted by tertiaryteacher training institutions, so that in future,rural secondary schools will be able to employa certain number of higher quality new teach-ers.

3. In recruiting students for SCTCs, proper atten-tion will be paid to the appraisal of their apti-tude for education and teaching.

(The report in this appendix was prepared by the Divi-sion of Teacher Education, Fujian Provincial Commis-sion for Education.)

C

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82 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 5-B

THREE-YEAR NORMAL SCHOOL TEACHINGSCHEME (FOR TRIAL IMPLEMENTATION)

PROMULGATED BY THE STATE EDUCATIONCOMMISSION ON JUNE 21,1989

Normal schools (secondary teacher training institutions)are specialized secondary schools devoted to the train-ing of primary school teachers.

The three-year normal schools should adhere to theFour Cardinal Principles ("We must keep to the socialistroad; we must uphold the dictatorship of the proletariat;we must uphold the leadership of the Communist Party;we must. uphold Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedongthought.") and make positive efforts to cater to the needsof socialist modernization, and they should be able toprepare qualified primary school teachers with the fol-lowing traits and qualifications: to ardently love the social-ist motherland; to ardently love the Communist Party ofChina; to ardently love the undertaking of primary edu-cation, equipped with the rudiments of Marxist tenets andbasic viewpoints; to possess good public virtues andteachers' professional ethics, and be willing to work underarduous conditions and to work realistically and innova-tively, equipped with the knowledge, skills, and compe-tencies needed in primary school education and teaching;to understand the basic laws governing school educationand teaching; to be equipped with some ability of aes-thetic appreciation; to possess rudimentary knowledgeand skills related to productive labor; to have good habitsof personal hygiene; and to be physically fit.

General Principles for Formulating theThree-year Normal School Teaching Scheme

1. The courses (subjects) provided in normalschools, and their content, and other education-al and teaching activities conducted by normalschools are regulated in the light of the needs ofsocialist modernization and the implementationof nine-year compulsory schooling.

2. The principle of combining unity with flexibilityis to be adhered to in view of the fact that Chinais a vast country with large regional disparities ineconomic and cultural development. The statesets forth unified basic requirements on teachingin normal schools, and the educational depart-ments of provincial (autonomous regional, andmunicipal) governments are authorized to decideon the curricular content of local normal schools

and to draw up corresponding teaching plans inaccordance with the basic requirements set forthby the state and in the light of the needs of localeconomic and cultural development, especiallythe needs arising from the implementation ofnine-year compulsory education.

3. In accordance with the characteristics and regu-larities of normal school education, teachingshould follow the following guidelines: Class-room teaching should assume a central place;proper integration of obligatory courses withelectives, of classroom teaching with extracurric-ular activities, and of school education with socialpractice should be present; consequently, oblig-atory courses, electives, extracurricular activities,and social practice, together, should constitute anorganic whole of the educational and teachingactivities in a normal school.

4. In the light of the requirements for preparingprimary school teachers and of the specific fea-tures of normal school students, it is imperativeto strengthen the work of ideological educationin normal schools, and effort should be madeto conduct ideological and political educationin all kinds of teaching activities, and to fostermoral integrity (especially teachers' virtues) andgood psychological traits in the students.Teachers are required to play an exemplaryrole in both moral education and teaching, toeducate students to adhere to the Four Cardi-nal Principles, and to wage struggle againstbourgeois liberalization, so that the studentsmay become well-prepared primary teachers,having lofty ideals, moral integrity, a good gen-eral education, and a sense of discipline, andbe capable of fulfilling a citizen's duties and ofhaving good professional ethics and psycho-logical traits.

5. The arrangement of the academic courses, pro-fessional courses, arts and physical educationcourses, and educational practice should bemade in the light of the needs of the preserviceeducation of primary teachers, and be placed ona sound scientific basis. It is imperative to imple-ment the principle of integrating theory withpractice, to reinforce all links of practical train-ing, and to pay attention to the formation ofskills and competencies, so that the studentsmay acquire solid knowledge of academic sub-

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5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 83

jects and the skills and competencies indispens-able for a primary school teacher, especially forteachers working in rural schools.

6. Education and teaching conducted in normalschools should be carried out with due consid-eration of the traits of the physical and mentaldevelopment of students, as well as of the indi-vidual differences among students. Efforts shouldbe made to foster extensive interests among stu-dents and to develop their gifts and aptitudes, sothat the students may develop in a way that islively, vigorous, active, and comprehensive.

Content of the Three-yearNormal School Teaching Scheme

The entire course lasts 156 weeks, and the time is dis-tributed as follows: teaching activities, approximately107 weeks; teaching practicum, approximately 10weeks; summer and winter vacations, approximately 36weeks; reserve time used for social activities and othercollective activities, with an educational implication,approximately 3 weeks. Both obligatory and electivecourses are offered in normal schools.

Course OfferingsObligatory Courses

Obligatory courses constitute the main body of theteaching activities of normal schools, being the mainchannels for providing the moral, intellectual, and phys-ical education of students, and for conducting the pre-service training of primary teachers.

The obligatory courses include courses on ideo-logical and political education, general education, edu-cational theory, arts and physical education, and man-ual labor and technology. The courses on ideologicaland political education carry the responsibility of edu-cating the students in the rudiments of Marxism, in theimportance of adhering to the Four Cardinal Principles;in the policy of reform and opening up to the outsideworld; in patriotism, socialism, moral integrity (espe-cially teachers' professional ethics, or virtues), civics,democracy and legality, independence, initiative, hardwork, and arduous struggle; and in waging struggleagainst bourgeois liberalization. The academic or gen-eral education courses are conducted on the basis ofjunior secondary schools, and they are required to pro-vide the students with the knowledge and skills, andother competencies, needed for teaching in primaryschools, including training in Putonghua and in hand-writing. Courses cn educational or pedagogical theories,and on teaching materials and methods, should betaught in the light of the actual needs of primary schoolteaching, focusing on fundamentals of educational the-ory, on scientific methods of education and teaching,

and on the fostering of practical ability. Courses on artsand physical education should strengthen training in thebasic knowledge and skills indispensable for teachingin primary schools, help cultivate aesthetic appreciation,and build a strong physique. Courses on manual laborand technology should be instrumental in fosteringrespect for manual labor and in providing students withthe knowledge and skills needed in teaching subjectson productive labor in primary schools, and effortsshould be made to enable the students to acquire cer-tain skills and to foster good habits of labor.

All categories of courses should endeavor toimpart knowledge with a local color and flavor. Normalschools mainly preparing teachers working in rural pri-mary schools should pay much attention to awarenessof issues related to the realization of modernization inthe countryside, and related to material, cultural, andethical progress in the countryside. Table B-1 providesa list of obligatory courses and the approximate teach-ing hours required for them.

Course OfferingsElective Courses

The electives constitute an integral part of the teachingactivities conducted in normal schools, and one of greatsignificance. Some electives are offered in response tolocal needs related to economic and cultural develop-ment, and some are conceived with a view to wideningthe scope of students' knowledge and to developingtheir interests and aptitudes. These courses play a use-ful role in enhancing the competence of students inteaching, especially the ability to teach a variety of sub-jects in primary schools.

Electives usually include courses on general knowl-edge and culture, teaching materials and methods relatedto primary school subjects, arts, physical education andsports, vocational-technical education with a bearing onlocal economic development, and so forth. The contentof electives embodies the actual needs of education andteaching in primary schools and reflects specific featuresof local history, geography, and culture, as well as of eco-nomic development. Total hours allocated to electivesshould account for 7-15 percent of the total teachinghours of three-year normal school teaching plans (about250 to 540 hours).

The electives provided by individual normal schoolsin various localities should be determined in the light ofavailable teachers and facilities and based on the condi-tion that teaching of obligatory courses must be guaran-teed. Teachers should assist their students in making prop-er choices of electives in light of the anticipated needs ofteaching a variety of subjects on graduation, and in lightof their personal interests and aptitudes. Electives of indi-vidual students should be distributed over all categoriesof courses, with at least one elective for each category.

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84 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE B-1

List of Obligatory Courses and Approximate Teaching Hours

Courses Hours (approximate)

Ideology and PoliticsChinese (including teaching materials and methods in primary schools)

Mathematics (including teaching materials and methods in primary schools)

Physics

ChemistryBiology (including child physiology and hygiene)

History

GeographyPrimary School Psychology

Primary School Pedagogy

Physical Education

Music

Fine Arts

Manual Labor and Technology

190

570420170130

130

130130

100130190

190190

150

Educational Praxis

Educational praxis covers praxis (practices) related toideological education, teaching and learning of acade-mic subjects, and pedagogical theories offered in nor-mal schools. It is an indispensable link in the preserviceeducation of primary teachers, and is instrumental inhelping students to familiarize themselves with primaryeducation and primary school pupils and in developinga love for their career and fostering their competence;it also plays a special role in helping them to master therudiments of scientific methods of education and teach-ing as applied in primary schools.

Educational praxis covers visits to primary schools,educational surveys and investigations, observation ofthe work (mainly classroom teaching) of experiencedteachers, and educational practice (teaching practicum).

The arrangement of educational praxis should becoordinated with the progress of professional coursesand academic courses, as well as with scheduled socialpractices of various description, and be distributed overthree years.

The total time allotted to educational praxis is aboutten weeks, to be distributed as follows: first year, twoweeks; second year, two weeks; third year, six weeks.

Extracurricular Activities

Extracurricular activities constitute an integral part of theteaching and learning activities of normal schools, beingof great significance in helping students to learn knowl-edge and develop their personality and competenciesespecially the competencies related to education andteaching in primary schools.

Extracurricular activities commonly seen in normalschools include lectures on specific topics and organi-zation of various interest groups with activities rangingfrom academic subjects, to science and technologythemes, to athletics, sports, and recreational activities,and even to social surveys.

It is incumbent on the school management to for-mulate a plan or program of extracurricular activities sothat they may be carried out in a systematic manner,well organized and purposeful, and with the proper aidprovided by teachers assigned to help with such act;v-ides. In promoting extracurricular activities, it is para-mount to give full scope to the initiative and enthusiasmof students themselves, so that they may develop theirabilities of self-service, self-education, and self-man-agement. Table B-2 provides an outline of the weeklycontact hours stipulated for each obligatory course, andtheir suggested distribution among subject materials.

Supplementary Explanations on theImplementation of This Teaching Scheme

This teaching scheme serves as a reference for the edu-cational departments at the provincial (autonomousregional, and municipal) levels to use in developing anddesigning their own normal school teaching plans, withproper modifications as they see fit. Where conditionspermit, pilot projects for developing integrated coursesin the natural sciences or in the social sciences may beinitiated. In the case of some regions where conditionsare not yet ripe for implementation of this teachingscheme, the educational departments of these regionsmay continue to implement the older document (enti-tled "A Circular on Readjusting the Teaching Plans in

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5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAr )EVELOPMENT IN CHINA 85

TABLE B-2

Weekly Contact Hours of Obligatory Courses and Their Distribution

SubjectsFirstyear

Secondyear

Thirdyear

Ideology and Politics 2 2 2Chinese 6 6 4Teaching Materials and Methodsfor Primary School Chinese

2

Mathmatics 5 5

Teaching Materials and Methodsfor Primary School Mathematics

3

Physics 3 2

Chemistry 2 2

Biology (including Child Physiology and Hygiene) 4History 2 2

Geography 2 2Primary School Psychology 3

Primary School Pedagogy 2 2Physical Education 2 2 2Music 2 2 2Fine Arts 2 2 2Manual Labor and Technology 2 2

Normal Schools," promulgated by the State EducationCommission in 1986), but they are required to activelycreate the necessary conditions for conducting educa-tional reform, and when conditions are ripe, they shouldalso implement this teaching scheme.

Teaching plans used in minority normal schools(or classes) are to be formulated by educational depart-ments at provincial (autonomous regional, and munici-pal) levels, in accordance with the guidelines laid downin this teaching scheme, and in light of conditions exist-ing in these minority areas.

The obligatory courses offered in minority normalschools, or classes, should meet the basic requirementsset by the state, and efforts should be made to strength-en bilingual instruction. The minority language of theareas concerned should be taught and also should beused as a teaching medium, and at the same time, stu-dents in these schools must be required to learnPutonghua, in accordance with the constitutional provi-sion that "the state promotes the nation-wide use ofPutonghua (commonspeech, based on Beijing pronun-ciation)." Accordingly, the Han Chinese language (in itsPutonghua form) should be taught as an obligatorycourse in minority normal schools. The provision of elec-tives in minority normal schools should be consideredin light of the specific features of the minority national-ity concerned, and some of them should deal withnationality policies, with the history and culture of

minority nationalities, and with regional geography andconditions of regional economic development.

The teaching plans used in specialized normalschools focusing on music or fine arts, on physical edu-cation and sports, and on foreign languages should beformulated, in accordance with the aims and objectivesof these schools, by the educational departments at theprovincial (autonomc us regional, and municipal) levels,with the regulations stated in this teaching scheme to beused as general guidelines. In these normal schools, ofcourse, the specialized subject in question should bereinforced, with concomitant reinforcement of thecourses on the teaching materials and methods con-cerning the specialized subject as applied in primaryschool teaching. Furthermore, in these schools, courseson ideology and politics, Chinese, mathematics, physi-cal education, and primary school psychology and ped-agogy should not be neglected; students enrolled inthese schools should receive reinforced training in spe-cialized subjects and, at the same time, basically ade-quate training in courses on ideology and politics, onacademic subjects, and in the competencies required forteaching in primary schools at a level similar to thatattained in regular normal schools.

This scheme is intended for implementation inthree-year normal schools. The four-year normal schoolsmay design their own teaching plans, with the provisionsof this scheme to be used as general guidelines.

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86 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 5-C

TABLE C-1

Typical Teaching Plan of Normal Schools in Jiangsu Province

Contact Hours per Week

TotalSchool Year

Subject 1st 2nd 3rd Lecture Hours

Ideology and Politics 2 2 2 194

Chinese 6 6 4 520

Teaching Materials and Methodsfor Prima.y Schools

2 62

Mathematics 5 5 330

Teaching Materials and Methodsfor Primary Schools

3 93

Physics 3 2 165

Chemistry 2 2 132

Biology (including Child 4 132

Physiology and Hygiene)

History 2 2 128

Geography 2 2 128

Primary School Psychology 3 99

Primary School Pedagogy 2 2 126

Physical Education 2 2 2 194

Music 2 2 2 194

Fine Arts 2 2 2 194

Total weekly teachinghours for obligatory courses

31 29 23 2,693

Electives 0-2 2-4 4-6 190-384

Extracurricular Activities 3-5 3-5 3-5 291-485

Total amount of weekly activities 34-38 34-38 30-34

Manual Labor and Technology(in weeks)

2 2 4

Educational Praxis (in weeks) 2 2 6 10

Reserved time (in weeks) 1 1 1 3

Review and examination sessions(in weeks)

2 2 2 6

Number of weeks in sessionper school year

33 33 31 97

Total number of weeksper school year

40 40 40 120

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5 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 87

Appendix 5-D

TABLE D-1

Plan of Teaching and Learning ActivitiesFormulated by Nantong Normal School in Jiangsu Province

Contact Hours Per Week

Subject

School YearTotalLecture Hours1st 2nd 3rd

Ideology and Politics 2 2 2 188

Chinese 6 5 4 476

Teaching Materials and Methodsfor Primary School Chinese

2 54

Mathematics 4 2 3 281

Teaching Materials and Methodsfor Primary School Mathematics

2 2 122

Physics 3 2 167

Chemistry 2 2 134

Biology (including Child Physiology)and Hygiene

4 132

History 3 99

Geography 99

Primary School Psychology 3 99

Primary School Pedagogy 3 1 135

Physical Education 2 2 2 188

Music 2 3 2 222

Fine Arts 2 2 2 188

Skill Training 2 2 161

Total weekly teaching hoursfor obligatory courses

30 27 26 2747

Electives 3 5 237

Manual Labor and Technology 2 weeks 2 weeks 144

Learning from experienced teachers 1 2 2 134

Educational PraxisTeaching 3 weeks

288*

Practicum 5 weeks

Extracurricular Activities 4 4 4 376

Number of weeks in sessionper school year

33 34 27

*Teaching and practicum combined.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE97

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Teacher Training andProfessional Developmentin Hong Kong

Submitted by: Education and ManpowerBranch, Government Secretariat

CONTEXT

Definitions

Table 6.1 provides information for definitional purposes.

Education Systems and Student Population

Of the 6 million people in Hong Kong, about 1.2 mil-lion are young people undergoing fulltime education.The breakdown by level is as follows:

Pre-primary: 190,000Primary: 502,000Secondaryin schools: 446,000Secondaryin technical institutes: 13,000Postsecondary (tertiary): 48,000.

The bulk of this population is ethnic Chinese. Asmall proportionabout 1 percentcomprises the chil-dren of those who have come to Hong Kong for busi-ness and other purposes. These children receive an edu-cation based on a curriculum relevant to their owncountries. Consideration of this group is excluded forthe purposes of the present paper.

All children in Hong Kong receive nine years offree, and compulsory, education, consisting of six years

6

of primar; and three years of junior secondary school-ing. Provisions beyond junior secondary are designedto meet social and economic needs and are subsidizedup to about 85 percent of cost. The pre-primary sectoris not formally subsidized by the government but assis-tance is given to parents and kindergarten operators invarious forms.

Education constitutes the largest single item ofrecurrent government expenditure-20 percent. Theeducation budget in the 1993-1994 financial yearamounts to HK$22.2 billion (US$2.8 billion).

Table 6.2 shows the provision of subsidized placesfor different levels of education expressed as a per-centage of the relevant age groups (see also Appendix6-A).

In general, Hong Kong has a highly uniform sys-tem of schooling. There are no significant geographicaldifferences in terms of curriculum, standards, or modeof operation. There are 937 government and aidedschools at the primary and secondary levels that arefully funded by the government. About 10 percent ofthese schools are run directly by the government. Therest are operated by nonprofit organizations, such ascharitable or religious bodies, with government subsi-dies designed to provide the same standard of educa-tion as government schools. A detailed breakdown ofthe number of schools at the kindergarten, primary, and

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90 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 6.1

Definitions

Typically,How Do You Define In Terms of Grades/Levels

Pre-primary schooling (a) A 1-year course of nurseryeducation

(b) A 2-year course of kinder-garten education

Primary schooling A 6-year course of primaryeducation

Secondary schooling

Postsecondary schooling(other than teacherpreparation)

(a) 3 years of junior secondaryeducation

(b) 2 years of senior secondaryeducation

(c) 2 years of 6th form(matriculation) education

Age Range of Students

(a) When a child has attainedthe age of 3

(b) When a child has attainedthe age of 4-5

Starting when a child hasattained the age of 6 .

Starting when a child hasattained the age of 12

Education beyond the state of At least 17 years of agesecondary education

Preservice teacher (a) 3-year course for Secondary

preparation "5 graduates provided byColleges of Education

(b) 2-year course for Secondary7 graduates provided byColleges of Education

(c) Diploma, certificate, anddegree courses provided bytertiary institutions

Normally over 17

Type and Level of EducationRequired to Teach at This Level

At least Secondary 5 orSecondary 3 plus in-servicetraining. Most in fact have com-pleted Secondary 5.

1. Mainly secondary 5 + 3-yearfull -time preservice teachertraining, or Secondary 7 + 2-year full-time preservice teachertraining

2. A minority with secondaryeducation + 2-year in-serviceteacher training

1. Secondary 5 + 3-year full-timepreservice teacher training, or

2. Secondary 7 + 2-year full-timepreservice teacher training,mainly for (a) and

3. Degree + PostgraduateCertificate in Education for therest

Degree plus PGCE or higher

A combination as undersecondary schooling for (a) and(b). Degree and higherqualifications for (c).

secondary levels, together with their respective enroll-ments, can be found in Appendix 6-B.

In addition to public-sector schools, some prima-ry and secondary schools are run by private concernsto meet the needs of a small proportion (11 percent) ofthe school -agr population that prefers privately runschools to public-sector schools. These are not coveredin this paper.

Public-sector secondary schools include the fol-lowing:

Grammar schoolsTechnical schoolsSpecial schoolsPrevocational schoolsTechnical institutes

Others (practical schools, skills opportunityschools, industrial training centers)

A more detailed description of the specific mis-sions and characteristics of these schools can be foundin Appendix 6-C.

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

In 1992, there were 46,049 teachers engaged in teachingactivities. In terms of deployment, 17 percent wereteaching in kindergartens, 39 percent in primary schools,and 44 percent in secondary schools. Their gender and

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 91

TABLE 6.2The Provision of Subsidized Places for Different Levels of EducationExpressed as a Percentage of the Relevant Age Groups

Policy

Level Target (%)

(a) Pre-primary Not set

(b) Primary

(c) Junior secondary

Achieved(%) Remarks

85 Not within subsidized sector

100 100 Part of 9-year free and compulsoryeducation

100 100 Part of 9-year free and compulsoryeducation

(d) Senior secondarysecondary courses 85

95craft courses 10

(e) 6th form 28

(f) Tertiaryfirst-year, first degree 18

sub-degree 6

8519510

28

18324 Achieved6 J 1994/95 academic year

age distributions, broken down by type and sector, canbe found in Appendixes 6-D, 6-E, and 6-F.

Qualified Kindergarten Teachers (QKT) have com-pleted senior secondary schooling and two years' in-ser-vice training conducted at the government's colleges ofeducation. Every kindergarten is required by law toemploy a QKT as the principal. QKTs comprise 21 per-cent of teachers in the kindergarten sector. They areemployed directly by kindergarten operators.

Qualified Assistant Kindergarten Teachers (QAKT)have completed at least junior secondary schooling and12 to 16 weeks of in-service training at the same gov-erruner* teacher training establishments. In fact, most ofthese teachers have completed senior secondary school-ing as well. The QAKTs comprise 25 percent of kinder-garten teachers. Like QKTs, they are employed directlyby the kindergarten operators.

These two types of kindergarten teacher.; make upthe trained element of the kindergarten teaching force.Kindergartens are encouraged, but not compelled bylaw, to have at least 40 percent of their teaching stafftrained. Seventy percent of kindergartens ha' ;e in factachieved, or exceeded, this target.

The basic requirement for teachers in primaryschools is a Teacher Certificate. Those who hold TeacherCertificates are either Secondary 5 graduates who havecompleted three years of teacher training, or Secondary7 graduates who have completed two years of similartraining, either in preservice or in-service modes, at gov-ernment colleges of education. These teachers form thebulk of the existing teaching force in this sector.

The balance of the teaching force is made up ofteachers who have completed comparable schooling orteacher training courses but whose credentials (e.g.,those obtained in foreign countries) are not fully rec-ognized in Hong Kong; or those who meet the basicacademic requirements but are without professionaltraining. These teachers are normally appointed tovacancies that cannot otherwise be filled. While inemployment, they are encouraged to take up in-servicetraining designed to bring them up to the level ofTeacher Certificate holders. Bars to salary incrementsserve to provide the needed inducement for profes-sional upgrading.

Teachers in secondary schools comprise universi-ty graduates (those with university First Degrees) andnongraduate, but qualified, teachersSecondary 7 grad-uates who have undergone two years of teacher train-ing, or Secondary 5 graduates who have undergonethree years of teacher training in a college of education.University graduate teachers constitute 70 percent of thetotal. They usually teach higher forms, or grades, whichdemand more in terms of subject expertise, and theygenerally receive better pay. Among the university grad-uate teachers, only those who have gained a post-grad-uate Certificate of Educationinvolving one year of full-time or two years of part-time study after First Degreegraduationare considered fully qualified. Among non-graduate teachers, all those holding a Teacher Certifi-cate are considered fully qualified.

Teachers in government primary and secondaryschools receive a civil service appointment. Teachers in

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92 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

other public-sector primary and secondary schools areemployed by individual school managements.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

As civil servants, teachers in government primary andsecondary schools receive terms and conditions of ser-vice common to the rest of the civil service. Theseinclude a monthly salary (which is subject to annualcost-of-living adjustments and incremental increases onthe basis of performance), leave, medical and dentalcoverage, a noncontributory pension on retirement,and, depending on rank, some assistance toward hous-ing. Civil service terms and conditions of service aredetermined by the government on tile advice of anindependent body. The general policy is for the gov-ernment to be a responsible employer and to follow paytrends in the private sector.

Teachers in other public-sector primary and sec-ondary schools parcicipate in the same pay scale as theircivil service counterparts. They also receive the sameleave benefits. As noncivil servants, however, they areineligible for the other fringe benefits as a general rule,but the government contributes substantially to theseteachers' provident fund (5-15 percent of pay, depend-ing on years of service, matched by 5 percent from theteachers themselves). Schools operated by some chari-table organizations also offer medical and dental bene-fits through health and hospital services under the man-agement of the parent organization. A few schools offerhousing for staff from their own resources.

The gap between fringe benefits for civil servantand noncivil servant teachers has been a longstandingsource of dissatisfaction. In 1993, the government intro-duced a limited scheme to assist noncivil servant teach-ers with housing needs.

There are four ranks, or categories, for nongradu-ate primary school teachers (see Appendix 6-H, Table6.H-1) covering 26 ints on a Master Pay Scale (i.e.,from points 14-39see Appendb- 6-G). A fully qualifiedteacher starts at Point 14 (HK$12,940, or US$1,660 permonth) and may aspire to the most senior rank pay atPoint 39 (HK$40,960, or US$5,250 per month).

There are five ranks for university graduate sec-ondary school teachers (see Appendix 6-H, Table 6.H-2) covering 33 points on the same Master Pay Scale (i.e.,from points 17-49see Appendix 6-G). The salary of agraduate teacher without professional training starts atPoint 17 (HK$14,990, or US$1,920 per month) and mayrise to the most senior rank pay at Point 49 (HK$59,965,or US$7,690 per month). Nongraduate teachers in sec-ondary schools are paid the same as teachers in prima-ry schools.

Teaching is generally regarded as a well-paidoccupation, at least as far as the initial years are con-cerned. The salary at Point 14 on the Master Pay Scale

is comparable to salaries for registered nurses in thepublic sector and for personnel officers in the manu-facturing and trading sectors. Point 17 is comparableto salaries for assistant engineers and assistant townplanners in the civil service and to salaries for mer-chandising officers in the private sector. Point 39approximates salaries for controllers of telecommuni-cations, chief medical technologists, and principalinformation officers in the civil service, and is compa-rable to the salary for accountants in the private sec-tor. Point 49 is the the highest point for senior profes-sionals, that 's. senior engineers, senior architects, orchief social work officers.

Teachers in Hong Kong are not compelled to jointeacher unions, but several teacher unions and profes-sional bodies have been established. Although theseunions do not have a direct say on the salary and pro-fessional status of teachers, they promote the interest ofeducation workers; the views of teacher unions andprofessional bodies are taken into account by the gov-ernment in the formulation of policies. An elected rep-resentative of teachers sits on Hong Kong's legislativeassembly.

Patterns of Supply and Demand forTeaching Positions

Generally, teacher vacancies in schools have stabilizedat less than 1 percent of the total establishment. Kinder-gartens have experienced a higher vacancy rate, at lessthan 2 percent.

The wastage rate in the existing stock of primaryschool teachers has remained around 10 percent. Newrecruits make up about 7 percent of the stock. The bal-ance represents the decline in primary school enroll-ment due to population change. Secondary schoolteachers have experienced a wastage rate of 11 percent.New recruits now make up 14 percent of the stock. Thegain is due to greater success in recruiting graduateteachers in recent years. Kindergartens have experi-enced a high overall wastage rate of about 20 percent.However, the wastage takes place mostly in theuntrained category. Trained, qualified kindergartenteachers suffer only a 9 percent wastage rate, which isno more than that in primary and secondary schools.

Regarding teachers trained to teach specific sub-jects, areas of shortage for secondary schools includeChinese literature, English language, and computer stud-ies, while the area of shortage for primary schools is inEnglish language.

Where fully qualified teachers cannot be found,schools are permitted to take on less qualified staff, andencouraged to put them through in-service training tobring them up to the required standards. When teach-ers for specific subjects cannot be found, schools haveto make do by failing back on teachers with closely

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 93

related training, such as utilizing mathematics teachersfor physics courses. In the final analysis, noncore sub-jects may he withdrawn.

The supply-and-demand situation in terms ofteachers' choices is highly volatile. Much depends onthe attractiveness of teaching vis -a -vis other employ-ment opportunities. In the special context of HongKong, it also fluctuates according to the propensity ofpeople to emigrate and, lately, on how many of thosewho have left later decide to return. The basic planningobjective is to produce enough qualified teachers tomeet anticipated demand in quantitative and qualitativeterms. Temporary shortfalls are met by ad hoc solutions,to the best extent possible.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Characteristics and Governance ofTeacher Education Programs

There are two main sources of teacher preparation. Non-graduate teachers for primary and secondary schoolsattend one of four government-run Colleges of Educa-tion (see Appendix 6-I for details and enrollment fig-ures). University graduate teachers attend one of sevendegree-granting institutionsthree universities, twopolytechnics, and two colleges (see Appendix 6-.). fordetails of in-service courses offered at these institutions).

The government Colleges of Education also pro-vide training for kindergarten teachers and for other in-service teacher education. Three of the seven tertiaryinstitutions offer various programs in education. Two ofthe universities also offer Post-Graduate Certificates inEducation (PGCE) to equip subject-based degree hold-ers to acquire the necessary teacher training. They alsocontribute to in-service training. The Colleges of Edu-cation are under the administrative jurisdiction of theFurther Education Division, which is one of ten divi-sions in the Education Department. The colleges areunder the immediate direction of an Assistant Directorof Education (an outline of the organizational structureof the Colleges of Education can be found in Appendix6-K). Education-related programs are also offered byfaculties or schools of education within the tertiary insti-tutions mentioned above. These programs are detailedin Appendix 6-L.

The Colleges of Education have a total lecturingstaff of 440, representing 6.2 percent of tl-e total for theEducation Department. Spending for the collegesaccounts for HK$188 million, which represents 1.5 per-cent of the recurrent expenditure of the departmentatotal of HK$13 billion in fiscal year 1992-1993. Of thetotal recurrent spending on tertiary education, amount-ing to HK$6.4 billion in 1992-1993, it is estimated that

education-specific programs accounted for HK$98 mil-lion, or 1.5 percent. It is not possible to isolate the exactexpenditure incurred in educating First Degree holderswho subsequently join the teaching force. On theassumed unit cost of HK$95,000 per graduate in1992-1993, and on the basis of 1,870 graduates takeninto the teaching profession over the same period oftime, the cost would come to HK$178 million. Thus, thetotal annual cost attributable to preparing teachers at thetertiary level would be some HK$276 million, or 4.3percent of the sum devoted to tertiary education. Totalspending on teachers would thus be HK$464 million, or2.4 percent of the total spending on education as a pro-gram area.

POLICY GUIDANCE

The general policy on preservice and in-service teacherpreparation is that the curriculum should be relevantand kept up-to-date, and that the instruction should bemaintained at a high standard.

The Education Department is responsible for devel-oping and delivering the curriculum for nongraduateteachers through the teacher training colleges. The tertiaryinstitutionsas autonomous academic institutionsaresimilarly responsible for programs offered for universitygraduate teachers. The present arrangement has beenfound to be inadequate. Improvements are describedunder the section on Policy Issues and Trends, below.

Accreditation/Approval

The institutions responsible for running the respectiveteacher preparation programs also determine the acad-emic qualities of these programs. The Colleges of Edu-cation are not externally accredited. Universities inHong Kong are self-accrediting, and employ networksof external examiners and peer group review. Nonuni-versity tertiary institutions are subject to external reviewby an independent accrediting body.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

The goals are to attract good-quality recruits; equipthem with an understanding of young people, teachingskills, and subject knowledge; and support them in theirprofessional development. The specific qualities are ofthese goals are:

102

Physical and psychological well-beingSociability

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94 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Positive attitudes toward the profession, learn-ing, and other peopleGood communication skillsAlertness, sensitivity, flexibility, adaptability, andassertiveness

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

This section is applicable to entry into the full-time,preservice programs offered by the Colleges of Edu-cation. Apart from meeting minimum academicrequirements, detailed in Appendix 6-M, candidatesmust undergo two interviews and a practical test forcertain subjects. The first interview involves an assess-ment of the candidate's general qualities, includiagattitudes toward teaching and adaptability to theworking environment. The second interview assessesthe candidate's competence in coping with the lan-guage requirement of the academic programs, whichare conducted in either English or Chinese. The prac-tical test is for candidates intending to study physicaleducation, music, art and design, technical drawing,or computer literacy.

Candidates are selected on the basis of howwell they perform in the interviews and on the prac-tical test, if applicable. Where merits are equal, pref-erence is given to the candidates receiving the high-est grades in public examinations. The number ofentrants into the Colleges of Education is determinedby projection of demand and, in the short term, con-strained by physical capacity at the colleges. In 1993,the target intake was 1,100. There were 9,315 appli-cants, of whom 2,173 were interviewed; 1,199 werefinally registered.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Preparation Curricula

A detailed explanation of of full-time preservice cours-es offered by the Colleges of Education appears inAppendix 6-I.

Differences in the Nature and Content ofTeacher Preparation Programs

The Colleges of Education operate below the degreelevel. Their programs teach a combination of subjectknowledge and pedagogy. Degree-level education-related programs have particular focuses, whetherthey be the training of school administrators, physicaleducators, or music teachers. The Post-Graduate Cer-tificate of Education offered by the two universitiesaims to equip subject-based graduates with pedagog-ical skills.

Linkages Between Curricular Standards forTeacher Education and

Curricular Standards for Students

Hong Kong has developed a common core curriculumfor the general guidance of schools. Individual schoolsare encouraged to develop their own school-based cur-riculum to suit their own needs. In practice, mostschools follow the common core curriculum, withminor adaptations. The teacher education curriculumin use at the Colleges of Education is designed with theschool common core curriculum in mind. Emphasis isput, however, on the need to adapt to suit the needs ofschools and students. The teacher education curriculaused by tertiary institutions follow a similar approach.

LICENSING

Initial Requirements

The registration of teachers is governed by law andadministered by the Education Department. There aretwo channels for obtaining a license to teach. The firstis to become a registered teacher. This status applies toholders of Teacher Certificates from the Colleges of Edu-cation (whether obtained preservice or in-service) anduniversity degree-holders with a Post-Graduate Certifi-cate of Education. Registered teachers can teach in allschools, subject to the schools themselves deciding onthe level of classes and subjects taught.

The second is to be granted the status of a permit-ted teacher. This approval limits the teacher to particularsubjects within particular schools, and is not transferable.It applies to graduates who do not have the PGCE andto candidates who do not have Teacher Certificates.

Licensing Reauthorization

The status of a registered or permitted teacher, oncegranted, is not subject to further renewal.

Status of Qualifying Conditions

There are no variations in statutory requirements forteacher registration. The statutory authority, however, inthe person of the Director of Education, can exercisecertain discretions on interpretation of the law.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction or Transition Processes

The induction of new teachers takes the form of talksand seminars organized by the Education Department,

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN

and by other teacher organizations, in the summerhol-idays before the start of the new term. Schools are alsoencouraged to offer school-based programs with thehelp of the more experienced teachers. Some fundingis provided by the government for this purpose.

Professional Development Opportunities

A wide range of in-service courses is available for teach-ers at different levels for the purposes of professionaldevelopment. Some of these are prerequisites for pro-motion to higher ranks (for details, see Appendix 6-J).

It is recognized that a more structured and coherentframework of in-service development is needed.Improvements are expected to emerge from the newInstitute of Education and the new Advisory Committeeon Teacher Education and Qualifications (see sectionbelow).

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Present Concerns for Change and Improvement

The most pressing problem is the need to revitalize teach-ing in primary schools. A past preoccupation has been toexpand opportunities for education. This has beenachieved at the expense of quality. Now, the communi-ty expects far more in terms of facilities and teachers. Theadvent of universal education has also brought with itproblems not evident in an earlier era, when those for-tunate enough to gain access to education were motivat-ed and able to do well. Now teachers have to cope withpupils of much more diverse backgrounds, motivations,and abilities. This challenge puts new demands on theskills and dedication of the individual teacher.

Increased career opportunities outside of teach-ing and expanded access to tertiary education have hadthe effect of luring people of good quality away froma career in teaching. There is still no shortage of peo-ple interested in becoming teachers. But it is necessary

HONG KONG 95

to uphold and improve the level of quality of recruitsby increasing the competitiveness of a teaching careerin terms of status, initial prospects, and the availabilityof a clear path for career and professional develop-ment. Separately, as Hong Kong becomes a more afflu-

ent community, its present stand of leaving the kinder-garten sector in the hands of private operators hascome under increasing pressure. The upgrading of thequality and professional competence of kindergartenteachers has become a major issue (especially whenimprovements to the primary school sector are beingpursued vigorously).

Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement

In response to the problems in the primary school sec-tor, the government has embarked on an ambitious pro-gram to:

Upgrade 35 percent of the primary teachingposts to graduate status by the year 2007Upgrade the present government-run Collegesof Education to a new, autonomous, tertiary-level Institute of Education, with the authorityto offer its own degree programs (the newInstitute will be subject to external academicaccreditation)Create a new body to assess supply and demandof teachers and to recommend to the govern-ment how the demand should best be met bythe existing and new program providers

These initiatives are estimated to cost HK$22 bil-lion over a 15-year period. The reforms, to be imple-mented in stages, began in 1993. As regards the situa-tion in the kindergartens, the government has embarkedon a review of what must be done. Present indicationsare that the upgrading of teacher preparation for thissector is a foregone conclusion.. The focus is on howimprovements could best be achieved through govern-ment action, without detracting from the merits of a pri-

vately run sector.

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96 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Normal age

of study

21

20

19

Appendix 6-A

EDUCATION SYSTEM OF HONG KONG

LEVEL OF PROVISION FOR EDUCATION

SLISDEGREE 6%

r-vmr16 TECHNICIAN el-.17 COURSES

FIRST DEGREE

18%

16 CRAFT COURSES IC% Eleb 7.

16 cypti-taa_4,111-billete `ft

SIXTH FORM 28%

14

13

12

11

10

9

U

7

a

5

4

3

11774.-79:1 'Vat,

; p;".

Viraigkezi :14,111

w-eg,

,L6SMAitY"..14x.

ittteRE OWEOPIParldirik

gsgark,s.

103

Grads/year

of study

2

1

Secondary 7

Secondary 6

Secondary 5

Secondary 4

Secondary 3

Secondary 2

Se-1Primary 6

Primary 3

Primary 4

Primary 3

Primary 2

Primary 1

Upper

WNW

Nursery

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 97

Appendix 6-B

NUMBER OF DAY SCHOOLS AND ENROLLMENTBY LEVEL AND TYPE, 1992

TABLE B-1

Level Government Aided Private Total

KINDERGARTENNo. of schools 743 743

Enrollment 189,730 189,730

PRIMARYNo. of schools 48 562 78 652

Enrollment 31,050 421,768 48,807 501,625

SECONDARY

No. of schools 40 323 92 455

Enrollment 38,604 349,036 58,145 445,785

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98 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 6-C

PUBLIC SECTOR SECONDARY EDUCATION ANDVOCATIONAL TRAINING INSTITUTIONS

Grammar Schools and Technical Schools

The general aim of grammar schools and technicalschools is that all children should follow a broadly sim-ilar course of secondary education comprising a bal-inced blend of academic, practical, and cultural sub-jects. Technical schools give additional stress on andfacilities for practical subjects within the standard coursebut the differences between grammar and technical_.chools are not great. Grammar and technical schoolsoffer a five-year course leading to. the Hong Kong Cer-tificate of Education Examination and, except for a smallminority, a further two-year course leading to the HongKong Advanced Level Examination.

Special Schools

Special schools are aided schools catering to childrenwith special educational needs. Some special schoolsalso operate a boarding section. In general, the ordinaryschool curricula and syllabi are followed in specialschools as closely as possible. However, to cater to thevaried learning needs of pupils, adapted or speciallydesigned curricula for different subjects, as well as pro-grams on daily living skills, are provided.

Prevocational Schools

Prevocational schools provide the link between gener-al education and education for employment through aknowledge of broad-based basic skills and a wide rangeof applications of modern techniques in at least twomajor fields of local employment. Pupils graduated froma prevocational school should have acquired a solidfoundation of general knowledge and an introductionto a broad-based technical and practical education on

which future vocational training may be based. Prevo-cational schools offer a five-year course leading to theHong Kong Certificate of Education Examination andmost of them also offer a further two-year course lead-ing to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination.

Other Schools

1. Skills Opportunity Schools: Skills opportunityschools are junior secondary schools for studentswith severe learning problems and who cannotbenefit from the ordinary curriculum, even withintensive remedial support. Skills-related subjectsare provided in the curriculum.

2. Practical Schools: Practical schools are junior sec-ondary schools for unmotivated students. A con-siderable emphasis is laid in practical learning with-in the curriculum. Hong Kong Sea School is one ofthe practical schools.

Technical Institutes

The technical institutes offer craft and technician cours-es to Secondary 3 and Se 5 leavers, respective-ly. The duration of full-time courses is one year for basiccraft courses and two years for technician courses. Part-time courses are offered on a day-release or eveningbasis, and the duration is normally either two or threeyears. The wide range of disciplines include commer-cial studies, computing studies, design, engineering,hotel keeping and tourism studies, clothing, and textileand construction industries.

Industrial Training Centers

Industrial training centers offer basic training or skillsupgrading for industrial craftsmen and technicians, andfor clerical and supervisory personnel in the service sec-tor. There are at present 19 training centers for differentsectors.

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Appendix 6-D

NUMBER OF KINDERGARTEN TEACHERS BY AGE, GENDER, AND

TYPE OF KINDERGARTEN, 1992

TABLE D-1

Age Group Gender

Type of KindergartenTotalProfit-making Non-profit making

15 MaleFemale 1 1

Subtotal 1 1

16-19 Male 2 2

Female 538 391 929

Subtotal 538 393 931

20-24 Male 1 1 2

Female 895 772 1,667

Subtotal 896 773 1,669

25-29 Male 11

Female 613 974 1,587

Subtotal 614 974 1,588

30-34 Male 2 7 9

Female 514 863 1,377

Subtotal 516 870 1,386

35-39 Male 4 3 7

Female 348 466 814

Subtotal 352 469 821

40-44 Male 4 6 10

Female 263 370 633

Subtotal 267 376 643

45-49 Male 2 4 6

Female 150 203 353

Subtotal 152 207 359

50-54 Male 2 2 4

Female 68 77 145

Subtotal 70 79 149

55-59 Male 8 3 11

Female 32 54 86

Subtotal 40 57 97

60 and above Male 3 7 10

Female 28 23 51

Subtotal 31 30 61

Total Male 27 35 62

Female 3,449 4,194 7,643

Subtotal 3,476 4,229 7,705

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100 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 6-E

NUMBER OF PERMANENT PRIMARY TEACHERS BYAGE, GENDER, AND SECTOR, 1992

TABLE E-1

Age Group Gender

Sector

TotalGovernment Aided Private

16-19 Male 2 2Female 25 25Subtotal 27 27

20-24 Male 36 156 30 224Female 137 769 354 1,260Subtotal 175 925 384 1,484

25-29 Male 20 508 52 580Female 128 1,859 346 2,333Subtotal 148 2,367 398 2,913

30-34 Male 12 504 30 546Female 95 1,533 182 1,810Subtotal 107 2,037 212 2,356

35-39 Male 17 497 20 534Female 127 1,513 96 1,736Subtotal 144 2,010 116 2,270

40-44 Male 17 718 10 745Female 95 2,202 115 2,412Subtotal 112 2,920 125 3,157

45-49 Male 16 619 7 642Female 95 1,585 68 1,748Subtotal 111 2,204 75 2,390

50-54 Male 39 552 10 601Female 187 1,216 68 1,471Subtotal 226 1,768 78 2,072

55-59 Male 25 531 9 565Female 98 686 40 824Subtotal 123 1,217 49 1,389

60 and above Male 2 48 18 68Female 5 43 18 66Subtotal 7 91 36 134

Total Male 186 4,133 188 4,507Female 967 11,406 1,312 13,685Subtotal 1,153 15,539 1,500 18,192

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 101

Appendix 6-F

NUMBER OF PERMANENT SECONDARY TEACHERS BYAGE, GENDER, AND SECTOR, 1992

TABLE F-1

Age Group Gender

Sector

TotalGovernment Aided CAPUT/APS

PrivatewithStandardStaffStructure Private

16-19 Male 2 2

Female1 1

Subtotal3 3

20-24 Male 61 559 17 22 71 730

Female 104 1,243 41 32 54 1,474

Subtotal 165 1,802 58 54 125 2,204

25-29 Male 106 1,738 75 120 179 2,218

Female 148 2,282 47 118 89 2,684

Subtotal 254 4,020 122 238 268 4,902

30-34 Male 114 1,753 60 115 113 2,155

Female 144 1,764 53 100 63 2,124

Subtotal 258 3,517 113 215 176 4,279

35-39 Male 195 1,529 44 83 89 1,940

Female 205 1,353 37 79 39 1,713

Subtotal 400 2,882 81 162 128 3,653

40-44 Male 175 1,072 31 47 56 1,381

Female 141 870 18 31 31 1,091

Subtotal 316 1,942 49 78 87 2,472

45-49 Male 91 469 13 12 38 623

Female 73 368 4 19 13 477

Subtotal 164 837 17 31 51 1,100

50-54 Male 104 361 17 33 38 553

Female 69 221 11 11 16 328

Subtotal 173 582 28 44 54 881

55-59 Male 67 260 13 27 33 400

Female 12 90 5 6 6 119

Subtotal 79 350 18 33 39 519

60 and above Male 1 51 5 8 33 103

Female 16 6 3 11 36

Subtotal 1 67 11 11 49 139

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102 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 6-G

MASTER PAY SCALE (IN HONG KONG DOLLARS*)

TABLE G-1

Point As of Jan. 1992 As of Jan. 1993

49 HK$54,635 HK$59,96548 52,740 57,88547 50,905 55,87546 (44B) 49,125 53,92045 (44A) 47,420 52,05044 45,765 50,23043 44,175 48,48542 42,350 46,48541 40,605 44,57040 38,925 42,72539 37,320 40,96038 35,670 39,15037 34,095 37,42536 (33C) 32,565 35,74535 (33B) 31,120 34,15534 (33A) 29,740 32,64533 28,530 31,57032 27,245 30,15031 26,020 28,79530 24,855 27,50529 23,745 26,27528 22,675 25,09027 21,655 23,96526 20,685 22,89025 19,760 21,86524 18,890 20,90523 18,040 19,96522 17,235 19,07021 16,450 18,20520 15,670 17,34019 14,925 16,51518 14,220 15,73517 13,545 14,99016 12,895 14,27015 12,280 13,59014 11,695 12,94013 11,130 12,31512 10,490 11,61011 9,875 10,93010 9,305 10,2959 8,765 9,7008 8,225 9,1057 7,720 8,5456 7,245 8,0205 6,805 7,5354 6,380 7,0653 5,995 6,6352 5,625 6,2251 5,285 5,850

*Note: The Hong Kong dollar is linked to the U.S. dollar at a fixed exchange rate of HK$7.8 = US$1.

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 103

Appendix 6-H

RANKS AND CORRESPONDING SALARY POINTS FOR NONGRADUATEPRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS AND FOR UNIVERSITY GRADUATE

SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS

TABLE H-1

Nongraduate Primary School Teachers

Rank Salary Point (Master Pay Scale)

Certified Master 14-24Assistant Master 25-29Senior Assistant Master 30-33Principal Assistant Master 34-39

TABLE H-2

University Graduate Secondary School Teachers

Rank Salary Point (Master Pay Scale)

Graduate Master 17-33Senior Graduate Master 34-39Principal Graduate Master/Assistant Principal 38-41Principal II 40-44Principal I 45-49

i 2

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104 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 6 -I

COURSES OFFERED AND ENROLLMENT ATCOLLEGES OF EDUC.AfiON

Courses Offered

1. Three-year full-time (Chinese) preservice teachertraining using Chin6se as the medium of instruction,designed to produce qualified teachers of generalsubjects at primary level and two elective subjectsup to Secondary 3. Minimum entry qualification forthis course is Grade E in six different subjects at theHong Kong Certificate of Education Examination(HKCEE), including English language and Chineselanguage, obtained in not more than two sittings.

2. Three-year, full-time (English) preservice teachertraining using English as the medium of instruction,designed to produce qualified teachers of generalsubj.- its at primary level and two elective subjectsup to Secondary 3. Minimum entry qualification forthis course is Grade E in six different subjects at theHKCEE level, including English language and Chi-nese language, in not more than two sittings.

3. Three-year, full-time (English) preservice teachertraining using English as the medium of instruction,designed to produce qualified teachers of prevo-cational schools. Minimum entry qualification forthis course is Grade E in six different subjects,including English language and Chinese language,at the HKCEE level in not more than two sittings.

4. Two-year, full-time (English) preservice trainingusing English as the medium of instruction,designed to produce qualified teachers for generalsubjects at primary level, and two elective subjectsup to Secondary 3. The minimum qualification forthis course is Grade E or above in at least two sub-jects at A-Level in HKAL.

5. One-year, full-time Advanced Course of TeacherEducation (ACrE) designed to equip serving, quali-fied, non-graduate teachers of cultural, technical, andpractical subjects to teach their specialized subjectsup to S ondary 4 and Secondary 5 levels. Teachersattending e course are granted full-pay study leaveand school releas:;.ng the teachers for the course areprovided wi h temporary replacement teachers.

6. Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Trainingfor Teachers in Primary Schools (2Y ICTI[13]) foracademically qualified teachers employed in aidedor private schools who do not possess the profes-

sional qualifications to make them eligible for clas-sification as "Qualified Teachers." Applicants mustbe: Diploma holders of HK Baptist Colletge (from1970); graduates or final year students of HK ShuYan College (from 1976) or Lingnan College, HK(from 1979); or holders of a Higher Diploma award-ed by the HK Polytechnic or City Polytechnic of HK.

7. Three-year, part-time, In-service Course of Trainingfor Teachers in Primary Schools (3-Y ICTT[P]) foracademically qualified teachers employed in aidedor private schools who do not possess the profes-sional qualifications to make them eligible for clas-sification as "Qualified Teachers." The general entryrequirements are that applicants should be full-time, permitted or registered teachers in primaryschools and should have at least five subjects atGrade E or above in the HKCEE.

8. Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Trainingfor Teachers in Secondary Schools (2-Y ICTT[SDand

9. Three-year part-time Inservice Course of Training forTeachers in Secondary Schools (3Y ICTT[S]). Thesecourses are provided for academically qualifiedteachers employed in aided or private schools whodo not posses he professional qualifications tomake them el .,ole for classification as "QualifiedTeachers." The general entry requirements of thethree-year course is five subjects at Grade E or abovein the HKCEE. For the two-year course, applicantsmust be: Diploma holders of HK Baptist Colletge(from 1970); graduates or final -year students of HKShu Yan College (from 1976) or Lingnan College, HK(from 1979); or holders of a Higher Diploma award-ed by the HK Polytechnic or City Polytechnic of HK.

10. Part-time Refresher Training Course for Serving Sec-ondary School Teachers (Nongraduate) (RTaNGDto acquaint serving, qualified, nongraduate sec-ondary school teachers who have more than fiveyears of teaching experience after their initialteacher training with modern teaching methodsand approaches at secondary level.

11. Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training forQualified Kindergarten Teachers (2-Y QKT). Open toserving kindergarten teachers with Grade E or abovein at least two subjects in HKCEE. On successful

113

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 105

completion of the course, participants will be accord-ed "Qualified Kindergarten Teacher" (QKT) status.

12. Twelve-week, part-time In-service Course of Train-ing for Qualified Assistant Kindergarten Teacher(12-week QAKT). Open to serving kindergartenteachers. On successful completion of the course,participants will be accorded "Qualified AssistantKindergarten Teacher" (QAKT) status.

13. Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training forTeachers of Children with Special Educational Needs(2-Y ICTIISED provides initial in-service training forqualified nongraduate or graduate teachers teachingin special schools or special education classes.

14. One-year, full-time course provides initial teachertraining to those who wish to become technicalteachers in prevocational schools. Applicants mustpossess either a Diploma/Higher Certificate/High-er Diploma awarded by a Polytechnic or a Techni-cal Institute or an equivalent qualification, andshould have at least two years of relevant postqual-ification industrial experience.

15. Two-year, part-time In-service Course of Training forTechnical Teachers (2-Y ICITET)) for academicallyqualified teachers employed in aided or privateschools who do not possess the professional quali-fications to make them eligible for classification as"Qualified Teachers." The general entry require-ments are that applicants must be: Diploma holdersof HK Baptist College (from 1970); graduates or final

year students of HK Shu Yan College (from 1976) orLingnan College, HK (from 1979); or holders of aHigher Diploma awarded by the HI( Polytechnic orCity Polytechnic of HK. They should also havemajored in a technical or commercial discipline.

16. Part-time Refresher Training Course for Serving Sec-ondary School Technical Teachers (RTC[T]) toacquaint serving technical and commercial subjectteacherswho have more than five years of teach-ing experience after their initial teacher training .with modem teaching methods and approaches atsecondary level.

17. Five-week Retrair ing Course for Primary SchoolTeachers (PRC) to acquaint serving, qualified pri-mary school teacherswho have more than fiveyears of teaching experience after their initialteacher trainingwith modern teaching methodsand approaches at primary level.

18. Part-time courses: A range of trainers' training pro-grams for a wide spectrum of the HK community,notably the industrial and the commercial sectors,is provided.

19. In-service Short Courses for Technical/CommercialTeachers. Short courses and seminars on specifictopics tailored to the needs of serving technical andcommercial teachers are provided.

Figures for student enrollment in the above courses, asof January 1993, are shown in Table I-1.

TABLE 1-1

Student Enrollment in Government Colleges of Education Courses as of Jan. 1993

Courses

(a)(b)

(c)

(d)(e)

(f)

(9)(h)

(i)

(i)(k)

(I)

(m)(n)

(o)

(p)(q)(r)

(s)

3-year Fulltime (Chinese)3-year Fulltime (English)3-year Fulltime (English) (Technical and Commercial)2-year Fulltime (English)ACTE

2-year ICTT (Primary)

3-year ICTT (Primary)2-year ICTT (Secondary)

3-year ICTT (Secondary)RTC (non-graduate)2-year QKT12-week QAKT2-year ICU (Special Education)1-year fulltime (Technical)2-year ICTT (Technical)RTC (Technical)

RC (Primary)

Part-time coursesInservice short courses

Total

Enrollment

367855126659

94161

33338

171

201

294160338

9

2032

174491

4,523

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106 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 6-j-

IN-SERVICE COURSESAT THE COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

Advanced Course of Teacher Education (ACTE)

This is a one-year, full-time course, which is intendedto equip nongraduate teachers of cultural, practical, andtechnical subjects to teach these subjects up to seniorsecondary level. The course will comprise a core ofstudies in Education, Educational Technology, Comple-mentary Studies, and Language Skills, which all studentsmust follow. In addition, each student will study indepth, on an elective basis, one area of subject special-ization. Practical teaching in schools will form an inte-gral part of the course. For technical teachers, the prac-tical teaching element.. will be replaced by a period ofattachment to industry or to commercial firms.

The areas of subject specialization offered are asfollows:

Art and DesignHome Economics (Home Management)Home Economics (Dress and Design)Physical EducationMusicCommerceDesign and Technology

An applicant should have two years full-time,posttraining teaching experience in the subject forwhich the application is made. Successful applicants willbe granted one year full-pay study leave.

Part-Time Conversion Course for Serving Primaryand Secondary School Teachers

This is one year, part-time conversion course for (1)holders of part-time "In-service Course of Training forTeachers in Primary Schools" who are now teaching atsecondary level; and (2) holders of part-time "In-serviceCourse of Training for Teachers in Secondary Schools"who are now teaching at primary level.

Core studies for the first category above consist ofstudies in Education, Teaching Techniques, and Educa-tional Technology, while core studies for the second cat-egory consist of studies in Education and Primary Stud-ies in Chinese, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Scienceand Health Education. For practical teaching, teacherswill he supervised in their teaching throughout the

course of training.

Course for Teachers of Children with SpecialEducation Needs

This is a one-year, full-time course for nongraduateteachers in special schools and special classes. The cur-riculum of the course in the one-year study period willinclude a Common Core Program, which covers essen-tial areas of general and generic studies in special edu-cation.

In addition to the Common Core, each trainee willbe required to take up a major and a minor elective tostudy in depth the adaptation and teaching techniquesfor two types of children with special education needs.The areas of specialization are as follows:

Education of children with learning difficultiesEducation of mentally handicapped childrenEducation of visually handicapped childrenEducation of hearing-impaired childrenEducation of maladjusted and socially deprivedchildrenEducation of physically handicapped childrenManagement of children with speech and lan-guage problems

Retraining Course for Special Education Teachers

This is a one-year, part-time course of 150 hours' dura-tion. The course aims to provide experienced teachersof children with special educational needs with anopportunity to update their professional knowledge andskills in special education.

The course consists of two main areas of studiesOptional Studies and Specialized Studies. Optional Stud-ies covers both (1) the latest developments in theoryand practice in the generic domain of special educationand (2) a variety of issues in special education aimingat catering to the diversified needs and interests of indi-vidual participants. The following areas of SpecializedStudies are offered:

Education of children with learning difficultiesEducation of mentally handicapped childrenEducation of visually handicapped children

115

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 107

Education of hearing-impaired childrenEducation of maladjusted and socially deprivedchildrenEducation of physically handicapped childrenManagement of children with speech and lan-guage problems

Retraining Course for Primary School Teachers

This course lasts for five weeks and involves the use ofdistance learning techniques. The aim of the course forteachers is to acquaint serving teachers with modernteaching methods and approaches at primary level, to pro-mote further understanding in the use of resources, andto introduce new concepts in curriculum development.

Together with lectures, wordshops, tutorials, andseminars, the course will emphasize the use of distancelearning techniques and independent, self-paced study.To ensure its efficiency and effectiveness, learning pack-ages comprising audio, video, and printed materials willbe used throughout the course.

The course content is divided into two modules,Core Area of Study and Curriclum and Methodology.Core areas consist of:

Child development and its implication for learn-ingActivity approach and topic workStudent guidanceSchool administration and extracurricular activi-tiesComputer applicationRemedial teaching

Curriculum and Methodology consists of theteaching of Chinese, Mathematics, English, Arts andCrafts, Music, Physical Education, and General Subjects.

Course for Teachers of School-based RemedialSupport Program

This course lasts for four weeks. The course is speciallydesigned for teachers of the three basic subjects of Chi-nese, English, and Mathematics, who will teach the bot-tom 10 percent junior secondary students. The curriculumof the course will include the characteristics and specialneeds of the target group of students and methods ofunderstanding and meeting their needs. Classroom man-agement and management of behavior problems com-monly associated with these students will be included.

Refresher Training Course for Serving SecondarySchool Teachers (Nongraduate)

This course is operated on 19 alternate Saturday morn-ings and one weekday afternoon in sessions of three

hours each per week for a duration of 37 weeks. TheSaturday mornings are for lectures and the weekdayafternoons for independent studies, assignments, pro-jects, tutorials, seminars, and visits.

The aim of the course is to acquaint teachers withrecent methods and approaches to teaching in sec-ondary schools and to promote further understandingof the use of resources and new concepts in curriculumdevelopment. The course is subject-based, with half ofthe total contact hours allocated to the core studiesconsisting of compulsory and optional subjectsandhalf to the study of the elective subject. Core studiesinclude Educational Ideology and School Practices inEducation, Educational Technology, and Optional Sub-jects. These last include two sets. Set I is as follows:

Computers in TeachingComputers in School AdministrationWorkship on Video Program ProductionJuvenile DelinquencyStudent Counseling and Guidance.

Set II is as follows:

Skills of Conducting Small Group DiscussionsMixed Ability TeachingParent-Teacher RelationsEducational EvaluationEducation for DemocracyClarification of Con-cepts.

For elective studies, teachers should select onesubject, on an elective basis, from fourteen subjects.

Refresher Training Course for Serving SecondarySchool Teachers (Graduate)

The course is operated on a mode covering 19 alternateSaturday mornings in sessions of four hours each forlectures, and one three-hour weekday afternoon perweek for independent studies, tutorials, and seminars.

The aim of the course is to acquaint serving grad-uate teachers with modern methods of teaching in sec-ondary schools and to promote further understandingof new developments in secondary education.

The course is held at the University of Hong Kongand the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The %.ourseat the University of Hong Kong comprises six compo-nentsnew developments in curriculum and teaching,core studies, options, seminars, tutorials, and indepen-dent study. Participants are required to select one sub-ject, on an elective basis, from 13 subjects. General stud-ies are conducted in the following:

The education system in Hong Kongits impli-cations for teachingNew developments in educational technology

1 JO

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108 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Psychology of learningModern trends of assessmentCurricular trends and roles of teachers in cur-riculum design and innovations

Core studies includes Philosophy of Education andManagement of a Department in Schools. Optional stud-ies include the following:

Children with learning difficultiesCounseling skillsEnvironmental educationHandling school delinquencyHome-school cooperationMastery learningOrganizing extracurricular activitiesPersonal development of teachersPersonal moral and religious eductionSchool initiatives in curriculum design and inno-vationsSkills in conducting small-group teachingThe concepts of school managementInitiatives (SMI)Using microcomputers in schools.

The program of the Chinese University of Hong Kongis designed to ensure a balance between theory andpractice and a foundation on which the participatingteachers' further professional and career developmentscan be built. The program comprises the followingcourses and nonlecturing-type sessions:

1. Advances in curriculum studies and teachingmethods: The purpose of this cow-6e is to enableparticipating teachers to nurture a fresh outlookon their major areas of responsibility throughlectures, group discussions, and tutorials.

2. Contemporary theories in education: The purposeof this course is to elucidate new developmentsin educational theories from a global perspective.

3. Educational technologyanalysis of instruc-tional processes: The purpose of this course is toprovide participants with opportunities to assessthe efficacy of a variety of audiovisual aids inrelation to improvement of teaching in class-rooms.

4. Cognate courses: The purpose of this course isto enhance the participants' understanding oftheir role as teachers in the classroom andschool, and to broaden their perception of theirpotential contribution to the community.

5. Seminars6. Tutorials7. Independent Studies

Refresher Training Course for Serving SecondarySchool Technical Teachers

This course is operated on 18 alternate Saturday morn-ings and a weekday afternoon in sessions of three hoursper week for a duration of 33 weeks. The Saturdaymornings are for lectures and the weekday afternoonsfor independent studies, assignments, projects, tutorials,seminars, and visits.

The aim of the course is to acquaint serving tech-nical or commercial subject teachers with recent meth-ods and approaches to teaching in secondary schoolsand to promote further understnding of the use ofresources and new concepts in curriculum develop-ment. The curriculum comprises two main areas, Pro-fessional Studies and Elective Studies. The ProfessionalStudies program aims at improving participants' under-standing of current educational issues relevant to theirteaching, and at developing skills necessary for handlingproblems they encounter in teaching. The EducationalTechnology part of the program introduces to partici-pants the systems approach in instructional design andthe selection, application, and evaluation of instructionalmedia for both teaching and learning situations. ForElective Studies, teachers select one subject on an elec-tive basis from 11 subjects.

Course for Principal Graduate Masters/Mistresses(PGM) in Secondary Schools.

This course is operated by the University of Hong Kongand the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The aim ofthe course is to give graduate teachers in secondaryschools the opportunity to improve their efficiency andknowledge in discharging their duties after their pro-motion to PGM. The different subjects offered in thiscourse are School Administration, Curriculum Devel-opment, Remedial teaching, Pastoral Care, and Extra-Curricular Activities. The course has a duration of tenmeetings, each three hours long.

Course for Principal Assistant Masters/Misstresses(PAM) in Secondary Schools.

This course is operated by the University of Hong Kongand the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The aim ofthe course is to give nongraduate teachers in secondaryschools the opportunity to improve their efficiency andknowledge in discharging their duties after their pro-motion to PAM. The different subjects offered in thiscourse are Pastoral Care, Guidance/Counseling, andExtra-Curricular Activities. The duration of the course isten meetings, each three hours long.

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 109

Appendix 6-K

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF THECOLLEGES OF EDUCATION

Director of Education

Deputy Director

Senior Assistant Director Senior Assistant Director(Services & Institutions) (Development)

Assistant Director(Further Education)

Principal, Principal, Principal, Principal,Grantham Northcote Sir Robert Hong KongCollege of College of Black TechnicalEducation Education College of Teachers'(GCE) (NCE) Education College

(SRBCE) (HKTTC)

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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110 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 6 -L

PROGRAMS IN EDUCATION OFFERED BYHONG KONG TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS, 1993/1994

TABLE 1-1

Program

B Ed

B Ed

B Sc in Speechand Hearing Sciences

BA in Physical Educationand Recreation Studies

CERT ED

PGCE

M Ed

M Phil

PhD

ModeYears ofDuration Entry Requirements Institution

PT 4 Teacher's Certificate HKU, CUHK

FT 4 A-level HKU

FT 4 A-level HKU

FT 3 A-level HKBC

PT 1 First degree or Teacher Certificateplus 2 years teaching experience

HKU

Fr 1 First degree HKU, CUHK

PT 2 First degree HKU, CUHK, HKBC

FT 1 PGCE HKU

PT 2 PGCE HKU, CUHK

FT 1 PGCE HKU, CUHK

PT 3 PGCE CUHK

Fr 3 M Ed/M Phil in Ed HKU, CUHK

PT 4 M Ed/M Phil in Ed CUHK

KeyPGCEPostgraduate Certificate in EducationHKUUniversity of Hong KongCUHKChinese University of Hong KongHKBCHong Kong Baptist CollegeFTfulltimePTpart-time

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6 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG 111

Appendix 6-M

ENTRY REQUIREMENTS FORPRESERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

TABLE M-1

3-Year Course 2-Year Course

1. Applicants should have completed 5 yearsof education in a secondary school.

2. Applicants should have reached 17 years of ageby 30 Sept. in the year of application.

Applicants should have completed 2 years of educationbeyond the level of Secondary 5 in a secondary school.

Applicants should have reached 18 years of ageby 30 September in the year of application.

3. (a) Applicants should have attained Grade E or above in 6 different subjects at HKCEE level in not more than two sittings, with at least

4 subjects in one sitting.

(b) Applicants should have obtained not less than 11 pointsfor the 6 subjects, calculated on the basis of 1 pointfor Grade E, progressing to 5 points for Grade A.

(b) Applicants should have attained Grade E in at least 2 subjectsat A-level in HKALE, plus at least Grade D in one other subjectat HKCEE.

(c) The 6 subjects mentioned above at (a) must include Chinese Language and English Language. Applicants for the English Courseshould have attained at least Grade E in Syllabus B or at least Grade C in Syllabus A in English.

4. Those who have attained public examination results comparable to the standards stated in 3 above may also apply.

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Teacher Training and.Professional Developmentin Japan

Submitted by: International Affairs PlanningDivision, Ministry of Education, Science, andCulture

CONTEXT

Definitions

The following information is provided for definition-al purposes. Additional information is provided in thefollowing section, "General Structure of the EducationSystem."

Pre-Primary Schooling: Education in kinder-gartens and in kindergarten departments of schools forthe visually impaired, hearing impaired, and otherwisehandicapped.

In Terms of Grade/Levels: n/aAge Range of Students: 3-6Type and Level of Education Required to Teach atThis Level: Associate's degree from junior collegeswith certified teacher training courses.

Note: In pre-primary schooling (kindergarten), childrenreceive comprehensive instruction in the areas of health,human relationships, the environment, language, andexpression.

Primary Schooling: Education in elementaryschools and in elementary departments of schools forthe visually impaired, hearing impaired, and otherwisehandicapped.

In Terms of Grade/Levels: 1-6Age Range of Students: 6-12

7

Type and Level of Education Required to Teach atThis Level: Associate's degree from junior collegeswith certified teacher training courses.

Note: In primary schooling (elementary schools), stu-dents receive instruction in Japanese language, socialstudies, arithmetic, science, life environment studies,music, drawing and handicrafts, homemaking, physicaleducation, moral education (private schools mayreplace this with religion), and special activities. SeeTable 7.1 for an outline of the standard number of year-ly school hours devoted to these subjects.

Secondary Schooling: Education in secondaryschools and in secondary departments of schools for thevisually impaired, hearing impaired, and otherwisehandicapped.

In Terms of Grade/Levels: Lower: 7-9; Upper: 10-12Age Range of Students: Lower: 12-15; Upper: 15-18Type and Level of Education Required to Teach at

This Level: For lower, associate's degree fromjunior colleges with certified teacher trainingcourses; for upper, bachelor's degree from uni-versities with certified teacher training courses.

Note: In lower secondary schooling (lower secondaryschools), students receive instruction in Japanese lan-guage, social studies, mathematics, science, music, finearts, health and physical education, industrial arts andhomemaking, foreign languages, moral education (may

121113

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114 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 7.1

Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools

Subjects 1st Gr. 2nd Gr. 3rd Gr. 4th Gr. 5th Gr. 6th Gr.

Japanese Language 306 315 280 280 210 210

Social Studies 105 105 105 105

Arithmetic 136 175 175 175 175 175

Science 105 105 105 105

Life Environment 102 105

Studies

Drawing and 68 70 70 70 70 70

Handicrafts

Homemaking 70 70

Physical Education 102 105 105 105 105 105

Moral Education 34 35 35 35 35 35

Special Activities 34 35 35 70 70 70

Total 850 910 980 1,015 1,015 1,015

Note: One school hour is defined as a class period of 45 minutes.

be replaced by religious education at private schools),and special activities. See Table 7.2 for an outline of thestandard number of yearly school hours devoted tothese subjects.

In upper secondary schooling (upper secondaryschools), general subjects consist mainly of Japaneselanguage, geography and history, civics, mathematics,science, health and physical education, art, and foreignlanguages. See Table 7.3 for an outline of general edu-cation subjects in Upper Secondary Schools and thenumber of credits for each subject.

Specialized subjects include agriculture, industry,commerce, fishery, home economics, and nursing. Inthe 1994 academic year, a comprehensive course offer-ing integrated instruction in both general and special-ized subjects was also established.

Preservice Teacher Preparation: Teacher train-ing courses at junior colleges, universities, and graduateschools certified by the Minister of Education, Science,and Culture as imparting the qualifications necessary fora teacher certificate.

In Terms of Grade/Levels: Junior colleges: 13-14; Uni-versities: 13-16; Graduate Schools: 17-18 (Master'sprogram)

Age Range of Students: Junior colleges: 18-20; Uni-versities: 18-22; Graduate Schools: 22-24 (Master'sprogram)

Type and Level of Education Required to Teach atThis Level: For details on postsecondary educa-

tion, please see the section "General Structure ofthe Education System."

In reference to the above definitions, please also notethe following:

In schools for the visually impaired, hearingimpaired, and otherwise handicapped, instructionwill be based on the curricula at ordinary kinder-gartens, elementary schools, and secondaryschools. Instruction in the special field of educa-tional therapeutic activities is also provided.Based on the principle of providing equal edu-cational opportunities, the Ministry of Education,Science, and Culture (Monbusho) has estab-lished national curriculum standards fromkindergarten through upper secondary school tosecure an optimum national level of education.A Monbusho order, which is based on theSchool Education Law, determines educationalcontent and the number of school weeks forkindergartens, as well as the kinds of courses tobe taught in elementary and secondary schools,and in schools for the visually impaired, hearingimpaired, and otherwise handicapped. Based onthis order, the fundamental standards for indi-vidual course objectives and content are laid outin a "Course of Study" for kindergartens, ele-mentary and secondary schools, and schools forthe visually impaired, hearing impaired, and oth-

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7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 115

TABLE 7.2

Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Lower Secondary Schools

Subjects 7th Gr. 8th Gr. 9th Gr.

REQUIRED SUBJECTS

Japanese Language 175 140 140

Social Studies 140 140 70-105Mathmatics 105 140 140

Science 105 105 105-140Music 70 35-70 35

Fine Arts 70 35-70 35

Health and 105 105 105-140Physical EducationIndustrial Arts and 70 70 70-105Homemaking

NONREQUIRED SUBJECTS

Moral Education 35 35 35

Special Activities 35-70 35-70 35-70Elective subjects, etc. 105-140 105-210 140-280

Total 1,050 1,050 1,050

Note: (1) One schooi hour in this table shall be fifty minutes.(2) The number of teaching hours for Special Activities shall be allotted to "class activities" (other

than school lunch activities) and "club activities" provided for in the Course of Study for LowerSecondary Schools. However, when necessary, it may be allotted to "class activities" only.

(3) Teaching hours for "elective subjects, etc." may be allotted to additional teaching in Special Activ-ities, as well as to elective subjects.

(4) As regards teaching hours for elective subjects, the standard number of teaching hours for For-eign Languages shall be 105-140 for each grade. The names of elective subjects other than For-eign Languages are specified in the Courses of Study.

erwise handicapped. Courses of study are drawnup by the Minister of Education, Science, andCulture, ..ased on recommendations from theCurriculum Council, an advisory body for theminister.Schools establish their own curricula in line withthe provisions of the School Education Law, theEnforcement Regulations for this law, and theCourse of Study, taking into account currentconditions in the school and community, thephysical and mental development of students,and student characteristics.

General Structure of the Education System

The structure of Japan's school education system is setout in the School Education Law, which prescribes a sys-tem with six years of elementary school, three years oflower secondary school, three years of upper secondaryschool, and four years of university (see Figure 7.1).

The nine years of elementary and lower secondaryschooling are compulsory; parents and guardians arerequired by law to send children between the ages of 6and 15 to school. Upper secondary schools provide

both general and specialized education for studentswho have completed compulsory education. Educationfor the physically and mentally handicapped is carriedout at schools for the visually impaired, schools for thehearing impaired, and schools for the otherwise handi-capped. Kindergartens offer preschool education.

Special training colleges and miscellaneousschools, while not included in the category of "post-secondary education," provide students with practicalvocational training and specialized technical education(see Figure 7.2). In addition, five-year colleges of tech-nology offer graduates of lower secondary schoolsintensive specialized instruction and help them to devel-op necessary vocational skills.

By law, only the national government, local gov-ernments, and educational foundations can be foundersof schools. Schools can be divided into three cate-goriesnational, public, and privateaccording to thestatus of the "founder." Local governments includeJapan's 47 prefectures and 663 cities (population of50,000 or more), 1,962 towns, and 575 villages in theseprefectures. The 12 cities with populations near orexceeding 1 million are specially recognized by law andare given the equivalent authority of prefectures.

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116 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 7.3General Education Subjects in Upper Secondary Schools; Number of Credits for Each

Subject Areas Subjects

Standard No.of Credits Subject Areas

Standard No.

Subjects of Credits

JAPANESE Japanese Language I 4 HEALTH AND Physical Education 7-9

LANGUAGE Japanese Language II 4 PHYSICAL Health 2

Japanese Language 2 EDUCATION

ExpressionContemporary Japanese 4 ART Music I 2

Language Music II 2

Contemporary Japanese 2 Music III 2

Use and Usage Fine Art I 2

Classics I 3 Fine Art II 2

Classics II 3 Fine Art III 2

Appreciation of Classics 2 Crafts Production I 2

Crafts Production II 2

GEOGRAPHY AND World History A 2 Crafts Production III 2

HISTORY World History B 4 Calligraphy I

Japanese History A 2 Calligraphy II 2

Japanese History B 4 Calligraphy III 2

Geography A 2

Geography B 4 FOREIGN English I 4

LANGUAGE English II 4

CIVICS Contemporary Society 4 Oral Aural Communication A 2

Ethics 2 Oral Aural Communication B 2

Politics and Economy 2 Oral Aural Communication C 2

Reading 4

MATHEMATICS Mathematics I 4 Writing 4

Mathematics II 3 German

Mathematics III 3 French

Mathematics A 2

Mathematics B 2 HOME General Home Economics 4

Mathematics C 2 ECONOMICS Home Life Techniques 4General Home Life 4

SCIENCE Integrated Science 4Physics I A 2

Physics I B 4Physics II 2

Chemistry I A 2

Chemistry I B 4Chemistry II 2

Biology I A 2

Biology I B 4Biology II 2

Earth Science I A 2

Earth Science I B 4

Earth Science II 2

Note: (1) For both full-time and part-time courses, 35 school hours of lessons per school year are counted as one credit. One school hour lasts

50 minutes. Either all or a selection of some courses are required of all students in all subject areas, except for Foreign Language.

(2) In order to complete an upper secondary school course a student must earn 80 credits or more. A student in a specialized course must

acquire 30 or more credits in vocational or other specialized subjects.

Table 7.4 shows a breakdown of schools by typeand affiliation for the 1992 academic year. A majorityof the kindergartens are privately affiliated, whilemore than 90 percent of elementary and lower sec-ondary schools are public institutions. Public schools

dominate other school categories as well. The discus-sion in this chapter, therefore, will center on instruc-tors at public schools. Table 7.5 shows a breakdownof students by school type and affiliation for the 1992academic year.

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7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 117

IPreschooiEducation Primary Mt/cotton

Kindergarten Department

Kinclorganan

Secondary Educatlon I

Momentary apartmenttowersecondaryClops:mem

Mernantary SchoolsLower

SecondarySchools

UPPersecondary Special SchoolsDeportment Gor the Handicappsd)

*

Higher Edusatton I

* Advanced courses

Gologes of Technology

(Pan Urns) =""*(Conmentionos)

UpperSecondary

Schools(full-time)

*

Graduatethlverottlea Graduate Schools

(Corresponds 1

Junto/Collogos

*

*

jSpecial Training Colson

Macellaneous Schools

Special Training Colson

Miscollaneous Schools

1 2I3 4 5 1 1 [ 7 1 1 9 10 11 12 1 13 14 1 15 I li 17 1 11 School Year

3 4 5 7 1 3 10 11 12 13 14 15 11 17 10 11 21 21 22 23 241111111111111 IIIIIIItIllionnelAttFIGURE 7.1

Organization of the present school system.

(Special training collages]Length dooms: one year or moreSchool hours: 500 or more per yearEnrolment: 40 students or more

Postsecondary coursesAdmission requirement Completion of an upper secondary schadcourse or an upper secondary course of a special training college

Upper secondary CoursesAdmission requirement Graduation from a lower secondary school

CMineral coursesNo admission requirement

[Miscellaneous schools]Duration of course: One year or more (three months or more for some courses)School hours: 680 or more per year No admission requirement

FIGURE 7.2An outline of the system of special training colleges.

123 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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118 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 7.4

Breakdown of Schools by Type and Affiliation as of May 1, 1992

Schools National Public Private Total

Kindergartens 49 6,220 8,737 15,006

Elementary Schools 73 24,487 170 24,730

Lower Secondary Schools 78 10,596 626 11,300

Upper Secondary Schools 17 4,166 1,318 5,501

Schools for thevisually impaired

1 67 2 70

Schools forthe hearing impaired

1 105 1 107

Schools forthe otherwise handicapped

43 729 14 786

TABLE 7.5

Breakdown of Students by School Type and Affiliation as of May 1, 1992

Schools National Public Private Total

Kindergartens 6,613 391,213 1,551,042 1,948,868(8)* (763) (3,036) (3,807)

Elementary Schools 47,231 8,834,049 65,946 8,947,226(104) (49,048) (946) (50,098)

Lower Secondary Schools 34,811 4,782,499 219,530 5,036,840(40) (23,948) (1,533) (25,521)

Upper Secondary Schools 10,328 3,684,637 1,523,532 5,218,497(19) (11,008) (5,006) (16,033)

Schools for 212 4,592 115 4,919the visually impaired (2) (21) (1) (24)

Schools for 344 7,586 67 7,997the hearing impaired (0) (28) (0) (28)

Schools for 2,985 73,017 666 76,668the otherwise handicapped (5) (239) (0) (244)

*The number of foreign students is indicated in parentheses.

Of the students who graduated from lower sec-ondary schools in March 1992, 95 percent went on toupper secondary school. No special course is provid-ed for students planning to go on to universities; any-one who has graduated from upper secondary school,who has otherwise completed 12 years of schooling,or who is recognized as having equivalent academicability is eligible to enter university. Of the studentswho graduated from upper secondary schools inMarch 1992, 32.4 percent went on to universities orjunior colleges.

The school founder is responsible for administer-ing school operations and for meeting expenses. Publicschools are administered by the local board of educa-tion, but the school principal is responsible for mostday-to-day activities.

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

Table 7.6 shows a breakdown of teachers by schooltype, school affiliation, and gender for the 1992 acade-mic year. Elementary schools, schools for the hearingimpaired and otherwise handicapped, and kinder-gartens feature a higher percentage of female teachers.While male teachers are more common at other kindsof schools, the percentage of female teachers is increas-ing each year.

Table 7.7 shows a breakdown of teachers byschool type and age for the 1992 academic year. At ele-mentary schools, the 35-39 group was the largest,accounting for 21 percent of all teachers, followed by the

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TABLE 7.6Number of Teachers by School Type, Affiliation, and Gender as of Oct. 1, 1992

Schools National Public Private Total

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

Total 1,744 415,338 2,971 420,083

Male 1,387 171,196 1,522 174,105

Female 387 244,142 1,449 245,978

LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Total 1,680 258,316 10,194 270,190

Male 1,345 163,512 6,756 171,613

Female 335 94,804 3,438 98,577

UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Total 625 211,864 65,991 278,480

Male 524 169,832 50,526 220,982

Female 101 42,032 15,365 57,489

SCHOOLS FOR THE

VISUALLY IMPAIRED

Total 82 3,220 39 3,341

Male 53 1,866 23 1,942

Female 29 1,354 16 1,399

SCHOOLS FOR THE

HEARING IMPAIRED

Total 84 4,400 35 4,519

Male 54 2,097 17 2,168

Female 30 2,303 18 2,351

SCHOOLS FOR THE

OTHERWISE HANDICAPPED

Total 1,203 35,841 192 37,236

Male 688 16,546 83 17,227

Female 515 19,385 109 20,009

KINDERGARTENS

Total 274 23,329 76,494 100,097

Male 36 551 5,937 6,524

Female 238 22,329 70,557 93,573

TABLE 7.7Breakdown of Teachers by Age Group and School Type as of Oct. 1, 1992

Under 60 and Average

Schools 24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 Over Age

Elementary 4.3 13.4 18.1 21 16 9.7 7.2 9.4 0.9 39.6

Lower Secondary 4.5 16.1 21.8 17.2 13.0 8.5 8.3 9.3 1.2 39.1

Upper Secondary 2.7 13.1 16.6 15 14.7 12 12.7 9.9 3.3 41.6

Schools for thevisually impaired

4.1 13.6 15.6 15.5 13.7 11.5 12 12.6 1.3 41.3

Schools for thehearing impaired

5.3 15.5 17.1 16 12.9 - 3 6.6 7 0.7 35.3

Schools for theotherwise handicapped

5.6 19.5 21.3 18.6 12.9 7.8 6.6 7 0.7 37.7

Kindergartens 40,1 16.3 7.9 9.7 9.2 5.2 3,5 2.9 5.3 32.9

1 `;

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120 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

30-34 group, with 18.1 percent. The average age ofthese teachers was 39.6 years. In the lower secondaryschools, the most common age group was 30-34,accounting for 21.8 percent of the total, followed by the35-39 group, with 17.2 percent. Average age was 39.1years. At upper secondary schools, the 30-54 (16.6 per-cent) and 35-39 (15 percent) groups were the most com-mon, and the average age was 41.6 years. This trend isevidence of the change in the number of teachers hiredresulting from steep fluctuations in the student popula-tion (see the section "Employment Statistics" below).

When the age of public school teachers was bro-ken down by prefectures (for location of prefecturesin Japan, see Figure 7.3), Hokkaido had the highestaverage age for elementary school teachers, at 42.8years, while Kagawa prefecture was lowest, with anaverage age of 36. 8 years. In general, instructor ageis higher for prefectures where there are decliningpopulations and little new hiring, and lower for thosewith growing populations and more new hiring. Forlower secondary schools, Okinawa prefecture had thehighest average age, at 43.2 years, and Shiga prefec-ture the lowest, at 35.9 years. For upper secondaryschools, Okinawa again had the highest average age,at 45.8 years, while Nara prefecture was lowest, at38.4 years.

Niigata

Ishikawa

Kagawa

Regarding length of service, elementary schoolteachers served an average of 16.2 years; lower sec-ondary school teachers, 15.2 years; upper secondaryschool teachers, 16.7 years; teachers at schools for thevisually impaired, 16.4 years; teachers at schools for thehearing impaired, 15.9 years; teachers at schools for theotherwise handicapped, 13.3 years; and kindergartenteachers, 9.3 years. Thus, length of service typicallyaveraged 15-16 years.

Table 7.8 shows the academic background of pub-lic school teachers. Graduates of teacher training uni-versities and similar specialized institutions accountedfor 63 percent of all elementary school teachers, 43 per-cent of all lower secondary school teachers, and 19.6percent of all upper secondary school teachers. Thus,the percentage of teachers graduating from general uni-versities rises with school level. Further, the percentageof junior collece graduates is on the decline at elemen-tary and secondary schools, while the percentage of uni-versity and graduate school graduates is increasing.

Generally, teachers are divided into the followinggrades:. principal, vice principal, teacher, assistantteacher, nurse teacher, assistant nurse teacher, and lec-turer. Teachers at secondary schools and the secondarydepartments of special education schools specif-ic subjects.

FIGURE 7.3Locations of prefectures mentioned in the text.

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TABLE 7.8Academic Background of Teachers as of Oct. 1, 1992

TEACHER TRAINING UNIVERSITIES

Schools Total Grad. School Universities Junior Colleges

Elementary 63 0.6 36.5 5.9

Lower secondary 43 0.9 40 2

Upper secondary 19.6 1.1 17.9 0.7

Total

GENERAL UNIVERSITIES

Grad. School Universities Junior Colleges Other

Elementary 37 0.1 21.9 14.1 0.9

Lower secondary 57 0.9 47.8 7.8 0.4

Upper secondary 80 7 70.8 1.8 0.8

Public school teachers are hired by the board ofeducation (see "Certification" section below). In thecase of public schools, teachers (excluding part-timelecturers) at elementary schools, lower secondaryschools, and schools for the visually impaired, hearingimpaired, and otherwise handicapped are conside :edemployees of the respective city, town, or village gov-ernment. To prevent salary disparities resulting fromvarying local budgets, the prefectural government alsopays half the salaries of all teachers employed in thelevels of compulsory education in order to maintaincompensation levels around the country. A prefecturalBoard of Education is responsible for hiring andappointing teachers whose salaries are paid by the pre-fectural government, while municipal Boards of Edu-cation supervise their service.

The percentage of public school teachers belong-ing to teachers' associations continues to drop, fallingfrom 90.9 percent in 1960 to just 58.9 percent in 1992.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

Teachers at national schools are considered national gov-ernment employees; those at public schools are consid-ered local government employees; and those at privateschools are considered private citizens (i.e., participantsin an employment contract based on private law).

Compensation for public school teachers, who areconsidered local government employees, is specified inlocal ordinances. Compensation for local school teacherswhose salaries are paid by the prefecture is specified inprefectural ordinances to ensure uniform compensationfor all teachers in the prefecture. To achieve uniform com-pensation nationwide, which is necessary to maintainnational educational standards, compensation in each pre-fecture is based on the pay received by national schoolteachers. Compensation for national school teachers is

specified by law. In addition to their base salaries, teach-ers are eligible to receive allowances for the following:dependents, financial adjustments, housing, transporta-tion, assignments to outlying areas, administrative posi-tions, periodic (end-of-term) costs, and diligent service.

The Special Measures on Securance of ExcellentEducational Personnel in Compulsory Education Schoolswas enacted in 1974 to regulate compensation for teach-ers at elementary and lower secondary schools. This actstates that "necessary incentives, compared to ordinarycivil servants, must be provided." By providing specialincentives, the law is designed to allow teachers to con-centrate on their teaching duties, thereby contributing tothe hiring of talented teachers. In fact, teachers' salariesand benefits rose steadily during the 1974-1979 period,producing a marked improvement in compensation. Asof the 1992 academic year, the starting monthly salary fora government employee engaged in general administra-tion was yen 161,400 (at the exchange rate concurrentwith this writing, one U.S. dollar was equivalent to 100yen) while teachers at national elementary and lower sec-ondary schools received yen 180,800. Teachers at nation-al elementary and lower secondary schools also receivea special allowance for compulsory education teachers.

In 1972, the government abolished overtime com-pensation for teachers and substituted the ruling that,based on the special nature of the work and the uniqueemployment conditions, all work, be it during or out-side of official working hours, would be evaluated com-prehensively, and that teachers would be paid a uni-form teachers' adjustment allowance, equivalent toabout 4 percent of current base salary.

Average monthly salaries as of September 1992 wereyen 309,400 for elementary school teachers (average age:39.6 years), yen 305,700 for lower secondary school teach-ers (39.1 years), and yen 330,400 for upper secondaryschool teachers (41.6 years). Teachers who have per-

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122 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

formed their duties well during a specified period (usual-ly 12 months) since the setting of their salary are general-ly given a raise. Teachers with frequent absences, or whohave been subject to disciplinary measures, are not con-sidered to have performed their duties well.

As government employees, teachers have their jobsecurity guaranteed by law. Unless specified by laws orgovernment ordinances, they are protected from inex-pedient actions, such as dismissals or pay cuts. Whensuch actions are deemed unwarranted by teachers, theymay lodge protests and file lawsuits. As public servants,government employees are placed under certain restric-tions regarding their political activities. The governmenthas ruled that teachers, because they exert a significantinfluence over their pupils, are forbidden (in schools ofall affiliations) to carry on political indoctrination orcampaign activities, thus taking advantage of their posi-tion and authority. There are also restrictions on outside,part-time employment for teachers, since it is consid-ered a duty of government employees to devote them-selves fully to their jobs.

Private-sector workers in Japan have the right toorganize, to negotiate, and to strike, and teachers at pri-vate schools, because they are not government employ-ees, are no exception. Employees of the national andlocal governments (including teachers at national andpublic schools) have the right to organize, but not theright to bargain collectively. They are also forbidden togo on strike. Japanese teachers' unions differ from ordi-nary labor unions in that they are allowed to reportopinions and complaints about working conditions butare not allowed to sign collective agreements or other-wise to determine their working conditions. Workingconditions are specified in local ordinances.

Patterns of Supply and Demand forTeaching Positions

Teacher hiring, transfer, and separation for the 1991school year, which began in April 1991 and ended inMarch 1992, are described below.

At elementary schools, 16,229 teachers were hired,69,087 were transferred, and 15,895 were released. Atlower secondary schools, 11,856 teachers were hired,40,712 were transferred, and 10,940 were released. Atupper secondary schools, 8,753 teachers were hired,22,550 were transferred, and 9,169 were released (seeTable 7.9).

The rapid increase in the birth rate following WorldWar H, a period commonly referred to as "the first babyboom," produced a marked rise in the student popula-tion. To cope with this increase, the Law ConcerningClass Size and Number of Educational Personnel in Pub-lic Compulsory Education Schools and the Law Con-cerning Establishment and Placement of Public Sec-ondary Schools and Number of Educational Personnelwere enacted in 1958 and 1961, respectively. Based onthese acts, the number of public school teachers was cal-culated based on a specific ratio for each type of school,according to the number of classes and students. As aresult of efforts to improve educational standards, thenumber of teachers has risen steadily, and the ratio ofteachers to students is also increasing each year.

Following another peak in the 1980s, the result ofa second baby boom, the student population entered aperiod of decline, and fewer teachers are needed. Com-bined with the fact that fewer instructors have beenquitting in recent years, this has led to a situation inwhich fewer teachers are being hired.

Listed below are the figures for the number ofindividuals who took the teachers' employment examin the 1992 academic year; the number who were actu-ally hired; and the ratio of applicants to openings.

In the case of elementary schools, 34,739 individ-uals sat for the exam and 10,987 were hired, whichtranslates into 3.2 applicants for every opening. Forlower secondary schools, the respective figures were39,005 and 7,839, for a competitive ratio of 5:0. Forupper secondary schools, the figures were 28,007 and4,383, with 6.4 applicants for every opening. In eachschool category, then, the number of applicants is con-siderably higher than the number of openings.

TABLE 7.9

Teacher MigrationApril 1, 1991March 31, 1992

SchoolsNo. ofHires

No. ofTransfers

No. ofresignations

Total No.Teachers*

Elementary 16,229 69,087 15,895 4Z:0,083Lower secondary 11,856 40,712 10,940 270,190Upper secondary 8,753 22,550 9,169 278,480Special education 2,898 . 4,839 14,056 45,096

*As of Oct. 1, 1992.

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When the ratio of applicants to openings is bro-ken down by subject, it is found that, at lower sec-ondary schools, the greatest competition is for positionsin homemaking (8.7) and health and physical education(7.3). Meanwhile, positions in industrial arts (2) andmathematics (2.7) were the most available. At uppersecondary schools, the most hotly contested positionswere for social studies (11.3) and health and physicaleducation (11). The most available positions occurredin nursing (1.8) and fishery (2).

When analyzed by prefecture, competition washighest for positions in Osaka prefecture, with 12.5applicants for every opening, followed by Ishikawaprefecture, with a ratio of 8:8. The lowest ratios wereshown by Hokkaido (2:2) and Niigata (2:2) prefec-tures.

The Educational Personnel Certification Law statesthat a provisional teacher certificate, valid for threeyears, may be granted when an instructor with a stan-dard teacher certificate is not available. Generally, how-ever, these certificates are granted to individuals whoalready have teacher certificates for other school levels.At secondary schools, when no teacher is available fora given subject, the granter of the certificate can autho-rize an instructor without a certificate for the subject toteach for a period of up to one year.

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Japan's teacher training is based on the teacher certifi-cation system and built around the principle of an opensystem, wherein both teacher training universities andordinary universities provide teacher training with theirown characteristics. University programs are based onthe minimum criteria set out by law and offer trainingwith individual characteristics. Teacher certificates aregranted to students who have earned the necessarynumber of credits as stipulated by law. To maintain uni-form standards for teacher training, the ml.iistry, orMonbusho, is responsible for certifying all trainingcourses.

Like elementary and secondary schools, universi-ties are divided into three affiliationsnational, public,and privatebased on the status of the founder. Theschool founder bears administrative and financialresponsibility for the school. It is left to Monbusho tocertify that a given university course provides studentswith the basic qualifications required for a teacher cer-tificate (see information below in this section). Certifi-cation criteria differ for each type of teacher certificate(see "Certification" section, below).

Between 70 and 80 percent of all junior colleges,universities, graduate schools, and advanced courses have

teacher training certification courses (see Table 7.10).Forty-eight national universities have academic facultiesdevoted solely to teacher training; they are referred to as"teacher training universities." Basically, these nationalteacher training universities are located in each prefecture.

More than 60 percent of elementary school teach-ers are graduates of these teachers' colleges. The figuredrops to 40 percent for lower secondary schools, andsome 20 percent for upper secondary schools. Thus, thehigher the level of education, the higher the ratio ofordinary university graduates (see above section, "BasicCharacteristics of the Teaching Profession").

Because teacher training is based on an open sys-tem, and covers institutions ranging from teachers' col-leges to ordinary institutions of higher education, it isvery difficult to single out related expenses. Govern-ment budgetary outlays for education in financial year1989 amounted to yen 14.935 trillion, of which institu-tions of higher learning accounted for yen 2.506 trillion,or 16.8 percent of the total. When the yen 2.579 trillionin donations to private schools are taken into account,educational costs for institutions of higher educationamounted to yen 5.085 trillion.

The national government determines the basicpolicy for measures to improve the quality of teach-ers in three stagesteacher training, hiring, and in-service training. Decisions are made based on recom-mendations from the National Council on EducationReform, which is an advisory body to the Prime Min-ister, and the Educational Personnel Training Council,which is an advisory body to the Minister of Educa-tion, Science, and Culture. In 1988, the EducationalPersonnel Training Council defined the qualitiesrequired of a teacher as follows: a sense of mission asan educator; a deep understanding of the process ofhuman growth and development; a professional ded-ication to the students; education in one's subject spe-cialization; broad and rich knowledge; and practicalteaching skills based on this knowledge. In the eyesof the council, concrete measures needed to upgradeteacher quality include improvements in the teachertraining and certification system; the creation of aninduction training program for newly appointed teach-ers; and the systematic establishment of in-servicetraining programs.

Characteristics ofTeacher Preparation Institutions

Teacher training courses are organized by universities,but the subjects and credit hours required for a teachercertificate are determined by law. The Minister of Edu-cation, Science, and Culture is responsible for certifyingeach training course, based on its compliance with thesecriteria.

1 iJ

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124 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 7.10Number of Universities and Junior Colleges with Certified Teacher Training Courses as ofJune 1992

Schools, by Type No. of Schools

Schools with CertifiedTeacher Training Programs

No.

UNIVERSITIES

National 98 79 80.6Public 41 30 73.3

Private 384 306 79.7

Total 523 415 79.3

JUNIOR COLLEGES

National 39 1 2.6Public 53 30 56.6Private 499 381 76.4Total 591 412 69.7

GRADUATE SCHOOLS

National 98 77 79.2Public 23 13 56.5Private 216 152 70.4Total 337 242 71.8

ADVANCED COURSES

National 40 36 90Public 1 1 100

Private 44 36 81.8Total 85 73 85.9

Concerning in-service training, the law stipulatesthat teachers at national and public schools must con-tinue training throughout their careers and that theappointing authorities strive to implement training pro-grams. So-called induction training programs for newlyappointed teachers are required by law. Guidelines ofMonbusho are published for basic items such as thenumber of days of training and the methods to be used;local boards of education draw up training plans refer-ring to this basic framework, taking into account thestate of affairs in individual schools and communities,Further, Monbusho has the right to offer both generaland specific guidance and advice concerning all aspectsof training implementation.

The Minister of Education, Science, and Culture isresponsible for certifying that each teacher training courseprovides students with the basic qualifications requiredfor a teacher certificate. To obtain such certification, thefounder of the university submits to the Minister of Edu-cation, Science, and Culture an application containinginformation about the name of the university, faculty anddepartment, the type of teacher certificate, the maximumnumber of students, the curriculum, instructors, and facil-ities. The Minister of Education, Science, and Culture thenconsults the Educational Personnel Training Council anddecides whether to certify the course.

The decision is based on factors such as the objec-tives and character of the university or graduate schooldepartment, the interrelationship of these factors withthe teacher certificate for which the school is applying,the curriculum, and teachers. In the case of a trainingcourse for elementary school or kindergarten teachers,for example, the school must have a teacher trainingdepartment. Regarding the curriculum, the school mustoffer the subjects specified in the Enforcement Regula-tions of the Educational Personnel Certification Law forsubjects and teaching, in accordance with the type ofcertificate being applied for.

After a training course has been certified, Mon-busho is charged with the responsibility of providingappropriate guidance and advice to maintain andimprove course standards.

The appointing authorities are responsible forplanning and implementing in-service training.Regarding induction training for newly appointedteachers, the implementing authority draws up anoutline and annual training plan for basic items suchas the number of days of training and training meth-ods, taking into account the guidelines published byMonbusho. Individual schools base their annualinstruction plans on these and submit them to munic-ipal boards of education.

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7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 125

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

To obtain a teacher's certificate, a person must, in prin-ciple, earn the university credits specified in the Educa-tional Personnel Certification Law (see sections belowfor details).

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

To be admitted to a university, a student must havedone one of the following:

1. Graduated from an upper secondary school2. Graduated from the upper secondary depart-

ment of a school for the visually impaired, hear-ing impaired, or otherwise handicapped

3. Completed three years of study at a college oftechnology

4. Been certified by the Minister of Education, Sci-ence, and Culture as possessing equivalent qual-ifications

There is no special preparatory school program,nor are there any uniform criteria, methods, or standardsfor the acceptance of applicants; each university holdsits own entrance examination. The maximum numberof students to be accepted is specified in the school reg-ulations for each faculty based on departments or cours-es. In the 1992 academic year, national teacher traininguniversities accepted 19,930 new students. At ordinaryuniversities, many students are not interested in obtain-ing a teacher certificate or finding employment as ateacher after graduation.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Preparation Curricula

Subjects in the teacher training curriculum can be divid-ed into two categories: those concerning teaching andthose concerning the student's subject specialization.Regarding the former, required subjects and credithours are specified for each type of school by the Edu-cational Personnel Certification Law and the Monbushoorder, Science and Culture. Main subjects include thefollowing areas: the essence and goals of education;physical and mental development and the learningprocess of students; educational methods and tech-niques (including the use of computers and education-al materials); subject teaching methodology; moral edu-cation; special activities; student guidance andeducational consultations; and teaching practice. To becertified as elementary school teachers, students mustearn at least 41 credits; those desiring certification as

secondary school teachers must earn at least 19 credits.Teaching practice usually lasts at least four weeks

(four credits) for kindergarten and elementary schoolteachers, and at least two weeks (two credits) for sec-ondary school teachers. This includes 15-30 hours ofinstruction (one credit) before and after the teachingexperience. Universities and faculties designed forteacher training have schools attached to them for thepurpose of teacher training practice. When such schoolsare unavailable, the university makes a request forcooperation to a student's alma mater or to another suit-able school. Schools that are willing and able to acceptstudent teachers on a continuous basis are sometimesdesignated "special cooperating schools." Although theuniversity draws up the plan for teaching practice, guid-ance during the teaching practice period is providedalternately by the university and by the cooperatingschool. During this period, student teachers experiencea wide range of teaching duties both inside and outsideof their subject specialty, including instruction in moraleducation, homeroom supervision, and an unders.talio-ing of school education and the state of the surround-ing community and society. The university evaluates thestudent teacher and approves the credits based onreports from the cooperating school.

Regarding subjects in the student's specialization,required subjects and credit hours are specified by theEducational Personnel Certification Law and by directivesfrom Monbusho. To be certified as an elementary schoolteacher, for example, a student must earn at least two cred-its in each of the following subjects: Japanese language,social studies, arithmetic, science, life environment stud-ies, music, art and handicrafts, homemaking, and physicaleducation. To be certified as a lower secondary schoolteacher in mathematics, a student must earn a minimumof 40 credits, including at least 20 .redits from among thefollowing subjects: algebra, geometry, analytical geome-try, probability and statistics theory, and computers.

Differences in the Nature and Content ofTeacher Preparation Programs

As noted above, universities are responsible for orga-nizing their own teacher training courses. Because theMinister of Education, Science, and Culture certifies thecourses based on uniform standards, however, no sig-nificant disparity can be observed among universities ordistricts. Training courses are different for each type ofteacher certificate; subject matter and credit hours differdepending on the type of school (kindergarten, ele-mentary school, lower secondary school, upper sec-ondary school, schools for the visually impaired, hear-ing impaired, or otherwise handicapped), the grade ofteacher certificate (advanced, first class, second class),and the teacher's subject specialization.

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126 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Linkages Between Curricular Standards forTeacher Education and

Curricular Standards for Students

To ensure national educational standards, the Mon-busho order and Course of Study specify general stan-dards for the type and content of courses in elementaryschools, secondary schools, and schools for the visual-ly impaired, hearing impaired, or otherwise handi-capped. The Educational Personnel Certification Law,which specifies the subjects for certification, and theaccompanying enforcement regulations, which indicatewhich class subjects a university must offer, are gener-ally revised in line with the Course of Study.

CERTIFICATION

Initial Requirements

All teachers must have a teacher's certificate. Teachercertificates are issued under the authority of the Educa-tional Personnel Certification Law and are of threetypes: standard, special, and provisional. Standard cer-tificates are divided into advanced, first-class, and sec-ond-class certificates for each school category (elemen-tary, lower and upper secondary, schools for thevisually impaired, hearing impaired, or otherwise hand-icapped, and kindergartens). There is no second-class

STABLE 7.11

Type of Teacher Certificates and Necessary Qualifications

certificate for upper secondary schools. Teacher certifi-cates are granted to individuals who possess the basicqualifications outlined in Table 7.11, and who haveearned the necessary college credits. Certificates for sec-ondary schools are granted for each subject. Prefectur-al boards of education are responsible for grantingteacher certificates, and a standard certificate is validanywhere in the country.

The "special teacher certificate" was established toallow the utilization of individuals from society at largewho possess special skills or expertise. It is granted toindividuals who pass the teachers' exam given by thecertificate-granting authorities. Provisional certificatesare for assistant teacher and assistant nursing teachersand are granted to individuals passing the teachers'exam only in cases when a teacher with a standard cer-tificate is not available. Both special and provisional cer-tificates have a limited lifetime and are valid only with-in the prefecture where issued.

For certificate holders to actually teach at a publicschool, they must first pass the Teacher EmploymentSelection Test, held by boards of education in all pre-fectures and selected cities. After passing this test, cer-tificate holders are employed as teachers. Standard cer-tificates are valid indefinitely, and certificate holders arepermitted to take the Teacher Employment SelectionTest as many times as they wish during their careers.The boards of education carry out a multifaceted eval-uation of the applicant's skills, qualifications, and suit-

Type of Certificate Basic Qualifications

Minimum Number of Credits Required

SubjectSpecialty Teaching

Subject Specialtyor Teaching

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER

Advanced certificate Master's degree or one year's residenceand 30 credits in subject specialty

18 41 24

First-class certificate Bachelor's degree 18 41

Second-class certificate Associate's degree from junior college 10 27

LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER

Advanced certificate Master's degree or one year's residenceand 30 credits in subject specialty

40 19 24

First-class certificate Bachelor's degree 40 19 24

Second-class certificate Associate's degree from junior college 20 15

UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER

Advanced certificate Master's degree or one year's residenceand 30 credits in subject specialty

40 19 24

First-class certificate Bachelor's degree 40 19

Note: Teacher certificates also exist for teachers at special education schools, for kindergarten teachers, and for nursing teachers.

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.7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 127

ability for a teaching position. Evaluation methods arediverse and include written tests of general educationand specialized knowledge in the applicant's subjectspecialty; skills tests in areas such as physical education,music, fine arts, and English conversation; essay tests(most of which question the candidate's dedication toeducation and awareness of related issues); interviews;aptitude tests; and evaluation of a candidate's past par-ticipation in extracurricular and volunteer activities.

In March 1992, 404,504 students graduated fromuniversities with certified teacher training courses. Ofthis total, 72,553, or 17.9 percent, earned teacher cer-tificates, and 13,424, or 18.5 percent, of those with cer-tificates passed the test and were employed as teachers(see Table 7.12).

Certification Reauthorization

Standard teacher certificates need not be renewed.However, they are rendered invalid if the holder isjudged to be incompetent or quasi-incompetent, if theholder is imprisoned for a criminal offense, or if the

holder is a member of, or attempts to form, a politicalparty or other organization that supports the overthrowof the government by violent means. The certificate mayalso be revoked if the holder intentionally breaks thelaw or commits a grave misdeed.

Special teacher certificates are valid for a periodof three to ten years; the exact term is determined bythe prefectural board of education. Provisional certifi-cates are valid for three years.

Provisional certificates inay be granted only when itis impossible to hire a teacher with a standard certificate.Ordinarily, they are granted to teachers who possess stan-dard certificates for other school categories. At secondaryschools, the certificate-granting authorities may permit ateacher without a certificate for the relevant subject toteach said subject for up to a year when a teacher withthe proper certificate is unavailable. Further, when thereis determined to be a special need in certain areas of asubject, the certificate-granting authorities may appoint aspart-time lecturers individi la's without a teacher certificate.This is done with the objective of tapping special skillsand expertise possessed by individuals outside academia.

TABLE 7.12Number of Graduates of Universities and Other Institutions with Certified Teacher Training Programs

and Number Receiving Teacher Certificates, as of March 1992

Institutions Number of GraduatesNumber of Students WhoReceived Teacher Certificates

UNIVERSITIES NATIONALT.T.U. 19,345 17,182

Ordinary 67,405 8,230

Public 10,108 2,328

Private 307,646 44,213

Total 404,504 72,553

GRADUATE SCHOOLS NATIONALT.T.U. 1,784 1,418

Ordinary 16,199 1,675

Public 954 146

Private 7,874 1,216

Total 26,811 4,455

ADVANCED COURSES NATIONALT.T.U. 267 229

Ordinary 48 18

Public 14 13

Private 294 174

Total 623 434

JUNIOR COLLEGES NATIONALT.T.U.

Ordinary 675 27

Public 4,194 1,676

Private 152,421 44,641

Total 157,290 46,347

OTHER 5,283 5,255

TOTAL 594,511 129,044IIIIN1111

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128 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction or Transition Processes

A training program for newly appointed teachers wasimplemented in the 1989 academic year, based on theLaw for Special Regulations Concerning Educational Pub-lic Service Personnel. Under this law, appointing author-

kave a legal obligation to provide newly appointedteaciiers with induction training during their fast year ofwork. Individual covered under this obligation includeteachers, assistant teachers, and full-time lecturers atnational and public elementary schools, secondaryschools, and schools for the visually impaired, hearingimpaired, and otherwise handicapped. In addition to nor-mal teaching duties (class and subject supervision), newlyappointed teachers are required to undergo in-schooltraining for two days a week and training outside schoolfor one day a week. The training covers areas necessaryto the fulfillment of a teacher's duties, including basicskills, class management, subject instruction, moral edu-cation, special activities, and student guidance.

Concerning in-school training, designated guidanceteachers offer guidance and advice to newly appointedteachers with the help of other teachers. Guidance teach-ers are selected from among a school's vice-principal,teachers, and lecturers (including part-time lecturers).Only teachers with a great deal of experience are chosenfor this duty. Out-of-school training includes such activi-ties as lectures, seminars, and hands-on guidance at edu-cational centers; visits to other types of schools, socialeducation facilities, child welfare facilities, and privatecorporations; volunteer activities; and outdoor activities.

Along with this training, schools with one newteacher are assigned a part-time lecturer for three daysa week; those with two new teachers are assigned a full-time teacher. This helps to ensure a lighter work load(class hours, etc. ) for the newcomer and for guidanceteachers. Necessary costs for induction training, includ-ing personnel costs, are borne by whoever implementsthe induction training program, that is, by the appoint-ing authorities (prefectural boards of education in thecase of elementary and lower secondary schools). Thenational government reimburses compulsory educationschools for one-half of related personnel and out-of-school training costs.

Professional Development Opportunities

In recognition of the unique character of their duties,teachers are offered a variety of training-related excep-tions that are not available to other governmentemployees.

The law requires teachers to continue trainingthroughout their careers in order to carry out their

teaching duties. At the same time, boards of educationare charged with the responsibility of planning andimplementing teacher training. Three types of trainingare recognized: professional training, which is consid-ered a necessary part of the job; voluntary training,which is undertaken by the teacher outside of workinghours; and work-exemption training, which can beplanned independently by the teacher and, if it does notadversely affect school activities and is approved by theschool principal, exempts the teacher from the obliga-tion of concentrating on teaching duties while allowinghim or her to draw normal pay. Prefectural boards ofeducation play a central role in the implementation oftraining programs for public school teachers. They areresponsible for implementing the following kinds oftraining:

1. Induction training: for all newly appointedteachers with less than one year's experience (90days a year)

2. In- service training for experienced teachers: forall teachers who have completed 5, 10, or 20years of service

3. Master teacher training: for all newly appointedprincipals and vice principals

4. Training for newly appointed curriculum coor-dinators: for all new curriculum coordinators

For core teachers, there is a long-term dispatchprogram to help them develop specialized skills andqualifications. Under this program, which may last any-where from several months to two years, teachers aresent, with pay, to a graduate school or educationalresearch institute. In 1993, plans called for the dispatchof some 1,250 teachers to graduate schools for periodsof one-to-two years.

Further, three universities with graduate schoolshave been set up to ensure opportunities for researchand study, primarily for experienced teachers. The threeuniversities are Hyogo University of Teacher Education(founded in 1978), the Joetsu University of Teacher Edu-cation (1978), and the Naruto University of Teacher Edu-cation (1981)

Municipal boards of education also provide train-ing programs for teachers at public schools that takeinto account the state of local affairs. The national gov-ernment, through Monbusho, directly implements thefollowing types of training. Its aim is to train schoolprincipals, vice - principals, and subject teachers capableof playing a leadership role in each prefecture. (Thegovernment also provides support for prefectural train-ing activities.)

136

1. central workshops for intensive in-service train-ing: for school principals and vice principals (22

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7 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN JAPAN 129

c.;ays; 800 individuals a year), and for other coreteachers (36 days; 1,000 teachers a year) at pub-lic schools

2. Comprehensive colloquium on Course of Studyguidelines: for all teachers at public schools

3. Dispatch of teachers overseas: to inspect educa-tional facilities: for teachers aged 35 or over(1,200 teachers for 30 days and 3,800 teachersfor 16 days) and teachers aged under 35 (180teachers for 60 days)

In addition, educational research institutes offer a vari-ety of training sessions, and each school has its ownunique training program.

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Present Concerns for Change and Improvement

Expertise in subject specialty and practical teachingskills needs to be further developed during teachertraining. Further, persons with deeper scholarship needto be brought into the educational system.

An in-service training program should also be sys-tematically established to follow the training programfor newly appointed teachers. Other issues include thebuilding of linkages between university training cours-es, in-service training, and (especially) the training pro-grams for newly appointed teachers.

Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement

The Educational Personnel Certification Law wasrevised in 1988. As part of efforts to improve practicalteaching skills, this act raised certification standards andestablished the advanced teacher certificate. This cer-tificate, designed with the objective of attracting indi-viduals possessing advanced, specialized expertise in acertain field, has as its basic qualification the comple-tion of a master's degree at a graduate school, and isfor teachers at all types of schools, as well as for nurs-ing teachers.

The special teacher certificate was created to bringindividuals from society at large, possessing specialskills and expertise, into the educational system. Thespecial part-time lecturer program was established tomake it possible to hire part-time lecturers withoutteacher certificates.

Concerning in-service training, the inductiontraining program was established in the 1989 academ-ic year. In addition to the traditional prefecture-man-aged training programs undergone by all teachers aftercompletion of five years of service, starting in the 1993academic year, the national government establishedtwo kinds of subsidies for training for teachers whohave completed 10 and 20 years of service, respec-tively. The government also established a subsidy pro-gram that will allow local boards of education to carryout systematic certification seminars, helping teacherswith second-class teacher certificates to obtain first-class certificates.

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Teacher Training andProfessional Developmentin Korea

Submitted by: International Education andCooperation Division, Ministry of Education

Prepared by: Chung-Wha Sub, College ofEducation, Hong -Ik University

CONTEXT

Since the liberation in 1945, education in the Republicof Korea has made remarkable progress in quantity. Thequantitative expansion has taken place in the increaseof the schools, in student population, and in growth inthe number of teachers. The expansion of elementaryschool, middle school, high school, and higher educa-tion from 1945 to 1993 is outlined in Table 8.1.

Qualitatively, however, much progress has notbeen made in tandem with the rapid quantitativegrowth. During the past five decades, every effort hasbeen made to solve educational problems and toupgrade the quality of education. Innovative efforts,especially to streamline the education system, havebeen carried out since the 1980s. The focal point hasbeen placed on elevating the quality of educationthrough a shake-up of the education system, and onimproving the conditions of education. The presentschool ladder system follows a singular track of6-3-3-4. Elementary school, middle school, highschool, and college and university constitute the skele-ton of the school system. This is illustrated in Figure 8.1.

Definitions

The terms of schooling are six years in elementaryschool, three years in middle school, three years in highschool and four years in college and university. Ele-mentary and middle schooling is provided to all chil-dren, compulsory and free of charge. General informa-tion on schooling in Korea in terms of grade levels andstudent age ranges is presented in Table 8.2.

In 1993, about 13,000,000 children and youthwere enrolled in about 10,000 schools. The number ofschools and students is shown in Table 8.3. The per-centage of students in the total population is about 30percent. The student population portion of non-government school sectors is becoming higher thanthat of government school sectors as school levelsincrease. This means that private schools contributemuch to the development of education. The entrancerate of students and school enrollment ratio in eachlevel of schools is growing steadily (see Table 8.4).

Table 8.5 shows the graduation rate of students bylevel of schooling and the percentage of female stu-dents graduating.

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132 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 8.1

Quantitative Expansion of Education by Enrollments, 1945-1993

Elementary Middle High HigherSchool School School Education*

1945 1993 1945 1993 1945 1993 1945 1993

Schools 2,834 6,057 166 2,590 307 1,757 19 655

Teachers 19,729 139,159 1,186 97,131 1,720 96,698 1,490 51,277

Students 1,366,024 4,336,252 80,828 2,410,874 40,271 2,069,210 7,819 2,099,735

*Higher education includes colleges and university, junior colleges, graduate school, miscellaneous school, air correspondence college, and open

college.

TABLE 8.2

Definitions of Schooling

StudentSchool Type Grade Levels Age Range

Pre-elementary 4-5Elementary 1-6th grade 6-11

Secondary 7-9th grade 12-14

Postsecondary 10-12th grade 15-17

Preservice teacher 13-16th grade 18-21preparation

TABLE 8.3

Number of Schools and Students

Schools Students

TotalNational &Public Private Total

National &Public Private

Kindergarten 8,515 4,514 4,001 467,380 113,332 356,048

Elementary 6,057 5,981 76 4,336,252 4,268,860 67,392

Middle School 2,590 1,890 700 2,410,874 1,794,587 616,287

High School 1,757 864 893 2,069,210 787,827 1,281,383

Higher Education 655 134 521 2,099,735 712,682 1,387,053

TABLE 8.4

Student Entrance Rates and Enrollment Ratios

Middle School High School Higher Education

Entrance Enrollment Entrance Enrollment Entrance EnrollmentRate Ratio Rate Ratio Rate Ratio

1970 63.8% 51.2 70.9% 28.1 34.5% 8.8

1980 96.8 95 84.8 63.5 47.1 16

1990 99.5 96.9 91.3 87.6 54,4 38.1

1992 99.6 97 96.2 89.2 62.5 46.8

Note: Educational Indicators in Korea (KEDI), 1992.

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8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 133

Preschool Elementary Secondary HigherEducation Education Education

grade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 191 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I

age 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Kindergar-ten(1 it 2years)

ElementarySchool

(6 years)

MiddleSchool

(3 years)

General(Academic)

High School(3 years)

Dentistry & Medicine4 Year Collegeand University Graduate

School

Teachers' college

VocationalHigh Schoo(3 years)

Korea Corres. Univ

Open College

Misc. School

Nursing Jun-ior College I

6

4 rr-3 r-ri

1. Civic School2. Specialized School3. Higher Civic School4. Trade School

Special Education for the Handicapped 5. Higher Trade School6. High SchoolSpecialized

Elementary Middle High 7. CorrespondenceSchool School School High School

FIGURE 8.1School system in Korea.

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134 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 8.5Student Graduation Rates by School Level and Percentage of Females Graduating

Elementary Middle School High School

Total (%) Female (%) Total (%) Female (%) Total (%) Female (%)

1970 89.4 93.2 94.9 90.7 93.5

1975 90.4 90.4 92.7 93.9 94.8 97

1980 94.1 94.2 97 98.4 94.4 98.4

1985 97.7 97.9 96.9 100 92 94.7

1991 99.4 99.5 97.8 97.7 94.3 96.5

1992 98.9 99 97.7 97.9 94.5 96.7

TABLE 8.6Percentage Distribution of Population by Educational Attainment

Elementary (%) Middle School (%) High School (%) Colleges & University (%)

1975 65.5 14.8 13.9 5.8

1980 55.3 18.1 18.9 7.7

1985 43.4 20.5 25.9 10.2

1990 33.7 18.9 33.2 14.2

TABLE 8.7

Expected Levels of Education for Children

Son

Middle High College &. GraduateSchool (%) School (%) Univ. (%) School (%)

Daughter

Middle High College &. GraduateSchool (%) School (%) Univ. (%) School (%)

1977 7.5 36.2 55.5 0.8 23.7 42.7 33.3 0.3

1987 1.6 13.9 60.5 24 4 25.6 55.1 15.3

1990 1.6 12.1 61.9 24.4 3.9 20.4 61.3 14.4

Source: National Statistical Office, Social Indicators in Korea, 1991.

Percentage distribution of population by educa-tional attainment has been greatly improved (see Table8.6). The total average years of educational attainmentwas 9.20 as of 1990. It is noteworthy that the averagenumber of years of educational attainment for those20-29 years old is 12.05. This is the result of the strongdesire of people for education and the supportive pol-icy measures of the government. Table 8.7 shows theexpected levels of education for children for 1977-1990.Most parents want their children to complete collegeand university and graduate levels.

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

See Tables 8,8 and 8.9 for statistics on trends in teach-ers' average age and years of teaching experience, and

on the percentages of female teachers, from1965-1992. As shown in Table 8.9, the percentage offemale teachers has increased as time passes. The per-centage of female teachers will become highfr in thefuture in line with greater efforts at industrialization.The academic attainment level of teachers is at least 16years of schooling, because teachers' certificates areprovided to those who have completed our four-yearteachers' college and college of education, or to thosewho have attained an equivalent level of academicachievement.

Since 1953, 11 national teachers' colleges, locat-ed in each province, have been the main source of sup-ply for prospective elementary school teachers. Sec-ondary school teachers have been produced from thecolleges of education, which are, in most cases,attached to universities. At present, 35 colleges of edu-cation produce prospective secondary school teachers.In 1953, Provision 11 of the Law on the Educational

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8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 135

TABLE 8.8Trends of Teachers' Average Age and Teaching Experience by School Level

Elementary Middle School

Years of Years of

Age Teaching Age Teaching

General High School Vocational High School

Years ofAge Teaching

Years ofAge Teaching

1970 33.2 11.3 35.3 10.1 36.7 10.9 35.8 9.5

1980 36.5 15.8 35.6 11.8 36.6 12.3 35.5 11

1990 40.3 18.7 36 11.3 37.1 12.5 37.5 12.4

1992 41 19.1 36.7 12.4 38.3 13.4 38.2 13.1

TABLE 8.9Percentage of Female Teachers by School Level

Elementary (%) Middle School (%) High School (%)Junior College &University (%)

1965 25.5 16.1 8.9 11.9

1970 29.1 18.6 9 12.6

1975 33.7 25.1 12.7 14.5

1980 36.8 32.8 17.1 15.7

1980 36.8 32.8 17.1 15.7

1985 43.1 38.5 20.4 17.7

1991 51.6 47.6 23.3 20

1992 52.4 47.7 23.2 20.5

TABLE 8.10Monthly Salary of Elementary and Secondary School Teachers by Salary Step, 1993 (in U.S. dollars)

SalaryStep

MonthlySalary

SalaryStep

MonthlySalary

SalaryStep

MonthlySalary

SalaryStep

MonthlySalary

1 $325 11 $439 21 $651 31 $914

2 336 12 452 22 676 32 942

346 13 473 23 702 33 971

4 357 14 494 24 727 34 999

5 367 15 516 25 753 35 1,0267

6 378 16 538 26 779 36 1,053

7 390 17 561 27 804 37 1,079

8 402 18 583 28 830 38 1,106

9 414 19 606 29 858 39 1,132

10 427 20 628 30 886 40 1,158

Public Service prescribed that graduates from thenational education institutions be given preferentialtreatment in the recruitment process in government pri-mary and secondary schools. Thus, most graduatesfrom private colleges of education could be recruitedinto private schools; they were unlikely to obtain teach-ing positions in public schools. But in 1991, the Con-stitutional Court decided that this teacher recruitmentpolicy violates the equal opportunity principle solemn-ly guaranteed in Constitutional Law. The teacherrecruitment policy has been revised, or improved, toensure equal opportunity for competent, prospectiveteachers through open competition.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

The teacher compensation system has been changed sev-eral times in terms of its salary tables, various allowances,and fringe benefits, in accordance with the financial con-ditions of the Government and community support. Dur-ing the past four decades, the mainstream of the salaryschedule has been developed toward the single-salaryschedule. In other words, every teacher with the samekind of teaching license and teaching experience receivesthe same amount of salary and allowance, regardless ofwhether he or she works in elementary, middle, or highschool (Table 8.10 shows 1993 figures for monthly

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136 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

salaries for elementary and secondary school teachers).In general, the starting salary step for the beginningteacher who graduates from teachers' colleges or collegesof education is number nine. (Table 8.10 shows onlyfixed pay; various allowances are not included. Profes-sors in colleges and junior colleges are paid according todifferent salary tables.)

The teacher salary schedule includes monthly paythat is fixed plus several allowances. Besides the month-ly salary, additional allowances are paid on a monthlybasis, within the limits of budget, as bonuses, teachingallowances, family allowances, schooling expenses forchildren, allowances for special-area service, special-duty allowances, allowances for overtime work, and soon. Teachers also have fringe benefits, such as medicalinsurance, pension, schooling expenses for children,loans for housing, and beft -- and after leave for child-birth (about two months for iemale teachers).

The Korean Teachers' Mutual Fund is an organiza-tion that oversees the welfare of teachers and providesthem with financial security so that they can devotethemselves fully to their profession. The Teachers Pen-sion Fund of Private School Teachers is the equivalentorganization for private school teachers. The Korean Fed-eration of Teachers' Associations (KFTA) is recognized bythe government as the only legal organization for theteaching profession. In 1952, this organization joined theWorld Confederations of Teaching Profession (WCOTP)as a full member, and has participated in various types ofactivities. However, some teachers who were discontentwith the conservative activities of KFTA independentlyformed the National Council of Teachers, which laterbecame a teachers' union, in 1990. Under the slogan"True Education," these teachers advocated collectivestruggles for teacher salary increases, the improvementof deteriorated conditions of teaching, and democratiza-tion of the educational leadership. They also demandedthe right to exercise collective bargaining, and even tostrike (with the provision that they would first ask thepermission and cooperation of other professional teach-ers' organizations). The government disagreed and dis-missed about fifteen hundred teachers from their teach-ing posts on the grounds that they had violated the lawsand generated negative public sentiment. After four years,the government allowed almost all of these dismissedteachers to return to classrooms, on the condition thatthey secede from the labor union movement. Eventhough the government does not recognize the laborunion movement of teachers, the union was enrolled asa member of EI (Education International) in 1993.

Since 1992, KFTA has engaged in collective bar-gaining with the Ministry of Education (MOE) on issuessuch as salary increases, teaching conditions, retirementand health insurance policies, and so on. As mentionedabove, during the past decades, the teacher recruitment

policy was overreliant on national institutions, discrim-inating against private institutions. But the recruitmentof teachers is now carried out on an open, competitivebasis in order to induce more highly qualified teachers,regardless of their gender, birthplace, college of origin,or other considerations, into the teaching profession.And recruitment is based on a variety of criteriasuchas written examinations, college records, teaching skills,and personalityto induce bright, prospective teachersin each provincial area.

Annually, about 7,000-8,000 teachers are recruit-ed. In 1993, 7,381 teachers were recruited into primary,middle, and high schools. New teacher demand is, atmost, about 7,000 teachers yearly, even though about57,000 prospective teachers are available. Accordingly,the MOE tries every year to secure a larger educationalbudget in order to recruit more teachers into the teach-ing profession.

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions

Institutes responsible for teacher education vary in typeand level. Kindergarten teachers are usually trained byjunior vocational colleges; elementary school teachersby teachers' colleges; and secondary school teachers bycolleges of education and general colleges and univer-sities. These institutions supply nearly 30,000 teachersannually. Appropriate licenses for teaching are award-ed to those who graduate from these institutions.

Some kindergarten teachers are trained by four-year colleges and junior vocational colleges, as well asby colleges conducting courses through audiovisualmedia and correspondence. Elementary school teachersare trained by 11 four-year national teachers' colleges.Secondary school teachers must be graduates of col-leges of education (there are 12 national colleges ofeducation in the Republic of Korea); of educationdepartments or teacher education courses in collegesand universities; or of Master of Education programs ingraduate schools of education. The entrance examina-tion for teachers' colleges and for colleges of educationhas changed, and now includes an aptitude test and aninterview. Colleges and universities, apart from offeringcourses in teacher preparation institutes, also offerteacher education programs to supplement the supplyof teachers in secondary schools. These programs pro-vide an alternative path for students enrolled in otherprograms to receive teacher training.

Graduate schools of education were established toupgrade the professionalism of teachers by providingexposure to research-based, in-depth studies. They offer

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8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 137

day and evening classes during designated seasons sothat teachers can attend at a time convenient for them.Special teachers for the handicapped are educatedaccording to the level of schools where they are expect-ed to teach. Apart from the subjects of specialization,they are also exposed to courses aimed at improvingtheir teaching, relevant to the targeted audience. Schoollibrarians must be graduates of universities and collegeswith a major in library science. Nurses are qualified tobecome teachers by graduating from junior colleges orfrom a university, and by obtaining an RN license.

Policy Guidance

The guiding policy of teacher preparation and in-servicetraining is to improve professional competency anddevelop a sense of commitment to the teaching profes-sion based on sound views of education. The organiza-tion responsible for teacher policies is the TeachersAffairs Bureau in the Ministry of Education at the nation-al level.

Accreditation/Approval

There is no formal accreditation system for teacherpreparation programs. But some specialists and profes-sionals have been very emphatic about the need forteacher preparation program accreditation to become apart of the college and university accreditation system,and there are plans to put this idea into practice in 1997.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

The goals of teacher education are to develop profes-sional competency in prospective teachers in order toestablish high-quality education. As mentioned above,teachers' colleges train elementary school teachers, andcolleges of education produce students for teaching atsecondary schools. Korea National University of Educa-tion (KNUE) was inaugurated in 1985 with the specificgoal of producing a corps of teacher elites dedicated toteaching and in-service training for teachers.

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

In Korea, candidates for all colleges and universitiesmust pass entrance examinations in the form of scholas-tic aptitude tests conducted by the National Board ofEducational Evaluation. Scholastic achievement in highschool comprises 40 percent of the total score which

candidates must achieve to gain entrance to collegesand universities. In addition, candidates for teachers'colleges or colleges of education must take an aptitudetest and undergo an interview, which -account for 10percent of the total score.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Preparation Curricula

The curriculum of teachers' colleges consists of requiredand elective courses. The former include general sub-jects (national ethics, Korean language, the history of civ-ilization, problems in Korean society, natural science,mathematics, and a foreign language) and professionaleducation subjects geared to raising the professionalismof teaching. Elective courses include a variety of subjects.

The curriculum of colleges of education is com-posed of general humanities subjects and specializedsubjects, which, in turn, are divided into required andelective subjects. The former are intended to producebroadly informed teachers, whereas the latter focus onspecific skills associated with teaching. Students are alsoencouraged to specialize in a discipline of interest tothem, for up to 21 credit hours. A four-week period ofteaching practice is included in the curriculum of teach-ers' colleges and colleges of education. In general, eachcollege of education has an elementary school, a middleschool, and a high school attached to it. Teachers' col-leges are attached to an elementary school, where thestudents are required to complete at least four weeks ofon-the-job training. In the course of teaching practice, astudent teacher must complete an internship, whichincludes observation of class instruction, actual teaching,and performance of attendant duties.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

In-service teacher training aims at improving education-al expertise, enhancing the quality of the teaching pro-fession, and encouraging a sense of commitment. In-ser-vice training is offered in five categories: qualificationtraining to obtain credits for promotion; general trainingto broaden overall knowledge in educational theoriesand practices; induction training for new recruits toacquaint them with the profession; refreshment trainingfor in-service teachers to improve performance of teach-ing duties; and special training, in the form of study atKNUE for two years in master's programs.

Qualification training is the responsibility ofteacher training centers established in each provincialarea. It requires trainees to complete a minimum of 30days (180 hours) of training to be certified for promo-tion. It takes at least 10 days (60 hours) of training tocomplete a general in-service. Task-specific programs

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138 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

vary in duration, depending on their goals and contents.An induction program is offered under the direct super-vision of the provincial or municipal office of education.The National Institute of Educational Research andTraining provides a variety of refreshment programs tar-geted for educational administrators and school man-agers. Teachers are provided with scholarship opportu-nities for overseas study in order to observe teachingpractices and familiarize themselves with other educa-tional systems. This program has proved to be effectivein developing a global outlook on education and in sen-sitizing teachers to their responsibilities. By and large, ithas had a positive impact on teachers' morale. Foreignlanguage teachers are sent to countries where their spe-cialization languages are spoken, and attend programsthere to improve their skills in verbal communication.In-service training programs for 1992 are listed by train-ing institute in Table 8.11.

Professional Development Opportunities

Teachers must participate in in-service training in orderto qualify for higher-ranking licenses; therefore, thequalification training program is very popular amongteachers, because it gives them an opportunity forcareer advancement. However, some teachers avoid orhave negative views of general in-service training fortheir voluntary professional development. There are noparticular incentives or benefits offered for such train-ing, such as salary increases of the kind that can beobtained through higher-ranking licenses.

LICENSING

Classification of Teachers

In order to ensure the professionalism and the publicaccountability of teachers, graduates of teacher prepa-ration programs are required to be licensed accordingto criteria established by law. Teachers are classifiedaccording to the following categories: Grades 1 and 2teachers (i.e., of the first- and second-degree category,rather than school grade level); assistant teachers; spe-cial education teachers; librarians; teachers for skill prac-tices; and nursing teachers, Each category must meetspecific qualification criteria, established in Clause 1,Article 79, of the Education Law. In accordance withthese criteria, each prospective teacher is licensed bythe Minister of Education.

Teacher certificates, or licenses, are valid through-out the teacher's lifetime. The main frame for teacherlicensing is divided into four hierarchical categories:Grade 2 teachers, Grade 1 teachers, vice-principals, andprincipals. (This hierarchy is illustrated in Figure 8.2.)Most beginning teachers enter the profession as Grade2 teachers and are not subject to a probationary period.

Status of Qualifying Conditions

Teachers can acquire higher-ranking license after com-pletion of 180 hours of in-service training programs;higher-ranking licenses provide teachers with betterpositions, more responsibilities, and added prestige. For

TABLE 8.11

In- service Training of Teachers by Training Institute, 1992

Training Institute Training Programs Trainees Total

Central Educational Research & General training 1,925 3,809Training Institute Professional training 681

Other training 1,203

Regional teacher training institutes Qualification training 9,475 26,963General training 8,447Other training 9,041

Elementary teacher training institutes Qualification training 2,005 2,230General training 225

Secondary teacher training institutes Qualification training 179 257General training 78

Comprehensive teachers' Qualification training 1,255 1,437training institute General training 182

Training institutes designated by Qualification training 2,828 29,131MOE & Board of Education General training 26,303

Overseas observation Observation visit 3,217 3,759Speciality training visit 542

Source: Education in Korea (MOE), 1992-1993.

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8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 139

example, when Grade 2 teachers obtain Grade 1 teach-ers' licenses, they are eligible for promotion to headteacher positions, a stepping stone to vice-principal orschool supervisor positions at the Education Office (seeFig. 8.2). And when Grade 1 teachers obtain licenses forvice-principal, they can qualify for appointments asprincipal. In this sense, the teacher licensing system isgeared more toward professional advancement than itis toward professional development.

Promotion and transfer policy is specified in offi-cial regulations for the civil service in the education sec-tor, in the sections concerning promotion and perfor-mance appraisal. Promotion to higher positions ortransfer to other administrative positions requires appli-cants to have good career evaluation records, perfor-mance appraisals, a record of in-service training, andextra, additional points. Career evaluation records referprimarily to seniority, whereas performance appraisal,in-service training, and additional points are based main-ly on merit. In general, teachers with significant teach-ing experience tend to rely on seniority for promotion,while teachers with little experience prefer the merit sys-tem. The conservative climate of educational circles inthe Republic of Korea promotes a preference for senior-ity as a gage of teacher qualification for advancement.The opportunity for promotion often goes to "inside"candidates rather than to "outside" ones. In a sense, thismeans that administrative or supervisory positions arenot widely publicized, and that qualified candidates areseldom made aware of the vacancies.

Pt ncipal

t

Principal Certificate

Vice Principal

tVice Principal Certificate

1st Grade Teacher

t1st Grade Teacher

Certificate

t

2nd Grade Teacher

Grade 2 and Grade 1 teachers and vice-principalsmay work up to 65 years of age before retirement, aslong as they serve with good records. However, since1992, principals can hold office only for four years, andcan be reappointed for one additional term. The termsystem of principalship was introduced on the basis ofthe recommendation of the Central Council of Educa-tion as a response to overwhelming numbers of teach-ers applying for promotion to principal, and also in anattempt to curb the authoritarian leadership styles ofsome principals. The school supervisors who are pro-moted from within the ranks of experienced teachersare very popular among teachers. Recently, there havebeen efforts in most provinces to recruit new schoolsupervisors through open competition. In someprovinces, supervisors, vice-principals, and principalscan be transferred interchangeably.

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Present Concerns for Change and Improvement

It is imperative to lure competent teachers into theteaching profession and to encourage and maintain theirprofessional development in order to upgrade the qual-ity of education. But there are many obstacles associat-ed with teacher preparation and professional develop-

Senior School SupervisorSenior Educational Researcher

Junior School SupervisorJunior Educational Reseatcher

Promotion

Transfer

148

FIGURE 8.2Teacher certificate and

promotion system.

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140 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

ment that must be overcome in order to solve the prob-lems related to licensing, promotion, in-service training,teaching conditions, salary, social expectations, and soon. There are many issues and problems that should beresolved.

First of all, teacher education institutions do notoffer enough teacher specialization courses. Teachers'colleges and colleges of education are hardly differen-tiated, in terms of program contents and methods, fromthe teacher education courses in general colleges anduniversities. This means that the identity of teacher edu-cation institutions is not fully reflected in the trainingprograms. Some see this as a good reason to discontin-ue their operations. As was also pointed out, there aretoo many teacher education institutions and courses andthey produce overwhelming numbers of prospectiveteachers, especially in the case of colleges of educationand teache. education courses in general colleges anduniversities.

Second, in-service training does not give enoughimpetus to professional development. After their recruit-ment, teachers would greatly profit from professionaldevelopment in the form of systematic in-service train-ing, in order to develop knowledge and skills associat-ed with teaching, student guidance, classroom manage-ment, and so forth. As mentioned above, Grade 2teachers can become Grade 1 teachers after completingin-service training. But once they become Grade 1teachers, most of them, with the exception of those whobecome vice-principals, continue teaching until retire-ment without considering the advantages of further pro-fessional development. This means that most teacherscomplete in-service training exclusively for careeradvancement rather than from intrinsic motivation fordeveloping professional competency.

Third, teachers are more concerned with promo-tion than with teaching. It is not an exaggeration to saythat most teachers are only interested in administrativeor supervisory positions, particularly teachers with themost seniority. For instance, Grade 1 teachers who havesignificant teaching experience want to be promoted tovice-principal, or to be transferred to a school supervi-sor position. Compared with the pyramid structure ofhierarchies in other occupations, the structure of theteaching profession is flat. Accordingly, only 10 percentof classroom teachers can look forward to promotion ortransfer. Thus, those who fail to be promoted to admin-istrative positions are often looked on as incompetentteachers, even though they may be excellent classroomteachers with considerable teaching experience. Thisresults in dissatisfaction and frustration on the part ofmany competent teachers, and hinders the advancementof professional development.

This strong status-oriented tendency has much todo with authoritarian and bureaucratic administration,

as well as with centralized administrative power. Inaddition, this kind of climate could be attributed to theirrational teacher licensing system, in which the teach-ing professions are mixed with the management func-tions. In other words, classroom teachers such as Grade2 teachers and Grade 1 teachers occupy a lower posi-tion, and administrators like vice-principals and princi-pals are in a higher position. Thus, teachers see them-selves in a humble position, and administrators considerthemselves fortunate to have escaped it.

Fourth, teachers are stymied by heavy teachingloads. Above all, this situation comes from unmanage-able class sizes. According to 1992 estimates, there were32.8 students for every teacher in elementary schools,24.5 students per teacher in middle schools, and 22.1students per teacher in high schools. The large numberof students per class (39.9 in primary, 48.6 in middle, 49in high school) is the source of the increasing teacher'sload. In urban areas, classrooms are even more crowd-ed. These figures compare unfavorably with those of themore advanced countries. Heavy teaching loads may bebetter illustrated by the number of teaching hours perweek. In 1993, elementary school teachers worked 26.0hours per week, middle school teachers 17.0 hours, andhigh school teachers 16.0 hours. Besides the regularteaching hours, teachers spend additional hours for sup-plementary or enrichment teaching programs, and arealso burdened with a considerable paperwork load.These adverse conditions have their roots in a shortageof funds in the education budget. Despite the rapidexpansion of the student population, the governmenthas allocated only small amounts to education, underthe pretext of concentrating limited financial resourceson economic development, national defense, and socialdevelopment.

Fifth, economic compensation for teachers is low.In general, teachers are well respected by students andtheir parents, and the teaching profession has beenregarded as good job, with a high reputation. The pub-lic recognizes that teachers make a great contribution tosociety, but they are not compensated for this contri-bution. This situation is one of the factors that leads tolow job satisfaction for teachers.

Teachers also perceive that their socioeconomicstatus has been lowered compared with the situationin the past, and perhaps as a consequence of industri-alization, even though their job contributes signifi-cantly to social progress and national development.This poor conception of themselves as teachers canconsequently lead to a lack of commitment to teach-ing. The salary level of beginning teachers is not lowcompared with that of other occupations. However,the salary level of experienced teachers who haveserved a long time in the teaching profession is lowcompared with the salary level of other occupations.

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8 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN KOREA 141

Since 1960, salary levels have increased dispropor-tionately in comparison to teachers' salariesfor civilservants employed, for example, in the state-ownedbanks, or as high-ranking public officials. Fortunately,efforts by the governmentthe levying of an educa-tion tax in 1982have resulted in a steady increase inthe general level of teachers' pay. Nonetheless, presentsalary levels fail to provide enough incentive for teach-ers to increase their professional development experi-ence and expertise.

Finally, supportive administration for teachinghas been insufficient. Administrative authoritiesshould support and encourage teachers' educationalactivities; this should be their driving force. But therapid growth of the student population and the expan-sion of the teaching profession has brought with it agrowing tendency to rely on controlled supervision,allowing bureaucracy and authoritarianism to takehold. It goes without saying that the centralized modelin political, economic, social, and cultural affairs hasboth directly and indirectly influenced educationalpolicy formation, implementation, and governance.Elementary and secondary school teachersnumber-ing more than 300,000 across the nationcomprise aformidable force, and they cannot be ignored. Thevery limited range of teacher autonomy and controlover their teaching situations has left them with noalternative than to submit to the administrative author-ities. This was one of the motives that led militantteachers to organize and participate in teacher laborunions advocating the reformation of administrativeleadership in education. Fortunately, this authoritari-an leadership and conservative, centralized adminis-trative system has been gradually improved since thelate 1980s.

Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement

Korean education is expected in the future to play amore important role in national development, as well asin individual self-actualization. The teacher is one of themost crucial elements in education. In this sense, it isimperative to reform the teacher preparation and pro-fessional development system. The major thrust ofreform efforts should be directed toward streamliningthe professionalization process for teachers in all relat-ed areaspreservice education, the licensing system, in-service training, teaching loads, socioeconomic status,and administration and finance.

First of all, specification of teacher education insti-tutions is needed. It is essential that the curriculum ofelementary and secondary schools be directly linked tothe programs of the teacher education institutions. Andteacher training programs should emphasize the devel-opment of a well-rounded character, a moral con-

sciousness, and a sense of commitment to the teachingprofession. In addition, the structure of the teaching fac-ulty in colleges of education should be realigned byadding subject-matter specialists to the teaching staff, sothat programs will be characterized by a greater empha-sis on subject matter.

Second, periodic in-service training is needed. Thepresent main stock of in-service training is qualificationtraining and general training. As mentioned above, qual-ification training, which leads to career advancement, ispresently the most popular program among teachers. In-service training should be similarly compensated, witheffects for teachers' salaries and for their promotionopportunities, and teachers should be provided withmore opportunities to voluntarily participate in profes-sional development initiatives periodically, to enhancetheir skills and competence levels and to keep pace withrapidly developing trends in the different disciplines ofteaching methods. It is also necessary to renew teachers'license periodically, through in-service training.

Third, it is urgent that a new teaching-orientedlicensing system be established, reforming the currentmanagement-oriented licensing system, both to dis-courage administration-driven teacher expectations andto expedite professional development. One proposal,recommended by KFTA, would be to replace the pre-sent system with Grade 2, Grade 1, senior, and masterteacher categories, eliminating the vice-principal andprincipal positions. This type of ranking is the one mostoften found in research institutes or colleges. The cre-ation of these new categories would mean a changealso in the roles, salaries, teaching hours, and fringebenefits of teachers. Under a new system like this, prin-cipals could be appointed from among senior and mas-ter teachers.

Fourth, optimization of teaching loads is urgent.Teaching loads should be optimized to provide extensiveand high-quality teaching. This must begin with reducingclass size, bringing it into line with levels in advancedcountries. The Presidential Commission for EducationReform (PCER) recommended that teaching hours perweek should be gradually decreased, to a point thatmakes it possible to individualize instruction and increaseteaching effectiveness. In elementary schools (where ateacher is responsible for all subject matter, unlike in sec-ondary schools), teaching hours could be reducedthrough a partial implementation of departmentalizationin music, arts, and physical education. It is also necessaryto relieve teachers' overloads of administrative, clerical,and non-educational chores through employing teachers'aides.

Fifth, improving the socioeconomic status of teach-ers could make the teaching profession more attractiveand is directly linked to the quality of education. Toensure a high motivation for teachers toward teaching,

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142 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

before anything else, increasing their monthly salary levelis crucial. At the least, the salary schedule, allowances, andfringe benefits should be adjusted to be competitive withthose of other occupations. To raise the social and eco-nomic status of teachers, special legislative actions are inorder. The PCER and KFTA have recommended the enact-ment of special legislation, known as the Act for Attract-ing Qualified Teachers. Japan is a case in point. In 1974,the Japanese Government enacted similar legislation andsalary levels have improved remarkably as a result.

Finally, administrative and financial support is alsoneeded. Autonomy should be granted to schools toencourage teachers to plan and solve their own prob-lems outside central control. The MOE and BOE shoulddelegate as many of their functions and powers as pos-sible directly to schools and teachers themselves.

Traditionally, the custom has been for Korean edu-cation administration to work from a centralized, author-itarian model, but their function should instead be oneof support. To provide adequate support, efforts shouldbe made to train professional administrative personnel,to introduce updated management techniques, and to

increase provisions of materials and means involved inteaching. Teachers should also be encouraged to partic-ipate in the decision-making processes related to schoolmanagement since their experiences with teaching andits related activities form a pool of ideas to be drawn on.Efforts also should be intensified to secure financial sta-bility in order to meet the additional financial require-ments needed for salary increases and for reducing theworkload of teachers, and so on.

During the last five decades, teacher training andprofessional development policies in Korea have beenaffected by the surrounding social context, especially bythe top-down, rigid, political management system, andalso by economic conditions. The rigid control in par-ticular resulted in uniformity in all areas of teaching pol-icy, such as teacher preparation, recruitment, licensingand promotion, in-service training, and administrativesystem. Economic conditions directly influenced salary,teaching conditions, and so on. With the fast-approach-ing 21st century in view, feasible alternatives and strate-gies for professional competence of teachers should bedeveloped and implemented.

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Teacher Training andProfessional Developmentin Malaysia

Submitted by: Teacher Education Division,Ministry of Education

CONTEXT

Definitions

Table 9.1 provides information for definitional purposes.

Educational Systems and Student Population

The educational system can be described as follows:

Primary Schooling: 6 yearsLower Secondary: 3 yearsUpper Secondary: 2 yearsUpper Six ("A") level): 2 years

Enrollment of students in government schools is:

Preschool: 26,000Primary School: 2,705,966Secondary Schools: 1,449,873

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

Age limit for training: Basic Course-27 years old andbelow; PostGraduate Diploma in Education-35 yearsold and below; Gender (Intake)-60 percent Female;40 percent Male.

Level of academic attainment: Basic Course "O"

level with five credits; PostGraduate Diploma in Educa-tiona recognized first degree with "0" level certificate.

Categories of Teachers: Based on academic quali-fication.

Recruitment of Teachers:1. Applicants sit for teachers' qualifying test.2. Those who pass attend an interview.3. Selected applicants undergo a 2.5 year training

program (Basic Course). For postgraduates, thetraining program is one year. Both coursesinclude a semester of practicum.

4. After graduation teachers are placed on proba-tion from 1 to 3 years before being confirmed asqualified teachers.

5. Teachers are trained for regular academicschools and also for vocational and technicalschools.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

Nongraduate teachers stc:-ting salaries: RM592.00-RM1,740.00.

Graduate teachers starting salaries: RM 1,075.00-RM2,979.00.

Benefits: Accrue to all qualified teachers, andinclude medical, housing loans, and car loans.

Pension: All qualified teachers are pensionableand are considered government employees.

Teachers' Unions: Included by the government indiscussions relating to teachers' welfare, but with nodirect influence on the decisions taken.

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144TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 9.1

Definitions of Schooling in Malaysia

Typically,How Do You Define:

In Terms ofGrade/Levels

Age Rangeof Students

Type and Level of EducationRequired to Teach at This Level

Preprimary schooling

Primary schooling

Secondary schooling

Postsecondary(Form Six & matriculation)

Preservice teacher preparation

Preschool

Years 1-6

Forms 1-5

Full certificate and statement

Excellent, credit pass and fail

4-6 years Trained & untrained "0" level

6-12 Trained & certificatedteachers"0" level

13-17 Bachelor's Degree plus 1 year PostGraduate Diploma in Teaching orCertificate of Teachingplus Bachelor's Degree

18-20 Bachelor's Degree plus 1 year PostGraduate Diploma in Teaching orCertificate of Teachingplus Bachelor's Degree

20-35 Bachelor's Degree plus 1 year PostGraduate Diploma in Teaching orCertificate of Teachingplus Bachelor's Degree

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics ofTeacher Preparation Institutions

Teachers are trained according to level and subject; thatis, for primary and secondary schools, and also for thevarious subjects.

All teacher preparation programs are conductedby the government, and all costs are borne by the gov-ernment. The annual expenditure for the Teacher Train-

ing Division is approximately RM214,314,802.68.

Policy Guidance

The Teacher Education Division of the Ministry of Edu-

cation is the main agency responsible for the training ofall types of teachers.

Accreditation/Approval

All teacher preparation programs come under govern-ment supervision and are conducted at governmentteacher training colleges and universities.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

Strive toward national unityDevelop national pride and identityUphold democratic ideas and ideals

Foster social consciousnessCultivate competencies in effective communica-tionPromote international understanding regardingpolitics, ecology, cultures, and mankind

The qualities that are fostered among teachertrainees are the improvement of knowledge, skills, and

attitudes in the profession. and academic fields of theteaching profession.

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

Basic Course: Candidates who are of sound physicaland mental abilities, and who possess the necessarynumber of subject credits from the National Examina-tion ("0" Levels).

Post Graduate Diploma in Education: Candidateswho are of sound physical and mental abilities, and whopossess the recognized necessary degree qualification inthe subject area of training, and "0" level education.

Factors given weight in candidate admittance areacademic excellence, co-curricular and special achieve-ments, communication abilities, and personality traits.Allocation and number of intake for teachers annuallyinto teacher training colleges are based on teacherrequirements, determined by government agencies.

Differences in the Nature and Content ofTeacher Preparation Programs

Teacher Education in Malaysia is organized at the fol-

lowing two levels:

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9 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA 145

University: Conducting one-year Post GraduateDiploma in Education courses and the four-year Bach-elor of Education Program.

Teacher training colleges: 2.5 years of Basic Pri-mary Teacher Training; 2.5 years of Basic Non-Gradu-ate Secondary School Teacher Training; and one year ofPost Graduate Diploma in Education courses.

Linkages Between Curricular Standards forTeacher Education and

Curricular Standards for Students

The centralized system of education in Malaysia requiresthe linking of the Teacher Education Curricula to thenational schools' curricula (primary and secondary).Linkages are made via national curriculum bodies at thepolicy and implementation stages.

LICENSING

Authority to teach: It is required for all teachers to beregistered with the Teachers alai Schools RegistrationDivision, Ministry of Education. Confirmation of per-mission to work within the Public Service (civil service)requires that teachers undergo a probationary period ofone to three years, after which they are confirmed in theservice as qualified teachers.

Licensure waived: Due to teacher shortages,attachment teachers, that is, teachers who have notundergone teacher training programs, are recruited.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction or Transition Processes

For primary and secondary nongraduate teachertrainees, there is an induction program that commences

with practicum during the training course, as well as on-site practicums for the last semester. During the on-sitepracticum of one semester, teacher trainees are sup-ported by teacher mentors at school sites and by teachertrainers, inspectorates, and other relevant agencies on aregular basis.

Professional Development Opportunities

Teachers are given incentives to participate in a multi-ple in-service program provided by state educationdepartments, by teacher training colleges, and by theProfessional Division of the Ministry of Education andUniversities. In-service programs also provide scholar-ships for teachers to follow master's and Ph.D programs.

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Democratization of education in Malaysia has broughtabout the necessity of providing enough teachers in allschools. In the short term, teacher training colleges haveto stretch their resources, in terms of both manpowerand financial support.

In order to fulfill the requirement for trained teach-ers, teacher training colleges have embarked on a dou-ble intake program, in terms of numbers taken into train-ing, and a restructuring of the teacher training curricula.

In the next five years, it is foreseen that theteacher training colleges will be addressing issues ofquantity in teacher output, while upgrading qualitythrough innovative training programs.

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Teacher Training andProfessional DevelopmentPractices in New Zealand

Submitted by: Ministry of Education

New Zealand is a country of nearly 3 1/2 million peo-ple. It has been populated by Maori for over a thousandyears and by Europeans for nearly two hundred years.Today, most New Zealanders are English-speakingEuropeans. The indigenous Maori comprise the secondlargest group. At the last census (1991), Maori made up14 percent of the population and numbered 155,947.

The New Zealand Maori population is consider-ably younger in age structure than the total population:37.5 percent of Maori were under 15 years of age at the1991 census, compared with 23.2 percent of the totalpopulation. This youthfulness is reflected in the per-centages of Maori in primary (over 21 percent) and sec-ondary (17 percent) schools.

The next largest group comprises peoples fromthe Pacific Islands. Since the 1960s, this group has expe-rienced the fastest growth rate of all ethnic groups inNew Zealandfrom a population of just over 14,000 in1960 to an estimated 150,000 today. Like the Maori, thePacific Islands population is significantly younger in agethan the total New Zealand population, with 38.7 per-cent of Pacific Islanders under 15 years of age at the1991 census.

In more recent years, increasing numbers of peo-ples from Asian countries have come to settle in NewZealand. Table 10.1 shows the ethnic composition of thepopulation, 1936-4991.

Education is available to all New Zealanders

10

almost from birth to death. The Education Act of 1989provides a state system of free, secular education for allchildren between the ages of 5 and .19. In addition, thegovernment operates a study right scheme to enablestudents to continue with tertiary education.

The education system involves a comprehensiverange of early childhood services; 13 years of school-ingcomprising 8 years of primary schooling and 5years of secondary schooling; the provision of post-sec-ondary education through universities, polytechnics,colleges of education, and private training establish-ments; and transition education, community education,adult education, nonformal education, and distanceeducation opportunities and provisions.

Since the late 1980s New Zealand education hasbeen characterized by comprehensive educationreforms affecting all education sectors and institutionsthroughout the country. There have been substantialchanges to the administrative structures, together withcomprehensive new national curriculum and qualifica-tions frameworks. Successive governments initiated thereforms to achieve higher educational performancestandards, increased participation rates, greater effi-ciencies, more decentralized decision making, andgreater emphasis on meeting both the nation's eco-nomic and labor market needs and its communityneeds. (See Appendix 10.A, The New Structure of theNew Zealand Education System.)

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148TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 10.1Ethnic Composition of the Population-1936-1991 Censuses

Census Tot. Pop. Maori*Pacific Is.

Polynesian Chinese Indian Fijian Other

1936 1,573,812 82,326 988 2,943 1,200 1,486,355

1945 1,702,298 98,744 2,159 4,940 1,554 1,594,901

1951 1,939,472 115,676 3,624 5,723 2,425 1,812,024

1956 2,174,062 137,151 8,103 6,667 3,087 479 2,018,575

1961 2,414,984 167,086 14,340 8,333 4,027 746 2,220,452

1966 2,676,919 201,159 26,271 9,982 6,655 1,323 2,431,529

1971 2,862,631 227,414 40,918 12,470 7,140 1,147 2,573,542

1976 3,129,383 270,035 61,354 14,860 9,247 1,548 2,772,339

1981 3,175,737 279,252 89,697 19,248 11,580 1,908 2,774,052

1986 3,307,084 295,659 99,135 20,259 12,483 2,127 2,877,421

1986* 3,263,283 295,317 91,869** 19,566 12,126 1,875

2,842,5301991* 3,373,929 323,493 123,183** 37,689 26,979 2,760 2,859,825

Those specifying themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori, plus those not specifying the degree of origin.

*Usually resident population.**Comprises Samoans, Tongans, Cook Islanders, and Niueans.

CONTEXT

Definitions

Tables 10.2 and 10.3 provide information for definition-

al purposes.

Education Administration

Virtually every aspect of the administration of educationin New Zealand has been reviewed in the last fiveyears.' As a result of the reforms, the following educa-tion agencies have been established.

Central Agencies.

Ministry of Education: The Ministry of Education wasestablished in 1989 as a department of state under theState Sector Act of 1988. It is responsible for providingpolicy advice to the government on all aspects of edu-cation, from early childhood to tertiary, for overseeingthe implementation of approved policies, and for ensur-ing the optimum use of resources allocated to education.

Education Review Office: The Education ReviewOffice was also established in 1989 as an independentdepartment of state under the State Sector Act of 1988.

'The reforms are spelt out in a series of government pol-

icy documents: Tomorrow's Schools (school sector),1988;Before Five (early childhood education), 1988; LearningforLife One and Two (postcompulsory education and training),1988 and 1989.

Its responsibility is to regularly and systematically auditand review the performance of all registered schoolsand licensed early childhood centers against require-ments set out in legislation, charters, agreements, andother policy directives.

New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA):

The New Zealand Qualifications Authority is a Crownentity established under the Education Amendment Act

of 1990. The two central purposes of NZQA are toestablish the National Qualifications Framework, builton defined standards, and to ensure the quality deliveryof those standards on the basis of the Framework.2 The

NZQA also ensures that New Zealand qualifications arerecognized overseas, and that overseas qualifications arerecognized in New Zealand; and it administers nationalsecondary and tertiary examinations.

Teacher Registration Board: The Teacher Registra-tion Board is a Crown entity established under the Educa-tion Act of 1989 to maintain a register of teachers. It doesthis by determining the policies under which teachers will

be able to be registered, approving registrations and issu-ing practicing certificates, deciding if a teacher's nameshould be removed from the register, and providing boardsof trustees with the names of de-registered teachers.

Four service pr oviding organizations: All of thefour service organizations were established as Crown

2Quality is defined by the authority as "the totality offeatures and characteristics of a product or service that bearon its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs."

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10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 149

TABLE 10.2

Overview

Type of Institution Levels Age Range Type/Level of Ed. Required to Teach

PREPRIMARY SCHOOLING

Early Childhood N/A Before 5 A range of education and qualifications, including Diplomaof Teaching (Early Childhood)1

PRIMARY SCHOOLING J1 -F2 (Y1-8)2 5 to 12 Diploma of Teaching (Primary) (there is a growing trendtoward a university degree)

COMPOSITE SCHOOLING

(PRIMARY AND SECONDARY)Area 11-F5/7 5 to 16/18

(Y1-11/13)

SECONDARY SCHOOLING F3-7 (Y9-13) 13 to 16/18 University degree or diploma in subject specialty or ineducation, Diploma of Teaching (Secondary)

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION (PSET)(L1-8)3AND TRAININGUniversity L4/5-8 16 plus Advanced PSET degree or diploma in area of specialty

PRESERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

College of Education L2-7 16 plus Education degree or diploma, or other university degree ordiploma in area of specialty; teaching experience

'The Diploma of Teaching is not a required qualification; however, an increasing number of early childhood services are preferring to employ staffwith a diploma.

2The traditional (usual) nomenclature for primary schooling is J1 -3 (junior) for the first three years (13 and S1 are interchangeable); S2-4 (standard)for the next three years; and Fl&2 (form) or 55&6 for the final two years. A new nomenclature, basedon years for all of schooling (Y1-13), isbeing considered.

3National Certificate levels.

entities under the Education Act of 1989, and are char-tered to the Ministry of Education. They are the EarlyChildhood Development Unit (ECDU), which promotesthe development and provision of quality, accessible, andculturally appropriate early childhood services; the Spe-cial Education Service (SES), which provides quality ser-vices to assist those learners from early childhood to ter-tiary who have special educational and developmentalneeds; the Careers Service Rapuara (CSR), which has therole of providing advice and information that helps peo-ple choose the work, education, and training that suitsthem; and the Education and Training Support Agency(ETSA), which develops and administers training to sup-port individuals preparing to enter or reenter the workforce, or who are participating in work-based training.

Other Administrative Bodies

Boards of Trustees: All state primary and secondaryschools in New Zealand are governed by a board oftrustees. Members of a board include those elected byparents of students enrolled at the school, the principal,and a staff representative. Secondary school boards mayalso have a student representative.

Each board of trustees has a large measure ofautonomy in its control of the management of the school.

It has the responsibility for payment of ancillary staffsalaries and allocation of funds for the operational activ-ities of the school. Since January 1, 1993, it also hasresponsibility for the payment of senior management staffsalaries. The board must ensure that there is a writtencharter of aims, purposes, and objectives of the schoolapproved by the Minister of Education. The school char-ter includes the National Education Guidelines and localgoals and objectives that reflect the particular aspirationsof individual schools and their communities.

Tertiary Councils: Each university, polytechnic,and college of education is controlled administrativelyby a council, which represents the interests of staff, stu-dents, relevant education groups, the community, andthe Minister of Education.

Education Service Centers: Fourteen independenteducation service centers offer a range of administrativeservices to schools, such as school transport, payroll,and property services.

THE EDUCATION SECTORS

Along with many other countries, New Zealand haswell-developed systems providing for early childhood,primary, secondary, tertiary, community, and transition

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TABLE 10.3Educational System and Student Population, 1 July 1992

Type of Institution No. of Institutions No. of Students No. of Teachers Completion Rates (%)

EARLY CHILDHOOD 3,336 centers 135,732

Licensed Childcare Centers 852 38,734 3,739.35

Playcenters 578 20,601 1,237.24

Kindergarten 582 45,603 1,521.74

Kohanga reo 719 12,617 N/A'

PI Language Nest 170 3,682 N/A

Funded playgroups 334 9647 3,054.94

Home-based 72 3,470 88.77

PRIMARY 2339 397,100 19,645.52 100

Full primary 1152 135,916 7,040.4

Contributing primary 954 197,175 9,486.7

Intermediate 148 56,951 3,118

Private 85 7,058 422.2

COMPOSITE (PRIMARY AND SECONDARY)

Area schools 39 9,860 692.8

Private 30 10,852 11,501.1

Correspondence 1 10,845 372.2

SECONDARY 339 227,912 16,3703 1st yr 98.8

State F3-7 242 194,416 2nd yr 96.9

State F1-7 57 22,785 3rd yr 88.7

State F3-7(with AT)4 19 10,196 4th yr 75

Private 21 6,195 463.9 5th yr 55

6th + yrs 05%

MAORI MEDIUM SCHOOLS

Kura Kaupapa 13 510

Primary schools 250 13,843

Composite schools 15 795

Secondary schools 40 2,278

POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION

Universities 7 58,745 (FT)6 3,521 (FT)

34,437 (PT)6 1,339 (PTE)

Polytechnics 25 33,589 (FT) 3,956 (FT)

65,057 (PT) 3,917 (FT)

Colleges of Edn. 5 5,583 (Fr) 560 (FT)

4,732 (PT) 138 (PT)

Private Training Est. 7 17 913

Special schools8 59 6,094 584.4

Home schooling-primary 2,124

Home schooling-secondary 454

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

TOPs9 15,045

State schools49,782

Universities4,407

Polytechnics39,672

TOTAL '6,160 1,114,680

'Not available.2State only: 16,812 regular, 1,525 reliever, 3,942 part-time.3State only: 12,491 regular, 621 reliever, 3,258 part-time.'With attached intermediate.6Full-time.6Part-time.rrhere are currently many more establishments than thesenumbers.

8lncludes hospital schools and health camps.9Training Opportunities Programmes.Note:Comment on Primary figures: Three quarters (77 percent) of primary and intermediate staff held permanent positions. Of these, 72 percent

were women. Relief and part-time teachers made up 15 percent of the staff, with women accounting for 91 percent of these positions. The

remaining 7 percent of primary and intermediate positions were filled by provisionally registered teachers (i.e., first- and second-year teachers)

of whom 83 percent were women. Schools in main urban areas employ four times as many staff as do schools in rural areas.

In the 11 years prior to 1 March 1993, 108 state or integrated schools closed, 107 of which were primary schools. An overwhelming major-

ity of school closures were in rural areas (97 schools), and the largest number of schools were closed in the Southland education district.

In the 11 years prior to 1 March 1993, 42 state or integrated schools opened. Almost half were kura kaupapa Maori schools, the majori-

ty of which have been established in the last 4 years.

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TABLE 10.4

Comparison of the Number of Students in State, Private, and Correspondence Schools,1981-1991

1981 1991 Change

Number Percent Number Percent 1981-1991

State 648,488 90.3 678,101 95.9 30,387Private 66,977 9.3 24,387 3.8 -42,590Correspondence 2,342 0.3 2,285 0.4 -57

education. The Education Act of 1989 provides for freeeducation in state primary and secondary schools andattendance is compulsory until the age of 16.3

On July 1, 1992, there were 664,408 studentsenrolled at schools it New Zealand, the first significanttotal increase since 1986 (672,040), and the first increasein primary school rolls since 1977. The large majority ofstudents attend state primary and secondary schools. Asmall percentage enroll at private schools (see Table10.4). Parents are also able to educate their children athome, provided that a standard of education similar tothat available in state schools is maintained. Childrenliving in very remote areas, or unable for other reasonsto attend an ordinary school, may be enrolled in theCorrespondence School, which is a national distanceeducation provider. Lessons are provided in print andon tape and video modes.

Primary and secondary schools are required to beopen each year for at least 396 half days and 380 halfdays, respectively. The school year usually starts at thebeginning of February and finishes in mid-December,and is divided into three terms. The first term usuallycommences on the 5th Monday of the year, the secondterm in May on the 21st Monday, and the third term inSeptember on the 37th Monday. The major holidaysoccur in May, August, and December-January, and pri-mary schools have a one-week, mid-term break in thesecond term, usually during the first week of July.

Early Childhood Education

Most New Zealand children begin their formal educationbefore primary school. Early childhood education isavailable to children under five years of age through awide range of services, most of which are administeredby voluntary agencies with government assistance. Ser-vices do not differentiate between core and education.

3Most aspects of primary and secondary education arefree, funded by the state from general taxation. Parents mustmeet some costs for items such as exercise books and othermaterials.

The main providers of early childhood care andeducation are kindergartens, playcenters, childcare cen-ters, home-based day care schemes, Early ChildhoodDevelopment Unit (ECDU) funded playgroups, PacificIslands Language Groups, and Te Kohanga Reo, whichare based on total immersion of children from birth toschool age in Maori language, culture, and values.

Early childhood services are subsidized throughsessional payments to providers, on the basis of the num-ber of children enrolled. The increase in governmentfunding available to early childhood education since 1988has stimulated an increase in the number of places avail-able. In 1988, there were 2,570 centers. In 1992, this hadincreased to 3,336. In 1988, the number of childrenenrolled was 94,677. By 1992, this had grown to 135,732.Today, 46.6 percent of all New Zealand children agedone to four yearsincluding most three-year-olds (73.2percent) and nearly all four-year-olds (92.7 percent)areenrolled in some form of early childhood education.

Figure 10.1 and Table 10.5 show, respectively, thedistribution of early childhood education enrollments onJuly 1, 1992, and the percentage of an age groupenrolled at an early childhood service, 1990-1992.

Primary Education

Primary education is compulsory from six years of age,but nearly all children start formal schooling on theirfifth birthday and receive eight years of educationbefore moving to secondary school. The first three yearsare spent in junior classes schooling (J1-3), the nextthree in middle primary (S2-4), and the final two yearsas senior primary or intermediate (S5&6/F1&2). Classpromotion is not based on academic performance. Chil-dren generally move from one standard, or form, toanother with their age group, a practice generallyknown as social promotion.

The typical New Zealand primary school enrollschildren between the ages of five and twelve (full pri-mary) or between five and ten (contributing). The finaltwo years of primary schooling, forms one and two,may be taken at a full primary school (new entrants toform 2), an intermediate school (forms 1 and 2), an area

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152 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Homebased Services 3%

Pacific Island Language Nests 3%

ECDU Funded Playgroups7%

Kohanga Re*9%

Preschool Classes (State Schools andCorrespondence School)

1%

Kindergrutens33%

Playcentres15%

Licensed Childcare Centres29%

FIGURE 10.1Distribution of early childhood education enrollments as of 1 July, 1992.

TABLE 10. 5Percentage of an Age Group Enrolled at an EarlyChildhood Service

Age 1990 1991 1992

Under 1 year 9.4 8.6 10.8

1-2 years 18.1 19.1 22.7

2-3 years 34.4 34.7 37.7

3-4 years 71.5 71.4 73.2

4-5 years 95.5 92.2 92.7

school (new entrants to form 7), or a form 1-7 school,depending on where a child lives. Schools with fewerthan 150 pupils make up 55 percent of the primary andintermediate schools.

The primary rolls as of July 1, 1987-1992, and theprojected rolls for 1993-1997, are shown in Figure 10.2.

Secondary Education

Secondary education starts at form 3 and continuesthrough to form 7. Nearly all secondary schools in NewZealand are part of the state system. Most are co-edu-cational. There is a small number of single-sex schoolsand schools with a religious affiliation.

Students who have completed eight years of pri-mary schooling are normally admitted to a secondaryschool, most often at age 13. Students are legally oblig-ed to remain at school until their sixteenth birthday.Nearly all complete three years of secondary education.However, a substantial majority of students todayremain at school beyond their sixteenth birthday. In1993, of the cohort starting in form 3 (Y9), nearly 85percent were still at school at the end of the fourth year(F6), and 52 percent for the following fifth year (F7)over three times the percentage continuing to form 7 in1983 (17 percent). It is expected that retention rates inthe senior secondary school will continue to rise.

The School Curriculum

The Ministry of Education is responsible for developingand setting the national curriculum objectives for NewZealand schools. Boards of trustees, principals, andteachers in schools are required to meet and follow theobjectives as part of their charter obligation. The nation-al school curriculum has for many years included a basiccore of English, mathematics, science, social studies,music, arts and craft, and health education and physicaleducation for the years of compulsory schooling (J1-F4).

At intermediate level, the curriculum also includes work-

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.2

470000

460000

450000440000

430000

420000410000

400000

390000

111.11,

Year

Ill Actual Student Numbers Projected Number of Students

FIGURE 10.2Primary rolls (infants to Form 2) as of 1 July, 1992actual and projected.

shop craft and home economics. During their first twoyears of secondary schooling, students follow thenational school curriculum (see above), and also selecta number of optional subjects, which frequently includeeconomics and second languages. For their final threeyears (F 5-7), students are encouraged to pursue a morespecialized program of in-depth studies, choosing fourto six subjects from a wide range of options, most ofwhich contribute to national qualifications.

Maori language and culture is taught widely inschools. Recently, as a result of Maori initiatives, state-funded kura kaupapa Maori schools have been estab-lished to improve Maori educational achievement andpromote the Maori language. Kura kaupapa Maori teachthe same syllabi as other state schools, except that Maoriis the principal language of interaction and instruction.

In April 1993, the government launched the NewZealand Curriculum Framework (NZCF) as the officialpolicy for teaching, learning, and assessment in NewZealand schools. The framework describes a set ofbroad curriculum principles, seven essential learningareas (language and languages, mathematics, science,technology, the social sciences, the arts, and health andphysical well-being); and eight groups of essential skills(communication, numeracy, information, problem-solv-ing, social and cooperative, self-management and com-petitive, physical, and work and study skills).

National curriculum statements for each of thelearning areas are being progressively developed to spellout in more detail the knowledge, understandings, skills,attitudes, and values that are described in the framework.The curriculum statements include achievement objec-tives set in eight levels to indicate student progress inlearning throughout the years of schooling, where lev-

els one and two approximate what can reasonably beexpected of most students in the first four years ofschooling and levels seven and eight in the final post-compulsory two years. Teachers are expected to assessand report students' progress in relation to these levels.

Secondary School Attainments

There are currently four national awards for seniorsecondary school students: School Certificate, SixthForm Certificate, Higher School Certificate, and Uni-versity Bursaries Entrance and Scholarship. Theawards are approved by the New Zealand Qualifica-tions Authority.

School Certificate: Subjects for School Certificateare taken by most students in their third year of sec-ondary education, most often at the age of 15. SchoolCertificate is awarded in single subjects. A student maytake any number of subjects, with English a requirementfor all full-time students. Student achievement is credit-ed with a grade from AE for each subject, where A ishighest and E lowest. Assessment of subject perfor-mance is by external examination, by internal schoolassessment, or a combination of both.

School Certificate is broadly equivalent to theBritish General Certificate of Secondary Education(GCSE) at grades AE; the British General Certificate inEducation (GCE) at 0 level; the British Certificate of Sec-ondary Education (CSE) at grades 1-3; the Canadian orUnited States Grade 10; and the Australian states year10 awards, School Certificate, Junior Certificate, orAchievement Certificate.

Sixth Form Certificate: The Sixth Form Certificateis awarded on a single-subject basis to students who

1 5 `--)

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154 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

have satisfactorily completed a course of one yearbeyond School Certificate level. It is a nationally mod-erated, internally assessed qualification, with no publicexamination. A candidate may enter a maximum of sixsubjects, one of which must be English. Grades areawarded by schools on the basis of student achievementin each subject taken, on a scale from 1 (highest) to 9(lowest).

Sixth Form Certificate grades are recognized forentry to courses offered by polytechnics and colleges ofeducation and, to a lesser extent, by universities.

It is broadly equivalent to a Canadian or UnitedStates Grade 11.

Higher School Certificate: The Higher SchoolCertificate is awarded to students who have satisfac-torily completed five years of study at a secondaryschool level, which includes an advanced course ofone year beyond Sixth Form Certificate in at leastthree subjects. It is also awarded to students who haveobtained an A or B Bursary qualification from the Uni-versity Bursaries Examination (see below). The awardis decided by schools on the basis of certain nationalguidelines.

University Entrance, Bursaries, and Scholarships:This national qualification has been the recognizedmethod of entry for study at a New Zealand universitysince 1986. The national examination for these awardsis most often taken by secondary students at the end oftheir form 7 year (though an increasing number ofschools allow more able students to sit in form 6). It isa competitive examination for supplementary awardsfor study at a university. Outstanding achievement inindividual subjects is recognized by the award of sub-ject scholarships, and may allow successful students tostudy at a more advanced level at university.

University Bursaries Entrance and Scholarship arebroadly equivalent to British GCE A levels; Canadian orUnited States Grade 12; and in different Australianstatesyear 12 awards, Higher School Certificate,Senior Certificate, Matriculation, or Secondary SchoolCertificate.

National Certificate: The New Zealand Govern-ment has recently decided that it will reform seniorsecondary qualifications through the introduction of acomprehensive National Certificate within the Nation-al Qualifications Framework. The new qualificationwill be available at secondary and tertiary levels. In1997, it is planned that the National Certificate will bethe sole nationally approved qualification for seniorsecondary school students, and that the Sixth FormCertificate and Higher School Certificate will be phasedout. School Certificate and University Entrance, Bur-saries and Scholarships will remain, if in modifiedform, as options outside the National QualificationsFramework.

Composite Schools

Composite schools, most often comprising the consoli-dation of smaller rural schools, have been establishedin the last 30 years in order to provide children in small-er centers with an improved opportunity for secondaryeducation, enjoying the special facilities and more spe-cialized teaching of larger schools. These rural schoolsprovide education at both primary and secondary lev-els, either in the form of area schools (from junior toform 7), or form 1 to 7 schools.

Private Schools

In addition to state schools, there are a number of reg-istered private primary and secondary schools run byreligious or philosophical organizations, or by privateindividuals. To be registered, a private school must com-ply with national standards of accommodation, staffing,equipment, and curriculum set down in the EducationActs of 1964 and 1989. Some financial assistance is pro-vided by the state toward running costs and teacherssalaries. The Private Schools Conditional Integration Actof 1975 has allowed for the voluntary integration of pri-vate schools into the state system, without their surren-dering their special religious or philosophical character.A large number of private schools (predominantlyCatholic schools) have taken advantage of these provi-sions to become integrated schools. Independent (non-integrated) schools are largely schools run by non-Catholic religious organizations.

Resources for Teaching

Learning; Media Limited is frequently contracted toundertake development, production, dissemination, andpromotion of resources for learningespecially ofmaterials that document and support the national cur-riculum for schools. Learning Media Limited is a com-mercial publishing company owned by the Crown. Itsprincipal activity is the development, production, anddistribution of materials for students and teachers inNew Zealand schools. It also publishes policy docu-ments for the Ministry of Education, the New ZealandEducation Gazette, the video magazine EducationUpdate, and the School Journal.

The Rural Education Activities Programme, estab-lished in 1979, has the role of providing extra resourcesto isolated and sparsely populated rural areas.

The Reading Recovery Programme is an early inter-vention program that provides intensive individual helpto any child who is falling behind in reading and writingafter one year at school. There are also specialist teach-ers attached to schools throughout New Zealand, pro-viding long-term assistance for children with serious read-

id()

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10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 155

ing difficulties. Over 200 primary and secondary advisersare employed by colleges of education to provide adviceand guidance to schools, and to run in-service coursesfor teachers throughout the country.

Special Education

Whenever possible, children with physical or other dis-abilities are enrolled with other children at regular earlychildhood centers or in regular classes ai. their local pri-mary or secondary schools. When necessary, buildingsare modified, special equipment is provided, and ancil-lary staff are appointed to assist teachers. Specialistassistance in helping children with special needs is pro-vided mainly by the Special Education Service.

There are residential schools that meet the needsof a small number of children with disabilities for peri-ods of time ranging from one term to several years. Inaddition, there is a small number of state day schoolsfor students with intellectual and physical disabilities.There are also hospital classes that meet the needs ofchildren who are long-term patients.

Postsecondary Educator: n I Training

Formal tertiary education in New Zealand is providedby universities, polytechnics, wanaga, colleges of edu-cation, and private training establishments.

Until the mid-1980s, New Zealand had compara-tively low levels of participation in tertiary education.Since 1988, successive New Zealand governments haveinitiated far-reaching reforms of the tertiary sector toimprove access to higher education. The Equivalent FullTime Student (EFTS) funding system was introduced in1990, under which tertiary institutions are fundedaccording to the number of students they attract, thoughthe overall budget is capped. Within course and costcategories, institutions were given discretion to mounta range of courses of their choice, up to degree qualifi-cation. In 1992, the Study Right policy was introduced,providing a range of allowances, for tertiary students 16years and over, and for secondary students 18 years andover. At the same time, the Students Loans Scheme wasestablished, under which eligible students can receive aloan from the government to cover fees and course-related costs, and for living allowances while studying.Tertiary institutions are able to set tuition fees to meetthe balance of their costs.

The success of these policies is reflected in theimproved proportion of 18-year-olds advancing into ter-tiary educationan increase from 26 percent in 1985 toabove 45 percent in 1992 (see Table 10.6 for distribu-tion of tertiary students by sector and ethnic identifica-tion, 1992). Between 1987 and 1992, the number ofequivalent fulltime students (EFTS) increased from

84,364 to 126,155an increase over four years of 49.5percent (see Table 10.7 for participation rates by ageand gender, 1981-1991). This improvement is expectedto continue, reflecting higher retention rates in thesenior secondary school, increased recognition byyoung people of the link between tertiary education andemployment prospects, and the government's commit-ment to increasing the number of funded places in ter-tiary institutions.

Universities

There are seven universities in New Zealand, located inor near the major cities of Auckland, Hamilton, Palmer-ston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Theuniversities are predominantly government-funded insti-tutions and each offers undergraduate and postgradu-ate degree programs. They award bachelor's, master's,and doctoral degrees, and postgraduate diplomas. Someoffer undergraduate certificates and diplomas.

Entry to academic and professional programsoffered by New Zealand universities is open to allschool leavers who meet prescribed minimum stan-dards of academic achievement in the senior school(forms 6 and 7), and to all adults (over 20 years). Uni-versity Councils have the power to limit entry to spe-cific courses.

Each university sets its own program, and eachuniversity council sets the dates for terms or semesters.Typically, the academic year runs from late February toearly November.

Polytechnics

There are 25 institutions in New Zealand that are partof the Polytechnic System, 18 in the North Island and 7in the South Island. They vary greatly in size, from thesmaller institutions in regional centers to large metro-politan organizations. The Open Polytechnic, situated inLower Hutt, Wellington, provides distance education for25,000 students who cannot attend a polytechnic as full-time students, offering over 800 courses spanning fromcertificate to degree level.

Polytechnics provide a wide range of vocational,professional, and community education at various lev-els of specialization to over 100,000 full-time and part-time students. Courses range from short courses teach-ing a specific skill or subject to three-year professionaldiploma and certificate courses. As a result of the recenteducation reforms, New Zealand polytechnics are nowable to offer undergraduate degree programs. It is alsopossible for polytechnic graduates to transfer credit tosome university degrees, such as Commerce.

Typically, the polytechnic academic year runsfrom late February to mid-December.

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10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 157

TABLE 10.7Participation Rates in Formal Education and Training Courses by Age and Gander,1981-1991

Age

1981 1991

Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)

15-1920-24

49.1145.8

50.19.7

49.612.3

64.921.5

65.818.8

65.320.2

Colleges of Education

The training of teachers is carried out in seven institu-tions spread throughout New Zealand. The mainproviders are five independent colleges of education(situated in Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington,Christchurch, and Dunedin) and the School of Educa-tion at the University of Waikato. The seventh institutionis a regional polytechnic offering a single program forprimary teacher trainees.

All colleges provide programs that lead to a Diplo-ma of Teaching in early childhood, primary, or sec-ondary education. Other details about course programs,entrance requirements, and characteristics are providedin the following sections.

Private Training Establishments (PTEs)

A number of private training establishments are regis-tered with the New Zealand Qualifications Authority. In1992, for the first time, a small number of these receivedfunding from the Ministry of Education. The PTEs offercertificate and diploma courses and may, as a result ofrecent reforms, offer degrees. There is a wide variety ofPTEs offering English- language study, largely to over-seas students. A small number of establishments receivefunding to assist Maori teacher education.

Community Education

Community education is provided through a variety ofeducational institutions and other groups. Secondaryschools provide both day and evening classes for adult,community, and nonformal education. Polytechnics alsoprovide a wide range of community education coursesand programs. All universities have continuing educa-tion departments that provide seminars and short- andmedium-term courses. A number of other organizationsare also involved, for example, Workers' EducationalAssociation, Adult Reading and Literacy Assistance, Par-ents Centre Federation, and Country Women's Co-ordi-nating Committee.

Transition Education

Secondary schools, polytechnics, and communityproviders play important roles in providing transitioneducation and training. Schools encourage the integra-tion of transition skills development across the curricu-lum. Polytechnics provide substantial and numeroustransition programs. Many programs are offered on con-tract to the Education and Training Support Agency.Numbers of community and private providers wereinvolved in the provision of ACCESS courses, and nowprovide courses under the Training Opportunities Pro-gramme (TOP).

All groups are represented in the Link program,which allows secondary students, while still at school,to undergo specialized vocational education and train-ing, or to experience the tertiary education sector. TheCareers Service Rapuara has responsibility for the coor-dination and administration of Link.

National Qualifications Framework

By 1997, it is envisaged that all nationally approved qual-ifications in New Zealand for both schooling andpostschooling, including degrees and advanced degrees,will come under the umbrella of the new National Qual-ifications Framework.4 The New Zealand QualificationsAuthority has responsibility for developing the framework,which will regulate transactions between qualificationsthrough a mechanism of eight levels, where level 1 isbroadly equivalent to form 5 studies and level 8 is thestandard of an advanced graduate and diploma qualifica-tion. The framework will allow students to take coursesat different institutions, and with private providers.

The components of qualifications are units oflearning based on clearly defined learning outcomes(unit standards). All learning seeking national qualifica-tion will be translated into unit standards, and assigned

4For the moment, the university sector has decided thatits qualifications will remain outside the framework.

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158 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

to a level between 1 and 8. The unit standards will con-tribute to one of three new nationally recognized quali-fications: a National Certificate for levels 1 to 4; a Nation-al Diploma for levels 5 to 7, including a first degree atuniversity; and higher degrees/diplomas for level 8.

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

Teachers comprise one of the largest groups in the ser-vice industries in New Zealand. In 1992, there were over10,000 early childhood teachers, nearly 20,000 primaryteachers, nearly 17,000 secondary teachers, 13,500 ter-tiary teachers, and a large number of paid and volun-tary teachers in other education services.

The following analysis of the teaching professionis based largely on the characteristics of teachers in theschool sector.

Different Categories of Teachers

In the early childhood sector, there is a variety of work-ers, both paid and voluntary. They cover a range of edu-cation and qualifications, from those who have trainedand gained a diploma in teaching at colleges of educa-tionas well as a university degreeto those who areuntrained. Primary and intermediate teachers are trainedas generalist teachers able to teach a range of classes ofstudents. from junior primary to senior primary, in most ifnot all areas of the curriculum. There are some specialistteachers in intermediate schools. Secondary teachers aretrained and employed largely as subject specialists.

Teachers in all sectors are also categorized accord-ing to their level of responsibility. The range of levels isgenerally in proportion to the size of the institution. Sec-ondary schools, for example, usually offer a greater rangeof positions than do primary schools, with three/fourgraded positions of responsibility allocated on the extentof responsibility (usually heads of department of the core,or common learning areas are allocated higher positions

than are those of electives) and advancing to anywherefrom two to several senior management positions.

Average Age

In both primary and secondary sectors, the average ageof teachers is rising. As of March 1, 1987, the largestnumbers of both genders in the primary service were inthe 35-39 age group. As of March 1, 1992, the largestnumbers were in the 40-44 age group. Only 17 percentof permanent teachers at state primary and intermedi-ate schools were under 30 years of age, and 24 percentwere over 50 years.

Male teachers continue to be slightly older, onaverage, than female teachers. The average age for maleteachers in the primary sector was 42.9, compared with40.7 for women; and 42.1 and 41.5, respectively, in thesecondary branch. (See Table 10.8.)

Length of Service

Like other government employees, schoolteachers andcollege and polytechnic lecturers are available to workto the official retirement age of 60 years. Male teachers,in general, work for this length of time. The length ofservice for women teachers varies considerably. Formany, their service is interrupted by parental leave. Aswith other occupations, an increasing number of womenare returning to the work force, either as full-time orpart-time teachers. University lecturers have tended tohave more flexibility to retire earlier or later than 60,according to health or to other factors. However, recentchanges in the superannuation conditions will mean thatan increasing number of teachers in all educational insti-tutions are likely to continue teaching until 65.

Gender

iic proportion of teaching staff who are women hascontinued to increase in all sectors except secondary,where it has remained the same. The largest increase hasbeen in colleges of education, where women in 1992

TABLE 10.8Ages of Permanent Full-time Teachers in Each Branch, 1 March 1992

Primary Area Secondary

Women (%) Men ( %) Women (%) Men (%) Women (%) Men ( %)

29 years and under 19 9 7 3 14 7

30-39 years 22 26 22 30 27 31

40-49 years 36 38 45 47 38 41

50 plus years 22 26 26 20 21 20

Mean Age 40.7 42.9 43.3 42.8 41.5 42.1

1. 6 3

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10 I TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 159

TABLE 10.9Percentage of Women Teachers in the Education Sectors, 1992

ECE (%) Pri (%) Sec ( %) Uni (%) Poly CoE ( %)

Total staff 98.2 76 51 26 48 60

Senior positions 95 52 39 13 36 47

were 60 percent of the staff, compared with 38 percentin 1987. In schools, women tend to hold a much higherproportion of part-time positions (96 percent primary, 72percent secondary) and relieving (or substitute) positions(86 percent primary, 66 percent secondary), but not inuniversities (31 percent part-time).

Women are less likely to hold senior positions thanwould be expected on the basis of their proportions ineach of the sectors; for example, women were 51 per-cent of secondary teachers but only 19 percent of sec-ondary principals (see Table 10.9)5. The general patternis for the proportion of women to decrease as the levelof the position increases. Consequently, the salary levelsfor women are on average below those of men (see sec-tion "Characteristics of Teaching Employment," below).

Though the percentage of women holding princi-pal's positions in schools is rising steadily (27 percent in1992, up from 18 percent in 1987), the proportion of eachgender who hold principal positions has not changed inthe past five years (constant 3 percent for women, 31-32percent for men). Furthermore, the proportion of appli-cations from women for senior positions (at all age lev-els) is lower than would be expected on the basis of theirproportion in each branch. The proportion tends todecrease as the level of position increases, with womenmore likely to apply for lower positions.

The proportion of applications from women ismuch higher for positions at girls' schools than for thoseat co-educational schools (70 percent vs. 40 percent). Interms of location, schools in the main urban areas hadthe highest proportion of applications from women. Interms of subjects, women formed a higher proportionof applications for positions teaching English (61 per-cent), dean (55 percent), and guidance (55 percent).

Women continue to have a higher success ratethan men for positions at all levels of schooling; forexample, women made 43 percent of the applicationsfor senior secondary positions and comprised 56 per-cent of the appointees. Women are more likely to besuccessful when applying for positions in their current

5Women were principals of only 15 out of 220 state andintegrated coeducational secondary schools (7 percent) and atnone of the 44 boys' schools. Men, on the other hand, heldsix of the 49 principals' positions at girls' schools (12 percent).

schools, and have higher success rates than do men inmost subjectsfor example, English (76 percent), phys-ical education (57 percent), and art (55 percent)butless success in science (41 percent), mathematics (43percent), and social sciences (44 percent) (see Tables10.10 and 10.11).

Recruitment and Employment of Teachers

As a result of the reforms that occurred in the schoolsector at the end of 19896 and in the tertiary sector in1990,7 decisions relating to the training, recruitment, andappointment of teachers were decentralized. In addi-tion, responsibility for determining the numbers of pre-service teacher trainees and for the recruitment oftrainee teachers was transferred to individual teachertraining providers.

Individual boards of trustees have been given theroles of recruitment, appointment, and performanceappraisal of school teachers. On approval from the Min-istry of Education, they were also provided with theopportunity to employ additional teachers over andabove their ascribed staffing entitlement, using locallyraised funds and/or their operations funding.

As for most other positions, teachers are employedfollowing written application and interviews.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

Average Salary Levels

Table 10.12 shoWs a sample of mean salaries for 1992.In comparison, the average (ordinary time) annu-

al wage for the New Zealand work force in 1992 wasapproximately NZ$28,000. With overtime included, itwas approximately NZ$30,150 per annum.

6 Tomorrow's Schools, the Reform of Educational Admin-istration in New Zealand, Government Printer 1988; Admin-istering for Excellence, Affective Administration in Education.,Government Printer, 1988.

7 Learning for Life: Education and Training Beyond theAge of Fifteen, Government Printer, 1989 and Learning for LifeTwo, Education and Training Beyond the Age of Fifteen, Gov-ernment Printer, 1989.

1Go

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160 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 10.10

Tenure of School Teachers,1 March 1992Percentage of Each PositionHeld by Women

Permanent andProvisional (%) Part-time (%) Relieving (%) Total (%)

Primary Schools 73 96 86 78Area Schools 52 76 78 60Secondary Schools 45 72 66 51

TABLE 10.11

Tenure of Tertiary Teaching Staff 1 July, 1992Percentageof Each Position Held by Women

Full-time(%)

Part-time(%)

Total(%)

Colleges of Education 58 71 60Polytechnics 40 57 48Universities 24 31 26

TABLE 10.12

Mean Salary of Permanent Full-time Teachers in Each Branch, 1 March 1992

Women Men All Difference

Primary Schools NZ$32,828 NZ$39,008 NZ$34,495 NZ$6,180Area Schools 37,411 42,186 39,727 4,775Secondary Schools 41,025 43,640 42,474 2,615

In New Zealand, teachers are generally seen by thecommunity as a professional class, although not as high-ly regarded as doctors, lawyers, and accountants. As forother professional groups, there is now a national regis-ter of teachers who have fulfilled certain professionalrequirements, such as training accreditation and qualifi-cations (see section on "Licensing Requirements," below).

Education is a service of the state, which providesnearly all the funding from general taxation, includingteachers' salaries. While teachers are not civil servants,they are considered government employees. From theinformal data available, it would appear that teachers'salaries, in relation to those of other governmentemployees, have improved in the past decade but stilllie below the mean.

In 1992, the average teaching salary for men washigher than that for women in all sectors. Gender salarydifferences tend to widen as the seniority of the posi-tion increases, probably the result of underrepresenta-tion of women in the more highly paid, senior positions.

Variation in salaries was also the result of differ-ences in credentials/qualifications, teacher experience,levels of responsibility, and sector. There is a clear salary

hierarchical differential between the various educationsectors, in which teachers in the early childhood cen-ters receive the least, and those in university positionsthe most. New Zealand primary and secondary teachersare not paid on a common salary scale. On average, aprimary teacher with the same qualifications and teach-ing experience, and doing similar tasks, receives about10 percent less than her secondary teacher colleague.

Regional and local salary incentives are occasion-ally offered by boards of trustees to attract school teach-ers to isolated areas. Special offers of attractive condi-tionssuch as low-rent housinghave been used toencourage teachers to take up positions in remote areas,or where there is an acute staffing shortage. Secondaryschool boards occasionally offer incentives in the formof higher positions of responsibility to attract staff inareas of subject shortage.

Employment Conditions and Salaries

Since the beginning of 1990, there have been substantialchanges in the legislation surrounding the determinationof teachers' salaries and conditions of employment.

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The main changes have been the introduction ofindividual contracts for secondary school principals, thepassing of the Employment Contracts Act (1991), andthe removal of senior management staff from the basicscale rate.

As part of the State Sector Act of 1988, the StatesServices Commission8 has been given the responsibilityto negotiate with teacher unions the pay and conditionsof all education services employees (other than princi-pals), in consultation with the representatives of theemploying partythe Schools Trustees Association. In1992, such negotiations were conducted for the firsttime under the terms of the Employment Contracts Act.The agreed conditions are set out in employment con-tracts negotiated under the system established by theEmployment Contracts Act.

As the legal employer of teaching and supportstaff of education institutions, local boards of trusteesmust comply with the terms and conditions of all teach-ing and nonteaching collective and individual contractsand salary scales, and must also observe the principlesof the State Sector Act.

Section 79 of the act sets out the general principlesfor a good employer. These are the same as for otherstate sector workers, and include good and safe work-ing conditions (including a clause on sexual harass-ment); an equal employment opportunities program;impartial selection of suitably qualified staff for appoint-ment; recognition of the aims, aspirations, and employ-ment requirements of the Maori people; and opportuni-ties for the enhancement of the abilities of individualemployees (professional developmentsee below). TheEducation Review Office has the function of regularlymonitoring boards' performance in these areas.

As noted above, teacher unions act as the agentfor teachers on the basic scale in the annual nationalcollective negotiations as regards salaries and conditionsof employment. Teacher unions can take complianceorders against boards of trustees who fail to meet the"good employer" provisions of the act. Like workers inother areas, teachers also have the alternative option ofpursuing a personal grievance under the Human RightsCommission Act of 1977, the Race Relations Act, or theEmployment Contract Act of 1992, where the circum-stances make this appropriate.

Other Conditions

In 1979, the govertunent introduced a class-size sched-ule of one teacher to 25 pupils in primary schools withrolls of below 151. Between 1982 and 1988,

8A department of state that has responsibility for indus-trial relations in government agencies.

NEW ZEALAND 161

teacher/pupil ratios in primary schools improved over-all from 1:21.2 to 1:18.9. In secondary schools, the ratioimproved over the same period from 1:17.3 to 1:15.7.

Since 1984 the government has employed an addi-tional 1,456 teachers to improve the educational oppor-tunities of children in their early years of schooling.

In order to assist the process of mainstreamingchildren with disabilities into ordinary schools, the gov-ernment, in June 1990, announced extra funding to pro-vide additional hours of teacher-aide employment.

Patterns of Supply and Demand forTeaching Positions

The size of the teaching service is directly linked todemographic factors, primarily to changes in the size ofthe student population. As well as demographic factors,the retention of the existing teaching force is influencedby political and economic change. Changes in theindustrial relations environment have removed the abil-ity of any central agency, such as the Ministry of Edu-cation, to take a direct role in planning and managingteacher supply. Changes in retirement provisions arealso likely to have an influence on supply and demandin the teaching services. An extension of the age ofretirement resulting from changes in the eligibility agefor superannuation will probably cause an increase inthe number of older teachers working in schools and,during a transition period, a reduction in the level ofloss from the teaching service through retirement. Aswith other occupational groups, the implications of suchchanges have not yet been worked through.

Loss Rates

Economic instability and relatively high unemploymentin New Zealand society have contributed to the trend ofthe last two decades for teachers to remain in a schoolor institution for longer periods. The 1992 loss rates forschooling were the lowest recorded for several years:eleven years for primary service, six years for areaschools, and seven years for the secondary sector. Theloss rates were higher for basic scales positions than forsenior positions, and the highest for teachers under 34years and over 55 years. Women and men had similarloss rates. The loss rates for 1992 were as follows:

Primary: 10.3 percentArea: 12.4 percentSecondary: 8.7 percent

The rates varied according to type and location ofschool. The main reasons for resignation were person-al, retirement, to take up another occupation, and over-seas travel.

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Turnover Rates

For the past decade, there has also been a reducedturnover of staff in all schools, in response to fallingrolls and socioeconomic uncertainty. More teachers thanpreviously are staying put. Mobility within services for1992 was as follows:

Primary: 10 percentArea: 6 percentSecondary: 9 percent

In 1992, of those primary teachers who hadchanged position, 30 percent had moved to anotherappointment within the same school, and over half toanother school in the same education district. In sec-ondary schools, half had moved to another positionwithin the same school, and 28 percent within the samedistrict. Women were more likely than men to havemoved to another position within the same school. Asthe seniority of the position increased, so did the pro-portion of moves to another district. The greatest mobil-ity rates occurred for primary and secondary teachersaged 25-44. Primary teachers under 25 were the mostlikely to move to a school in a different education dis-trict. Secondary teachers under 29 were the most like-ly to have moved to a different school within the samedistrict.

Recruitment of College Trainee Graduates

Until the early 1980s, both the primary and secondaryschool sectors relied heavily on the entry of newlytrained young graduates from teacher education pro-grams of the colleges of education. Today, the largemajority of recruits are either teachers who are trans-ferring or those who have returned from retirement oroverseas. Percentages in 1992 of new recruits to schoolinstitutions were as follows:

Colleges of Ed/UniversitiesPrimary: 22 percentColleges of Ed/UniversitiesSecondary: 30 per-cent

Other sourcesPrimary: 78 percentOther sourcesSecondary: 70 percent

Policies and Programs Instituted to Address Issuesof Supply or Demand

Current market trends tend to determine policy action.Funding and staffing in colleges of education werereduced in 1993, partly in response to market forces.Increased numbers of new entrants to schooling in thenext several years, predicted by demographic forecasts,may encourage the government to consider new poli-cies and programs.

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics ofTeacher Preparation Institutions

Preservice education for teachers is provided in seveninstitutions spread throughout New Zealand. The mainproviders are five independent colleges of education (sit-uated in Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington,Christchurch, and Dunedin) and the School of Educationat the University of Waikato, all of which offer preservicetraining programs for early childhood, primary, and sec-ondary teacher trainees. Furthermore, the five colleges ofeducation all offer conjoint degree/diploma in teachingcourses with neighboring universities. The seventh insti-tution is a regional polytechnic offering a single programfor primary teacher trainees. Enrollments at colleges ofeducation, by institution, are given in Table 10.13.

Governance

Each college of education is an autonomous body,administratively and financially accountable to theCrown (government) through its Council. The chiefexecutive officer (principal) is responsible to the Coun-cil for the running of the day-to-day activities of thecollege and for the quality of its education program.

TABLE 10.13Preservice Education Enrollments at Colleges of Education, 30 April 1993

Institution Early Childhood Primary Secondary Total

Auckland 281 153 329 763University of Waikato 174 709 112 995Palmerston North 146 2187 52 2385Wellington 255 810 33 1098Christchurch 146 590 299 1035

Dunedin 154 693 41 888

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Diversification of College Activities/Structures

Colleges of education are experiencing a period of rapidchange as they explore ways of producing better teach-ers and as they adapt to revised government require-ments for the management of tertiary institutions andthe delivery of tertiary education. Among the importantchanges are:

Increased responsibility to manage their ownaffairsBulk funding and financial accountabilityThe movement of teacher support services tothe collegesCloser affiliation with universitiesRevisions and changes in the content of trainingprogramsOpportunities to diversify their operations

As a result, while primary teacher education is stillthe main function of colleges of education, they havediversified and taken on many other responsibilities andfunctions as well. These developments have tended toincrease the individual differences between the collegesin what they offer and in how they operate, differencesinfluenced by size, geographic locality, and proximityto other education institutions (particularly to universi-ties and polytechnics). Some of these activities are out-lined in the following paragraphs.

Professional Development Courses: The additionof a teacher support service role has encouraged col-leges to offer a wide range of approved, after-hours,advanced-study courses for teachers seeking toupgrade their professional skills and qualifications. Onsuccessful completion of courses, teachers may gaincredit toward the Higher, or Advanced Diploma ofTeaching, or toward a service increment. The AdvancedStudies for Teachers Unit at Palmerston North Collegeof Education caters to the continuing education ofteachers, and of other adult learners, through distanceeducation.

Teachers participate in these courses on their owntime outside classroom hours. A limited number ofstudy awards are available for teachers seekingadvanced qualifications in special education.

Off-Campus Programs: Colleges of Educationhave established a number of off-campus programs toincrease access to teacher training education for com-munities and groups that previously have tended tobe excluded from formal training, and to fulfill the col-leges' charter objective of providing more equitableaccess for Maori people to teachers' training. The mostestablished of these programs is the Southland cam-pus of the Dunedin College of Education, located inInvercargill.

The main gain from off-campus programs accruesto the community in which the program is established.

Links with Universities: There is a move national-ly toward a much closer relationship between universi-ties and colleges of education, with a complete integra-tion in the case of Waikato University and the HamiltonTeachers College.9 Conjoint degree/diploma programswith neighboring universities are run at all college cam-puses. All colleges are committed to degree programsfor primary teacher trainees.

Of particular importance is the degree of consul-tation between colleges and universities in the teach-ing and administration of courses. In Auckland, forexample, the program for the B.Ed. degree is jointlyplanned, written, and taught by university and collegestaff, with equal time given to university and collegepapers.

Ministry of Education Contracts: Colleges are wellsuited to tender for Ministry of Education contracts relat-ed to the school curriculum and to teacher profession-al development because of their expertise, regionallocation, national coverage, infrastructure, and the net-work of schools associated with them. Contracts wonby colleges are essentially of four kinds:

For the development of a particular curriculum,for example, in scienceFor assisting teachers in becoming familiar withthe new national curriculum statementsFor the development of resources in associationwith the new curriculaFor other forms of teacher development, forexample, school management, or mainstreamingspecial education students.

The most important gains for the colleges are thatstaff have been put at the center of national curriculumdevelopment, gaining a much closer liaison with bothteachers in schools and the Ministry of Education.Teachers are now looking more to colleges as a pro-fessional resource base.

Equal Education Opportunities: Fundamental tothe health of New Zealand society is increased accessfor Maori students to education. Included in the rangeof activities colleges of education provide to achievegreater access are intensive Maori language courses,upgrading basic skills, kura kaupapa Maori courses,bilingual and immersion programs, and off-campus pro-grams. As part of their equity policies, colleges have arange of student support systems for Maori students.

The growing number of Pacific Islanders in New

9Since June 1991, all teacher education at Hamilton isnow done in the School of Education of Waikato University.

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Zealand society, and especially in the school system,has encouraged some of the colleges, particularly Auck-land, to develop programs appropriate to the learningneeds and cultural styles of Pacific Islands communities.

All colleges now have a staff member responsiblefor equal educational opportunities.

Teacher Support Services: The former Advisory Ser-vice of the Department of Education (pre-1989) is nowlocated in the colleges to operate as teacher support ser-vices. Over 200 primary and secondary advisers are cur-riculum specialists who have been appointed to assistteachers and schools with the implementation of thenational curriculum. Colleges have subsequentlybecome more involved in local and regional curriculumand teacher development.

Entrepreneurial Activities with Overseas Clients:Several of the colleges have entered into a number ofventures involving overseas students (most of themfrom Japan) and teachers (largely from the UnitedStates).

Relationship Between College Courses and SchoolLearning and Teaching Experience

College staff regularly evaluate their courses to ensure thatthey are relevant to national curriculum needs and class-room practice. Recent research generally supports theirview that college courses satisfactorily prepare NewZealand trainees for a career in teaching (see also section"Nature and Content of Teacher Preparation," below).

Financing of Teacher Education Programs

As noted in the first section above, the state is the sub-stantial funder of tertiary education in New Zealand.Tertiary institutions are able to set tuition fees to meetthe balance of their costs. For 1994, colleges will be sub-sidized per EFTS to the sum of NZ$9,671, the equiva-lent of approximately 5 percent of the total governmentfunding for tertiary education. This amount constitutesa 25 percent reduction in the 1993 secondary traineeEFTS grant, and a 4 percent decrease to the 1993 pri-mary trainee grant. Typically, student fees for 1993 wereapproximately NZ$1,700.

Policy Guidance

Policies Guiding Preservice Teacher Education

Each college of education has the autonomy to devel-op its own policies within administrative and qualifica-tion guidelines, and within the government fundingpolicies. As Crown entities, colleges of education arebound by the Public Finance Act of 1989 to follow cer-tain financial reporting requirements.'° These require-

ments have the potential to make colleges accountablefor the quality of their teacher education "outputs,"although the full extent of such accountability is stillbeing worked through. College policies are set out incharter mission statements and in goals and annualfinancial statements (see section "Goals of the TeacherPreparation System," below).

Policies Guiding In-service Teacher Education

For many years in New Zealand, continuing educationfor teachers has been regarded as a professional respon-sibility. It is expected of all teachersboth permanentand part-timethat they be engaged in the continualimprovement of their practice.

The structures underpinning teacher developmentwere significantly changed on October 1, 1989. Changesin school funding implemented as part of the schooladministration reforms of 1989 have meant that 70 per-cent of the funds previously allocated for a centralizedsystem of professional teacher development provisionis now distributed to schools as part of their bulk oper-ating grants. As a consequence, each school determineshow much money to spend on teacher developmentand how the money will be spent. This has increasedthe scope for schools to undertake new and innovativeteacher development initiatives and to tailor teacherdevelopment programs to their particular needs. Theremaining 30 percent has been retained at the centerand is now disbursed through contracts let by the Cur-riculum Functions and Contracts Management Divisionof the Ministry of Education."

The Education Review Office has a mandate, aspart of its assurance audit and effectiveness review ofschools, to report triennially to the Minister of Educa-tion on each board's performance in this area.12

The introduction of new curricula by the govern-ment is an important factor in setting priorities for pro-fessional development activities undertaken by schools.

10 "The annual financial statements shall be prepared inaccordance with generally accepted accounting practice andshall include ... (d) a statement specifying the financial 'per-formance

per-formance to be achieved by the Crown entity during the finan-cial year; (e) ... a statement of objectives specifying the class-es of outputs produced ... as established at the beginning ofthe financial year ...; (f) a statement of service performancereporting the classes of output produced."

"Funds in addition to this sum are currently providedby the government to support the implementation of the NewZealand Curriculum.

12Written policies on teacher development are held by62 percent of schools. The common format across all sectorsincludes a statement of rationale, purpose/goals, detailedguidelines, and conclusion.

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Teacher Professional Development Issues

Contextual issues affecting teacher development includethe changing ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic profileof the student population; changes in curriculum, assess-ment, and qualifications; changes in public expectationsof teachersaccountability, increased standards; andchanges in the school/community contextmanage-ment systems, parental choice, vocational pressures.

The aging of the teaching force creates challengesfor teacher education. It is appreciated that the agingteacher work force needs to be carefully targeted forteacher development if the new curriculum is to beeffectively implemented.

Another. issue concerns the appropriate time whenteacher development courses should be heldduringor after school hours, or at vacation time. In NewZealand, teacher development programs mostly takeplace during the school year. Exceptions are courses runby the Teachers Refresher Course Committee and by ter-tiary institutions for teachers during May, August, andthe summer vacations. There is no contractual mandateor incentive to persuade teachers to attend such vaca-tion courses.

Agencies That Develop, Issue, Enforce, andImplement Policies of Teacher Education

The Ministry of Education is responsible for providingpolicy advice to the government on all aspects of edu-cation, including teacher development, and for over-seeing the implementation of approved policies. Thegovernment has recognized the strategic importance ofteacher development for the effective implementationof the new curriculum. It has made available NZ$5 mil-lion per annum over the ensuing years for teacherdevelopment to assist the implementation of the newcurriculum statements; it also currently funds variousforms of teacher development, for example, NZ$7 mil-lion bulk operation grant to schools (a component ofwhich is expected to be used, but not tagged, for staffdevelopment); over NZ$4 million per annum for cur-riculum and teacher development contracts; NZ$16.66million annual grant to colleges of education to supportthe cost of advisory services; NZ$340,000 to the Teach-ers Refresher Course Committee for funding of teachersattending vacation courses.

The Ministry of Education budgets annually tofund a range of teacher professional development pro-grams to support the national curriculum priorities. Itprovides both curriculum and teacher development ofabout NZ$11 million annually. The central funds forteacher and school development are targeted at qualityprojects, with a view to their becoming models forschools to emulate or develop programs from.

The New Zealand Qualifications Authority over-sees the setting of standards as they relate to qualifica-tions, including teacher education. The Teacher Regis-tration Board determines the policies under whichteachers will be able to be registered, and approves reg-istrations and the issuing of practicing certificates.

Chartered early childhood centers have an oblig-ation annually to have a staff development programapproved by their management committees. Schoolboards of trustees have a responsibility for ensuring thatteachers at their school receive appropriate teacher edu-cation. They can determine the amount and scope ofthe budget set aside for teacher development. In pri-mary schools, the board usually works with the princi-pal and staff to manage the teacher development pro-gram. In secondary schools, it is common for boards oftrustees to leave the management of the program to theschools' professional staff. Tertiary councils are expect-ed to provide for staff professional development.

Tertiary institutions are providers of teacherdevelopment services. Colleges of education providethe major contribution through "advanced studics forteachers" courses, training of associate teachers, semi-nars on educational issues, research findings and theirdissemination, holiday courses, running contractteacher development projects, and their advisory ser-vice role. Polytechnics provide teacher developmentthrough language and computer studies. Universitiesprovide development through their degree, diploma,and extension courses.

Accreditation/Approval

Currently, accreditation of teacher education courses isthe responsibility of each college though its academicboard and the New Zealand Council for Teacher Edu-cation (NZ(; i h). Each college of education has an aca-demic board, usually comprising one or more membersof the College Council, the chief executive officer, othersenior members of the management team, and repre-sentatives of the teaching staff. The academic board isaccountable to the council each year for the provisioneach year of a quality program. Before any course isapproved as part of the college program, it must besubmitted in writing to the academic board, setting outits objectives, its relationship to the overall goals andprogram of the college, its content, assessment strate-gy and procedures, time and staff allocation, and bud-geted costs.

The procedures for course approval are commonto all colleges. The courses must be:

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In line with college charters and goals (see sec-tion "Goals of the Teacher Preparation System,"below)

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Responsive to government policy, including cur-riculum initiativesSubject to scrutiny by community committeesrepresenting subject experts, professional andcommunity groups, Maori and Pacific Islandscommunities, employers, and studentsIntegrated with other courses and with the totalcollege programInformed by researchSubject to regular review

Once the council has agreed on what coursesshould comprise the annual program of the college, thetotal program is submitted for approval to the Academ-ic Programmes Committee of the NZ(..;i1..

By 1997, it is planned that all courses of teachereducation institutions that lead to nationally approvedqualifications will come under the National Qualifica-tions Framework. To be registered, courses must besubject to NZQA criteria for accreditation and qualitymanagement. Criteria for the registration of unit stan-dards for teacher education courses are currently beingdeveloped. At this stage, it is uncertain what the preciseoutcome of NZQA accreditation requirements will meanfor the independence of colleges to design and accred-it their own teacher education programs.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

Each college is responsible for setting out its goals andobjectives in its charter. These are usually defined interms of a mission statement related to purposes orgoals. In some cases, a statement of beliefs and valuesis added. A selection of college mission statements isprovided in Appendix B.

Quality Assurance

It has always been the espoused goal of colleges of edu-cation to produce quality teachers. Their increasedautonomy is encouraging them - -and a more competi-tive environment is forcing themto pursue this goalmore vigorously. Important components of qualityassurance are:

Changes in the selection process and in thequality of students accepted for trainingThe standards of work demanded of studentsthroughout the course, and in order to graduateas certified teachersThe consumer satisfaction of schools and boards

of trustees as future employers of studentsAppraisal of lecturing staff at the college and rel-evant staff developmentFeedback information from research

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

Since 1989, colleges of education have been responsi-ble for their own selection of students. Previously, allcolleges were required to follow a national policy in theform of a quota, based on national, regional, and localstatistics of supply and demand, national priorities, andsocial objectives.

Government funding for colleges today is stillbased largely on EFTS projections in the light of knowncurrent supply-and-demand data, national priorities, andsocial objectives. However, colleges have the freedomto recruit more than their EFTS quota if they have alter-native means for funding these students. For the last fewyears, all colleges have increased student fees to helpfund more places and activities. All colleges, to a greateror lesser degree, have become entrepreneurial, seekingto attract sponsorship and fee-paying (nonsubsidized)students from overseas.

The need for a better educated workforceimplies higher levels of professional competence inteachers at all levels. The National Recruitment andSelection Committee (representation consists of seniorstaff members from each college) was established bythe New Zealand Council for Teacher Education in1989.

Early Childhood and Primary Teacher Education

Most students admitted for training for early childhoodand primary teacher education are under 20 years ofage. The minimum academic entry requirement forsuch students has been the satisfactory completion of12 years of schooling and a qualification of 20 or lessin the best five subjects of Sixth Form Certificate (witha mark of five or better in English). Students with anequivalent overseas qualification may also be admit-ted. Applicants 20 years or over at time of entry, with-out the above academic qualifications, must have evi-dence of recent/current study and/or recent relevantexperience.

In recent years, colleges have been able to selectfrom a larger and more highly qualified pool of peoplethan ever before, with the result that for primary teachereducation, colleges are increasingly taking students whohave university experience or who have successfullygained entrance to university. It is increasingly expect-ed of students pursuing primary teacher education thatthey undertake a B.Ed. degree.

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Secondary Education

Students seeking a career in secondary teacher educa-tion are expected to have completed a university degreein their areas of specialty.

Other (Nonacademic) Criteria for Selection

Besides having relevant academic qualifications, teachertrainees are expected to have the right qualities, expe-riences, and potential to become good teacherssuchas communication skills in English and involvement incultural, sporting, social, and welfare activitiesand tohave the kind of attitudes that affirm New Zealand'sequity and bicultural values.

Selection Procedures

While the selection process varies from college to college,the following characteristics are largely common to all.

There is wide representation on selection pan-els, for example, colleges' program committees,School Trustees Associations, teachers' unions,Maori iwi.All members of selection panels receive at leasta half day's training in selection processes.There is some moderation across panels toensure a consistent selection process, with onemember sitting on all panels.Some interviews take place on a marae, wherethey can be assisted by local Maori elders.Some colleges encourage applicants to bring asupport group with them to the interview.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Preparation Curriculums

Each college designs its own program on the basis of itsmission and goals, and of national and community expec-tations. They all start from a common position of focus-ing on learning outcomes that prepare a "good" teacher.

The program consists of a collection of courses, orunits, which are first approved by an academic boardon behalf of the College Council before the courses areforwarded to the Academic Programmes Committee ofthe New Zealand Council for Teacher Education(NZCTE),. under delegated authority from the NewZealand Qualifications Authority.

Early Childhood Education

Preservice early childhood education has developedsteadily in recent years in response to growing demand

for training and appreciation of quality standards. Three-year programs for early childhood workers and teachertrainees are operating in each of the colleges of educa-tion. A B.Ed. degree for early childhood education hasrecently been introduced. In addition, all colleges, andthe Advanced Studies for Teachers Unit at PalmerstonNorth College of Education and Massey University(through distance education), offer a comprehensiveprogram of early childhood equivalency courses forpeople who are currently employed in early childhoodcenters but who do not have the recognized trainedteachers' qualification.

Primary Education

The normal course of training for primary teachertrainees is a period of three years at a college of edu-cation, followed by two years of satisfactory teaching ina state primary school. This "Division A" course is stillthe main route for students aiming to gain a diploma inteaching However, increasing flexibility in deliveringcourses has enabled colleges to offer their studentsalternative pathways to complete their teacher training.

A four-year course has been available for a num-ber of years for students who enroll for B.Ed.degrees as well as for a diploma in teaching.This course is also campus-based.13For a number of years, colleges of educationhave provided a shortened, two-year primarypreservice program for university graduatesentering college, and, in some cases, for thosewho have almost finished their degree.In recent years, there has been some recognitionof other forms of prior training and experienceas credit toward the completion of a teacher edu-cation course. In such cases, the length of courseis reduced, usually by six months, for those stu-dents who can pit ve to the satisfaction of thecollege that they have already fulfilled require-ments of the course.14 Colleges are presentlyworking with the New Zealand QualificationsAuthority on the accreditation of prior learning.

13If the current trend continues, the four-year B. Ed. willreplace the current three-year diploma course as the norm forprimary teacher education.

14However, accreditation of prior learning has its diffi-culties. It is often not easy to clearly assess the range ofknowledge, understanding, and skills of informal prior learn-ing experiences, and to equate it with what is offered at col-lege. The task also places heavy demands on the time of col-lege staff.

l'14

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The number and range of courses among the col-leges of education vary, as does 'he terminology usedto describe them. However, in all colleges' primary pro-grams, some courses are compulsory, while others areoptional. There is a core of compulsory subjects, whichis the same across all colleges. These subjects tend torelate to the nationally prescribed core-curriculum areas,which all trainees are expected to be competent toteach in primary-school classrooms. Electives, or option-al subjects, tend to relate to students' personal interestsand development, although students may also chooseto take one or more optional subjects to strengthen theirskills in specific curriculum areas.

Courses are broken down into major and minorsubjects, the former being those subjects that studentstake over their three-year course.

Teaching Practice in Schools

All colleges recognize the crucial importance of stu-dents' gaining practical experience in schools alongsideable teachers. Thus, as an integral part of their training,all students have a series of teaching practice "sections"(when they spend a period of time, usually four weeks)in a range of different types of schools. About one-thirdof students' training time is spent in schools. Primarytrainees are attached to an associate, or tutor teacherand class. They also spend regular, shorter periods inschools as part of various curriculum courses, for exam-ple, the teaching of reading.

Colleges are regularly evaluating and improvingthe quality of implementing this practical component ofthe teacher education program. The selection andpreparation of associate or tutor teachers is of crucialimportance. In Wellington, the Advanced Studies forTeachers course has been organized for associate teach-ers. It is hoped that eventually all associate teachers willhave this qualification.

Toward a Graduate Primary Profession

All colleges are committed to degree programs as thenorm for primary teacher education. The process hasbeen accelerated by the government's policy to raiseprimary teacher education and training to degree status,and to ensure that colleges, while remainingautonomous, become affiliated with universities andfacilitate integrated degree courses.

Links with Government Curriculum Initiatives

In revising current courses and introducing new cours-es, all colleges are concentrating on the need to preparetheir students to work with the new New Zealand Cur-riculum, as set out in the New Zealand Curriculum

Framework, and in the supporting national curriculumstatements.

Evaluation of Programs

A four-year longitudinal research project into NewZealand students' perceptions of their primary educa-tion training has recently been completed by the NewZealand Council for Education Research on behalf ofthe New Zealand Council for Teacher Education. Thestudy affirms that the present New Zealand system ofprimary teacher education is capable of producing com-petent beginning teachers. Despite some criticisms ofson e courses, students were quick to affirm the impor-tant e of the central professional emphasis of the pro-gram: the focus on child-centered learning, the need forregular diagnostic assessment of children, the value ofintegrated approaches to primary school curriculum, themerits of cooperative planning, and the need for on-going, reflective self- evaluation.'5

Secondary Programs

Two options are available to people who wish to trainas secondary teachers. For graduates and others withapproved advanced qualifications, there is a one-year("Division C") course. Most secondary teachers havebeen trained by this route. People with UniversityEntrance or acceptable Sixth Form Certificate may beaccepted into a Division B course, which involves up tofour years consecutive or concurrent university and pro-fessional teacher training study. All colleges of educa-tion provide both division B and C courses.

Special Education Training

Colleges also provide various courses in teaching peo-ple with special needs, with reading difficulties, andwith visual or hearing impairments. Students who wishto become speech/language therapists enroll for a four-year Bachelor of Education (speech-language therapy)degree at the University of Canterbury. Postgraduatecourses for teachers who wish to be trained as teachersof students with special needs are available at Auckland,Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch Col-leges of Education. Specialist postgraduate trainingcourses for teachers of the deaf and visually impairedare located in Auckland and Christchurch. There is alsoa postgraduate courbi. for bilingual (Maori/English)teachers available at the School of Education at the Uni-versity of Waikato.

15 Windows on Teacher Education, Margery Renwick andJune Vize, 1990-93.

1 7

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A number of colleges offer a nationally accreditedcourse for community workers in the field of disability.The course was set up at the instigation of the NewZealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, andother service providers, to fulfill a training need.

Other Courses

The recent changes have encouraged colleges to initi-ate a range of training courses, certificates, and diplo-mas to meet community needs, as exemplified in thefollowing situations.

Since 1987, the Auckland College of Educationhas offered the "Introduction to reacher Training"Access course, which is targeted at Mo.ori andPacific Islands people over 20 years of age. Thecourse is designed to better inform students of theteacher training opportunities that exist for earlychildhood, primary, and secondary education.Dunedin is preparing a package for communitytutors to assist in the training of people who teachin the community, such as health educators.Wellington has a small unit, the School of Train-ing for Trainers, that offers skills-based training tostaff training officers, training advisers and admin-istrators, managers, and in-service educators.Palmerston North offers a certificate in educa-tional management.Auckland has been conducting a summer schoolprogram since 1991 in such subjects as comput-er education, mainstreaming, and management.

Assessment

There have been criticisms in the past of the light work-load and the standard of work expected of students, andof the methods used to assess student work. A recentsurvey of student perceptions of their teacher trainingexperience, carried out over a period of four years, con-firms that these criticisms are still being aired by some.16

However, all colleges believe that they are beingmore stringent in their standards of assessment. and inan increasingly competitive market, are more preparedto reject students they do not consider will make suc-cessful classroom teachers. To be approved, all coursesmust have clear statements on assessment proceduresand methods. Stronger links with universities are alsoencouraging more rigorous standards of assessment. Allcolleges write profiles of graduating students accordingto agreed-on guidelines.

The Christchurch College of Education has devel-

16Ibid.

oped a set of competencies each trainee should have tobe a competent teacher. The move is a response to theprevailing educational interest in measuring definablelearning outcomes, especially skills development, whichis being actively pursued by the New Zealand Qualifi-cations Authority 2nd the Teachers' Registration Board.Each of the college courses has been scrutinized againstthese competencies, and restructured to focus on devel-oping the competencies. An important role of the pro-fessional studies tutor is to assist students to developvarious skills and competencies in the context of over-all professional development.

Differences in the Nature and Content ofTeacher Preparation Programs

Because New Zealand is a relatively small country, witha state education system, a national curriculum, and arelatively coherent philosophical view of education thatfocuses on child-centered learning and equity andachievement objectives, it is not surprising that the pro-grams of the different providers are in some respectsremarkably similar. They all seek to prepare their stu-dents for teaching in any part of the country.

It is also true, as already remarked, that there aresignificant differences in both emphasis and organiza-tion. As observed above, the increasing opportunitiesfor colleges to diversify their activities and functionshave tended to increase the individual differencesbetween the colleges in what they offer and in how theyoperate. These differences are influenced by size, geo-graphic locality, a community's ethnic mix, its proximi-ty to other education institutions (particularly to univer-sities and polytechnics) and the collective and personalphilosophies of its staff. Some of these differences havealready been commented on.

On the other hand, there are major centralizingforces at work that could, in the future, bring abouteven greater coordination and cohesion among theproviders of teacher education. The same governmenteducation reforms of the last five years, which deliber-ately brought about greater autonomy for the institu-tions, have, in some significant areas, strengthened theauthority of the center. Lines of accountability to thestate are now much stronger than they were previous-ly. The new qualification structures and arrangementsare already tightening up courses by providers in readi-ness for the day when all their programs will lead tonationally recognized qualifications. The Teachers' Reg-istration Board (TRB) has established clear guidelinesand criteria for trainee graduates to be provisionally reg-istered. And the New Zealand Council for Teacher Edu-cation, supported by improved communications andwider opportunities, is bringing together staff from thevarious colleges to work collaboratively.

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Linkages Between Curricular Standards for TeacherEducation and Curricular Standards for Students

As stated above, colleges of education are autonomousinstitutions. However, since their core service is to pre-pare trainees for teaching in schools and childhood cen-ters, colleges ensure that their programs closely takeinto account national education policies and guidelinesrelating to what takes place in schools, for example, cur-riculum, assessment, qualifications. All colleges haverevised their programs to incorporate the new nationalcurriculum emphasis.

LICENSING REQUIREMENTS

Initial Requirements

Registration is not a compulsory requirement for teach-ers in New Zealand. Few teachers in the early childhoodcenters and tertiary institutions are registered teachers.On the other hand, employment by a school board oftrustees and acceptance as a professional teacher in thestate school system is virtually impossible without beingregistered. Boards of trustees, as good employers, areexpected to require their staff to register and to havecurrent Practicing Certificates. Most private schoolsrequire their teachers to be registered. Some teachers intertiary institutions are also registered.

The registration system assists employers of teach-ers by providing a minimum assurance of quality and acontinuing standard by which the minimum quality canbe measured.

The Teachers' Registration Board

The Teachers' Registration Board is an independentCrown Agency established under the 1989 EducationAct with the following responsibilities:

To determine the policies by which teachers willbe registeredTo maintain a register of teachersTo approve registration of different categoriesand issue practicing certificatesTo decide if a teacher's name should beremoved from the registerTo provide boards of trustees with the names ofteachers with canceled registration

Requirements and Process

To become fully registered:

Teachers must undergo a formal application pro-cedure, which determines whether they are of

good character and fit to be teachers. SinceMarch 1993, this includes vetting for civil orcriminal convictions.Teachers must prove they have been satisfacto-rily trained to teach, having completed a teachereducation qualification, which has beenappraised and regarded as suitable for teachingin New Zealand.Teachers must reach a "satisfactory" standard ofteaching, measured against listed criteria, andjudged by other experienced teachers. t7Teachers must undergo a supervised period of"internship" for two years, and be found satis-factory; if they are overseas teachers or NewZealand teachers returning after a lengthy breakfrom the profession, they must be supervised forat least three months to determine whether theyare familiar with current curricula and proce-dures in the general education system.Teachers must maintain the standards listedabove, and be able to prove that they have metprofessional criteria for registration for two ofthe past five years.

Teachers who successfully meet the criteria forregistration are issued a Practicing Certificate by theTeachers' Registration Board on payment of a small fee.The certificate is valid for three years from the date ofissue.

There are three categories of registration:

Provisional registration for new entrants to theteaching profession, or for those teachers whohave not previously been registeredRegistration, subject to confirmation, for anexperienced teacher from overseas, or for a NewZealand teacher who has had some time awayfrom teachingFull registration for a teacher who has, withinthe past five years, satisfactorily completed twoyears uninterrupted employment as a teacher inNew Zealand

To move from provisional to full registration, ateacher must have completed a total of two years' con-secutive teaching in an approved New Zealand educa-tion institution, and be recommended by the principalor head teacher of the school or institution employing

'7A teacher is considered satisfactory who enables andencourages pupils to learn; has competence in the NZ cur-riculum; has appropriate teaching techniques and pupil man-agement skills; plans and prepares programs of work; andcontributes toward the work of the school or learning cen-ter/institution as a whole.

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10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 171

the teacher to the effect that he or she is a satisfactoryteacher for practicing in the New Zealand educationsystem.

The responsibility for determining whether ateacher meets the requirement for registration lies withthe principal or head teacher of the school and/or, insome cases, with the board of trustees. Examinations, orsimilar forms of testing, are not used in making anassessment of a teacher's competency.

Universality of the Practicing Certificate in NewZealand Education

There is no sector differentiation, and no subject or geo-graphical variation in the registration of teachers in NewZealand. A teacher who is registered is deemed satis-factory to teach and can apply for teaching positions ina primary or secondary school, in an early childhoodcenter, or in a tertiary institution. Such flexibility enablesinstitutions to employ teachers from a range of differentlearning and training backgrounds. In practice, registra-tion is seen to be an appropriate system for the schoolsector. Registration and salary payments are totally sep-arate issues.

Licensing Reauthorization

Renewal

The Practicing Certificate must be reapplied for everythree years, and is renewed for teachers who candemonstrate that they have taught satisfactorily for twoof the last five years. If teachers do not qualify forrenewal, registration expires. They must then reapplyfor registration if they wish to remain on the register ofteachers. If a teacher fails to renew a Practicing Certifi-cate, registration expires after five years from the initialdate of registration. A teacher's registration also expiresif the "provisional" registration, or the registration "sub-ject to confirmation," is not confirmed.

Cancellation

The TRB can cancel or refuse a registration in the fol-lowing cases, on the recommendation of the principalor head teacher of a school/institution where theteacher is employed/has taught:

When a teacher is convicted of an offense forwhich the offender could have been liable forimprisonment for a term of twelve months ormore, and is thus no longer deemed to be "ofgood character" and "fit to be a teacher"When a teacher has resigned or been dismissedbecause of disciplinary action taken against him

or her by the board, and is thus no longerdeemed to be "of good character" or "fit to be ateacher"When a teacher has resigned or been dismissedbecause of competency proceedings initiatedagainst him or her under the relevant employ-ment contract, and is thus no longer deemed tobe a "satisfactory teacher"

For each case, the TRB will appraise the informa-tion and decide whether to proceed, or ask for moreinformation. In the case of his or her removal from theregister of teachers, a teacher has the right to appeal tothe High Court against the TRB decision.

Status of Qualifying Conditions

Because it is not legally binding for teachers to be reg-istered, or for boards of trustees (or other employers) tohire a registered teacher, a nonregistered teacher maybe appointed to any position in the education service.As noted above, only some teachers in early childhoodcenters and in tertiary institutions are registered. Schoolboards of trustees are likely to appoint nonregisteredteachers in cases where a vacant position cannot befilled by a registered teacher, for example, for teachersof Maori language and/or culture, for specialist teach-ers, or for short-term reliever, or substitute, teachers.

However, as noted above, it is a generally expect-ed procedure in New Zealand that, wherever possible,registered teachers should be appointed to vacant teach-ing positions in schools.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction or Transition Processes

New Zealand has recognized for many years thatteacher education is a continuing process of educationand training throughout a teacher's career. It is general-ly accepted that the first years in the classroom repre-sent a continuation of the preservice training studentshave received in the college, and the first stage of theirongoing professional development.

Advice and Guidance Program

As noted in the previous section, beginning teachers arenot eligible to become fully registered teachers untilthey have completed at least two years' classroom expe-rience. During this time, it is expected that they willreceive support and guidance from experienced teach-ers on the staff and attend professional developmentcourses. This "advice and guidance program" (or intern-

.'

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172 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

ship/induction) is available to all beginning teachersduring their initial two years. In order to gain theapproval of the TRB, this program must be made avail-able in a written form from the schools where begin-ning teachers are employed.

The details of the program vary from school toschool and from person to person, and also accordingto whether the beginning teacher holds a full-time or apart-time position. However, the TRB has set out the fol-lowing guidelines of what is necessary for acceptableprograms:

Resource and personal support from colleaguesworking in the same curriculum area, school, orcenterReceiving classroom visits and written lessonappraisals on progress toward meeting the cri-teria for registrationVisiting and observing other teachersMeeting with senior staff and other teachers toclarify the wider aspects of the beginningteacher's work and responsibilities, includingprofessional developmentA written record of the program, containing theadvice and guidance received and the extent ofparticipation in planning the corporate life of theschool or center

It is common for the advice and guidance to bemore intensive in the first two years.

Professional Development Opportunities

To assist the beginning teacher's professional develop-ment, all schools employing a beginning teacher areentitled to additional time (in the form of an additional0.2 teaching entitlement per week in his or her firstyear). 1!timary schools use this time to release either thebeginning teacher and/or other teachers in the schoolto work with the beginning teacher. Nonbeginningteachers released are experienced tutor/assistant teach-ers who have designated responsibilities to work withthe new teacher. The additional time in secondaryschool is given entirely to the beginning teacher, whosefirst-year teaching workload is represented by 0.8 of theteaching entitlement of a fully registered basic teacher.

There is little doubt that beginning teachers in bothsectors benefit from this entitlement, although thereappears to be considerable variation in the an:ount oftime used specifically for professional development.Most beginning teachers seem to be szilsfied with theamount of time they receive and the use they are ableto make of it. It is common for beginning teachers toattend at least one and frequently two or more profes-sional development courses during the year. Some, espe-

cially secondary teachers, are given the opportunity tovisit other schools and to observe lessons.

In-service Education for Fully Registered Teachers

New Zealand has, for many years, accepted that quali-ty programs of professional development should existfor all teachers, from the time they are accepted into apreservice teacher education program. The imperativefor an aging teaching force to adapt to and implementthe changes that have taken place in New Zealand edu-cation over recent years has heightened awareness ofthe importance of continuing teacher education. But, asnoted above, there is no compulsory requirement forNew Zealand teachers to undertake professional devel-opment other than those activities organized for staff bylocal management as part of its annual program.

There exists a range of professional developmentopportunities for teachers.

Many are provided by the local institutions them-selves as part of their charter responsibilities. There is evi-dence to suggest that there is more "in-house" staff devel-opment underway now than there was previously. Onaverage, the budgeted amounts for teacher developmentincreased by 30 percent per school from 1991 to 1993.On average, schools in 1992 spent 3.5 percent more thanbudgeted.

For secondary schools, the most important on-site activities in 1992 were teacher effectiveness activ-ities18 (35 percent), curriculum-related activities (29percent), and school administration (21 percent). Forprimary and intermediate schools, the most importanton-site activities were curriculum-related (57 percent)and teacher effectiveness (14 percent). Such activitiesusually range between one or two hours' to one or twodays' duration. They are held during or after schoolhours, or during holiday time. Some schools allowindividual teachers or faculties to spend time withother schools for their professional development.

There are also many opportunities for individualteachers to improve 'heir competency. Some of theseopportunities are provided through national avenues,and are advertised through the journal New ZealandEducation Gazette. For example, the Ministry of Educa-tion contracts out teacher development projects, mainlyto colleges of education, to help individual teachersbecome familiar with the new national curriculum devel-opments, and to try out some new ideas in the classroomin a supported environment. Over 43 percent of NewZealand schools participated in at least one of the Min-istry of Education teacher development programs in

intat is, activities in such areas as assertive discipline,accelerated learning, etc.

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10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 173

TABLE 10.14

Participation by Staff in Teacher Development Activities

Secondary Schools (%)Primary/IntermediateSchools (%)

All Most Some All Most Some

Type of Activity Staff . Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff

On-site activities 32.6 9.7 57.7 34.9 32.6 32.5Conferences/seminars 5.8 7.3 87.0 6.4 17.6 76.1

Courses of study 0.6 0.6 98.8 0.3 12.1 47.7

1992. The programs normally take place over a schoolterm. The models used in these programs vary consid-erably, but all cover the two essential ingredients of pro-viding input and giving time for teachers to plan, imple-ment, and reflect on progress. Contractors are requiredat regular intervals to report on their ongoing monitor-ing and to relay their reflections on the program.19

An autonomous national body, the Teachers'Refresher Course Committee, provides a series of in-ser-vice, week-long courses for teachers during holiday peri-ods, focusing on topics suggested by teachers themselves.

Supported by government funding, the NewZealand Council for Teacher Education facilitates anumber of teacher exchange awards to New Zealandteachers for positions in foreign countries significant toNew Zealand.

As noted above, colleges of education are increas-ingly involved in teacher in-service education, offering arange of courses and programs for practicing teacherswishing to improve their qualifications and professionalskills through postbasic level study or in-service training.All colleges provide Advanced Studies for Teachers (AST)courses, through which teachers (mainly primary) areable to gain qualifications and (in some cases) highersalaries. Two advanced teaching qualifications are avail-able to teachers based on these courses: the HigherDiploma of Teaching and the Advanced Diploma ofTeaching. Palmerston North College of Education pro-vides the opportunity for these qualifications to beobtained through distance education, or correspondenceprograms. In 1992, some 2,500 teachers were involved inthe advanced-study courses provided by the colleges ofeducation, or in the correspondence course of the AST.

Continuing education opportunities for teachersare also provided by the universities through a range of

191n addition, the Ministry of Education contracts,through its Research Division, with an external evaluator tomonitor specific teacher development programs. To date,there have been eight such contracts, which have evaluated atotal of 25 programs. A further evaluation of 10 programs iscurrently being monitored.

applied postgraduate qualifications (for example,Massey University offers a Diploma in Special Educa-tion, Victoria University a Diploma in Education Stud-ies, and Waikato University a Master of Science andPh.D. in science education). The Research AffiliateshipScheme, administered jointly by the University of Can-terbury and the Ministry of Education, has operatedsince 1976. The scheme provides Christchurch teacherswith the opportunity to undertake research projects inareas relevant to current preschool, primary, intermedi-ate, or secondary school practice or needs.

Subject associations and teacher professional orga-nizations also provide their members with quality pro-fessional development courses. Some publish maga-zines on a regular basis, which include information onnew materials, methods, and other aspects of profes-sional interest to teachers.

For primary and secondary teachers, teacherdevelopment conferences and seminars attended off-siteare most commonly curriculum-related.. Teachers par-ticipate in these courses in their own time, outside class-room hours.

Tables 10.14 and 10.15 represent staff participationlevels, by type of activity, in teacher development activ-ities and participation in Ministry of Education contractsby type of school.

Inclusiveness

Consideration is given to.provide in-service models thattake into account the particular learning needs of sub-ject groups, women, and Maori and other ethnic minori-ties; and the different circumstances of urban and ruralteachers, of beginning and experienced teachers, ofteachers in the classroom and teachers in managementpositions. The Curriculum Functions and Contracts Man-agement Division of the Ministry of Education has thisyear commissioned a research project through theResearch & Policy section to identify which groups ofteachers are, or are not, getting access to current pro-fessional development projects provided by the Ministryof Education.

1S0

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174 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 10.15

Participation in Ministry of Education Contracts

Participated inMinistry of Education Contract (%)

Type of School Yes No Total

Secondary 50 50 100

Full Primary 36 64 100

Contributing Primary 47 53 100

Intermediate 53 47 100

All schools 43 57 100

TABLE 10.16Estimated Budgeted and Actual Teacher Development Expenditure, 1992 and 1993

School TypeNo. ofschools

1992Budgeted Actual

1993Budgeted

Full primary 1169 NZ$3,556,036 NZ$3,626,732 NZ$3,645,324

Contributing Primary 928 4,127,899 4,253,207 4,455,193

Intermediate 147 1,017,374 1,141,397 1,149,224

Form 1 to 7* 78 822,635 825,809 875,479

Area 40 433,750 469,900 492,282

Form 3 to 7 241 3,456,334 3,455,636 3,907,654

Special** 50 199 709 234 459 172 696

TOTAL 2,653 13,613,737 13,997,140 14, 697,857

*Includes Forms 3 to 7 with Attached Intermediate schools.**Includes Primary and Composite Special schools.

Assessment and Financing of ProfessionalDevelopment Opportunities

For early childhood centers, there are two major sourcesof funding: (1) their own resources and (2) centrallyheld funding, which is currently divided between twonational providers who provide both professional devel-opment (normally through seminars and courses) andadvisory support (through work in centers).

Schools have three sources to draw on. First, theschools themselves have a commitment to budget forprofessional development. In 1992, approximatelyNZ$14 million was spent by primary and secondaryschools on professional development.20 The averageexpenditure per full. :ime equivalent teacher wasNZ$548 (NZ$616 full primary; NZ$335 secondary). Themajority (53 percent) of this funding was spent onteacher release and about one quarter was spent on

20This may understate the total expenditure on teacherdevelopment. A school may draw on other funding sources tosupport teacher development, e.g., on a principal's discre-tionary fund.

course/seminar/conference fees (23 percent). Anothermajor area of expenditure was travel and accommoda-tion (approximately 12 percent).

Second, schools have the use of advisers. Fundingfor this teacher support service is NZ$16 million, whichprovides for a service available to all schools on request.

Third, there is funding held centrally by the Min-istry of Education to support professional developmentin national priority areasthat is, those that supportnew curriculum developments and those that supportschoolwide developments.

A limited number of study awards are available forteachers seeking advanced qualifications in special edu-cation. In some cases, school boards of trustees fundteachers' participation or teachers pay their own costs.

Table 10.16 lists estimated and actual expendi-tures, by school type, for teacher developmeht in 1992and 1993.

No research has been conducted in New Zealandas regards professional development for teachers and itsrelationship with factors like years of experience, level ofresponsibility, participation in professional developmentopportunities, salary, and career opportunities. In-serviceeducation is an expected activity for all teachers.

151

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10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 175

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

There are both national and local policy issues andproblems with respect to teacher preparation and pro-fessional development in New Zealand.

Following the reforms of educational administra-tion, one noted tension exists in the extent of the auton-omy of the colleges and other tertiary institutions in rela-tion to government policy directions. Although the primefunction of colleges of education is to prepare teachersto work in New Zealand schools, there is no mechmismfor ensuring that they respond to changes in natienalpolicy that affect the school sector. Thus, there can beno certainty that newly trained teachers will be preparedto meet nationally specified requirements, including cur-riculum and assessment policies. A mechanism must bediscovered that does not unduly restrict the institutions,nor contravene the autonomy they were granted in the

1990 amendment to the Education Act. A recent amend-ment to the Public Finance Act (in 1993) requires CrownEntities to be funded for specified outputs. The specifi-cation of the output for teacher education funding maybe a means to resolving this issue.

The impact of the introduction of the NationalQualifications Framework on teacher education is stillbeing discussed. The Ministry of Education's role as fun-der and regulator of schools who employ the teachersneeds further exploration. The tension between the needfor some central specification of curriculum and the needfor local control in schools is mirrored in the relationshipbetween government and providers of teacher education.

The relationship of the National QualificationsFramework to the wide .range of in-service opportuni-ties available for teachers has yet to be considered.

Other, more local policy issues and problems arelisted above under the section "Policies Guiding Pre-service Teacher Education."

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10 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND 177

Appendix 10.B

A SELECTION OF COLLEGE MISSION STATEMENTS

Auckland College of Education

Mission

To be at the forefront of educational development andto provide excellence in education by preparing, devel-oping, and supporting teachers, social service workers,and educators.

Continuing Goals

Related to the Treaty of Waitangi, performance stan-dards, student rights and responsibilities, equity, goodemployer, staff expertise and development, environ-ment, efficiency and effectiveness, communication,research, in-service and postgraduate services, entre-preneurship.

Christchurch College of Education

Purpose and Mission

The mission of the Christchurch College of Education isto produce high-quality teachers and other graduates atthe tertiary level, and to assist and enable postgraduatestudents to acquire advanced knowledge and skills. Theemphasis in the college is on excellence, measured interms of the extent to which graduates are skilled com-municators, able to establish and maintain positive rela-tionships, confident in their knowledge skills and abili-ty, competent in curriculum knowledge and teachingskills, knowledgeable about humai. development andthe learning process, enthusiastic and adaptable, andable to show all students that they value them andappreciate their differences.

Dunedin College of Education

The Mission of the Dunedin College of Educationis to provide:

Leadership and quality professional services inlearning, teaching, caring, as well as training inmanagementProfessional services and accreditation to peo-ple requiring qualifications in teachingProfessional services to groups and individualsseeking knowledge, skills, and support in teach-ing, learning, communicating, caring, training,educational management, and leadershipAccess to the local, national, and internationalcommunity to the knowledge, skills, andresources of the collegeLeadership in curriculum development andresearch into teaching and learning

Values

The college acknowledges and values:

Active commitment to biculturalismDiversity and individual differenceActive commitment to the principles of equitySupporting the welfare and development of chil-dren, clients, and all learnersProfessional development and well-being of staffExcellence in leadership, teaching, and supportFlexibility and critical thinking in planning,methodology, and curriculumAccountability to the community it serves for theresponsible and efficient use of resourcesConsultation and cooperation with the com-munity

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APEC Report on Teacher Educationand Professional Development:The Case of Singapore

Prepared by: Joy Oon Ai Chew andRuth Yeang Lam Wong, National Institute ofEducation, Nanyang Technological University

CONTEXT

Definitions

Table 11.1 provides definitions of educational levels inSingapore.

Educational Systems and Student Population

In this APEC member report on Singapore, referencewill be made to the new education structure for bothprimary and secondary levels of schooling that wasimplemented in 1991. Statistical data on student enroll-ments, teachers, and school types are based on the mostrecently available Ministry of Education annual reports(see References).

The Singapore Education System, as it hasevolved, today provides for six years of primary school-ing and for four or five years of secondary schooling.For students who are academically inclined, this leadsto a two-year, pre-university course at a junior college,or to a three-year, pre-university course conducted in apre-university center or centralized institute.1 The pre-sent-day structure of Singapore education is based on

'There are four Centralized Institutes run by the Ministryof Education to cater to academically weaker secondary schoolgraduates who aspire to pursue a pre-university course.

11

the recommendations of the 1991 report of the ReviewCommittee, entitled "Improving Primary School Educa-tion." The report was an initiative by the Singapore gov-ernment to restructure the existing educational system,which was based on the "Ministry of Education Report,1978." The Review Committee sought to address needsrelated to Singapore's economic growth in the 1990sand beyond. Among these are the goals of providing allchildren with at least ten years of general education andof maximizing the individual potential of each child.

Important features of the educational systeminclude a policy of bilingual education, teaching acourse on civics and moral education as a compulsoryschool subject, and the provision of a broad-based cur-riculum consisting of core and elective subjects. Thereis an emphasis on learning two languages and on math-ematics in primary school. The bilingual policy reflectsthe multiracial, multilingual, and multireligious makeupof Singapore's population of 2.8 million (1992). Allschoolchildren are required to learn English as well astheir respective mother tongues. The latter are definedas Chinese (with Mandarin as the spoken form) for theChinese community, Malay for the Malay community,and Tamil for the majority of Indians. As of 1994, thereis a new provision to allow children from the NorthIndian ethnic communities to use their respective minor-ity languages as their mother tongues. These are Ben-gali, Gujarati, Hindi, Punjabi, and Urdu.

186179

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180 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 11.1

Definitions of Educational Levels

Definitions Grade/Level Age Range Type/Level of Education for Teachers

Preprimary schooling Kindergarten Yr 1 & Yr 2 4-5 years GCE "0" Level or less

Primary schooling Primary One to Primary Six 6-12 years GCE "A" Level and Diploma in Education

Secondary schooling Secondary One to Four or Five* 13-17 years Pass or Honours Degree and PostgraduateDiploma in Education

Postsecondary schooling Pre-University Yr 1 to Yr 3 orJunior College Yr 1 to Yr 2

17-19 years Honours or Pass Degree and Post-graduate Diploma in Education

Preservice teacher Primary School; 19 and above 22 NA

preparation Secondary School & and aboveJunior College Level

*Secondary school students are streamed into one of the following courses: a four-year Special course, a four-year Express course, or a five-year

Normal course.

The Ministry of Education (MOE) in Singapore oper-ates as the central governing institution of the nationalschool system. It is responsible for the formulation,implementation, and coordination of educational policiesat the primary, secondary, and postsecondary levels.School principals are expected to implement official guide-lines on the subject curriculum, semestral assessments andexaminations, and the streaming of students according totheir academic performance in national examinations. TheMOE is also responsible for recruiting, accrediting, anddeploying trained teachers at the school system level toensure that schools are adequately staffed. It also has animportant part to play in coordinating the in-service train-ing and professional development of teachers.

In 1992, the total student population was 451.249(or about 17 percent of the total Singapore population).This number includes children from the "primary one"(first-grade) level to those in the postsecondary level.Of the total, 60 percent, or 270,754, were primary schoolstudents, and 40 percent, or 180,495, were secondaryand postsecondary level students. In terms of enroll-ment by gender at the primary level of schooling, therewere 104,974 female students (40.7 percent) and152,782 male students (59.3 percent). At the secondarylevel, the proportion of the total male-female studentswas .almost equal: 94,809 female (49.9 percent) and94,947 male students (50.1 percent), giving a total of189,756 students in the year 1990. The completion ratefor primary schooling was 86 percent in 1991. In thesame year, 65 percent of students who proceeded to thesecondary level obtained "passes" in at least three sub-jects at the General Certificate Examination "Ordinary"Level (GCE "0" Level),2 taken at the end of four or fiveyears of secondary education.

The percentage distribution (1992) of students byethnic group in Singapore primary schools is largely

similar to the ethnic composition of the population: 75.9percent Chinese, 15.9 percent Malay, 7.2 percent Indi-an, and 1.3 percent "other" (a census category used torefer to Singaporeans of other ethnic groups). At thesecondary level of schooling, the percentage distribu-tion was slightly different: 83.4 percent Chinese, 10 per-cent Malay, 5.7 percent Indian, and 0.9 percent "other."Of the three main ethnic categories in Singapore's pop-ulation, the pass rate at the Primary Six Leaving Exami-nation (PSLE) for children from the Indian and Malaycommunities has been much lower than for the Chinesecommunity. For example, in 1990, 20 percent of Indianstudents failed the PSLE, compared to 9 percent for Chi-nese students. Similarly, the rate of access to junior col-lege education was smaller for the Indian candidatesthan for the ethnic Chinese candidates: In 1990, 28 per-cent of Indian candidates secured places in junior col-leges compared with 40 percent of Chinese students.

Matriculation Tracks

Streaming by academic ability is practiced at the primaryand secondary school levels. At the end of the first fouryears of primary education, "primary four" students (age9) sit for a streaming examination. On the basis of theirperformance in English, in their mother tongue, and inmathematics, students are placed in one of three lan-guage streams: (1) the English-Mother tongue One (EM1);(2) English-Mother tongue Two (EM2); or English-Moth-er tongue Three (EM3) (see Appendix 11-A). This new

2A11 students sit the Cambridge GCE "0" Level exami-nation at the end of their secondary education. The results ofthis examination determine whether they obtain a place at thejunior colleges or at the centralized institutes that offer a three-year, pre-university course.

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 181

school structure is an attempt to differentiate the curric-ular requirements of primary students at the upper pri-mary level. Those who are academically slower will begiven more curricular time to learn mathematics andEnglish, with less emphasis on the mother tongue. Othersubjects taught at primary five and six are science, socialstudies, physical education, civics and moral education,music, arts and crafts, and health education. Primary sixstudents sit the PSLE, which is a placement examinationdesigned to track students into three secondary courses:the Special, Express, and Normal courses.

Students in the top 10 percent of the PSLE cohortcan expect to enter the four-year Special course and sitthe GCE "0" level examination (see Appendix 11-B).They are required to pursue two first languages andseven other examination subjects. In 1992, about 54 per-cent of students were enrolled in the four-year Expresscourse. They take their mother tongue as a second Ian-gaage. Like the Special course students, they sit the GCE"0" level examination at the end of four years and takeeight to nine examination subjects. Those who are aca-demically inclined compete for pre-university places inthe 14 junior colleges. At this postsecondary level, theyare required to take three to four "A" level subjects and"General Paper" (which is a compulsory English-lan-guage mastery paper that is designed to test students'ability to express their opinions and maturity of thoughton current affairs). In addition, they are required to sitChinese/Malay/Tamil as a compulsory subject at theCambridge "A" level examination.

The third track is the Normal course. It is furtherdifferentiated into Normal Academic and Normal Tech-nical courses. These aye five-year courses designed forstudents who are academically weaker. Students sit theGCE Normal-level examination in the fourth year andproceed to a fifth year for the GCE "0" level examina-tion if they do well. The Normal Technical course is anew feature of the secondary school system. Unlike theNormal Academic course, which offers a similar range ofacademic subjects as those found in the Express course,the Normal Technical curriculum offers four core sub-jects (English, mathematics, Chinese/Malay/Tamil, andcomputer application). Students in this track are notrequired to take more than a total of seven core andelective subjects. About 15 percent of the PSLE. cohort isexpected to enter this course, and the remaining 25 per-cent enters the Normal Academic course.

School Systems

Given Singapore's compactness as a highly urbanizedand industrialized island (the total land area is 639.1 sq.km, inclusive of the smaller islands), there is no geo-graphical variation in school type. In 1992, there were345 schools, consisting of 187 primary schools, 139 sec-

1s

ondary schools, 14 junior colleges, and 4 centralizedinstitutes (which offer a curriculum specializing in com-merce). Administratively, all schools come under thepurview of the MOE. They receive their funding, stu-dents, teaching personnel, and other resources from theMOE. Singapore schools are classified in three maintypes: (1) Government Schools (of which there are 145primary schools, 99 secondary schools, and 9 juniorcolleges); (2) Government-Aided Schools (42 primaryschools, 28 secondary schools, 5 full schools, and 5junior colleges); and (3) Independent Schools (8 intotal). Starting in 1994, the MOE has also identified 6schools that will enjoy the status of AutonomousSchools. These schools will receive additional funds toallow them to develop more enrichment programs fortheir students. In terms of administrative and curricu-lum matters, they are similar to the other governmentschools.

The Government-Aided Schools, which are man-aged as grant-in-aid establishments, comprise two cat-egories. The first category consists of the Christian Mis-sion Schools, founded before the 1940s. They areaffiliated with denominations such as the Anglican orthe Methodist churches, or the Catholic orders, like theInfant Jesus, the Canossian, and the De La Salle orders.The second category of Government-Aided schoolsbegan as Chinese clan-schools, founded and financedby Chinese clan associations. Today, they operate inmuch the same way as do other schools in terms oftheir administrative and curricular structures. The eightIndependent Schools are a recent feature of the Singa-pore school system, dating back only to 1989. Opera-tionally, they enjoy greater autonomy than do the otherschools and receive bigger grants from the governmentto develop school programs to cater to their moreselective student clientelestudents who are admittedon the basis of their stronger academic results at thePSLE examination.

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

Out of the total of 19,842 teachers in Singapore in 1992,69.2 percent were female. The numerical imbalance offemale to male teachers is pronounced at all levels ofeducation: 74.7 percent at the primary, 62.8 percent atthe secondary, and 63.8 percent at the postsecondary.The age profile of Singapore's teachers is bimodal indistribution, with teachers who are 45 years of age orolder making up 44.2 percent of the teaching force, andthose who are 32 years or younger accounting for 28.4percent. Because the optional retirement age for manyof the older teachers in Singapore is 55, there is clear-

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182TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIDNAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

ly a need to replenish the teaching force over the nextfive years.

In 1992, two-thirds of the teachers were nongrad-uates and one third were university graduates. Out ofthe total primary teacher population of 10,629, 61.2 per-cent had GCE "0" level qualification or its equivalent,while 34.6 percent had GCE "A" level qualification. Start-ing in 1980, primary teachers in Singapore were drawnlargely from the pool of GCE "A" level holders. This was

not the case in the 1960s and 1970s, when the minimallevel of academic attainment required of primary teach-ers was a GCE "0" level qualification.

Graduate teachers are deployed largely in sec-ondary and postsecondary schools. Among secondaryteachers, 61 percent had a "pass" or an "honors" degree.Of the 1,625 junior college teachers in 1992, 95 percenthad at least a pass degree, if not an honors or master'sdegree. Starting in 1990, there was a significant changein the policy of recruiting and training primary teachersin the interest of raising the quality of primary educa-tion and the status of the teaching profession. For thefirst time, university graduates were recruited andtrained for primary school teaching. This resulted in 4.1

percent of primary level teachers being graduate teach-ers in 1992, a number that will increase in the comingyears. The commencement of a new four-year degreecourse for the training of primary school teachers in1991 provides yet another source of graduate teachersfor primary schools.

Teachers in Singapore can be categorized in twoways: according to their academic qualification (gradu-ate or nongraduate teachers), and according to theirdeployment by school level and subject specialization.Primary teachers are trained as generalist teachers andare expected to teach more subjects than secondary orjunior college teachers. The latter are recruited andtrained as subject specialists. There is subject special-ization in the primary school with regard to the teach-ing of the mother tongue and to the civics and moraleducation course. Both graduate and nongraduateteachers who have been identified to teach Chinese,Malay, or Tamil as subjects are trained to handle all lev-els of the primary school mother tongue program. Thereis also provision for the training of specialist art, music,and home economics teachers for secondary schools.However, to increase their deployability, they aretrained to teach a second subject as well.

The MOE, through its Establishment, Recruitment,and Training Branch, is actively involved in the recruit-ment and employment of new teachers. This is carriedout jointly with two other agencies: the Education Ser-vice Commission (ESC)3 and the National Institute ofEducation (N1E). The ESC has the function of appoint-ing and confirming teachers and the promotion ofteachers in the education sector. It ensures that guide-

lines on the minimal educational qualifications areadhered to in the selection and employment of newteachers. Each year, the MOE determines the number oftrainee teachers that will be recruited for professionaltraining at the NIE. This is based on the annual man-power estimates for different categories of teachers. Atfixed times in the calendar year, the NIE advertises itsdifferent preservice training programs in the nationalnewspapers (the Straits Times), and invites applicantsfor primary and secondary school teaching.

Admission into preservice training programs iscentrally administered and controlled by means of aselection procedure involving the MOE, the ESC, andthe NIE. Applicants with GCE "A" level or degree qual-ifications who are shortlisted (based on a set of criteriadeveloped by the three agencies) are subsequentlyinterviewed. The interview panel is made up of repre-sentatives from the MOE, the ESC, and the NIE. Its taskis to decide on the suitability of potential teacherrecruits for employment as education officers. Success-ful applicants undergo a full-time training program heldat the ME and enjoy teaching bursaries or scholarshipsfor the duration of their training. On completion of pre-service training, they will be employed to teach inschools.

The Public Service Commission has played animportant role in the recruitment of potential graduateteachers. It has a scheme of selecting and awardingoverseas merit scholarships for teaching to especiallyqualified GCE "A" level students in Singapore. On com-pleting their university education in prestigious univer-sities in the United Kingdom, for example, these schol-ars are required to undergo a year's PostgraduateDiploma in Education course at the NIE before theyteach in secondary schools or junior colleges.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

Teachers who are appointed to the Government Edu-cation Service are deployed to teach mainly in govern-ment schools and are considered civil servants. Thosewho are appointed by the Government-Aided Schoolsand Independent Schools are considered Aided Schooland Independent School employees, respectively. Likeother government employees, teachers who joined theCivil Service before 1973 enjoy service conditions per-taining to holidays, leave schemes, and medical bene-fits. Most teachers who joined teaching before 1980 areon the government's Pension Scheme. They can work

3The Education Service Commission (ESC) is a branchof the Public Service Commission (PSC). The latter is a gov-ernment body that handles the appointment of teachers andthe awarding of scholarships and harsaries.

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 183

up to 60 years of age. Teachers who have completed upto 331/3 years of service are entitled to a gratuity and amonthly pension on their retirement.

Teachers are entitled to vacation leave during theschool vacation periods. This totals 12 calendar weeksper year. In practice, however, most teachers do notenjoy this full length of vacation leave each year. Prin-cipals, or the MOE, may require them to report for workduring the vacation periods. This could take the form ofinvigilation in national examinations, participation inprofessional development workshops in schools, orcourses conducted externally during the school vaca-tion. Besides this standard vacation leave, teachers areentitled to a maximum of 10 days leave for "urgent per-sonal affairs." Education officers under the 1973 and1979 Leave Schemes are eligible for 30 days of ordinarysick leave in a calendar year and an additional 30 daysif they are hospitalized. If a teacher has used up theadditional leave, he or she may be granted "special sickleave," equal to one-sixth of the total school holidays ina calendar year. Married female teachers in Singaporeenjoy 56 days of full-pay maternity leave, but this pro-vision will not apply for the third child (see Appendix11-C for further details on the Leave Schemes).

Teachers are covered by a Medical Benefit Enti-tlement Scheme, which offers up to 80 percent cover-age of ward charges incurred for medical treatment andhospitalization. Male teachers are entitled to medicalbenefits for their immediate family members, such asparents, spouse, and children below the age of 18. Onretirement, pensioned officers continue to enjoy themedical benefit entitlements.

There are other types of benefits that apply toteachers, such as full-pay unrecorded leave (for atten-dance at overseas conferences, seminars, or internation-al sports meets), no-pay leave (for study or childcarepurposes, or on grounds of compassion). A teacher canalso apply for no-pay or half-pay study leave in order topursue a basic or postgraduate degree course after com-pleting 5 years of service with the MOE. There is also aprovision of half-pay leave for teachers who are on edu-cational tours. Muslim teachers are eligible for pilgrim-age leave if they have taught for 15 continuous years.

Teachers' salary scales, determined by the Civil Ser-vice, are computed on two grades: the Non-Graduate andGraduate scales. Salary scales for teachers are revisedfrom time to time to ensure that they are attractiveenough to retain teachers in the education service. In thelast six years, there have been two revisions to narrowthe gap in the salaries of teachers compared with thoseof employees in nongovernment sectors. Teachers whoare recruited into the education service are placed oneither the GEO I (for graduates with a basic or honorsdegree) or GEO II (for nongraduates) scale. Principalsand vice-principals of primary and secondary schools and

junior colleges, and heads of departments of junior col-leges, are eligible for promoti xi to the SEO I (for GEO Iofficers) or SEO II scales (for CEO II officers) if they havecompleted ten years of service (the equivalent being sixyears for honors-degree graduate officers) and if theyhave a consistently good performance record. Principalswho are on the SEO I or SEO II grades for at least twoyears can be considered for promotion to the higher SEOIA or SEO IIA grades, respectively.

The salary scale4 of teachers as of January 1, 1994,is shown in Table 11.2.

All new appointees to the education service are apart of the Central Provident Fund scheme, which is asocial security saving scheme set up by the governmentin 1955. Both the employer (the MOE) and the teacheremployee contribute a percentage of the employee'ssalary total to the fund each month.

In Singapore, the teacher unions (e.g., the Singa-pore Teachers Union and the Singapore Chinese MiddleSchool Teachers Union) and professional associations donot have any role to play in determining the salaries andprofessional conditions of teachers. As described above,these are worked out by the Civil Service.

Patterns of Supply and Demand forTeaching Positions

Over the last nine years, the percentage of new recruitsinto teaching at the primary school level has hoveredbetween 2.54 percent and 4.51 percent, with more new

TABLE 11.2

Salary Scale of Teachers in Singapore, Ian. 1, 1994

Grade Salary Scales

NONGRADUATEGEO* II $850x70-920/1010x70-1360/1475x90-1835/

2020x120-3100/3240x120-3840GEO IIA $1850x150-2600/2800x150-4000SEO** II $2800x150-4450

SEO IIA $4100x210-4940:520:5450

GRADUATE

GEO I $1680x160-3920/4105x185-5030

GEO IA $3190x190-5280

SEO I $4145x230-4835/5065x285-5920

SEO IA $5355x285-6210:6495:6785

*GEO: General Education Officer**SEO: Senior Education Officer

4All references to financial matters in this report arecited in Singapore dollars. At the time of this writing. 11S$1.00equaled S$1.60.

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184 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

teachers being employed from ' "90 to 1993. The MOE'sannual target was to hire at lea .,c 450 teachers to replacethe older teachers who were due to retire from theteaching service, or those who had resigned. At the sec-ondary and postsecondary levels, the actual number ofnew recruits has increased slightly from year to year, butthe biggest annual recruiting target was in 1993, when645 new graduate teachers were employed. However,the overall recruitment pattern must be seen in relationto the annual turnover rate of teachers in the educationservice (see Appendix 11-D for annual turnover andrecruitment statistics). The total attrition rate and the cor-responding number of teachers each year have been ris-ing: from 2.24 percent in 1984 to 3.02 percent in 1990and 4.51 percent in 1993. Two interrelated phenomenahave been observed at the secondary school level: acontinuing drive to recruit more and better qualifiedpeople to join teaching and an ongoing attempt toattract and retain teachers in the education service.

In terms of the patterns of surplus or shortage inteaching, it is useful to describe the primary and sec-ondary levels separately. At the primary school level,there has been a surplus of Chinese, English, and Malayteachers in 1993. As for Tamil, there was a slight short-age in the same year. This situation of teacher surplusis a consequence of structural changes in the educationsystem implemented in 1991. For example, there arenow six years of primary schooling for all students(compared with the 1980s, when there were two extrayears for students in the monolingual and extendedstreams). When the Preparatory Year project (prior topr: -nary one) was scrapped in 1993, the primary schoolsystem had a surplus of teachers.

The secondary school system faces a reverse situ-ation: There has always been a general shortage ofteachers for English language, history, geography, math-ematics, physics, chemistry, biology, home economics,art ,

music, physical education, and the Malay and Tamilqr.languages. With the implementation of the revised sec-ondary school system in 1994, there is now a pro-nounced shortage of teachers for most subjects. Approx-imately 15,000 students joined the secondary one schoolpopulation beginning in 1994, and it has been particu-lady urgent for the MOE to recruit more new teachersover the next few years to replace those who are retir-ing or leaving the service for other employment.

Strategies to Recruit Teachers in Areas orFields of Shortage

The MOE has embarked on a number of programs andworked out strategies to make teaching more attractiveas a career for potential recruits. Some of the strategiesare to address the shortage of teachers in the secondaryschools. The Cadet and the Provisional GraduateTeacher schemes are two such schemes to alleviate the

teacher shortage problem. The Cadet Graduate TeacherScheme refers to the NIE students who are offered ateaching stint in schools prior to their admission to theME for their professional training program. The Provi-sional Graduate Teacher Scheme is targeted at untrainedcandidates who are offered a one-year temporary con-tract with the MOE. They are paid a basic monthlysalary that is pegged according of their highest acade-mic qualification (either a pass or an honors degree).

The MOE also recruits teachers from overseas forparticular subjects in the secondary level. In 1993, it con-ducted efforts in the United Kingdom, Australia, and NewZealand to recruit English language and English literatureteachers. The MOE has also begun to recruit mathemat-ics teachers from India. These foreign-trained teacherswill be selected based on criteria set by the MOE, suchas their university qualifications in the subjects that theyspecialize in and their teaching experience.

A third and more visible strategy is that of pro-moting the teaching profession by means of annualadvertising campaigns through television, press, andradio media, and through poster advertisments in pub-lic places and direct marketing packages. These adver-tising campaigns and media blitzes are appropriatelytimed to coincide with the NIE's annual recruitmentefforts for graduate and nongraduate trainee teachers.The MOE also employs the expertise of an advertisingagency to project the teaching profession to undergrad-uates and junior college school leavers. It participates incareer seminars at the tertiary institutions for freshmenand final-year students, and at annual career exhibitionsand recruitment fairs.

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics of Teacher Preparation Institutions

The NIE is the sole teacher training institute in Singapore,and is responsible for all levels of teacher education. Itwas established and constituted as part of the NanyangTechnological University (NTU) on July 1, 1991.

The NIE is headed by a director and has four divi-sions: School of Arts, School of Education, School ofPhysical Education, and School of Science. Each schoolis headed by a dean. In addition, there is the Centre forApplied Research in Education (CARE), which coordi-nates and promotes education research.

The institute is governed by the ME Council. Thecouncil is chaired by the President of the NTU, with theDirector of Education as Deputy Chairman and theDirector of the NIE as a member. The other membersinclude university academics, some school principals,and some top administrators in the public and privatesectors.

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The institute offers a variety of programs leadingto a range of qualifications, from diplomas to bachelordegrees to postgraduate degrees.

Preservice Programs

All preservice programs are conducted on a full-timebasis at the institute. No student may pursue concur-rently any course of study at another institution oflearning while enrolled as a full-time student at theNIE.

The four-year bachelor's degree program aims toproduce graduates with the skills to teach in both pri-mary and secondary schools. The program leads to theaward of the following degrees:

Bachelor of Arts with Diploma in EducationBachelor of Science with Diploma in EducationBachelor of Arts with Diploma in Education(Physical Education)Bachelor o Science with Diploma in Education(Physical Education)

The Postgraduate Diploma in Education programseeks to train university graduates to become teachers.Teacher trainees who are in this program are allocat-ed to specialize in one of the following: (1) primaryschool teaching; (2) secondary school teaching; or (3)the teaching of Physical Education (PE) in primaryschools, secondary schools, and junior colleges. ThePE specializations are taught in a two-year, full-timeprogram. The rest are taught in a one-year, full-timeprogram.

GCE "A" level holders and Polytechnic Diplomaholders are eligible to apply for the two-year Diplomain Education and Diploma in Physical Education pro-grams. For the former program, teacher trainees canapply to be trained as generalists for primary schoolteaching or as specialists in the teaching of art, music,or home economics at the secondary school level. Stu-dent teachers in the Diploma in Physical Education pro-gram can be trained to teach at either the primary or thesecondary school levels.

Teacher education in Singapore is financed andfunded by the government. The budget for teacher edu-cation (as a percentage of the total expenditure for edu-cation) from 1991 to 1993 is as follows (Ministry ofFinance, 1993):

1991: 1.00 percent1992: 1.45 percent1993: 1.31 percent

The nature and content of the preservice teacherpreparation curriculum is described further on in thischapter.

In-service Programs

The ME also conducts formal professional programs forpracticing teachers, Polytechnic lecturers, and Universi-ty lecturers. These include the Diploma in EducationalAdministration (designed to prepare teachers to func-tion as effective principals and vice-principals ofschools); Further Professional Diploma in Education(which provides training for teachers to function aseffective Heads of Departments in their schools); andthe Postgraduate Diploma of Teaching in Higher Edu-cation (which is designed for the teaching staff of poly-technics and universities).

Postgraduate and Other Specialized Programs

In addition, the institute offers postgraduate programsthat lead to the award of higher degrees in education,physical education, and arts and science. Other special-ized programs include the training of teachers for schoolsthat specialize in the teaching of mentally and physicallyhandicapped children and of staff for institutes of higherlearning. The ME also trains preschool and kindergartenteachers under a special consultancy program.

Enrollment

Table 11.3, Table 11.4, and Table 11.5 show the num-ber of applicants and enrollment in the various teachertraining programs from 1991 to 1993.

Policy Guidance

For Singapore, which has no natural resources to boastof, the importance of investing in human resourcedevelopment cannot be overemphasized. Educationplays a pivotal role in the task of building Singapore andin making it a vibrant and competitive market in theworld economy. Therefore, it receives high priority, andcomes second (after defense) in the annual budget allo-cation.

The late 1970s and early 1980s saw the SingaporeEducation System entering a phase of development thataimed at identifying and rectifying deficiencies andproblems inherent in the system. Educational policieswere geared toward better meeting national goals andthe varied individual needs of students within the sys-tem. Since the mid-1980s, the trend is toward decen-tralization in school management and 1:pgrading thenational work force in response to the national call forexcellence, both in schools and in the Singapore soci-e ty at large. Mr. Goh Chok Tong, Prime Minister of Sin-& apore, pointed out unequivocably in his Green Paperto Parliament in 1988 (when he was then Deputy PrimeMinister) that "excellence in education is our goal. Thegovernment aims to raise the standard of all schools in

1

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188 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 11.3

Number of Applicants and Enrollment for the Degree Programs From 1991 to 1993

Program/Year

1991 1992 1993

JointApplication* Enrollment

JointApplication Enrollment

JointApplication Enrollment

Bacheor of Arts with Dip Ed 2637 74 2689 164 2529 150

Bachelor of Science with Dip Ed 24 23 28

Bachelor of Arts with Dip PE 12 17 14

Bachelor of Science with Dip PE 6 16 17

*The term "joint application" in Tables 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5 indicates that the applicants for those programs filled in forms for all the programs. Basedon the admission criteria and the needs of the economy, the selection board decided which program the applicants should be enrolled in.

TABLE 11.4.Number of Applicants and Enrollment for the Postgraduate Diploma Programs From 1991 to 1993

Program/Year

1991 1992 1993

Joint Joint JointApplication* Enrollment Application Enrollment Application Enrollment

Postgraduate Diploma in 1250 480Education

Postgraduate Diploma in 16

Physical Education

1223 437 2210 703

17 31*

TABLE 11.5Number of Applicants and Enrollment for the Diploma Programs From 1991 to 1993

1991 1992 1993

JointProgram/Year Application* Enrollment

Joint JointApplication Enrollment Application Enrollment

Diploma in Education 1251 438

Diploma in Physical Education 41

1014 304 1018 346

47 36

Singapore ... to nurture inquiring minds, and to createa lively intellectual environment which will ultimatelyspread throughout Singapore society."

Toward this end, a committee was set up in 1989to look into the upgrading of teacher education in Sin-gapore. This committee was headed by Dr. Seet Ai Mee,the then Minister of State for Education. The report (theSeet Ai Mee Report, 1990) made several observationsand recommendations.

It observed, for example, that many good teachercolleges overseas have come or are coming under theambit of universities in order to enhance their standingand that of their degrees. Following this trend, the com-mittee recommended that the NIE become part of theNanyang Technological University (NTU) so as to clear-

ly establish a tertiary status for itself and for its degreeprograms in arts and sciences. Thus, the former Instituteof Education and the College of Physical Educationwere amalgamated to become the National Institute ofEducation, which in turn became part of the NanyangTechnological University on July 1, 1991.

In terms of teacher recruitment, the report notedthat the recruitment of primary teachers will have todouble in the 1990sto about 650 per year. The "A"level candidature, which is the traditional pool for pri-mary teachers, is projected to fall from 15,000 in 1990to 11,000 from the mid- to late-1990s. Improved acade-mic results and rising affluence will deplete the "A" levelpool further, as more and more students pursue adegree locally or overseas. Many countries have estab-

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lished degree programs for primary teacher educationin recognition of the importance and increasing com-plexity and demands of primary teaching in a fast-paced, technological society. These reasons are just aspertinent in Singapore and they argue for the upgrad-ing of primary teacher education here. Considering boththe recruitment and training viewpoints, the committeerecommended the introduction of a degree program forthe training of primary school teachers. This degree pro-gram was introduced in the NIE in 1991.

To further increase the pool of primary schoolteachers, a one-year Postgraduate Diploma in Education(Primary) program was launched in 1990. For the firsttime in the history of education in Singapore, graduateswho prefer teaching at the primary level, and who aredeemed suitable by the ESC, the MOE, and the NIE, canapply and be admitted to this program.

As stated earlier, the NIE is the only teacher train-ing institute in Singapore. Thus, the courses it offersare different from those offered by Singapore's otheruniversity, the National University of Singapore. Inaddition to offering courses with a pedagogical slant,it also offers new programs, such as sports science andsports studies; fine arts, music, dance, and drama andperformance. In-service teacher training, training ofstaff for special schools, for kindergarten, and forchild-care centers are also planned, in tandem with theaims of the Ministry of Education and with the needsof industry.

"Sports for all" will continue to be one of Singa-pore's policies. Physical education programs andextracurricular activities in schools have been revised togive greater emphasis to the acquisition of sports skillsand to a lifetime enjoyment of sports. All Singaporeanswill have more opportunities and facilities to take partin physical activity to keep them fit and robust. Towardthis end, programs are being planned to train fitness andphysical instructors to cater to the needs of the leisureand fitness industries, of the armed forces, and of statu-tory boards. Discussions are currently being heldbetween the School of Physical Education at the NIEand the Ministry of Defense, the Singapore Police Force,and the Singapore Sports Council to mutually strength-en training and research programs between these insti-tutions and the School of Physical Education. The aimis to promote a healthy life-style and to make sports away of life for all Singaporeans.

In the area of higher education, the NIE strives todevelop a strong postgraduate degree program toenhance its standing as a tertiary institution. It is work-ing toward initially achieving a level of 1 to 2 percentof its student population in possession of postgraduatedegrees. Since the postgraduate degree program wasreconceptualized in the mid 1980s, 124 students gradu-ated with Masters in Education. The research carried out

by these M.Ed. graduates, and by a smaller number ofdoctoral students, provides invaluable insights intoimproving teacher training.

Another way of enhancing its standing as a tertiaryinstitution is for the NIE to place significant emphasison developing strong research programs. There is muchscope for studies on educational matters in Singaporeand in the region that need to be validated locally,rather than being based on Western norms.

Accreditation/Approval

All NIE programs are overseen by external examiners.These examiners check on the quality and rigor of thevarious programs, assess the level of classroom teach-ing of trainee teachers, of examination papers, and ofexamination scripts, and moderate the general level ofacademic standards.

At present, the external examiners appointed tothe various programs are:

Diploma in Education: Prof. Maurice Galton,University of Leicester, UKB.A/B.Sc. with Dip. Ed./Dip. Ed. (PE): Prof.Richard Pring, (Education component) Universi-ty of Oxford, UKPGDE (Primary & Secondary): Prof. Ivan Reid.Loughborough University, UKDiploma in PE; PGDE (PE): Prof. Graham Fish-burne, University of Alberta, CanadaB.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed. (PE): Prof. Neil Arm-strong, University of Exeter, UKMasters in Education: Prof. John Keeves,Flinders University of South Australia, Australia

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

The National Institute of Education's mission is toupgrade the quality of teacher education in Singapore.As part of the Nanyang Technological University, theNIE strives for academic and pedagogical excellence.

The institute constantly reviews and improves thepreservice teacher training programs to ensure that thegraduates are well prepared for the education system ofthe 1990s and beyond. It aims to produce graduateswho are imbued with the vision to improve the qualityof teaching at all levels and to promote professionalismin the service.

The NIE is also responsible for the upgrading ofthe further professional development programs forschoolteachers, heads of departments, vice-principals,

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188 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

and principals. It equips the officers with advanced ped-agogical and managerial skills chat will meet thedemands of future schools.

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

Candidates applying for all the preservice programsmust possess at least a "grade 4" in English in their GCE"0" Level Examination or else are required to sit andpass the NIE's English Proficiency Test before they canbe admitted into their respective programs. Admissionrequirements of specific degree and diploma programsare as follows:

1. For admission to the Bachelor of Arts/Science,with Diploma in Education/Physical Education(B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed.; B.A./B.Sc. with Dip.Ed. (PE] programs), candidates must have favor-able GCE "A" level results in the relevant sub-jects. Details of these requirements can be foundin Appendix 11-E.

2. For admission to the Postgraduate Diploma inEducation (PGDE) program, candidates forshould have at least a degree from the NanyangTechnological University, the National Univer-sity of Singapore, or other universities whosedegrees are acceptable to the Education ServiceCommission of Singapore. For specialization inteaching general subjects at the primary schoollevel, candidates must possess GCE "0" levelpasses in mathematics and in any science sub-ject. For specialization in teaching specializedsubjects at the secondary school level, candi-dates must possess acceptable results in thosesubjects at the university level. Additionaldetails on requirements for admission to post-graduate diploma programs can be found inAppendix 11-F.

3. For admission to the Diploma in Education (Dip.Ed.) program, candidates must possess a GCE"A" level examination certificate, or its equiva-lent, with at least two advanced level passes andtwo ordinary level passes; and passes in at leastfive subjects obtained at the GCE "0" levelexar ination. Additional details for specializa-tions in different subjects as requirements foradmission to Diploma of Education programscan be fc and in Appendix 11-G.

4. For admit ,ion to Diploma in Physical Educationprograms, candidates, in addition to the require-ments for the Diploma in Education program,also need to demonstrate an interest and abilityin Physical Education and Sports, as well asundergo a series of physical proficiency tests.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Preparation Curricula

The preservice teacher preparation curriculum in the NIEaims to train and produce teachers who are well-informed, competent, and reflective professionals. Suchteachers will have an understanding of the key conceptsand principles of teaching and learning and should beable to implement, analyze, and theorize about keyinstructional processes. They will be able to competent-ly discharge their teaching responsibilities in a variety ofclassroom and school contexts in a professional and com-mitted manner. Those specializing in Physical Educationwill be provided with an in-depth understanding of thescientific, psychological, sociological, and philosophicalprinciples, which form the basis of Physical Education.

Content Courses

The academic curriculum emphasizes fundamental con-cepts and principles as well as comprehensive coverageof the core knowledge of each subject. At the sametime, it focuses on areas of study with major social, cul-

tural, economic, or industrial relevance.These kinds of courses, called "content courses,"

are offered only to teacher trainees in the B.A./B.Sc. andDip. Ed. programs. Those who are in the PostgraduateDiploma in Education programs would already havegraduated in their content courses in their respectiveuniversities before entering the NIE.

All students are required to take two academicsubjects. The length of the various academic subjectsranges from 40 hours (in Year 1) to 250 hours (in Years3 and 4).

The availability and options of the various cours-es vary from program to program. Apart from the moreconservative courses, such as Englisn language, Eng-lish/Chinese literature, history, geography, mathematics,biology, and physics, students in the B.A. program canalso opt to study drama and performance, art, or music.

A special feature of the curriculum for the B.A./B.Sc. program is its provision for multilateral develop-ment, which allows a student to combine disciplinesacross divisions or across schools to form innovativeprograms integrating music, art, and drama, for exam-ple, or music and physics, or geography and biology.

Pedagogical Courses

The "curriculum studies" subjects are those coursesdesigned to equip teacher trainees with teaching skillsfor the Singapore classroom. Modules in each curricu-lum studies subject deal with the content, methods, andtechniques of teaching the respective subjects in theSingapore classroom.

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 189

At the primary level, teacher trainees are requiredto take two compulsory pedagogical courses: (1) theteaching of English; and (2) the teaching of mathemat-ics. In addition, teacher trainees are required to select athird methodology course from the following:

The Teaching of ArtThe Teaching of ChineseThe Teaching of MusicThe Teaching of ScienceThe Teaching of Social Studies

At the secondary level, teacher trainees areequipped with the methodology of teaching the two"content" subjects they graduated in from their respec-tive universities.

Education Studies

Under the general heading "Education Studies," teachertrainees take courses that acquaint them with the keyconcepts and principles in education that are necessaryfor effective instruction and reflective practice inschools. The courses deal with pupil development andthe social context within which schooling operates, theapplication of psychology in teaching and learning, andinstructional technology.

Practicum

The practicum of teaching practice is an important com-ponent of teacher education. Its principal function is toprovide teacher trainees with the opportunity to devel-op teaching competencies in a variety of instructionalcontexts, and at different levels, under the guidance andsupervision of cooperating teachers and of the NIE lec-turers. In this way, schools are actively involved inteacht . education in Singapore.

In the practicum, teacher trainees will be able touse knowledge and skills introduced in the cont-mtcourses, the curriculum studies, and the education stud-ies, and attempt an integration of theory and practice.

Th. luration of the practicum varies from pro-gram to program:

B.A./B.Sc.-25 weeks (over 4 years)PGDE-9 weeks (over 1 year)Dip. Ed.-15 weeks (over 2 years)

Teaching Bursaries and Scholarships

Teacher trainees in all the preservice programs areawarded teaching bursaries. Those in the degree pro-gram (B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed., B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed.(PE]) are eligible for a bursary of S$3,200 per annum for

the first two years of the course. If they are awarded thebursary, their tuition fees for this period will also bepaid for by government. Those who have exceptional-ly good "A" level examination results are eligible for ascholarship (in place of the bursary). If awarded thescholarship, they will receive an allowance of S$3,200per annum for the first three years of the course. In thefourth year, they will receive $2,400 (a prorated amountbecause the fourth year will be completed in ninemonths). The tuition fees for all four years of the coursewill be paid for by the government. Candidates initiallyawarded the bursary may be eligible for the scholarshipin Years 3 and 4 if they perform exceptionally well inYears 1 and 2 of the degree program.

The bursaries awarded to the teacher trainees forall preservice programs are shown in Table 11.6

On completion of their preservice training, allteachers are bonded to serve the government of Singa-pore for three years. Those who are awarded scholar-ships in the degree programs are bonded for five years.

Differences in the Nature and Content ofTeacher Preparation Programs

Because the NIE is the only teacher training institute inSingapore, the above is not applicable fcr the Singaporecontext.

Linkages Between Curricular Standards forTeacher Education and

Curricular Standards for Students

There is a strong link between teacher education cur-ricula and the national curricular standards for schoolsand students in Singapore. This is manifested in theselection of teacher trainees and in the range of subjectsoffered in the institute. For example, graduates apply-ing for the Postgraduate Diploma in Education programswill be accepted into the programs only if they havegraduated in content subjects that are currently taughtin Singapore schools.

The content courses that are offered to teachertrainees in the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Scienceor Diploma in Education programs are all subjects cur-rently being taught in Singapore schools.

QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS

Initial Requirements

Teachers are required to obtain their training qualifica-tion (e.g., Diploma in Education, or Diploma in Physi-cal Education, or Postgraduate Diploma in Education)in order to be granted the authority to teach in the Edu-

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190 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 11.6Teaching Bursaries for All Preservice Programs

Program Teaching Bursary Per Month

BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH DIPLOMA IN EDUCATIONBACHELOR OF ARTS WITH DIPLOMA IN PEBACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE WITH DIPLOMA IN PE

S$266*

POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION

Honors Degree holders S$1,300

Pass Degree holders S$1,045

POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN

Honors Degree holders:

Pass Degree holders:

DIPLOMA IN EDUCATIONGCE "A" level holders:

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

1st year2nd year1st year2nd year

Polytechnic Diploma holders:

1st year2nd year1st year2nd year

DIPLOMA IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

GCE "A" level holders: 1st year2nd year

Polytechnic Diploma holders: 1st year2nd year

S$1,3005$ 1,360S$ 1,0455$ 1,105

S$700S$750S$800S$850

S$700S$750S$800S$850

*This figure is arrived at after deducting the tuition fees paid by the government for the teacher trainees. The

tuition fees for those in the B.A. program are S$3,750 per annum, and those for the B.Sc. program are

S$4,550 per annum. Teacher trainees in the other programs have to pay their own tuition fees, which are

as follows: PGDES$1,080 per annum; PGDE (PE)S$540 per annum; Dip Ed/Dip PES$540 per annum.

cation Service. On successful completion of their pre-service training program at the NIE, beginning teachersare given Letters of Appointment as Education Officersby the MOE, and are posted to teach in schools wherethere are vacant positions. Foreign-trained teachers musthave relevant teaching subjects and recognized teach-ing qualifications if they are to be admitted into the ser-vice. The MOE assesses the suitability of their foreignuniversity qualifications. Singaporeans who resign fromthe teaching service and who reapply to teaci arfain willnot be requires. to tain retraining unless they arecrossing the primary/secondary school divider. Teach-ers who are redeployed from the primary to the sec-ondary school level or vice versa would be required toattend appropriate in-service training. This would bedetermined by the Staff Recruitment Branch of the MOE.

Qualification Reauthorization

While there are no requirements for licensure in Singa-pore, all trained teachers with either a Diploma (for thenongraduates) or a Postgraduate Diploma (for the grad-uates) in Education are certified to teach. Teachers who

do not possess these qualifications are regarded asuntrained and temporary, and are referred to as "reliefteachers."

Exceptions to the Rule

Please see the section above on strategies to recruit can-didates in cases of shortage. Preservice teacher trainingis waived for those who are offered temporary employ-ment as Cadet Graduate and Provisional GraduateTeachers by the MOE.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction or Transition Processes

There is no formal induction phase for beginning teach-ers when they enter the teaching service in Singapore.Apart from the two-year probationary period, beginningteachers are expected to assume a full teaching load andother duties in the schools where they have been post-ed by the MOE. The normal workload of a teacher is 33

lc;

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periods of classroom teaching per week, in addition to

some administrative and extracurricular activity duties.Singapore does not have the luxury of having teacher'saides in the classroom. Neither are parents involved inthe academic or curriculum program. Some schoolshave a policy of inducting newly arrived teachers, butthe transition phase tends to be short. The school prin-cipal may delegate this task of inducting new teachers

to the head of department concerned or to the vice-principal. This will almost always entail some form ofclassroom observation of the new teacher's lessons. Ateacher who is less experienced in classroom manage-ment and pedagogical skills could expect to get somefeedback and advice from the more experienced headof department. Sometimes, the principal may assign amore experienced teacher to work closely with theteacher who is lacking in certain teaching skills andknow-how.

In the practicum arrangements for preserviceteachers who undergo training at the NIE, there is adeliberate attempt to invite schools to identify "cooper-ating teachers" to help in the professional developmentof new teachers. The NIE works closely with the MOESchools Division to secure the assistance of principalsin identifying experienced teachers to serve as mentors

to the trainee teachers. Cooperating teachers are givenguidelines on how to mentor the trainee teacherassigned to them during the period of teaching practice.These teachers receive no additional compensation, andtake on this responsibility as one that is over and abovetheir daily teaching duties. Together with the NIEpracticum supervisor, cooperating teachers play animportant role in the professional growth of beginningteachers. This model of on-the-job training initiated by

the ME is gaining acceptance by the MOE and byschools as a means of enhancing the supervisory skills

of experienced teachers.

Professional Development Opportunities

The MOE and the ME are jointly responsible for pro-viding formal in-service training programs for practicingteachers in Singapore. The NIE has been involved inrunning two types of in-service courses: full-time in-ser-vice programs that lead to awards and qualifications,and shorter in-service courses or workshops that do notearn credits. Such in-service training opportunities arecentrally directed by the MOE and are designed to meettwo needs: the upgrading of knowledge and skillsrequired for education officers who have been identi-fied for positions of responsibility in schools (e.g,. headof department and principal), and updat ng teachers oneducational changes and curricular innovations. Schoolsprovide on-site, in-service training, such as workshopsfor specific subjects or special school-based projects.

Since the mid-1980s, the MOE and the NIE havereconceptualized in-service teacher education using aframework that sees in-service training as being part of

a continuum covering different stages of a teacher'scareer. The framework takes into account both the pro-fessional life-cycle of teachers and their career path inthe education service. It builds on the existing infra-structure for in-service teacher education programs thatare offered by the NIE, the MOE's Curriculum PlanningDivision, and the Curriculum Development Institute ofSingapore (CDIS). Each year, the MOE's Training Branchsends out to schools a prospectus on all the availablein-service education programs that would be run by theNIE, the Curriculum Planning Division, or the CDIS. Forexample, the 1994 Prospectus contains a listing of 148courses, many of which aim to equip primary and sec-ondary teachers with new pedagogical know-how orcontent knowledge required for the implementation ofsyllabus changes in different subjects. The CDIS con-ducts a large variety of workshops for subject teachers

on a zonal basis. Such workshops are specifically relat-ed to tile implementation of new curriculum materials

or to computer technology introduced to schools.In-service training is also offered to teachers for

specialized areas, such as pastoral care and career guid-

ance, and learning support for pupils with learning dif-ficulties. For example, the in-service diploma in the pas-toral care and career guidance program comprises eightmodules, or units of course work, that are organized attwo levels of training. The first level is for classroomteachers who wish to be equipped with the knowledgeand skills to play the role of pastoral caregivers in theirschools. Course work at the second level is designed for

pastoral leaders in schools, and provides advancedtraining and in-depth treatment of selected topics in pas-

toral care and career guidance. These courses lead to anin-service diploma for teachers who have completed the

set of eight modules.Teachers are encouraged to attend in-service

courses, particularly those that are perceived to enhancetheir pedagogical knowledge in areas such as problemsolving, science process skills, the use of science labo-ratories and the management of computer classes.Course attendance is on a voluntary basis. These cours-es vary in duration: from 20 hours to over 300 hours. Anexample of a longer in-service course is the full-time530-hour Diploma in Physical Education program.

Support for teachers' initiatives to attend profes-sional development courses comes in several forms. Asthe application for and attendance at courses are cen-trally coordinated by the MOE, teachers can expect theirattendance and completion of courses to be updated inthe MOE's computerized records for teachers. A

teacher's promotion and recommendation for careerupgrading is related to his or her interest in seeking pro-

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192 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

fessional updating, among other performance indica-tors. There is no monetary incentive for in-servicecourse attendance but school principals make adjust-ments in the teaching timetable to allow staff to attendcourses conducted away from the school.

Career-Path Participation in ProfessionalDevelopment Opportunities

In the career path for Singapore teachers (see the CareerAdvancement Chart in Appendix 11-H), an educationofficer who has proven capability as a classroomteacher, and who shows leadership potential, is select-ed by the MOE for further professional developmentbefore he or she is finally appointed as a principal. Theschool hierarchy consists of a principal, a vice-principal,heads of department (HODs), and teachers. This hier-archy defines the career progression path of teachers inthe school system and determines the number of avail-able school leadership positions. Each primary schoolhas up to five HODs, while each secondary school hasup to eight HOD positions.

Teachers with at least three years of service andgood job performance are nominated by their principalsfor appointment, first as HODs. If selected by the MOEinterview panel, they are required to attend the full-timeFurther Professional Diploma in Education (FPDE) pro-gram offered at the NIE. The FPDE program, which isjob-focused for department headship, runs over oneacademic year. It leads to the award of a professionaldiploma. Teachers who are sponsored by the MOE forthis career upgrading program are given study leaveduring the training period.

HODs would normally serve a minimum of threeyears to enable their performance in that position to beassessed by their principal and the MOE so they can beconsidered for vice-principal appointment. Similarly,outstanding education officers who ai attached to theMOE headquarters and who have been promoted to theSenior Education Service are selected for appointmentas vice-principals. They would normally serve at leasttwo years in this position before they can be consideredfor appointment as principals. A selection panel con-sisting of senior MOE officials interviews and decideson the suitability of individual vice-principals to be pro-moted to principal. The Diploma in Educational Admin-istration is a full-time in-service training program that isdesigned for the development of potential principalswho are currently serving as vice-principals of schools.They are sponsored by the MOE and granted a year'sstudy leave while undergoing training.

Training opportunities that are initiated by theMOE and conducted by the NIE are financed by theMOE in two ways. In the case of the full-time in-serviceprograms for the training of heads of department and

prospective principals, the MOE is the sponsoring insti-tution and pays for each participant's fees. Part-time inservice programs conducted by the NIE are financiallysupported by the MOE. This is done by converting theestimated training cost into the additional number ofacademic and nonacademic staff needed by the NIE torun the in-service programs.

POUCY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Present Concerns for Change and Improvement

As described in the earlier section on supply anddemand for teaching positions, one of the most impor-tant policy issues relates to the recruitment and reten-tion of a sizable number of new teachers for the schoolsystem in Singapore in the 1990s. There is a recognitionof the need to make teaching more attractive as a careerchoice for the younger generation of Singaporeansabout to enter the work force. The problem is multifac-eted in the case of teaching in Singapore. Over the pastdecade, the economy has enjoyed high annual growthrates. Today, there is a more diversified economy, withenlarged growth sectors in manufacturing, services,finance and banking, and trade. The teaching servicehas not been able to attract and retain most of theyounger and bettc, qualified teachers because employ-ment opportunities in the nongovernment sectors offerbetter remunerations and conditions of work.

Second, and related to the earlier point, the teach-ing profession has not enjoyed a positive image sincethe 1970s. Teaching is perceived as a job option bettersuited to women than to men because of the longer hol-idays and the imagined half-day nature of a teacher'swork; perceptions are less often concentrated on theprofessional ideals of contributing to the education ofthe younger generation of Singaporeans. This more fre-quent perception has inevitably led to an acute short-age of male teachers. 'The gender imbalance in teachinghas yet to be corrected. It is toward this end that theMOE has sought to promote the image of teaching as aprofession for both male and female university gradu-ates by emphasizing the intrinsic rewards and chal-lenges of becoming a good teacher.

Among the younger, nongraduate teachers who aredeployed in primary schools, there is a growing demandfor university education. The salary disparity betweengraduate and nongraduate education officers working inthe primary and secondary schools serves as a goal toobtaining a university degree. It has resulted in someyounger, nongraduate teachers leaving the education ser-vice prematurely to pursue an overseas university course.

I ( : 4-a

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11 I TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 193

Both the phenomenon of the high attrition rate inthe education service over the past decade (due to res-ignations or retirement of teachers in their fifties) andthe difficulty of recruiting enough new teachers for

pres- ent-day school needs have contributed to yetanother problem. Teachers and school administratorshave remarked often on the increased workload ofteachers in Singapore schools today. Moreover, teach-ers are required to participate in school-based or exter-nal in-service courses in order to keep up with struc-tural and curricular changes in the education system.The goal of providing for the professional developmentof teachers through continuing in-service training willbe difficult to attain if the teacher shortage problemremains. The MOE has had to consider a desired bal-ance between meeting systemic needs, on the onehand, and the individual professional developmentneeds of teachers on the other.

The teacher-shortage problem has important con-sequences for the continued growth of Singapore in theglobal economy in the 21st century. In 1991, the Singa-pore government embarked on its Strategic EconomicPlan to work toward the goal of Singapore's becominga developed nation by the year 2030. This set in motionthe corresponding policy decision to restructure theeducation system to provide at least ten years of gener-al education for all children. It has become a priority for

the MOE to address the problems stated above.

Present and Long-range Plans for Improvement

The MOE has responded in creative ways to try to meetthe shortfall in the annual recruitment targets of teach-ers. Among these is the policy of redeploying selectedprimary school teachers to the secondary school level.For such teachers, in-service training is a requirementin the subject content and pedagogical areas. The recentefforts to reconceptualize in-service teacher education(see above section under Qualification Reauthorization)is preparation for a policy move to address the profes-sional development needs of teachers in the 1990s. TheMOE has continued to emphasize the importance ofprofessional upgrading and updating among teachers.It has designed new incentives to encourage teachers totake up formal in-service training and tertiary education.There are better promotion prospects and salaries fornew entrants into the teaching service. In addition, thesetting up of the Open University Degree Program in

1994 offers yet another avenue for nongraduare teach-

ers to upgrade themselves.Teacher education in the 1990s has undergone sig-

nificant changes in other ways. The ME today offers abroader range of specialization programs for preserviceand in-service teacher training. Creative arts (such asdrama and performance), art and music education, andphysical education are the newer disciplines for prospec-tive primary and secondary teachers. These are offeredat the degree and diploma levels. A new specializationprogram offering a Diploma in art/music/home eco-nomics is also being planned for 1994. In the under-graduate programs offered for preservice teachers at theME, there is an initiative to train a "total teacher." Thismeans an attempt to train a preservice teacher to be ableto teach competently at both the primary and secondaryschool levels. The ME has been working on other in-service programs to meet the aspirations of educationofficers intending to pursue postgraduate qualificationsin areas of specializations, such as in educational man-agement, applied educational psychology, and the tra-ditional disciplines (e.g., English language, science, art,and music).

CONCLUSION

This report has encapsulated the following pertinentpoints of teacher education and professional develop-ment in Singapore:

Shortage and retention of teachersStrategies to recruit teachers in areas of shortageRigor and relevance of teacher training coursesContinuing education/professional develop-ment.

Education plays a key role in making Singapore avibrant and competitive market in the world economy.The various new programs and policies described inthis report are geared toward meeting Singapore's goalsand the varied individual needs of students in a fast-paced, technological society. Developments signal atime to review the basics and reorient thinking to meetthese changes. The teaching professionals in Singaporewill find themselves spearheading and meeting thesechallenges in the 1990s and beyond.

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194 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 11-A

PROGRESSION PATHS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLPUPILS

Special/Express/Normal(Aeadornte)/ NormaKAeademleWNormalMochnled Nerenalfrechnieeg

Special/Express/NormaMeademle)/*melt Technical)

P2

P1

- - Lateral trifler

I Pupils in the EM 1 stream will sit the PSLE in four subjectsEnglish, Chinese/Malay/Tamil, Maths, and Science.They may offer an optional Higher Chinese/Malay/Tamil paper.

II Pupils in the EM2 stream will sit the PSLE in four subjectsEnglish, Chinese/Malay/Tamil, Maths, and Science.

III Pupils in the EM3 stream will sit the PSLE in three subjectsEnglish, Basic Chinese/Malay/Tamil, and Maths.

IV Within the EM2 stream are two substreamsEM2(E), EM2(C/M/T).

V Retention will not be generally practised, but in exceptional circumstances, a pupil may be allowed to repeat ayear. In particular, P5 pupils in the EM3 stream who perform extremely well may repeat P5 in the EM2 stream thefollowing year.

VI An alternative to the EM3 stream (the ME3 stream) Is also available. Children identified for the EM3 stream mayopt for the ME3 stream.

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 195

Appendix 11-B

EDUCATION SYSTEM

tUNIVERSITYEDUCATION

IJNNERSITIES

/1!'"..

INSTITUTES

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196 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 11-C

The following excerpts from the Ministry of Education'sPrincipal's Handbook (1993) provide further informa-tion on the government's Leave Schemes.

Forfeit of Vacation Leave

(205) Vacation leave due to an officer will be forfeited if:

(a)(b)

He gives less than the minimum notice to resign;He has not given the minimum notice but haspaid: (i) money instead of notice; or (ii) anamount which is equal to the total wage for theperiod short of notice; or (iii) his normal periodof notice has been waived.

Resignation

(F206) An officer who is indebted/obligated to the Gov-ernment at the time of resignation, is required to settleall liabilities (outstanding loan, or liquidated damages inrespect of the unserved bond) before he leaves the ser-vice.

F207 The notice of resignation is to be submittedto the Establishment, Recruitment & Placement Branchof this Ministry together with the Appendix A (see FF3)without any delay. In addition, a leave statement(Appendix Bsee FF4) which is only applicable to offi-cers eligible for vacation leave, is to be attached.

For details refer to: Paragraphs H65, H66, P10 andP16 of IM No. 2

(Paragraphs F208 to F210 not used.)

Leave (Government andGovernment-Aided Staff)

(F211) All officers, whether they are non-teaching staff(NTS), Principals, Vice-Principals, teachers or expatriateson contract are eligible for leave benefits.(F212) The NTS, Principals and Vice-Principals enjoyvacation leave. The teaching staff, consisting of expatri-ates on contract and teachers appointed on the perma-nent establishment, are eligible for school holidays.(F213) NTS who are appointed on a temporary basisare not eligible for vacation leave during the first 6months of their temporary service. Principals shouldnot approve their application for vacation leave duringthis period.(F214) The leave eligibility of expatriates are specifiedclearly in their contract.

(F215) The types of leave all officers are eligible for areas follows:

(a)(b)(c)(d)

(e)(f)

(g)(h)

Medical leaveMaternity leaveFull-pay unrecorded leaveUPA leave, i.e., leave on urgent private affairs(for teachers only)No-pay leaveStudy leave (for teachers only)Half-pay leave (for teachers only)Pilgrimage leave (for Muslim officers only)

(Paragraphs F216. to F220 not used.)

Vacation Leave For Principals and Vice-Principals

(F221) In accordance with the revised EducationScheme of Service Agreement dated 30 June 1979, Prin-cipals and Vice-Principals will be eligible for vacationleave as follows:

(a) Under 10 years' service-33 days per calendaryear

(b) Ten years' service or more-39 days per calen-dar year

(F222) Leave eligibility for the year is calculatedat the commencement of each calendar year, or on thedate of assumption of duty as Principal or Vice-Princi-pal. Where, during the course of a calendar year, anofficer:

(a) Assumes duty as Principal or Vice-Principal(b) Relinquishes duty as Principal or Vice-Principal(c) Retires from the service(d) Is absent for any period on half-pay, no-pay or

pilgrimage leave or is absent for more than 3months on scholarship, fellowship or trainingcourses, the period for which is not deemed tobe service qualifying for vacation leave, or

(e) Completes 10 years' service to qualify for thehigher rate of vacation leave

his vacation leave eligibility for that year will be calcu-lated on a pro-rated basis, rounded up to a whole day.Examples of how leave eligibility is calculated can befound in Ministry of Education Notification PA/23/79,dated 3 Aug 79.

e)ti:u3

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 197

(F223) Principals and Vice-Principals must applyfor leave on Form G68. The application of the Vice-Prin-cipal must be submitted to the Principal who will decideon the leave. The application of the Principal (in dupli-cate) must be submitted to the respective Inspector ofSchools, Schools Division of the Ministry, for a decision.A copy of the form will be retained in the Ministry andthe other copy returned to the Principal for record.

(F224) Principals and Vice-Principals will nor-mally be required to expend their vacation leave duringschool holidays.

(a) Where needed, Principals and Vice-Principalsmay be allowed to utilize up to 12 days of theirvacation leave eligibility during term time sub-ject to the exigencies of service without havingto cite urgency as a reason if the leave does notexceed 2 days per occasion.

(b) However, any application for leave whichexceeds 2 days per occasion during term time oris to be spent outside the Republic (other thanwithin the Johore Bahru town limit) will beapproved only on urgent grounds.

(c) Where there are valid reasons, Principals andVice-Principals may also be allowed to apply formore than 12 days of their vacation leave eligi-bility during term time or overlap their vacationleave during the school holidays. Such applica-tions will be considered on a case-by-case basis.

(F225) Principals and Vice-Principals may beallowed to take half-day leave to attend to urgent per-sonal matters for a continuous period of 4 hours sub-ject to exigencies of the service. The granting of half-dayleave v ill be governed by the following rules:

(a) Such leave will be debited against an officer'svacation leave eligibility on the basis of twoperiods of half-day leave, equal to one day'svacation leave.

(b) An officer taking half-day leave must work atleast 3 hours for that day (exclusive of lunchbreak).

(c) Half-day leave cannot be taken on Saturdays oreves of Public Holidays, which are half workingdays.

W) The total half-day and full-day leave accumulat-ed during term time should comply with para.F224 above.

(F226) Principals and Vice-Principals are requiredto expend their vacation leave within the calendar yearand may be allowed to carry forward only 3 days oftheir unexpended vacation leave to the following year.However, Muslim Principals and Vice-Principals may be

204

allowed to accumulate up to 2. years' vacation leave forthe purpose of pilgrimage to Mecca.

(F227) When Principal proceeds on leave, theVice-Principal will perform the duties of the Principal,in addition to his own. When the Vice-Principal pro-ceeds on leave, the Principal will perform the Vice-Prin-cipal's duties in addition to his own. The Principal andVice-Principal should not proceed on leave at the sametime. In exceptional circumstances where both the Prin-cipal and Vice-Principal have to be away on leavetogether, their leave applications should be submittedto the Schools Division for a decision.For details refer to: (a) Appendix H8 of IM No. 2: (b)

MOE Notification PA/7/92.(Paragraphs F228 to F230 not used.)

Medical Leave

(F231) All officers who are under the 1973 and 1979Leave Schemes and education officers who are underthe 1973 and 1979 Education Leave Schemes are eligi-ble for 30 days' ordinary sick leave in a calendar yearand an additional 30 days if they are hospitalized in aGovernment or private hospital.

(F232) Officers under the 1951 leave Scheme areeligible for 90 days sick leave in a year, which includeshospitalization and maternity leave.

(F233) To qualify for full-pay medical leave, anofficer must obtain a medical certificate either from agovernment or a private doctor. The MC obtained mustshow clearly the period during which the officer is unfitfor duty.

(F234) In the event that an officer has taken allhis full-pay sick leave eligibility and is still medically cer-tified unfit for duty, he will be given extended sickleave, according to the officer's Leave Scheme. Thenumber of days of extended sick leave an officer is eli-gible for will depend on the number of years of servicehe has put in.

(F235) If a teacher has used up the extended sickleave, he may be granted special sick leave on full-payequal to one sixth of the total school holidays in a cal-endar year.

(F236) If the offi,-er has used up his full-pay sickleave (viz ordinary sick ;T.ave, extended sick leave andspecial sick leave) and 1. recommended further sickleave by a Government Medical Board, he may begranted further extended sick leave on full-pay. Suchextended sick leave shall be limited to one-twenty-fourth of each month of completed past service (e.g., anofficer who has completed two years of service will beeligible for one month of further extended sick leave).

(F237) Principals must report to the Ministry thoseofficers who have taken sick leave in excess of theirannual sick leave eligibility.

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198 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

For details refer to: (a) Para. H190-200 of IM No.2; (b) Appendix H6 of IM No. 2; (c) Finance (PSD) Cir-cular No. 4/88; (d) MOE Notification PA/2/90; (e)Finance (PSD) Circular Ne. 18/90. (Paragraphs F238 toF240 not used.)

Maternity Leave

(F241) A married female officer is eligible for 56 days'full-pay m aternity leave, 28 days (4 weeks) immediate-ly before and 28 days (4 weeks) immediately after thedate of delivery if she is certified unfit and provided shehas not .nore than 2 living children (excluding legallyadopted ones and step children) at the time she appliesfor the leave. However, if she uses less than 4 weeks'leave before she gives birth, the remainder can beadded to her 4 weeks' leave after her confinement.

(F242) A married female officer who had a twinpregnancy in her first childbirth would still be eligiblefor full-pay maternity leave for her second childbirth.

(F243) A married female officer on temporaryappointment will be eligible for maternity leave aftercompletion of six months continuous service. Otherwisethe maternity leave will be treated as no-pay leave.

(F244) A married female officer giving birth to herthird child will not be eligible for full-pay maternityleave. Medical leave granted to her for the period 28days immediately before and 28 days immediately afterdelivery will be treated as no-pay maternity leave. How-ever, if the officer undergoes ligation she will be grant-ed 7 days ordinary sick leave, subject to eligibility, from,the date of ligation, and the balance will be treated asno-pay leave.

(F245) A married female officer who takes mater-nity leave is required to fill up Form P10 (see FF5) andthe Principal has to forward this form to POE5, togeth-er will-, all medical certificates issued to her during theyear.

For details refer to: (a) Appendix H2 to 114 of IMNo. 2: (b) Finance (PSI)) Circular No. 19/86(Paragraphs F246 to F250 not used.)

Full-Pay Unrecorded Leave

(F251) Subject to the exigencies of the service, an offi-cer may he granted full-pay unrecorded leave for any ofthe following reasons:

(a) To represent Singapore in international games(i.e., Olympic Games, Asian Games, etc.).

(b) 'ro represent Singapore in regional games (i.e.,SEA Games, etc.) in any of the sporting activitieslisted in Annex F2.

(c) To represent Singapore in friendly gamesbetween nations and where such games have

the support of the Singapore National OlympicsCouncil (SNOC) or the Singapore Sports Coun-cil (SSC), listed in Annex F2.

(d) If he is nominated by a recognized organisationlisted in Annex F3 to attend volunteer camps,field operations and other exercises conductedby the organisation.

(e) To attend approved conferences, seminars ortrade union courses.

(F252) Full-pay unrecorded leave may also be grantedto a female officer to look after her sick child if the childis below 6 years of age. Such leave is limited to 5 daysper child and subject to a maximum of 15 days per year.A certified true copy of the child's birth certificate andMCs issued must be submitted when such an applica-tion is made. Application for such leave should be madeon FF6. For details refer to: (a) Para H115-135 of IM No.2; (b) Ministry's Notification No. PA/4/87. (ParagraphsF253 to F260 not used.)

Urgent Private Affairs (UPA) Leave

(F261) Principals may grant full-pay leave to teachers onthe ground of urgent private affairs up to a maximum of10 working days in a year. Applications for leave onurgent private affairs should be made on the appropriateform, FF7. Guidelines on UPA leave are set out in MOENotifications PA/6/83 dated 23 Mar. 1983, PA/4/89 dated18 Jan. 1989 and PA/10/90 dated 28 Jul. 1990. Temporaryofficers, including re-employed teachers with less thansix months' service, are not eligible for the leave.

(F262) Principals should only approve UPA leavewithin the guidelines set out in FF7. Any request beyondor outside the guidelines should be referred to the Min-istry of Education for consideration.

(F263) For other reasons which are not coveredunder the categories for full-pay UPA leave, Principalsare delegated the authority to grant up to five workingdays no-pay leave in a year in accordance with MOE'sNotification PA/14/87 dated 6 Oct. 1987. Applicationsfor no-pay leave for 1 to 5 days should be made onform S2-7A (see FF8). For details refer to: (a) PA/6/83dated 23.3.83; (b) PA/4/89 dated 18.1.89; (c) PA/14/87dated 6.10.87; (d) PA/10/90 dated 28.7.90. (ParagraphsF264 to F270 not used.)

No-Pay Leave

(F271) No-pay leave may be granted to officers on thefollowing grounds:

(a) For study purposesAn officer may be grantedno-pay leave for study purposes if the course heintends to pursue is relevant to the service and

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 199

is an area of shortage. Applications will only beconsidered if the officer meets all the require-ments governing study leave.

(b) For childcareA married female officer is eligi-ble to apply for no-pay leave for childcare forone year at a time up to a maximum of fouryears, subject to the exigencies of the service.Such leave should be taken within 4 years afterthe birth of her child.

(c) To accompany spouseAn officer may begranted no-pay leave to accompany his/herspouse overseas when the latter has been senton a training course or duty by the Governmentor Statutory Board. An officer whose spouse issent by a local-based private company for atraining course or on overseas posting can alsobe considered for no-pay leave if: (i) the Princi-pal is prepared to release the officer; and (ii)there is documentary evidence from the compa-ny to indicate the duration and nature of thetraining course/posting.

(d) On compassionate groundsAn officer may begranted no-pay leave on compassionategrounds, such as to look after seriously ill imme-diate family members, to attend son's/daughter'sconvocation overseas and for domestic reasons.Application for no-pay leave must be accompa-nied with relevant documentary evidence.

(e) For short duration of 1 to 5 daysWith effectfrom 1 Jan. 1988, Principals are delegated theauthority to approve no-pay leave for shortduration of 1 to 5 working days if he deems thereason given by the officer as acceptable. Sun-days or public holiday falling in-between theperiod of no-pay leave will be counted as no-pay leave. (Please refer to para. 263.) Any appli-cation exceeding 5 working days must bereferred to the Ministry for consideration. If suchan application has been rejected by the Ministry,Principals should not grant the officer leaveunless he is very certain that the officer canreturn within the approved period.

(f) To Teach In Independent SchoolsAn officermay be granted no-pay leave to teach in anindependent school if a replacement can begiven to the donor school. Such applications willonly be considered during the annual Oct./Nov.Posting Exercise.

(F272) An application for no-pay leave for child-care and to accompany spouse should be made at least3 months before the proposed leave commences. How-ever, applications for no-pay leave for childcare should,preferably, be made in response to the Ministry's Noti-fication, issued twice a year in January and July.

(F273) All applications for no-pay leave must besent through the Principals, who would indicate theircomments on the applications before submission to theMinistry.

(F274) No-pay leave of one month or more,except for no-pay leave to accompany spouse overseassent on duty by the Government or Statutory Board, willnot count as service for granting salary increments. Peri-od exceeding a month will affect an officer's incremen-tal month as well as her school holidays, which will bepro-rated accordingly. For details refer to: (a) ParaH180-184 of IM No. 2; (b) MOE Notification PA/4/87and PA/14/87; (c) Finance (PSD) Circular No.15/85.(Paragraphs F275 to F280 not used.)

No-Pay/Half-Pay Study Leave

(F281) An education officer may be granted study leaveon half-pay or no-pay for the purpose of pursuing abasic or post-graduate degree course if he meets all therequirements governing study leave at the point ofapplication. The guidelines or the grant of study leaveare shown in Annex F4

(F282) The half-pay study leave is calculatedbased on one-half of the officer's length of service, i.e.,if he has served 5 years, he will be eligible for 5 monthshalf-pay leave. A bond of up to 8 years is imposed onthe officer if he is given 2 months or more of half-payleave.

Officers who meet the criteria for the grant ofstudy leave may be interviewed by a Selection Com-mittee.

(F283) The Ministry will issue two circulars eachyear in February and August inviting officers to submittheir applications for study leave. Only applicationsreceived in response to the circular will be processed.Ad hoc applications for study leave will not be accept-ed. Officers who wish to pursue a degree course over-seas are strongly advised not to seek admission into aforeign university until they have been successful inobtaining study leave. This is to reduce the possibilityof incurring unnecessary expenditure, time and effort iftheir study leave is not approved. For details refer to:(a) Paras H170 and 180 of IM No. 2; (b) MOE Notifica-tion No. GA/25/93. (Paragraphs F284 to F290 not used.)

206

Half-Pay Leave

(F291) Apart from half-pay study leave, an officer isalso eligible for half-pay leave for educational tours.

(F292) Such educational tours will only be con-sidered if:

(a) The tour has been assessed to be relevant to theservice.

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200

(b)(c)

(d)

(e)

TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

The duration is less than 1 term, i.e,m 3 months.The officer is attached to an institution for 2months out of the 3 months.He can provide a detailed itinerary of his attach-ment.The Principal is prepared to release the officer.For details refer to: Pam 13 of Appendix H5 ofIM No. 2 (Paragraphs F293 to F300 not used.)

Pilgrimage Leave

(F301) A Muslim teacher is eligible for the grant of pil-grimage leave once only in his service provided he:

(a) Is a Singapore Citizen or a Permanent Residentof Singapore;

(b) Has completed 15 years continuous service;(c) Has not taken half-pay leave other than on med-

ical grounds during the 15 years' continuousservice; and

(d) Has registered with the Majlis Ugama Islam Sin-gapura (MUIS) or any other competent authori-ty appointed by the MUIS.

(F302) Other Muslim officers, including Principalsand Vice-Principals, are eligible for pilgrimage leave if,in addition to the above conditions, they have saved 2calendar years' vacation leave.

(F303) Applications must be made in writingthrough the Principals to the Ministry together with:

(a) A photostat copy of the registration letter fromMUIS;

(b) A statement from MUIS showing the exact datesof departure and return to Singapore.

(F304) An officer who arrives late because of adelay in flight schedule, may be granted an additionalday of pilgrimage leave. However, if he is found to bedeliberate in not reporting for work, the pilgrimageleave will be converted to no-pay leave with a possi-bility of a letter of advice or warning issued to him. Fordetails refer to: (a) Paras 4 and 5 of Appendix H5 of IM

No. 2; (b) MOE Notification PA/12/89. (Paragraph F305to F310 not used.)

Permission to Leave the Republic

(P31) Principals have been delegated the authority toallow teachers to leave the Republic during weekends,school holidays and public holidays. However, Princi-pals must ensure that the applicant:

(a) Is not required for duty during the school holi-days;

(b) Is not facing any disciplinary acticn, or undernotice of termination or resignation; and

(c) Inform the school of his forwarding address.

(F312) Principals' applications for permission toleave the Republic must be submitted to the Ministry ofEducation for approval.

Absence Without Leave

(F313) An officer who is absent from duty withoutleave or reasonable cause for a continuous period ofmore than 7 days (including Sundays and Public Holi-days) may be held to have vacated his office.

(F314) On his second day of absence withoutleave, the Principal must write to the officer to requesthim to report back for duty immediately and to explainhis absence. A copy of the letter to the officer is to beextended to the Establishment, Recruitment & Place-ment Branch of this Ministry.

(F315) If the Officer fails to report for duty after7 continuous days, the Principal should notify the Min-istry, who will take follow-up action to vacate him fromoffice.

(F316) Should the officer, on receipt of the warn-ing letter, resume duty, the Principal must obtain fromhim a written explanation and forward it with his (Prin-cipal) comments to the Ministry. For details refer to:Paras P50-54 of Section P of IM No. 2. (Paragraphs F317to F320 not used.)

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 201

Appendix 11-D

TABLE D-1

Annual Turnover Rate of Teachers in the Education Service (1984-1993)

Year Total Attrition Teacher Stock Attrition Rate

1984 460 20519 2.24%

1985 547 20591 2.66%

1986 562 20627 2.72%

1987 605 20768 2.91%

1988 618 21020 2.94%

1989 635 21002 3.02%

1990 745 20997 3.55%

1991 882 20938 4.21%

1992 846 20938 4.04%

1993 956 21177 4.51%

TABLE D-2

Annual Recruitment of Teachers (1985-1993)

Year

Primary Level SEC/JC/CI Level

NewRecruits

TeacherStock

% ofNew Recruits

NewRecruits

TeacherStock

% ofNew Recruits

1985 273 10746 2.54 451 9845 4.58

1986 424 10600 4.00 357 10027 3.56

1987 288 10560 2.73 384 10208 3.76

1988 238 10662 2.23 304 10358 2.93

1989 349 10640 3.28 436 10362 4.21

1990 552 10553 5.23 286 10444 2.74

1991 723 10611 6.81 290 10327 2.81

1992 454 10780 4.21 379 10158 3.73

1993 492 10911 4.51 645 10266 6.28

Note: 1994 data are not available.

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202 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 11-E

The following provides details on admission to theBachelor of Arts/Sciences program, with a Diploma inEducation/Physical Education (B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed.;B.A./B.Sc. with Dip. Ed. WED.

Bachelor of Arts/Bachelor of Science

Candidates offering the Singapore-Cambridge GCEAdvanced Level Examination or Higher School Certifi-cate Examination must have obtained:

(a) passes in at least 2 subjects at "A" level and twosubjects at "AO" level, including a pass in Gen-eral Paper (English) taken at one and the sameexamination;

(b) a minimum grade of C in at least five subjects,including English as a first language, taken at theGCE "0" Level Examination;

(c) a minimum grade of D7 in a second language(ML2/CL2/TL2) taken at the GCE "A" LevelExamination, or a minimum grade of D7 in afirst language (ML1/CL1/TL1) taken at the GCE"0" Level Examination; and

(d) a pass in Mathematics, either at the GCE "0"Level Examination, or at least at "AO" level inthe GCE "A" Level Examination.

For admission to the course leading to the degreeof Bachelor of Science with Diploma in Education, can-didates should include, among their advanced level sub-jects, at least a pass in two of the following:

(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)

Mathematics (Syllabus C) or Further MathematicsBiologyChemistryPhysicsPhysical Science

Candidates offering commercial subjects in theSingapore-Cambridge GCE Advanced Level Examinationor equivalent examination must meet the requirementsstipulated in paragraph B1 above. However,

(a) office administration and principles and practiceof office administration are not subjects accept-able for admission to the university; and

(b) office administration and stenography, short-hand and typing, and office administration andshorthand/typwriting duties are counted assubjects at ordinary level irrespective of thelevel in which the candidate has passed theexamination.

2 5

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 203

Appendix 11-F

The following provides additional details on require-ments for admission to postgraduate diploma programs.

To be considered for admission, candidates shouldhave at least a degree from the Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity, the National University of Singapore, orother universities whose degrees are acceptable to theEducation Service Commission of Singapore.

For specialization in teaching Design and Tech-nology at secondary school level, the degree must be inMechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electri-cal Engineering, or Civil Engineering.

For specialization in teaching general subjects atthe primary school level, applicants must possess GCE

"0" level passes in mathematics and any science subject.For specialization in teaching physical education,

applicants will need to demonstrate an interest and abil-ity in Physical Education and Sports, as well as under-go a series of physical proficiency tests.

For specialization in teaching music at the sec-ondary school level, applicants who are shortlisted willbe required to give a rive-minute audition prior to theinterview. The audition will include at least one of thefollowing: prepared pieces on first and/or secondinstruments; sight read on first instrument; sight sing;harmonize simple melody on piano; or improvise asimple piece.

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204 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

Appendix 11-G

The following provides additional details for specializa-tions in differen'. subjects as requirements for admissionto Diploma of Education programs.

To be considered for admission, candidates mustpossess:

(a) a Singapore-Cambridge GCE Advanced LevelExamination Certificate or its equivalent, with atleast two advanced level passes and two ordi-nary level passes, including a pass in GeneralPaper (English) obtained at one and the sameexamination; and

(b) passes in at least five subjects obtained at theSingapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level

Examination.

In addition to the requirements stipulated above, thefollowing requirements must also be met for the spe-cializations indicated:

(a) For Specialization in teaching at primary schoollevel, applicants must also possess a pass inMathematics at least at the GCE Ordinary LevelExamination.

(b) For Specialization in teaching Chinese/Malay/Tamil, applicants must satisfy the requirementsat B1 (a) above, except that the pass in Gen-eral Paper (English) need not be obtained fromthe same sitting of the GCE Advanced LevelExamination. In addition, applicants must pos-sess: a pass at least at Grade B3 in ChineseLanguage (CL1)/Malay Language (ML1)/TamilLanguage (TL1) at the GCE Ordinary LevelExamination; or a pass in Chinese/Malay/Tamil

or Chinese/Malay/Tamil as a Second Languageat advanced level or a pass at least at Grade A2in Chinese/Malay/Tamil as a Second Languageat "AO" Level, which need not be obtained atthe same sitting of the GCE Advanced LevelExamination for requirements B1 (a).

(c) For Specialization in teaching Music, applicantsmust also possess a pass in Mathematics at leastat the GCE Ordinary Level Examination, as wellas at least ABRSM Grade 7 (Practical) and Grade6 (Theory). Applicants who are shortlisted forthis specialization will be required to give a 5-minute audition prior to the interview. The audi-tion will include at least one of the following: vizperform. prepared pieces on first and/or secondinstruments; sight read on first instrument; sightsing; harmonize simple .melody on piano; orimprovise a simple piece.

(d) For Specialization in teaching Art, applicantsmust also possess a pass in Mathematics, at leastat the GCE Ordinary Level Examination, as wellas a pass at least at Grade C in Art at the GCEAdvanced Level Examination. Applicants whoare shortlisted for this specialization will berequired to bring for assessment, prior to theinterview, a portfolio of their selected workswhich has been authenticated by their school/college as being their own unaided work.

(e) For Specialization in teaching Home Economics,applicants must also possess a pass in Mathe-matics and either Food and Nutrition or Fashionand Fabrics, at least at the GCE Ordinary LevelExamination.

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11 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN SINGAPORE 205

Appendix 11-H

JOB-LEVEL HQ POSTS SCHOOLS

1 Director of Education

Director

2 I [Deputy Director

3AssistantDirector

9i

4Senior Specialist

Officer

SeniorInspectors of

Schools

S

Principal(IC)

simorimm.>11 Princ pal +/Vice-Principal (JC)

5

SES"

Vice-Principal +/Head of Department QC)

GB**

6

7

Specialist Officer

Key+ Excluding Junior Colleges (JC).* This path should be the exception rather than the rule.++ Senior Education Service.** General Education Service.

Source: Ministry of Education, Singapore.

212

Head ofDepartment +

111Teacher

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206 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

REFERENCES

Goh Chok Tong. (1988). Agenda for action: Goals and chal-lenges. Paper presented to Parliament by the First DeputyPrime Minister and Minister of Defence.

Government of Singapore. (1991). The next lap. Singapore:Times Editions Pte Ltd.

Ministry of Education. (1979). 'Ministry of Education report1978. Singapore: Author.

Ministry of Education. (1991). Improving primary school edu-cation. Singapore: Author.

Ministry of Education. (1992). Education Statistics Digest.Singapore: Author.

Ministry of Education. (1993). Principal's handbook. Singa-pore: Author.

Ministry of Finance. (1993). The budget for the financial year1993/1994. Singapore: Author.

Ministry of Trade and Industry. (1991). The strategic econom-ic plan: Towards a developed nation.. Singapore: Author.

Seet Ai Mee. (1990). Teacher training in the 1990s: Issuesandstrategies. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Sharpe, L., and Gopinathan, S. (1993). Universitisation andthe reform of teacher education: The case of Britain andSingapore. Research in Education, No. 50, pp. 5-16.

Yip, J. S. K., and Sim, W. K. (1990). Evolution of education-al excellence: 25 years of education in the Republic ofSingapore. Singapore: Longman.

LIST OF ACRONYMS USED IN THIS REPORT

B.A. Bachelor of ArtsB.Sc. Bachelor of ScienceCARE Centre for Applied Research in EducationCDIS Curriculum Development Institute of Sin-

gaporeESC Education Service CommissionFPDE Further Professional Diploma in Educa-

tionHOD Head of DepartmentMOE Ministry of EducationNIE National Institute of EducationNTU Nanyang Technological UniversityPE Physical EducationPGDE Postgraduate Diploma in EducationPSLE Primary Six Leaving Examination

2:1 3

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Tea- .ther Training inChinese Taipei

Submitted by: Dr. Kuo-shib Yang, Departmentof Higher Education, Minisity of Education

Prepared by: Bib-jen Fwu, Department ofSecondary Education, Ministry of Education

CONTEXT

Definitions

For the purpose of easily understanding the education-al system in Chinese Taipei, the terms used in this paperare first defined in Table 12.1.

There is no age limit at post-secondary schools.The educational requirements for instructors at eachlevel of education have been upgraded over the pastfew decades. Currently, graduates of teacher traininginstitutions (with a bachelor's degree) are the main sup-ply of pre-primary and secondary school teachers,whereas doctoral degrees are gradually becoming a nec-essary requirement for instructors in postsecondaryschools.

Educational Systems and Student Population

This section briefly introduces the educational system ofChinese Taipei: its schools, student population, and theeducational administration.

A graphic illustration of the educational system isdisplayed in Figure 12.1. While pre-primary schoolingis optional and must be paid for by parents, primary andjunior high education is compulsory and free of charge.After nine years of compulsory education, students mustpass provincial/municipal entrance examinations toenter either three-year college-preparatory senior high

12

schools, three-year skills-oriented senior vocationalschools, or five-year skills-oriented junior colleges. Bythe second year of senior high school, college-boundstudents are funneled into one of two programs: liber-al arts or mathematics and sciences. Vocational schoolscover business, agriculture, industry, home economics,marine products, nursing and midwifery, and opera andarts. Students learn skills that prepare them to enter thejob market after graduation.

Graduates of senior secondary schools must passnationwide entrance examinations to qualify to enterany of the postsecondary schools. This includes four-year undergraduate schools and two- or three-yearjunior colleges. 'While a bachelor's degree is awarded tofour-year college graduates, an associate degree is con-ferred on junior college graduates. In general, studentsprefer four-year colleges and universities to junior col-leges. Postgraduate programs are offered in most four-year colleges and universities.

The four-year college or university to which a stu-dent is admitted is determined by: (1) his or her testscores; (2) his or her choice of department and collegeor university; and (3) minimum test requirements for theparticular department and college or university. Collegesand universities may place greater weight on the sub-jects they want to emphasize to select students with thehighest potential.

Table 12.2 reports school distribution in ChineseTaipei. Of the 6,819 schools, 2,420 are pre-primary,

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208TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 12.1

Definitions of Terms

Grade/Levels Age Range Type of Education Required to Teach

PRE-PRIMARY Kindergarten 4-6 Teacher training at Teachers' Colleges

PRIMARY 1-6 6-12 Teacher training at Teachers' Colleges

SECONDARY Junior High 1-3 12-15 1) Teacher training at Normal Universities

Senior HighCollege-preparatory 1-3 15-18 2) Four-year undergraduate education

Vocational 1-3 15-18

POSTSECONDARY JUNIOR 5-year 1-5 15-20 Master's & Doctoral degrees

COLLEGE 3-year 1-3 18-21

2-year 1-2 18-20

UNDERGRADUATE 1-4 18-22

MASTER'S 2 22-

DOCTORAL 2 24-

PRESERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION 1 E 18-23 Master's & Doctoral Degrees

2,509 are primary, 709 are junior high, 397 are seniorsecondary, and 124 are postsecondary. Senior secondary

schools include 186 college-preparatory high schoolsand 211 skills-oriented vocational schools. postsec-ondary institutions consist of 74 junior colleges and 50four-year colleges and universities.

The proportion of public and private schoolsvaries according to levels of education. Seventy percentof pre-primary schools are run by the private sector; 99

percent of compulsory education institutions are oper-ated by the public sector, either city/county or munici-pal/provincial governments. For the college-hound stu-dent, there are more private high schools (10 additionalones) than there are public ones, and there are also 21

additional private skills-oriented vocational schools.Junior colleges are predominantly private; there are six

more public four-year colleges than there are privateones. Even though some orivate schools are church-affiliated (Christian or Buddhist), the separation ofchurch and education precludes the practice of religion

in school. The law regulating schools mandates that pri-vate schools may not force students to take courses inreligion or to participate in religious activities on schoolgrounds. (Statistics on the percentage of church-run pri-

vate schools in Chinese Taipei are not available.)The geographic distribution of schools reflects

population density. In the more populous urban areasin the north and south, there is also the highest concen-tration of schools of all educational levels. There is also

a less numerous but significant cluster of schools nearthe provincial government in the central part of ChineseTaipei. The mountainous eastern region is home to lessthan 10 percent of schools at all educational levels.

Table 12.3 shows the distribution of the studentpopulation in Chinese Taipei. The number of students

tends to decline at higher levels of education. Of4,994,959 students, 231,124 are in pre-primary, 2,200,968

in primary, 1,179,028 in junior high, 730,597 in seniorsecondary, and 653,062 in postsecondary. There are2.18 times as many students enrolled in vocationalschools as there are in college-preparatory high schools.There are about 76,000 more students in junior collegesthan there are at four-year colleges or universities.

The student population is nearly homogeneous;almost all are ethnic Chinese, and most of the remain-der are aborigines concentrated in the eastei n part ofChinese Taipei. According to available data, 1.19 per-cent of students enrolled in primary schools, and 0.63percent in junior high schools, are aborigines.

Males are slightly more numerous (51-54 percent)at most levels of education. The exception is senior voca-tional schools, where males comprise only 46 percent ofthe student body. The percentage of males by education-al level is as follows: about 52 percent of pre-primary chil-

dren, 52 percent of primary children, 51 percent of junior

high students, 53 percent of college-bound high schoolstudents, and 54 percent of postsecondary students.

A comparison of private versus public institutionsby educational level shows that private kindergartensaccommodate almost four times as many children- as dopublic kindergartens, but 97 percent of all studentsattend public primary and junior high schools. Interest-

ingly, though public college-preparatory schoolsaccount for less than half of all senior high schools, theyserve 71 percent of the students. Slightly more than halfof the vocational schools are private, and they accom-modate 63 percent of students. At the postsecondarylevel, 83 percent of students study at private junior col-

leges, and 58 percent of students attend pr.vate four-

year colleges or universities.

21

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12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 209

31.20 0 0mM0rn

r25

24

23

30

29

28

22

21

20

19

27

26

25

24

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

23

22

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20

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12

11

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9

8

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6

5

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gn

0-o74

2

-co 0ie.g.FA X

G)

- - -1I DOCTORAL PROGRAM` -n 1- "''''' - " i r--

zo I 1 Imm L. ....-I I- ... - Je5 71 001"0

THE CURRENT SCHOOL SYSTEM

MASTER PROGRAMM F"-`11 I .^-T-1

IT E

UNIVERSITY

$ COLLEGE

(SENIOR)COLLEGE-PREPARATORY

JUNIORCOLLEGE

(3YRS)

TECHNICALCOLLEGE

JulCOS.

SENIORVOCATIONALSCHOOL

2,4

SO

CI

LEGE

5YRS.

JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

KINDERGARTEN

FIGURE 12.1Current school system (Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993.)

TABLE 12.2

School Distrily Ition at All Levels

Pre-Primary Primary

JuniorHigh

College-Bound Vocational

JuniorCollege

College &University

TOTAL 2,420 2,509 709 186 211 74 50

PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE

Public 716 2,487 700 88 95 14 28Private 1,704 22 9 98 116 60 22

LOCATION (%)North 43.91 28.73 35.77 41.85 35.71 44.59 56South 31.07 31.63 30.90 32.07 34.76 31.08 20Central 21.56 31.35 27.18 21.74 24.76 20.27 20East 3.46 8.29 6.15 4.35 4.76 4.05 4

Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993, p.4; Education Statistical Indicators in the Republic of China, 1993, p.8.

216 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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210 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

TABLE 12.3Student Distribution at All Levels

PRE PR 1H CP VO JC UG GR

TOTAL 231,124 2,200,968 1,179,028 229,876 500,721 348,803 273,088 31,271

ABORIGINES (%) NA 1.19 0.63 NA NA NA NA NA

GENDER (%)Male 52.18 51.58 51.31 53.08 46.39 50.44 55.08 75.06

Female 47.82 48.42 48.69 46.92 53.61 49.56 44.92 24.94

PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE (%)

Public 21.00 98.84 94.0E 71.35 37.42 17.12 42.42 76.43

Private 79 0.16 5.92 28.65 62.58 82.88 57.58 23.57

Note: PRE = pre-primary; PR = primary; kl= junior high; CP = college preparatory; VO = vocational; JC = junior college; UG = undergraduate; GR =

graduate school.Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993; An Estimation ofSupply and Demand for Primary and Junior High School Teachers in Abo-

riginal Regions, Ministry of Education, 1992.

Because primary and junior high education is

compulsory for all 6- to 15-year-old children, the com-pletion rates at these two levels of education are almost100 percent. In 1992, 88 percent of junior high schoolgraduates pursued the next highest levels of education,such as college-prep high schools, skills-oriented voca-tional schools, or skills-oriented junior colleges. About60 percent of high school graduates and 15 percent ofvocational school graduates continue postsecondaryschooling.1 Students cherish the opportunity to learn,because they must pass competitive entrance examina-tions to receive postcompulsory education when theycomplete junior high school. However, some studentsquit the school they have been admitted to in order tostudy at an independent cram school, and prepare toretake the examination in hopes of admission to a bet-

ter school.The educational administrative authority is divid-

ed into three levels: the Ministry of Education (MOE) atthe central government, the Department of Education(DOE) at the provincial/municipal level of government,and the Bureau of Education (BOE) at the county/citylevel of government. Although the MOE is the majordeterminant of school policies for all levels of educa-tion, it can also delegate administrative responsibilityto the provincial/municipal governments, which in turncan distribute their power to city/county governments.Based on the control of revenue and budget, the powerto establish or close schools, and the supervision ofschools, the real power of postsecondary education lies

in the MOE, that of senior secondary education in theDOE, and that of compulsory education in the BOE.

lEclucation Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993,p.29.

Both the DOE and BOE can tailor the MOE's policiesto fit the educational preferences and conditions of dif-ferent areas. If the policies of the DOE and BOE con-flict with those of the MOE, the administrative author-ities involved negotiate a resolution of those conflicts.

BACKGROUND ON THE TEACHING FORCE

For a bird's-eye view of the teaching force in ChineseTaipei, this section describes the characteristics of theteaching profession, the characteristics of teachingemployment, and the patterns of teacher supply anddemand.

Basic Characteristics of the Teaching Profession

The distribution of teachers is presented by level of edu-cation, gender, public vs. private schools, age, length ofservice, educational background, qualification, and loca-tion in Table 12.4. In the 1992 school year, 85.7 percentof the 219,280 full-time teachers taught in the kinder-garten through grade 12 (up to secondary senior highschool), levels, or "K-12." Of these 187,850 K-12 school-teachers, 7.8 percent were pre-primary; 44.7 percentwere primary; and 47.5 percent were secondary. About60 percent of secondary schoolteachers taught at juniorhigh schools, while the remaining 40 percent taught atsenior secondary schools. The percentages of seniorsecondary school teachers working at college-prep highschools and at skills-oriented vocational schools wereabout even (49 percent versus 51 percent, respectively).

At K-12 levels, school teachers are predominantlywomen (59.8 percent), but the numerical superiority offemale teachers lessens as the level of education rises.Female teachers comprise about 98 percent of the pre-

2.1 7

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12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 211

TABLE 12.4

Teacher Distributions at K-12 Levels

Pre -

Primary Primary Junior High College-Bound Vocational

TOTAL 14,727 84,052 53,212 17,527 18,332

GENDER (%)Male 2.27 39.51 41.41 52.85 57.78Female 97.73 60.49 58.59 47.15 42.22

PUBLIC VS. PRIVATE

(%)Public 19.64 99.02 99.38 53.80 59.72Private 80.36 0.98 0.62 46.20 40.28

AGE DISTRIBUTION

(%)Below 25 NA 10.60 6.10 4 4.9025-45 NA 57.70 64.80 70 72.60Above 45 NA 31.80 29.10 25.90 22.50

TEACHING EXPERIENCE

(YEARS) (%)Below 10 NA 38.80 33.90 45 49.9010-20 NA 23.20 34.30 30.90 32.5020-30 NA 18.40 27.30 19.70 14.70Above 30 NA 19.60 4.40 4.40 3

EDUCATIONAL

BACKGROUND (%)Teacher training NA 81.50 50.50 40.40 33.70Non-teacher training NA 18.50 49.50 59.60 66.30Bachelor or higher NA 39.10 84.50 88.60 79.80Below Bachelor NA 60.90 15.50 11.40 20.20

QUALIFICATION (%)Certified NA 95.60 95.70 80.60 78.90Probationary NA 0.04 1 12 10

Certifying NA 0.60 1.40 3.40 3.40Non-certified NA 3.80 1.90 3.90 7.70

LOCATION (%)Aboriginal Areas NA 2.89 0.87 NA NA

Source: Education Statistics of the Republic of China, 1993.

primary teaching force, 60 percent of primary teachers,and 52 percent of secondary teachers. This trend is mir-rored within secondary school levels; 58 percent ofjunior high school teachers are female; in contrast, 55percent of senior high school teachers are male. Voca-tional schools have more male teachers than do college-preparatory high schools (58 percent vs. 53 percent).

On the whole, 85 percent of K-12 schoolteacherswork for public schools. Pre-primary schoolteacherswork predominantly for private kindergartens (80 per-cent); primary and junior high school teachers workpredominantly at public institutions. This result is con-sistent with the fact mentioned in the previous section-that pre-primary schools are mainly operated by the pri-vate sector, while compulsory education is provided bythe government (99 percent). It is interesting to note

that, although there are more private senior secondaryschools than public ones, more teachers are employedby public high schools (54 percent) and public voca-tional schools (60 percent).

The majority of primary and secondary schoolteachers (62.7 percent) range in age between 25 and 45,but the age distribution varies with levels of education.Approximately 10.6 percent of teachers at primaryschools, 6.1 percent at junior high schools, and 4.5 per-cent at senior secondary schools are younger than 25:while 31.8 percent at primary schools, 29.1 percent atjunior high schools, and 24.1 percent at senior highschools are above age 45. On the other hand, 57.7 per-cent of teachers at primary schools, 64.8 percent atjunior high schools, and 71.4 percent at senior highschools are between ages 25 and 45.

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Turning our attention to the distribution of teach-ing experience, a large majority of teachers have fewerthan 10 years of experience, followed by those with10-20 years, 20-30 years, and above 30 years. Interest-ingly, 39 percent of both primary and secondary schoolteachers have fewer than 10 years of experience, but the

percentage of primary school teachers with over 30years of experience is three times higher than that ofsecondary school teachers (19.6 percent vs. 4.1 percent).

The trend toward inexperienced teachers in secondaryschools is shown by the fact that more than 45 percentof teachers at senior secondary schools have fewer than

10 years' experience.The educational background of primary and sec-

ondary school teachers is analyzed from two angles: (1)

graduation from teacher training institutions and (2)possession of bachelor's degrees. While 81.5 percent ofteachers at primary schools are from teacher traininginstitutions, only 45.1 percent of teachers at the sec-ondary leve' are from these institutions. Teacher train-ing institutions produce 50.5 percent of teachers atjunior high schools, 40.4 percent at high schools, and33.7 percent at vocational schools.

Because primary school teachers at one time weretrained either by "normal" schools (which admittedjunior high school graduates into three-year teachertraining programs, after which they received the equiv-alent of a high school diploma), or by junior teachers'colleges (graduates received the equivalent of an Asso-ciate of Art, or AA), only 39.1 percent of them have abachelor's degree. On the other hand, 84.3 percent ofsecondary school teachers possess at least a bachelor'sdegree; looking further, 84.5 percent of teachers atjunior high scnools, 88.6 percent at high schools, and79.8 percent at vocational schools have bachelor'sdegrees.

In terms of qualification, teachers are either certi-fied,2 probationary, in the process of being certified, ornoncertified. About 96 percent of teachers in nine-yearcompulsory education are certified, while only 80 per-

cent of teachers at college-preparatory high schools andvocational schools are certified. This is mainly because10-12 percent of senior secondary school teachers areprobationary, 3.4 percent are in the process of beingcertified, and 4-8 percent are noncertified.

On'y a small number of teachers work in aborigi-nal area, including 2,431 teachers at the primary leveland 463 at the junior high school level. The number ofsenior secondary school teachers working in aboriginalareas is not available.

2Student teachers from teacher training institutions areincluded in the definition of certified teachers because theyare guaranteed certification after one year of internship.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment

After the above description of the characteristics of theteaching profession, attention will now be turned to thecharacteristics of their employment. School teachers arenot considered civil servants in Chinese Taipei. There-fore, a comparison between these two professions isprovided below. Civil servants have been regarded asrather prestigious because they must pass highly com-petitive exams (only 2-10 percent pass). Yet, in a com-parison with civil servants, teachers receive higherfinancial rewards and are more respected.

Teachers are much better paid than are civil ser-

vants. Though the basic pay scale for public school teach-ers reflects the same standards as those for civil serviceemployees, teachers are also paid a research allowance.

This means that their monthly earnings are slightly high-

er than those of civil service employees. Moreover, schoolteachers also have the advantage of receiving 13.5monthly payments, even though they don't work during

summer and winter holiday sessions, whereas civil ser-

vants must work year-round. Finally, primary and juniorhigh school teachers earn tax-free income as a reward for

teaching in compulsory education levels.Pay schedules are identical at all public schools,

but those of private schools vary, depending on theirindividual financial conditions. By and large, privateschools attempt to follow the pay schedules set by the

public schools.Teachers who take more administrative responsi-

bilities, who instruct mentally retarded students, or whowork in remote areas are paid more than other teach-ers. This extra compensation represents a reward foraccepting a more difficult job and for the additional timeand energy devoted to it.

Public school teachers, like civil servants, enjoysuch benefits as subsidies for short study tours abroad

and for scholarly publications, housing, children's edu-cation, and emergencies or calamities. They also receivefree medical treatment and cash payments. Free med-ical treatment includes maternity care for the insured orthe spouse of the insured, and health checkups, med-ical treatment, and hospitalization care for the insuredonly. Cash payments refer to payments for disabilitiescaused during the execution of official duties, to old age

or senior citizen payments, and to funeral payments onthe death of the insured or of his or her dependents. Pri-vate school teachers pay a portion of their salary ininsurance premiums for medical treatment.

Teachers may voluntarily retire after 25 years ofteaching, but retirement is compulsory at age 65. Retire-

ment income may be paid in one lump sum or inmonthly installments. Calculation of the one-lump-sumretirement depends on three factors: (1) monthly salaryat the time of retirement; (2) monthly food allowance at

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12 / TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINESE TAIPEI 213

the time of retirement, calculated by the number ofdependents; and (3) length of service. These are alltaken into account and then transformed into basic payunits. Schoolteachers earn a maximum of 81 units (20units more than the maximum for civil servants). Teach-ers' monthly installment retirement pay is equivalent toapproximately 75 to 95 percent of their regular month-ly pay at the time of retirement.3

This compensation is an indication of the highregard in which teachers are held in Chinese Taipei. Asurvey done by the MOE in 1992 reports that among 40occupations, secondary and primary school teachers areranked 13th and 15th; middle-ranked civil servants areranked 26th.4

The public derives its respect for schoolteachersfrom a traditional respect for Confucius as a teacher. Hehas been regarded as the greatest teacher in Chinesehistory. He not only treated students without discrimi-nation, but also taught students according to their abil-ity and individual differences.

Teachers' rights are also well protected. If teach-ers feel that their rights have been violated by the schoolor by the educational authorities, they can seek helpfrom profe-.sional groups, such as the Association ofTeachers' Rights or the National Education Association.When disputes over teachers' rights arise, these associ-ations bargain with the schools or the educationalauthorities. These organizations, however, are rarelyinvolved in disputes over wage increases; the educa-tional authorities increase teachers' salaries yearly, Chi-nese Taipei's financial situation permitting.

Because schoolteachers are well paid and highlyrespected, and have high job security, teaching tends tobe their profession for life. However, the fact that about40 percent of primary and secondary school teachershave fewer than ten years of teaching experience (men-tioned previously) is primarily due to: (1) the fact that alarge number of teachers have been voluntarily retired;and (2) the fact that many new teachers have entered theteaching profession during the last decade. The turn-overrate of private school teachers is higher because of lowerpay and poorer job security. Given the opportunity,teachers at private schools try to move to public schools.

Patterns of Supply and Demand forTeaching Positions

Following is a discussion of the teachers' job market interms of the sources of teacher supply, the reasons forteacher shortages or surpluses, and the current solutionsto these problems. Two possible sources of teacher sup-

;Education in Chinese Taipei, 1993.4Occupational Prestige and Professional Image of

Teachers in Chinese Taipei, 1992.

ply are: (1) graduates of teacher training institutions,including teachers' colleges, normal universities, and asingle department of education at one regular universi-ty,5 and (2) graduates of non-teacher training institutions(regular four-year colleges or universities). The firstsource is the mainstream of teacher supply becausethese graduates have an obligation to serve as teachersfor four years after their graduation.

A teacher shortage occurs when the mainstreamteacher supply cannot meet teacher demand, while ateacher surplus occurs when the mainstream teachersupply surpasses teacher demand. This imbalance canoccur because of shortages in both quantity and quali-ty. While quantity refers to a teacher shortage or ateacher surplus, quality means a mismatch betweenwhat students major in at college and what they teach.

The educational authorities have made tremen-dous effort in recent decades to balance the supply anddemand for teachers. However, they have frequentlyfailed, due to unpredictable events and to a rigid teachertraining system. A few years ago, a combination of fac-torsChinese Taipei's prosperity, a new governmentpolicy allowing retired teachers to visit their relatives onmainland China, and the ample availability of funds forteacher retirementsuddenly caused a serious teachershortage. More recently, successful family planning hasbeen reducing the pool of school-age children, therebycreating a teacher surplus.

The current teacher training system cannotrespond to the . ripredictable job market on a short-termbasis. Each year, teacher training institutions admit afixed number of entrants. Also, it takes four years to pre-pare a teacher, creating a time lag between market sup-plies and demands.

At the middle of the school year, educationalauthorities investigate teacher supply and currentvacancies in subject areas at all levels of education. Ifthere is a serious teacher shortage at primary or sec-ondary schools, local governments usually hold screen-ing tests to recruit graduates of regular four-year col-leges and universities to the teaching profession.However, some of the recruited teachers lack profes-sional teacher training, because regular colleges or uni-versities do not offer these courses. Others lack the abil-ity to teach multiple subjects at primary schools becausethey usually major in one discipline at college.

Temporary teacher shortages occur when qualifiedfemale teachers take six-week pregnancy leaves, when

5Chinese Taipei has only one department of educationin a regular university. This department was originally set upto prepare educational administrators. For the past fewdecades, it has also produced teachers, who acquire the samequalifications as those teachers produced at teacher traininginstitutions.

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214 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

qualified male teachers fulfill their two-year army oblig-ation, or when teachers take long sick leaves. Substituteteachers, who meet lower requirements than do regularteachers, are then hired. These substitute teachers arenot guaranteed continuing employment past the dura-tion of the events causing these temporary shortages.

During periods of serious teacher surplus in pri-mary schools, student/teacher ratios are reduced toabsorb the oversupplied teachers. When there is ateacher surplus in subject areas at secondary schools,graduates of teacher training institutions may beassigned to teach subjects that do not match their col-lege majors.

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics of',bather Preparation Institutions

Chinese Taipei has 13 teacher preparation institutions: 9teachers' colleges, 3 normal universities, and one depart-ment of education in a regular university. While teachers'colleges produce primary school teachers, normal uni-versities and the department of education prepare sec-ondary school teachers. Annually, primary school teachertraining institutions enroll about 2,200-3,600 newentrants; secondary school teacher training institutionsadmit 'about 2,000 students (see Table 12.5).

Teacher training institutions also have extensiondivisions. These provide advanced specialty training andprofessional training for aspiring teachers, probationaryteachers, and in-service teachers. These extension divi-sions, which do not enjoy official sanction, have no fac-ulty and staff of their own, but depend on those fromassociated undergraduate and graduate divisions. More-over, without financial support from the government,these divisions must be self-supporting.

Since 1949, the quality of teachers has beenupgraded continuously. The institutions that trained pri-

mary school teachers had been normal schools, whichadmitted junior high school graduates into three-yearprograms. On completion they received high schooldiplomas. Beginning in 1971, however, normal schoolswere transformed into normal junior colleges, enrollingjunior high school graduates into five-year programs.Graduates earned a degree equivalent to an AA. In1987, junior teachers' colleges were again upgraded toteachers' colleges, accepting high school graduates intofour-year programs. Graduates of these programs earnbachelor's degrees.

Secondary school teachers had been trained inteachers' colleges, which were later transformed intonormal universities. Both types of institutions admit highschool graduates into four-year programs, culminatingin a bachelor's degree. They differ in that teachers' col-leges mainly prepare teachers majoring in liberal artsand sciences, but normal universities, which include atleast three colleges, produce teachers specializing in lib-eral arts, science, and vocational areas, such as businessand industry.

Policy Guidance

Three government levels have jurisdiction over teachereducation. Teacher training institutions are under thecontrol of the central government because they arepostsecondary. Thus, the Ministry of Educationapproves establishment of new departments at teachertraining institutions (or a new teachers' college or nor-mal university). It also controls admission to these insti-tutions (through nationwide college and universityentrance examinations), and determines required cours-es and graduation requirements.

Under the current system, provincial/municipalgovernments have jurisdiction over senior secondaryeducation, and municipal and county/city governmentshave jurisdiction over compulsory education. As aresult, the recruitment, certification, on-the-job training,and retirement of schoolteachers are in the hands oflocal governments, the DOEs and BOEs.

TABLE 12.5

Enrollments of Teacher Training Institutions (TTI)

1990 1991 1992 1993

Primary School TTI 2,210 2,520 3,074 3,612

Secondary School TTI 2,194 1,929 2,307 2,582

Free Education 1,958 1,689 2,071 2,258

Note: While all students of primary school teacher training institutions enjoy free education, somefrom

secondary school teacher training institutions do not. Thus, for secondary school teacher train-ing institutions, the upper figures indicate the enrollments and the bottom figures present the

number of students receiving free education.Source: Survey done by the Department of Secondary Education, Ministry of Education, 1993.

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Teacher education accounts for an increasing per-centage of the educational expenditure by the MOE. In1993, the expenditure for teacher education at nineteachers' colleges and three normal universities account-ed for 7 percent of the educational expenditure by theMOE, which is 20-25 percent of the expenditure forpublic, four-year college and university education. Toput this in perspective, students in teacher training insti-tutions account for only 18 percent of all the publicfour-year college students.6

Accreditation/Approval

There are several characteristics that distinguish teachertraining institutions and their graduates from regular col-leges and universities.? First, all 13 teacher training insti-tutions are established and funded by the government.The private sector may not set up teacher training insti-tutions. This is the case because, first of all, teacher edu-cation in Chinese Taipei is regarded as an aspect ofnational defense policies and thus falls under the aus-pices of the government. Chinese Taipei has been underthe threat of invasion and teachers are responsible forproducing citizens who are educated about and sup-portive of military defense. Second, such control overteacher training institutions allows the government tobalance teacher supply and demand.

Third, all full-time undergraduate students of mostteacher training institutions, half of the students in onenormal university, and half of the students at the depart-ment of education in the regular university are givenfree education, free textbooks, uniforms, and room andboard throughout their four-year programs. Theseincentives have been useful in attracting talented stu-dents into the teaching profession.

Fourth, on completion of four-year programs ofstudy, those undergraduate students who havereceived a free education must spend the fifth yearteachingat either primary or secondary schoolsasa requirement for the bachelor's degree. This teachingpracticum assists student teachers in putting pedagog-ical theories into practice. It also functions as a meansof aiding undergraduates in their transition from therole of being a student to that of being a teacher. Dur-ing their internship, student teachers are paid as prac-ticing teachers.

61t is difficult to compare per-student expenditure inteacher training institutions with that of regular four-year col-leges and universities because the percentages of expenditurein the latter include both undergraduate and graduate educa-tion, while the percentage of students in the former only takesundergraduate students into account.

?The characteristics are based on the current Law ofTeacher Education, which has been implemented since 1979.

222

Fifth, on completion of the one-year teachingpracticum, graduates are obliged to teach for four yearsat primary or secondary schools as full-time teachers.This requirement serves to ensure them employment, aswell as to supply qualified teachers to schools.

Sixth, primary and secondary school teachers aretrained at different institutions. Teachers' colleges pro-duce primary school teachers. Primary teachers teachthe entire range of subjects to the same students. Amongthese subjects are Chinese, mathematics, social sciences,natural sciences, music, crafts, and fine arts. Normal uni-versities and the one university department of educationprepare secondary school teachers specializing mainlyin a single-subject area.

Seventh, teachers' colleges and normal universi-ties are the only institutions providing teacher training.Regular college graduates who intend to become teach-ers, and probationary and noncertified teachers whoare recruited during teacher shortages, must earn up to20 credits in professional courses at teacher traininginstitutions.

Finally, only teacher training institutions have affil-iated K-12 experimental schools. These schools are pri-marily set up to provide the teaching practicum for thefifth-year students. They also allow demonstration of,and experimentation with, new teaching theories, mate-rials, and methods. At each teacher training institution,there is a Council on Teaching Practicum, which is incharge of the fifth-year internship. These councils workclosely with the affiliated schools on matters concern-ing student teaching.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of the Teacher Preparation System

The goal of teacher education is to equip teachers withbroad backgrounds, solid academic specializations, andeffective teaching skills. Specifically, teachers' collegestrain primary school teachers as generalists, who staywith students the whole day and cover all subjects. Nor-mal universities and the one university department ofeducation produce secondary school teachers whoteach in one subject area.

Academic Preparation Prior toPreservice Teacher Education

As previously noted, high school graduates are admit-ted to colleges or universities after passing nationwideJoint College Entrance Examinations administered bythe Ministry of Education. They are evaluated based on:(1) their test scores; (2) the minimum test scores

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216 TEACHER PREPARATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN APEC MEMBERS

required by the departments at teacher training institu-tions; and (3) the student's choice of school and depart-ment. These factors determine if and where a student isadmitted.

A large number of talented but poor students oncechose teacher training institutions as their top prioritybecause teacher education was free, because jobs wereguaranteed, and because the teaching profession washighly respected. Although aspiring teachers are still tal-ented individuals, the majority of them no longer comefrom lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This is due tothe overall improvement in living standards in ChineseTaipei.

Based on their competitive test scores on theentrance examinations, high school graduates in the lib-eral arts still view teaching as a desirable career. Thus,only those liberal arts students who score highest on thetests, and who set teaching as their top priority, areadmitted to teachers' colleges or normal universities. Onthe other hand, those students talented in math and nat-ural sciences tend not to set teaching as their top prior-ity, due to the availability of more desirable careerchoices. Consequently, when liberal arts and math andscience students of the teacher training institutions arecompared, the ability level of the former appears to behigher than that of the latter.8

In addition to the different test scores of studentsfrom different subject areas, there is also a differencebetween teachers' colleges and normal universities.Even though primary and secondary school teacherswith the same qualifications earn the same pay, sec-ondary school teachers usually have higher social sta-tus than do primary school teachers. Therefore, the testscores for normal universities are higher than those forteachers colleges.9

There is one exception for admission to teachertraining institutions: Native students from rural areas and"overseas Chinese" may take a smaller-scale examina-tion. This exception to the normal requirements is aresult of attempts to deal with the problem of recruitingteachers for rural and underpopulated areas. Teachertraining institutions set quotas for students from theseareas. Under the quotas, students compete for entranceonly with students from their own areas. On completionof their education, these students are then required toreturn to their hometowns to teach.

The number of new entrants to teachers' collegesand normal universities is fixed by the government, andtherefore is not responsive to the market demand forteachers. Since 1990, the number of yearly graduates of

"Minimum test scores in each department of each col-lege and university are available from the Committee of JointCollege Entrance Examinations.

9lbid.

primary school teacher training institutions hasremained at approximately 2,400, whereas that of sec-ondary school teacher training institutions has remainedat approximately 1,900.

Nature and Content ofPreservice Teacher Preparation Curricula

Teacher education requires four years of academic studyon campus and one year of teaching practicum at eitherprimary or secondary schools. During their four-yearacademic studies, students are required to take 148credits, 20 credits more than those in other universitiesor colleges. The course of study covers general educa-tion, professional training, and academic specializations.While both primary and secondary school teacher train-ing institutions provide the same general education, theprofessional training and academic specialization pro-grams differ for these two types of training institutions.

General education provides college studentsmajoring in different fields with a common core of edu-cation. It consists of 28 credits of required courses forall college students, including Chinese language, foreignlanguages, contemporary Chinese history, studies in theconstitution of Chinese Taipei and in the thought of Dr.Sun Yat-sen, and various other liberal arts courses.

The purpose of 20 required credits of profession-al training is to assist teachers in teaching more effec-tively. For primary school teachers, professional train-ing includes courses in primary education; educationalpsychology; teaching principles; types of teaching mate-rials and methods in language arts, social studies, math-ematics, natural sciences, music, fine arts, and crafts;and teaching practice.10 For secondary school teachers,professional training includes 16 credits of requiredcourses, such as the introduction of education, sec-ondary education, educational psychology, teachingprinciples, teaching method and teaching practicum,and four credits of elective courses, chosen from edu-cational philosophy, educational sociology, vocationalguidance, audiovisual education, and moral principles.''

Academic specializations are defined as the sub-ject areas that students will teach in the future. Hence,"specialization" has a different meaning for primary andsecondary school teacher training institutions. BeCauseprimary school teachers have to teach all subjects, pri-mary school training institutions require a broad arrayof subject lreas, such as language arts, social sciences,mathematics, natural sciences, music, fine arts, andcrafts. Although they are trained as generalists, students

'°Curriculum Guidance for Teachers Colleges, 1993."The 20 credits of professional training are cited from

Regulations for School Teachers to Register, which have beenimplemented since 1987.

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are also required to specialize in one subject area. Onthe other hand, students of secondary school traininginstitutions major in one subject area. Nevertheless, stu-dents have been encouraged to take a minor becauseof the recent problems in matching students' majorswith available teaching positions.

The content of teacher education is designed sothat teachers may teach in generic, not particular, areas.The courses offered in teacher training institutions aresimilar to those in regular colleges and universities, andtherefore are not quite linked to the curriculum at pri-mary and secondary schools. Teachers have to applywhat they learn and tailor the teaching materials to meetindividual needs. After four years of academic studieson campus, students from teachers' colleges work asstudent teachers at primary schools. Students from nor-mal universities and the one university department ofeducation teach at secondary schools for one year. Prac-ticing teachers at their secondary practicum school, andthe professors from college, help them through the tran-sition from student to teacher.

CERTIFICATION

In Chinese Taipei, teachers must register with the edu-cational authorities to become qualified. Graduates ofteacher training institutions need only register as certi-fied teachers. Conversely, graduates of non-teacher-train-ing institutions must complete any professional trainingthey have missed, pass screening tests of teacher recruit-ment, and then register as certified teachers.

Graduates who enjoy free, four-year undergradu-ate education from the 13 teacher training institutionsare assigned to teach at either primary or secondaryschools after they complete their education. When theyare employed by school principals, schools will do thepaperwork to get their teachers registered with the DOEat provincial/municipal government levels.

Status of Qualifying Conditions

Teacher training institutions supply more than 80 per-cent of primary school teachers, but produce only 45percent of secondary school teachers. As a result, a largenumber of secondary school teachers are provided bynon-teacher-training institutions. The graduates of non-teacher-training institutions have to satisfy two prereq-uisite conditions to become secondary school teachers:(1) obtain at least 20 credits in an academic specializa-tion in the subject area a teacher intends to teach; and(2) obtain at least 10 credits for master's degree holders,or 20 credits for college graduates of professional teachertraining. The 20 credits of academic specialization areusually accredited by experts in the field, on request of

the MOE. The credits of professional training come fromrequired courses for secondary school teachers.

College graduates with a major specialization (orstudies in a field related to a major specialization), aminor specialization, or at least 20 credits of other acad-emic specialization meet the specialization requirement,but lack professional training. Because regular four-yearcolleges and universities are not allowed to provide pro-fessional teacher training courses, their students mustpass exams to return to teacher training institutions forone-year, postbachelor's educational programs.

When the demand for teachers in certain subjectareas outstrips the supply of teachers from teachertraining institutions, graduates of non-teacher-traininginstitutions who have majored in those subject areas,as well as completed professional training at post-bachelor's educational programs, are recruited to teachthrough screening tests held by local governments.The screening tests usually include written tests, oralexams, and tes thing tests. Those who pass the screen-ing tests and are employed by schools are ready forregistration. Sometimes, the shortage in certain voca-tional subject areas is so serious that probationaryteachers, who fulfill academic specialization require-ments but who have not yet taken professional train-ing classes, are also recruited. They are required tomake up professional training in five y.tars, and thenare eligible for registration.

Registration is a necessary process for all teachersto become certified (qualified). Most primary schoolteachers are registered as generalists; a few are regis-tered as specialists in music, crafts, fine arts, and phys-ical education. On the other hand, all secondary schoolteachers are registered as specialists. Some secondaryschool teachers teach only their major subject area.However, secondary school teachers are often requiredto teach other subjects, due to difficulties in complete-ly matching their college major with what they teach insecondary schools. Teachers can register as certifiedteachers only in subjects comprising over half of theirteaching hours each semester. At most, a teacher canregister in three subject areas during his or her entireteaching career. Teachers try to register in more thanone subject, in case there are not enough classes toteach in a particular subject area.

Certification Reauthorization

If a certified teacher leaves the teaching profession formore than ten years, re-registration is necessary. Proba-tionary teachers are temporarily employed; they have tocomplete their professional training in five years. Oncompletion, they then qualify to register as certifiedteachers. Otherwise, they become uncertified and haveto leave their teaching jobs.

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ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Various types of on-the-job training have been offeredto upgrade teacher quality. Training can be eitherdegree-oriented or non-degree-oriented. Non-degree-oriented training may or may not be taken for credit.The following section discusses major types of on-the-job training provided, the institutions offering training,the incentives, and the expense of training.12

Professional Development Opportunities

Along with the upgrading of teacher training institutions,provision has been made for existing teachers withdegree-oriented programs to improve their academicqualifications. For example, pre-primary school teacherswith high school diplomas are encouraged to pursueassociate degrees through summer school or night schoolcourses. K12 schoolteachers already possessing associatedegrees are also encouraged to earn bachelor's degrees.Many teachers have benefited from these programsbecause pay scales are related to level of education.

Credit-oriented training includes 40-credit gradu-ate programs, postbachelor's teacher training programs,and academic specialization programs. Secondaryschool teachers with bachelor's degrees may apply for40-credit graduate programs. The courses are offeredin summer, on weekends, and at night. On completionof 40 credits, teachers acquire certificates of creditinstead of master's degrees because they have enteredgraduate schools without passing entrance examina-tions. Those who complete the program: (1) have theirsalaries increased by four levels; (2) improve theirchances of promotion; (3) waive as many as half of therequired credits if they pass the entrance exams andcan enter graduate schools. Moreover, during theirstudies, they pay half of the expenses and the educa-tional authorities provide the rest in financial support.All of these strong incentives entice in-service sec-ondary school teachers into on-the-job training. In thetough competition for in-service training opportunities,teachers with more seniority, more publications, anddegrees from teacher training institutions have the bestchance of being successful.

Postbachelor's teacher training programs areoffered to probationary teachers and college graduateswho intend to become teachers but who lack therequired professional training. They must pass screeningtests to enter the programs, where they can earn therequired 20 credits of professional courses in education.Students can complete this program in two summer ses-

12A Comparison Study of Teacher Education in MajorCountries, 1992.

sions or in one year of evening sessions. On completion,they earn a certificate of teacher training, which quali-fies probationary teachers and helps aspiring teacherssatisfy prerequisite requirements as teacher candidates.

Recently, because of the mismatch between whatteachers major in at college and what they teach atschool, teachers have been encouraged to study inminor subject areas. Once they accumulate 20 credits ofan academic specialization, they can be registered ascertified teachers in that subject area in the future.Under the current circumstances, an added specializa-tion improves teachers' chances of employment.

Various noncredit programs are also offered toenhance in-service teachers' knowledge and to enablr...them to adapt to innovative educational materials andmethods. The length of programs varies, lasting fromone day to several weeks. The programs are held in theform of workshops, seminars, or symposia.

All of the above professional programs are offeredby 13 teacher training institutions and by four teachertraining centers. Discipline-based academic courses areprovided by both regular colleges and universities andby teacher training institutions.

The fees for degree-oriented programs and 40-credit graduate programs are shared by the education-al authorities and the beneficiary. In some counties/cities, the expense of postbachelor teacher training pro-grams for probationary teachers is shared by local gov-ernments and probationary teachers; in other counties/cities, fws are paid solely by the teachers. Prospectiveteachers attending postbachelor's professional traininghave to pay their own expenses. Non-credit programsare usually supported financially by the educationalauthorities.

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS FORTEACHER PREPARATION AND

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Although current teacher education has made a greatcontribution to Chinese Taipei, the dramatic social andpolitical changes brought about by the lifting of MartialLaw in 1987 have pushed the government to reconsiderthe future course of teacher education. This section dis-cusses the issues and challenges Chinese Taipei is facingand how the government plans to solve the problems.

Present Concerns for Change and Improvement

The first challenge regards the government monopolyon teacher training institutions. The current laws man-date that nine teachers' colleges, three normal universi-ties, and the one university department of education arethe only institutions responsible for preparing K-12

2

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school teachers.13 Ironically, these institutions fail tosupply enough teachers for skills-oriented senior voca-tional schools. Consequently, regular four-year collegegraduates majoring in vocational subjects are employedas probationary teachers. Lacking 20 credits in profes-sional courses, these probationary teachers must spendanother year in postbachelor's professional programs atteacher training institutions at the same time they areteaching school. Limited opportunities for probationaryteachers have caused numerous complaints. Moreover,current teacher training policy precludes other collegegraduates with solid academic backgrounds and strongenthusiasm from becoming teachers. All of these prob-lems put pressure on the government to review the pol-icy on teacher education.

The frequent imbalance of teacher supply anddemand is a recurring problem. One of the govern-ment's justifications for retaining the exclusive right toestablish and fund teacher training institutions is theneed to control the balance of teacher supply anddemand. However, the rigidity of the teacher trainingsystem and the difficulty of reliable prediction inhibitthe government's efforts in this regard. Those receivingfree teacher education are obliged to teach at primaryor secondary schools. This obligates the government tofind them teaching posts. Fixing the number of new stu-dents annually recruited by these teacher training insti-tutions makes it impossible to respond to the varyingdemand for teachers. Furthermore, the time lag betweenadmitting students and graduating teachers makes pre-diction of supply and demand inaccurate. Accordingly,it is not surprising to see teacher shortages at one timeand oversupply at another.

In addition, the quality of graduates from teachertraining institutions frequently has been questioned. Thecurrent law requires that students who enjoy four yearsof free education must serve as schoolteachers for fouryears in return, after their graduation. In other words,regardless of their academic performance, once studentsenter teacher training institutions, they are guaranteedteaching jobs and will become certified teachers. Underthis law, inept teachers may be protected if they attend-ed a teacher training institution.

Many teachers complain that, although respectedin society, they have not received the same kind of fairtreatment enjoyed by professionals such as doctors,accountants, and lawyers. The competitive licensingtests for graduates from medical, law, and businessschools bestows professional stature. In contrast, the

13The current Law of Teacher Education has beenimplemented since 1979. The new law, called Law of TeacherPreparation (including preservice, internship and in-servicetraining), is under revision by the legislature.

226

fact that graduates of teacher training institutions areentitled to teach without licensure probably detractsfrom their professional standing.

Another criticism of the present system is that stu-dents at teachers' colleges have trouble identifyingwith, or easily accepting, their role as students of pri-mary school teaching preparation. More than half ofprimary schools are small in size, and thus have fewerthan 12 classes. This means that there are two classesper grade for each of the six grades. Each class isassigned only 1.5 teachers. This situation requires pri-mar school teachers to teach many more subjects thando secondary school teachers. Thus, primary schoolteachers must teachand therefore learn to teachChinese, mathematics, social sciences, natural sciences,fine arts, crafts, and music. Studying this range of sub-jects allows only a superficial mastery of any one par-ticular subject.

Students at teachers' colleges tend to identifythemselves instead with other college students whomajor in more in-depth, traditional disciplines, like Chi-nese literature, physics, history, and so forth. This resultsin a lack of enthusiasm on the part of students, some ofwhom drop out of school to retake the college entranceexaminations.

Faculty and staff at teacher training institutionscomplain of their heavy workload. Because extensiondivisions are not mandated under current law, facultyand staff .must provide preservice training and in-ser-vice training on their own time. This leaves little timeto do research, and leads to general exhaustion. Theextension divisions' dependence on undergraduateand graduate divisions for faculty limits their ability tomake systematic, long-term plans for in-serviceteacher training.

The final problem is that teachers are entitled toteach throughout their entire careers without participat-ing in on-the-job training. Current in-service trainingpolicy encourages teachers to improve themselvesthrough positive incentives, rather than through penal-ties. Therefore, teachers who are not interested in on-the-job training are protected. In fact, it is unrealistic torequire all teachers to receive timely in-service trainingbecause the 13 teacher training institutions cannot pro-vide enough opportunities for the approximately187,000 school teachers.

Present and Long-Range Plans for Improvement

Confronted with the above problems, the MOE hasrecently revised the law on teacher education. Inresponse to the complaints about the monopoly onteacher training institutions, the new law relaxes therestrictions on providing educational programs in regu-lar colleges and universities. In the near future, many

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regular four-year colleges and universities are expectedto apply to the MOE to establish new departments ofeducation, or to offer educational programs, thus reduc-ing the distinction between these universities and col-leges and the teacher training institutions. This will

expand the methods of training teachers.Many educators are worried that the above liber-

al policy might cause a decline in teacher quality. Inorder to assure teacher quality and to professionalizeteaching, the new law requires that all new teachers belicensed like lawyers and doctors. First, a student mustcomplete 20 credits of teacher training courses in addi-tion to the standard 128 credits for the bachelor'sdegree, thus meeting the requirements for becoming astudent teacher. Then he or she has to find a school inwhich to do his or her internship for a year. On com-pleting the internship, he or she has to pass a licensingtest to become a licensed (qualified) teacher. Graduatesof teacher training institutions are also subject to theserequirements. Through the strict process of licensing,teacher quality is expected to be assured and teachingis expected to become professionalized.

To avoid the imbalance of supply and demand forteachers, the new law makes the teacher training sys-tem so flexible that it can respond to the market easi-ly. Free teacher education will be limited to certain sub-ject areas in which there is a serious teacher shortageand is limited to geographic areas where teachers aredifficult to recruit. In other words, students enrolled inteacher training programs must pay for their educationthemselves and the government will no longer have theburden of assigning them to jobs as was previously thecase. A neutral professional association will be set upto provide information for aspiring teachers on thenumber of teachers available and the vacancies in eachsubject area at each school. The licensing system willbe used to adjust the supply and demand for the teach-ing force.

The new policies may help students at teacherscolleges better identify with future primary schoolteaching jobs covering many subjects areas. Current-ly, high school graduates must choose a major whenthey take the entrance examination. In th:-. future, col-lege students will receive general education for thefirst two years and will not decide on their major untilthe third year. This will encourage students of teach-ers' colleges to broaden their knowledge of subjectareas. This will better prepare them for jobs as pri-mary school teachers.

The new law not only legitimizes extension divi-sions but also eases the limitations for institutions

offering on-the-job teacher training. Extension divi-sions will be able to have their own faculty and staffand to make long-term plans for in-service training.Moreover, because more institutions can provide on-the-job training, teachers can no longer use insufficienttraining opportunities as excuses to avoid training.Thus, the ideal of requiring teachers to renew theirlicenses every ten years based on in-service trainingwill become feasible.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

During the past few years, Chinese Taipei has experi-enced significant political and social changes. Alignedwith these changes, there has been a growing consen-sus that teacher education needs to be reformed. Therecent dramatic revision of the law on teacher educa-tion is a result of great effort. As teacher education pro-gresses into the next stageimplementing the lawsnew types of problems will occur and the educationalauthorities will be ready for the new challenges.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Bin-jen Fwu is a specialist in the Department of SecondaryEducation in the Chinese Taipei Ministry of Education.Acknowledgments go to Dr. Ching-ji Wu, the DirectorGeneral of the Department of Secondary Education, forhis guidance and assistance. The views expressed here arethose of the author and should not be attributed to theMinistry of Education of Chinese Taipei.

REFERENCES

Ministry of Education. (1992). A comparison study of teachertraining in major countries. Taipei, Author.

Ministry of Education. (1992). An estimation of supply anddemand for primary and junior high school teachers inaboriginal areas. Taipei, Author.

Ministry of Education. (1992). Occupational prestige and pro-fessional image of school teachers in the Republic ofChina. Taipei, Author.

Ministry of Education. (1993). Curriculum guidance of teach-

ers' colleges. Taipei, Author.Ministry of Education. (1993). Education in the Republic of

China. Taipei, Author.Ministry of Education. (1993). Educational statistics of the

Republic of China. Taipei, Author.Ministry of Education. (1993). Education statistical indicators

of the Republic of China. Taipei, Author.

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The Teaching Professionand Teacher Educationin the United States

Submitted by: Office of the Under Secretary,U.S. Department of Education

Prepared by: Linda Darling-Hammond andVelma L. Cobb, Teachers College,Columbia University

THE CONTEXT OF SCHOOLINGIN THE UNITED STATES

In 1990-1991 there were approximately 105,000 elemen-tary and secondary schools serving about 45 million stu-dents in the United States. Of these, about 80,000 werepublic schools and about 25,000 were private schools.Nearly 90 percent of elementary and secondary studentsattend public schools (National Center for Education Sta-tistics [NCES], 1993a). In both the public and private sec-tors, about two-thirds of all schools are elementary(NCES, 1993a). School size varies by level, sector, andtype of community. Typically, for each type of commu-nity, elementary schools are smaller than secondaryschools (500 students on average as compared with 1,100students). Public schools at each level are larger than pri-vate schools. Urban schools tend to be larger than sub-urban or rural schools (NCES, 19936). Definitions of lev-els of schooling are provided in Table 13.1.

Approximately one-half (40,000) of public schoolsare located in rural or small town communities, 21,000are located in urban fringe areas or large towns, and the

Support for this chapter was provided by the Office ofthe Under Secretary, U.S. Department of Education. The find-ings and conclusions presented herein do not necessarily rep-resent the official positions or policies of the Department.

13

remaining 19,000 are located in central cities. Privateschools are distributed more evenly, with slightly morelocated in central cities. Most private schools Wl'e reli-giously affiliated (about 20,000), with Catholic schoolsbeing the single largest group (about 9,000). Theremainder are nonsectarian independent schools, manyof which have a particular educational focus or servestudents requiring special education for students withdisabilities (NCES, 1993d).

Students ordinarily spend six years in the elemen-tary grades, often preceded by one to three years inpreschool programs. Fifty-five percent of 3- to 5-year-olds were enrolled in preprimary programs as of 1992(NCES, 1993d). After elementary school, students gen-erally spend six years in secondary school, throughgrade 12, usually finishing by about age 17 or 18. In1990-1991, about 12 percent of 16- to 24-year-olds hadfailed to graduate from high school (NCES, 1993d).

About 14 million students are enrolled in post-secondary education in two- to four-year colleges,including about 32 percent of 20- to 24-year-olds.There are 3,600 such institutions in the United States.Some students enter technical or vocational schoolsafter high school. There are over 6,000 such noncol-legiate institutions offering postsecondary educationand training (NCES, 1993a). Overall, about 59 percentof twelfth graders apply to two- to four-year colleges

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TABLE 13.1

Definitions of Levels of Schooling

Levels of Schooling In Terms of Grade/Levels

Age Rangeof Students

Type and Level of EducationRequired to Teach at This Level

PREPRIMARY SCHOOLING Prekindergarten 2-5 years High school diploma or equivalent

PRIMARY SCHOOLING Primary grades: kindergarten & 5-11 years Bachelor's degree, including

Elementary schools include grades 1-3; Middle or upper elementary education courses;

"primary" grades and "upperelementary" grades

elementary: grades 4-6 Master's degree in some states forpermanent license

SECONDARY SCHOOLINGMiddle or junior high schools:grades 6-8/9; High schools:grades 9-12

Grades 7-12 12-18 years Bachelor's degree with a major indiscipline to be taught; Master'sdegree in some states

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION Bachelor's, Master's, & Doctorallevels

18/19 and older Doctorate

PRESERVICE TEACHER Bachelor's and/or Master's level 18-22 years and older Doctorate

PREPARATION

(53 percent in the public sector and 76 percent in theprivate sector).

Of students attending elementary and secondaryschools in 1991, about 70 percent are classified aswhite,' 15 percent as black, 11 percent as Hispanic,2 3percent as Asian or Pacific Islander, and 1 percent asAmerican Indian or Alaskan Native (NCES, 1993b). Stu-dents of color are more heavily concentrated in the pub-lic sector than in private schools, and in central citiesthan in suburban or rural areas. Proportions of nonwhitestudents have been increasing steadily for two decades.In 1976, students of color (nonwhite students) account-ed for about 24 percent of public elementary/secondaryenrollment. By 1986, the percentage had increased to30 percent. By the year 2020, it is projected that as manyas 46 percent of all children in public elementary andsecondary schools will be students of color (NCES,1991).

Dropout rates for black and Hispanic studentsremain higher than those for white students, and matric-ulation rates into higher education remain lower (NCES,1991). The 12 percent of 16- to 24-year-olds who haddropped out in 1991 represented 9 percent of whiteyouth of that age, 14 percent of black youth, and 35 per-cent of Hispanic youth (NCES, 1993d). Of high schoolgraduates age 18 to 24, 41 percent of whites wereenrolled in college in 1992, compared with 28 percentof blacks and 31 percent of Hispanics. The number of

'This figure excludes persons of Hispanic origin.2Hispanic origin citizens may be of any race.

students of color in colleges (two- and four-year insti-tutions) rose from 15.4 percent in 1976 to 17.9 percentin 1986. Much of the change can he attributed to the sig-nificant increase in the number of Asian students. Theproportion of black students in college fell from 9.4 per-cent to 8.6 percent during this same period, due to thedeclining enrollment of black males.

Overall, the racial-ethnic composition of the teach-ing force does not match that of the students they teach.In the public sector, only 8 percent of the teachers areblack, non-Hispanic; 3 percent are Hispanic; and 1 per-cent are Asian (NCES, 1993b). Teachers work with dif-ferent racial-ethnic mixes of students depending on thetype of community in which their school is located andwhether they teach in the public or private sector. Pub-lic schools are located in local school districts that, byand large, reflect the surrounding community. In somedistricts, children are bused in from neighboring com-munities in an effort to create a more di,vrse racial/eth-nic mix in the schools.

The governance system for U.S. schools is extra-ordinarily complex and highly decentralized. The 80,000public elementary and secondary schools are located in15,000 local school districts that have substantial gover-nance authority. These districts are located within 50states, which also have substantial governance authori-ty and hold state constitutional authority for providingeducation. States have major regulatory responsibilitiesfor defining educational programs, although some aremore directive of local districts than others.

Private schools are much less heavily regulatedthan public schools. State involvement in private

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13 / TEACHERS AND TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 223

schools varies widely from state to state. For example,some states require private school teachers to hold ateaching license; others do not have to. In some states,priva:e schools must meet specific curriculum and test-ing requirements; in others they do not have to. Moststates regulate health and safety matters in private aswell as public schools.

Given state constitutional authority for providingeducation, much of the funding for education resideswith state authorities. On average, states provide abouthalf of the revenues for public education, allocatingfunds to districts to augment locally raised revenues(most frequently raised by property taxes), usually in an"equalizing" fashion, to compensate for differentials inlocal wealth. However, the proportion of state and localfunding varies tremendously between states. For exam-ple, public education in Hawaii is virtually all state-sup-ported, whereas, in New Hampshire, funding for pub-lic education comes largely from local funding. Withinstates, substantial disparities in funding remain, withhigh-spending districts within any given state usuallyspending two or three times more per pupil than low-spending districts. The federal government has a smallrole with respect to the funding and governance of edu-cation, providing only about 6 percent of the total fundsat the elementary and secondary levels, with most ear-marked for special purposes: for example, programsaimed at the education of handicapped, "limited Eng-lish proficient," or low-income students.

Funding for special needs of students is partly pro-vided through federal or state "categorical" programs.Categorical programs are those financed through fundsset aside to address specific populations or areas of con-cern. About 96 percent of all public schools offer freeor reduced-price lunches paid for with public funds.Eighty-six percent of all public schools offer services forhandicapped students, 83 percent offer remedial pro-grams, and 80 percent offer diagnostic and prescriptiveservices. Approximately 67 percent offer federally fund-ed services to address the special educational needs ofeconomically disadvantaged students and 75 percentoffer gifted and talented programs. Bilingual educationand English as a Second Language (ESL) programs arealso represented in a number of public schools (19 per-cent and 41 percent respectively) (NCES, 1993b).

A DESCRIPTION OF THE TEACHING FORCE

Characteristics of Teachers

In 1991, the U.S. teaching force was comprised primar-ily of women (72 percent of all teachers and 90 percentof all elementary teachers), most of whom were white(87 percent) (National Education Association [NEA],

250

1992). Teachers generally come from working-classbackgrounds (60 percent) and are first-generation col-lege graduates (about 80 percent) (NEA, 1981, 1987).Approximately 54 percent live and work in metropoli-tan areas (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984). Publicschool teachers are an aging and highly experiencedgroup; the median age has climbed from 33 in 1976 to42 in 1991 (NEA, 1992). Just over 50 percent have amaster's degree And more than 15 years of teachingexperience (NCES, 1991). Nearly 23 percent were over50 in 1991, and thus nearing retirement eligibility (NEA,1992).

Compared with the general college-educatedworkforce, teachers are older, earn less, and are morelikely to be female (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984).Teaching, like nursing, was traditionally a field open towomen and people of color in times when fields likemedicine, law, engineering, and other professions wereessentially closed to these populations. Throughout the1970s and 1980s, the proportion of college females andstudents of color going into teaching declined marked-ly as other career opportunit;es opened up (Darling-Hammond, 1990a). Overall, the number of bachelor'sdegrees conferred in education declined by over 50 per-cent between 1972-1973 and 1985-1986. In recentyears, some upswing in the number of prospectiveteachers has begun to occur with incentives, salaryhikes, and increased demand.

Characteristics of Teaching Employment.

In 1991, American elementary school teachers workedan average cf 45 hours per week and secondary teach-ers spent an average of 50 hours per week on allduties. U.S. teachers work an average of 185 days peryear (180 teaching days and 5 nonteaching days), apolicy that has not changed over the past threedecades (NEA, 1992). Class sizes average about 24 stu-dents in public schools and 20 in private schools(NCES, 1993b). In both the public and private sectors,classes in the central cities are larger than those inother community types.

Teachers typically spend most of their time teach-ing large groups of students. They typically have one"preparation period," a period of 30-50 minutes daily,in which to prepare for classes. In 1991, elementaryschool teachers were given approximately three hoursper week to prepare for classes and secondary schoolteachers averaged about five hours per week for prepa-ration. However, 5 percent of secondary teachers and10 percent of elementary teachers had no preparationtime at all in their weekly schedule (NEA, 1992). In mostschools, teachers are not expected to meet jointly withother teachers, to develop curriculum or assessments,to observe or discuss each other's teaching, or to meet

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individually with parents and students. In general, timeis not provided for these kinds of activities.

The average public school teacher with 15 yearsof experience earned a salary of $34,934 in 1992 (NCES,1993d). Beginning teachers earned $23,054 on average.This was just slightly higher in real dollar terms thansalaries in 1972, before the decline in purchasing powerthat occurred during the 1970s and 1980s. In general,teachers earn 20-30 percent less than professionals inother occupations requiring similar educational prepa-ration (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988; Gray et al.,1993). Though some of the differential in compensationcan be accounted for by the fact that most other pro-fessionals work more than 185 days per year, a sub-stantial gap remains after this is taken into account. Pri-vate school teachers generally earn less than their publicschool counterparts (NCES, 1993c).

Salaries are not governed by market conditions,but by state and local governmental budgetary actions(Sykes, 1989). These depend in turn on local wealth, taxrates, and willingness to spend on education. Salary lev-els vary greatly among local educational agencies with-in states and among the states themselves. These varia-tions influence the teacher labor market, contributing tosurpluses of qualified teachers in some locationstyp-ically wealthy suburban districtsand shortages in oth-ersgenerally central cities and poor rural areas.

Over most of the last 50 years, salary scales with-in districts have been on a fixed schedule that is uni-form for all teachers. The amount a teacher earns isbased on his or her years of experience and level ofeducation. Thirty states presently have mandated mini-mum compensation levels for teachers statewide, and19 states have statewide salary schedules beyond theminimum, usually with a one-step increase in salary foreach year of experience. In other states, salary sched-ules are developed at the local district level, also fea-turing annual "steps" for experience and additional payfor additional education beyond the bachelor's degree.Typically, schedules are flat and guarantee smallersalary increases with increasing years of experience.Thus, there is not a wide range between the salaries ofbeginning teachers and those of the most experiencedin any given district.

Benefits (nonwage assistance for such things asmedical insurance and retirement) are an importantpart of a teacher's earnings or salary package. In thepublic sector, retirement plans are almost universal. Inthe private sector, retirement plans are less available,covering only 54 percent of private school teachers.Ninety-six percent of public schools offer medical insur-ance to teachers, and most also offer dental insurance(67 percent), life insurance (71 percent), and in-kindbenefits, like free or reduced lunch, or reimbursementsfor tuition and course fees (70 percent). In the private

sector, about 74 percent of schools offer medical insur-ance, but fewer than half offer dental insurance (38 per-cent) or life insurance (46 percent). Two-thirds of pri-vate schools offer in-kind benefits such as thosementioned above and/6r tuition scholarships for teach-ers' children to attend the schools where they work(NCES, 1993a).

During the 1980s, 29 states introduced some kindof career ladder, merit pay, or incentive pay system forteachers. These systems may be statewide or locallybased. Such ladders were intended to raise salary levelsbased on performance and make teaching more attrac-tive to talented teachers. However, most merit payschemes have already been discontinued due to admin-istrative and evaluation problems. A few career ladderscontinue to exist. Programs designating teachers as"Master" or "mentor" teachers with special responsibili-ties continue in larger numbers; however, this practiceis not common in most districts. These programs allowteachers to engage in work like curriculum develop-ment or assistance to new teacherswork traditionallyreserved for administrators and supervisors (Darling-Hammond, 1990b; Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988).

These initiatives are also an attempt to alter the "flat"career structure of teaching. In the work environment,there is little differentiation between beginning and vet-eran teachers and little variety at any career point in teach-ers' responsibilities. U.S. teachers are expected to spendvirtually all of their time instructing classes of students(usually ranging in size from 20 to 30, depending largelyon the wealth of the school district in which they work).

Veteran and novice teachers usually have similarresponsibilities. Because there are few rewards forexpertise or longevity in teaching, a seniority system hasemerged that often permits veterans to opt for "easier"assignments. Novice teachers, having the least experi-ence, are often assigned the least desirable tasks with-in a school, such as classes that serve the most educa-tionally needy children and duties like lunchroom, hall,and/or bathroom monitoring. New teachers are dispro-portionately hired in the least economically advantagedschools, which have the highest rates CI teacherturnover. Veteran teachers in large districts frequentlytransfer to more desirable schools at their earliest oppor-tunity (Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988; Wise, Darling-Hammond, & Berry, 1987).

Teacher unions are powerful influences onteacher's work lives and school operations in moststates.3 Two unions dominate collective bargaining inteaching: the National Education Association (NEA) and

3There are a few states that continue to bar collectivebargaining. In these states, unions exist but they function onlyas professional associations. They do not bargain.

2

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the American Federation of Teachers (AFT). In 1991,these organizations represented 66 percent and 12 per-cent of the teaching force, respectively (NEA, 1992).Teachers are not required to become members of aunion; however, most elect to do so.

Unions negotiate with local school boards toestablish a contract that defines salaries, benefits, due-process procedures, and work rules that, in many ways,set parameters for teachers' work. Though unions con-tinue to function primarily as collective bargainingagent), there have been some recent changes in the tra-ditional roles unions have played. Increasingly, teacherunions are involved in setting standards for teachers,working on school reform, and initiating new educa-tional programs (Kerchner & Koppich, 1993).

Supply and Demand

Teacher demand has been increasing since the mid-1980s as a function of increasing birth rates and immi-gration, declining pupil/teacher ratios, and increasingturnover of teachers due largely to retirement. The totalnumber of full-time-equivalent teachers in public andprivate schools increased from 2.5 million in 1980 to 2.8million in 1991, and is projected to reach 3.3 million bythe year 2002 (Gerald & Hussar, 1991). Between 1995and 2005, the demand for newly hired teachers isexpected to reach about 250,000 annually, with a simi-lar rate of demand in the decade following (Darling-Hammond, 1990a; NCES, 1991).

Recurring shortages of teachers have characterizedthe U.S. labor market for most of the twentieth century,with the exception of a brief period of declining studentenrollments during the late 1970s and early 1980s (Sed-lak & Schlossman, 1986). Currently, increases in demandand recent declines in supply have re-created shortagesin a number of areas and teaching fields. In the 1980s,teacher shortages appeared in areas such as bilingualeducation, special education, physics, chemistry, math-ematics, and computer science. Recently, areas such asbiology, general science, industrial arts, foreign lan-guages, gifted education (programs for exceptionally tal-ented children), school psychologists, elementary guid-ance counselors, and librarians have joined the list(Akin, 1989; Darling-Hammond, 1990a). Shortages aremost severe in central cities and in growing regions ofthe country, such as the South and West.

In addition to enrollments, other factors that influ-ence the demand for teachers are community wealthand goals for education. The types of teachers soughtby different communities also vary. Education in manysuburban communities has traditionally stressed an aca-demic college preparatory curriculum, which requiresmore mathematics, science, art, and humanities teach-ers. In urban areas, which have stressed more voca-

232

tional education and serve a wide variety of specialpopulations of students, bilingual, vocational, and spe-cial education teachers are more in demand. Currentreforms, however, are heightening demand for acade-mic teachers in all communities, especially in mathe-matics and science, where course-taking expectationsare increasing (Akin, 1989; Association for School. Col-lege, and University Staffing, 1984; Darling-Hammond,1990a; Levin, 1985; National Science Board, 1985).

While demand is increasing, the supply of newlyprepared teachers is also beginning to increase onceagain, after a dramatic decline from the early 1970sthrough the mid-1980s. Between 1972 and 1987, thenumber of bachelor's degrees conferred in educationplummeted by well over 50 percent, from 194,229 to87,083 (American Council on Education [ACE], 1989;NCES, 1989). The declines were most pronounced forcandidates of color, plummeting by over 40 percent forHispanic and Native American candidates between 1975and 1987, and by two-thirds for African-American can-didates (ACE, 1989; NCES, 1989). By 1987, only 8,019candidates of color received bachelor's degrees in edu-cation, representing 9 percent of all education degrees,a substantial drop from the 13 percent of a much larg-er number of degrees that had been awarded to peopleof color ten years earlier (ACE, 1989).

The decrease in education degrees earned bywomen between 1975 and 1985 (from 30 to 13 percentof all female college students) was matched by anincrease in degrees in business (from 5 to 20 percent ofwomen college graduates) and other professional fields,such as the sciences, along with preprofessional pro-grams for fields such as law and medicine at the under-graduate level (Center for Education Statistics, 1986).Many of the same factors influenced enrollments of stu-dents of color: Greater enrollment in fields like businessand preprofessional fields drew students away frommajors in education. As with women generally, theseshifts were most pronounced for African-American andHispanic women.

Since the late 1980s, however, the total number ofbachelor's degrees in education has increased, reaching111,000 in 1990-1991 (NCES, 1993e). This representsabout three-fourths of all newly trained teachers eachyear. The remainder receive degrees in their disciplineswith a minor in education or receive master's degrees. In1991, about 9 percent of entering teachers had earned amaster's degree, nearly double the proportion since 1980(Gray et al., 1993; NCES, 1993a). This increase is proba-bly due to the recent introduction of policies in somestates that now require master's degrees for teachers as acondition of a full regular license and to the many mid-career entrants who already have bachelor's degrees andare attracted by master's level teacher preparation pro-grams (Darling-Hammond, Hudson, & Kirby, 1989).

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M current rates of increase, we might optimisti-cally expect that the total number of new teachers whoare prepared in current programs could grow to about150,000 annually over the next five years. This com-pares with an estimated demand for newly hired teach-ers of nearly 250,000 annually. Obviously, teachingvacancies are being and will continue to be filled fromother sources, including the reserve pool of teachers(those who previously taught and left temporarily orwho prepared to teach but did not enter immediatelyafter graduation). In recent years, a growing number ofindividuals have entered teaching without preparationfor their jobs. In the future, a wide range of policychoices yet unmade will determine the extent andsources of teacher supply.

In 1991. the total number of "newly qualifiedteachers" (who prepared to teach, were licensed, or hadtaught within a year of their graduation) was 140,000;of these 121,000 were eligible or licensed for teaching,while 19,000 taught without credentials. Not surprising-ly, those who were hired without a license were con-centrated in shortage fields. One third or more of allnew teachers assigned to teach mathematics, science,social studies, physical education, and special educationwere neither licensed nor eligible for licensure in thosefields (Gray et al., 1993).

As compared with other newly qualified teacherswho received bachelor's degrees, those having taughtwithout a license were younger, and they exhibitedlower levels of academic achievement: Most (57 per-cent) had grade point averages (GPA) below 3.25 (and20 percent had grade point averages below 2.25). Iacontrast, most of those prepared for teaching (51 per-cent) had grade point averages above 3.25.

Ironically, while shortages lead to the hiring ofunqualified entrants, a great many newly qualifiedteachers do not immediately enter the profession afterthey complete their preparation. Of those who prepareto teach, only about 60-70 percent actually enter teach-ing the year after their graduation. and the proportionis even lower for candidates of color (NCES, 1993a; Dar-ling-Hammond, 1990a; Haggstrom, Darling-Hammond,& Grissmer, 1988). In 1985, about 74 percent of thosenewly qualified to teach applied for teaching jobs, andjust under 50 percent ended up teaching full-time. Only38 percent of the newly qualified candidates of colorentered teaching full-time. Continuing the trend, only 76percent of newly qualified teachers in 1990 applied forteaching jobs and only 58 percent were employed asteachers in 1991 (NCES, 1993a; Gray et al., 1993).

Those who prepare to teach but never enter thefield do so for a number of reasons. Many have troublefinding employment in areas where they live and wantto work. Although most jobs for new teachers are in lessaffluent central cities, most teacher education students

want to teach in suburban schools that tend to havelower turnover and hire experience;' teachers ratherthan new teachers. Others take time off to do somethingelse (graduate school, travel, or homemaking) beforeentering the field. Some of these individuals enter teach-ing later. Still others prepare to teach as a kind of insur-ance, while pursuing other possible career opportuni-ties. Some teachers decide not to enter the professionwhen they encounter difficulties in the cumbersome,inefficient hiring processes that characterize many largedistricts, when they experience unprofessional hiringprocedures, or when they find that their license is notvalid in a state to which they have moved after college(Wise, Darling-Hammond, & Berry, 1987).

Reasons for the undersupply of teachers in cer-tain locations and teaching fields include salaries lowerthan those earned by similarly educated professionals,a flat career structure, few opportunities for advance-ment, and relatively poor working conditions (Darling-Hammond, 1990b). These problems are more severe inlow-wealth districts, where shortages are also moresevere.

Maintaining an adequate supply of well-preparedrecruits is even harder during times of substantial newhiring. With heightened demand and greater hiring ofnew teachers, annual attrition rates can be expected toincrease, since new teachers leave at much greater ratesthan mid-career teachers (Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Hagg-strom, Darling - Hammond, & Grissmer, 1988). In teach-ing, as in other professions, attrition follows a U-shapedcurve, with high attrition in the early years, very lowattrition during mid-career (15-20 years), and anincreasing attrition rate during retirement eligibility.Highest attrition rates are among beginning teachers,those typically having three or fewer years of experi-ence, particularly those who do not receive any men-toring or support during their first years of teaching.Typically, 30-50 percent of beginning teachers leaveteaching within the first five years (Darling-Hammond,1990a; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987). Teachers in urban areasand in shortage fields, such as the physical sciences,tend to leave more quickly and at higher rates (Griss-mer & Kirby, 1987; Murnane & Olgen, 1988).

Some states have addressed shortages by increas-ing salaries and providing scholarships for prospectiveteachers. Some states provide forgivable student loans(the repayment of these loans are prorated againstrequirements for service) for those completing a mini-mum number of years of service in teaching, particu-larly in high-need urban or rural areas. Incentives direct-ed at critical-need areas, such as mathematics orscience, are popular in many states. Presently, about 25percent of all teacher education programs have somekind of scholarship or loan program to recruit high aca-demic achievers (Holmstrom, 1985).

2 3

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States also influence the labor market by estab-lishing requirements for licensure, establishing substan-dard and/or temporary credentials, and/or lowering orraising cut-off scores on tests for licensure. Theseactions make it more or less difficult to secure a job asa teacher (Cobb, 1993; Coley & Goetz, 1990; Darling-Hammond & Berry, 1988). In 1983, 46 of the 50 statesallowed substandard, limited, or emergency licensure.Twenty of these states granted licensure to teach to indi-viduals without a bachelor's degree. In 1990-1991, 15percent of newly hired teachers were not licensed4 toteach and another 12 percent held substandard licens-es (temporary, provisional, or emergency) (NationalData Resource Center [NDRC1, 1993).

At the local level, teacher shortages are addressedby assigning teachers to work outside their field oflicensure, by hiring untrained teachers or substitutes, bycanceling courses, or by increasing class sizes (Hagg-strom, Darling-Hammond, & Grissmer, 1988). Overall,about 16 percent of all teachers teach some classes out-side their field of licensure, and 9 percent spend mostof their time teaching in an area outside of their field ofpreparation. At the secondary level, 17 percent have lessthan a college minor in the field they most frequentlyteach (NEA, 1981; 1987).

CHARACTERISTICS AND GOVERNANCE OFTEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS

Characteristics of Institutions

Teacher education in the United States takes place in awide range of higher education institutions. Among the1,978 four-year colleges and universities in the UnitedStates, approximately 1,279 have schools, colleges, ordepartments of education (SCDEs) engaged in teachereducation (National Council for Accreditation of TeacherEducation ENCATEL 1993; Sykes, 1985). These includelarge public institutions, private independent and reli-giously affiliated liberal arts colleges, and private uni-versities. The greatest number of SCDEs are in the cen-

4The term certification is generally used by states todescribe their system for ensuring minimal qualifications ofcandidates allowed to practice. However, licensing is the moreaccurate term, analogous to this function performed by statesfor other occupations. Licensure means a candidate has legalauthority to practice, validated by a governmental body. Cer-tification is the recognition by the profession of a higher levelof competence and attainment. Certification carries profes-sional rather than legal authority. Professional certification isjust beginning to become available to U.S. teachers, throughthe auspices of the National Board for Professional TeachingStandards (NBPTS). The NBPTS is discussed in greater detailin the "Policy Issues and Trends" section.

234

tral region of the country, with the fewest located in thewestern region.

The majority (approximately 65 percent) of highereducation institutions having teacher education pro-grams are private, but these produce only 25 percent ofthe new teachers. About one-third of all teacher-prepar-ing institutions, most in large public universities, actual-ly produce 75 percent of all teachers. Many of these col-leges began as state normal schools for teachers, andthey continue to emphasize the preparation of teachersin their current broader role as liberal arts colleges. Someprepare as many as 1,000 teachers annually. Overall,teacher candidates comprise about 10 percent of totalcollege and university enrollments and about 13 percentof undergraduate enrollments (American Association ofColleges for Teacher Education [AACTEI, 1987).

The number of programs offered by any singleSCDE varies widely. On average, a single SCDE offers8-12 distinct teacher education programs for differentteaching fields (e.g. mathematics education, elementaryeducation, special education, etc.). In 1987, about one-third of undergraduate SCDE students were enrolled inelementary education programs. Approximately 18 per-cent were enrolled in secondary education programs(about evenly divided among mathematics, English,social studies, and science candidates), 12 percent inspecial education, and 7 percent in early childhood edu-cation. Specialty areas such as physical education, read-ing, bilingual education, and so on, comprised about 28percent (AACTE, 1987).

While national estimates of teacher educationexpenditures are not available, the relative claim onhigher education dollars made by teacher education isclearly small relative to other fields. In comparison withother university departments and programs, teachereducation programs bring in substantially moreresources than they expend for services to their students(Sykes, 1985). One recent analysis of expenditures at sixresearch universities found that schools of education aregenerally the lowest funded unit within the universityand have lost ground over the last decade (Ebmeier,Twombly, & Teeter, 1990). On one common state indexfor allocating funds based on the relative cost of train-ing in professional fields, education ranks lowest, withan index of 1.04, in comparison with engineering at 2.07and nursing at 2.74 (Sykes, 1985). Support for teachercandidates in the way of state or federal tuition support,or stipends, is limited.

Policy Guidance

Teacher preparation programs are governed by decisionsmade within their institutions (at the institutional level aswell as within the SCDE), by state requirements for pro-gram approval, andfor the 40 percent of programs that

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are professionally accreditedby the standards of thenational accrediting agency, the National Council forAccreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). NCATE is aprivate, nongovernment association representing teachereducators, teachers, state policy makers, and profession-al specialty groups (see "Accreditation/Approval- sectionbelow for additional information). Currently, about 27states have partnership agreemenis with NCATE. Thesepartnership agreements provide for joint program reviewand may enable NCATE institutions to meet state programapproval standards by addressing NCATE standards.

Programs are also indirectly guided by the state'slicensing requirements for teachers, as these oftendescribe the kinds of courses candidates must completein order to receive a license. Program-approval guide-lines and licensing requirements vary from state to state.Generally, these are set by the state department of edu-cation. Recently, however, 12 states have establishedprofessional standards boards for teaching like thosethat exist in other professions. In these states, the teach-ers, other educators, and public members who sit on thestandards board have assumed responsibility for settingstandards for teacher education program approval andlicensing.

State legislatures and state boards of educationalso sometimes exert authority over schools of educa-tionmuch more than any other schools or depart-ments within universities. Because of the special stateinterest in education, legislatures have sometimes beenactive in mandating admissions and graduation require-ments for schools of education, testing requirements,and even specific course requirements. Legislatureshave also been the source of many alternative licensingprograms.

Accreditation or Approval ofTeacher Preparation Programs

Within teacher education, there is a dual-track systemfor reviewing preparation programs for teachers: stateprogram approval and professional accreditation.

In state program approval, states have typicallyapproved teacher education programs based on the pro-gram's abilities to prepare candidates to meet statelicensing requirements. Until recently, most stateslicensed teachers by requiring them to complete anapproved program of teacher education. State programapproval is typically coordinated by the state's depart-ment of education, under the auspices of a state boardof education or a professional teaching standards board.The approval process has traditionally assessed "thetypes of learning situations to which an individual isexposed and ... the time spent in these situations ratherthan what the individual actually learned" (Goertz,Ekstorm, & Coley, 1984).

Unhappiness with the results of this approach ledto the enactment of tests for teacher licensing in moststates during the 1980s, providing an additional checkon the process. Now states are looking at a variety ofnew approaches to licensing and program approval,including performance-based approaches that wouldrely more heavily on assessments of teacher knowledgeand skill conducted during and after teacher educationand induction. Testing for licensure is discussed ingreater detail in the section on licensure below.

Accreditation is the assessment of an institution ora program by voluntary, nongovernment associations ofeducational institutions, professional practitioners, andprofessional educators. according to established stan-dards. In the United States, there are two kinds ofaccreditation: regional or institutional accreditation andprofessional or specialized accreditation. Whereasregional or institutional accreditation assesses the ade-quacy of the mission, goals, and resources of an institu-tion as a degree-granting entity, professional or special-ized accreditation assesses a particular program againstnational standards established within the field (Cobb,1993).

NCATE is the only accrediting agency recognizedby the U. S. Department of Education for the accredita-tion of teacher education. In most states, accreditationis voluntary, and NCATE presently accredits 521, or 40.7percent of the 1,279 higher education institutions hav-ing teacher education programs (NCATE, 1993). How-ever, NCATE-accredited programs produce approxi-mately 80 percent of the nation's teachers. Theseprograms are largely undergraduate programs in statecolleges and universities. In contrast with teaching,where accreditation is voluntary, most other professionsrequire graduation from an accredited professional pro-gram as a prerequisite for licensure. In the cases wherethis is not required, candidates graduating from nonac-credited programs may experience some differentiationin status and compensation, and/or restrictions in theauthorization to practice.

NCATE's process of accreditation occurs in threestages. First, institutional eligibility is established if theprofessional education unit meets eight conditions thatdefine it as a professional preparation program. Second,the program completes a self-study and develops aninstitutional report, which includes a review of programcontent areas, a discussion of programs and the knowl-edge base undergirding instruction, and the compilationof institutional and unit data. Finally, a team of profes-sional colleagues, representing teacher educators, prac-ticing teachers, and members of the public, conducts avisit on-site to verify the institutional report against theNCATE standards of professional practice, and issues areport of their findings. The Unit Accreditation Board ofNCATE makes the final decision on accr«litation using

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the information obtained from the program's institu-tional report and the team's on-site report. Accreditationis conducted on a five-year cycle.

Other professional associations representingteachers of different subject areas (such as the NationalCouncil of Teachers of Mathematics) and groups of stu-dents (such as the National Association for the Educa-tion of Young Children) also influence standards forteacher education through standards that they establishwithin their organizations. Twenty-one specialty orga-nizations are active members in NCATE. These associa-tions have defined the knowledge base in their contentarea for what teachers need to know and be able to do.As a part of the NCATE process, teacher education pro-gram content areas are reviewed against these standardsas one of the prerequisites for accreditation review.Many states also use professional association standardsas guides when establishing licensing requirements.

NATURE AND CONTENT OFTEACHER PREPARATION

Goals of Teacher Education

A single version of the aims of teacher education is impos-sible to convey for the United States, given the diversityof practice at the state and local institutional levels.Presently, no single agency represents or enforces claimsof the profession regarding knowledge and standards ofpractice. States' numerous licensing standards differ fromone another and do not convey a clear, coherent visionof teaching and learning. The American Association ofColleges for Teacher Education (AAci E), a voluntarynational nongovernment agency with 715 member insti-tutions involved in preparing educators, helps to formu-late and promote the development of a knowledge basefor teacher education. NCATE provides further guidanceby requiring institutions to identify and define the knowl-edge base that undergirds their coursework and clinicalpreparation, but it has not identified a specific conceptionof the knowledge base to be used. Finally, professionalspecialty associations provide an additional source ofguidance regarding what teachers are expected to knowand be able to do in specific content areas. However,these associations are private, nongovernment bodieswhose visions of teaching and learning do not alwaysconcur with those embodied in state requirements.

There are a number of important professional andpolicy efforts presently taking place to identify a com-mon core of understandings and capacities that charac-terize what all teachers need to know and be able to doto address the needs of all children. A number of pro-fessional associations have initiatives that focus on-defining the common core of knowledge for teachers.

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The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards(NBPTS) has developed standards and assessments forcertifying accomplished practice. A companion effort bya group of more than 30 states is creating board-com-patible licensing standards through the Interstate NewTeacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC).Revisions of NCATE standards are, in turn, incorporat-ing the INTASC standards. All of these groups haverecen.ly articulated a view of teaching knowledge, skills,and ,.!.spositions that emphasizes:

Teachers' moral and professional commitment tostudents, grounded in an understanding oflearners, a commitment to equity, and a pledgeto continually seek strategies that will producesuccess for each learnerTeachers' understanding of subjects in ways thatallow them to make core concepts and modesof inquiry accessible to diverse learnersTeachers' understanding of learners and learn-ing in ways that allow them to identify differentstrengths, intelligences, and approaches to learn-ing, as well as to facilitate development of thewhole childTeachers' active involvement in assessing andsupporting student learning by evaluating stu-dent thinking and performance and adaptingteaching to students' prior knowledge, interests,motivations, and learningTeachers' capacities to reflect on their teachingand its consequences for learners, to revisetheir strategies as needed, and to collaboratewith others in creating conditions that supportschool improvement as well as individual stu-dent success

Despite this emerging rhetorical consensus amongprofessional associations, there is less commonality inactual practice. This is because government policy tools,such as curriculum mandates and teacher evaluationrequirements, often conflict with these conceptions ofteaching, and because substantial unevenness in pro-gram quality results from unequal funding and lack ofuniversal quality controls.

Academic Preparation Prior to Teacher Education

Virtually all candidates for teacher education have com-pleted secondary education and most candidates havecompleted at least one or two years of general studiesin college before they enter the teacher education por-tion of their coursework. Some enter programs afteralready having acquired a bachelor's degree.

Admissions requirements to teacher preparationprograms are varied. Institutions traditionally set their

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own requirements in terms of grade point averages,interviews, and other application materials (essays, evi-dence of work with children, etc.); however, states haverecently begun to set minimum admissions standards.At least 22 states now require some form of testing forentry into teacher education and 15 states have set min-imum grade point averages for entry. Fifteen statesrequire both tests and minimum GPAs (Coley & Goertz,1990). At their own initiative or due to state mandate, atleast 70 percent of teacher education programs nowhave minimum grade requirements that must be metbefore a student is admitted. Half also require that stu-dents pass a proficieacy test before completing the pro-gram, a number that has doubled since 1980 (Holm-strom, 1985).

There is no established number of entrants peryear determined by the government. Program size hastended to increase or decrease with the number of inter-ested candidates who can meet the minimum entryrequirements. "Traditionally, the number of participantsin a teacher preparation program is driven by the sizeof the applicant pool" (Miller & Silvernail, 1994, p. 37).Because many preservice programs provide a source ofrevenue to the university as a whole, some institutionsare reluctant to limit enrollment. As a consequence, thenumber of applicants admitted to a program is oftenbased on economic considerations rather than qualitystandards, such as faculty/student ratios or the numberof high-quality field placements. There can be substan-tial fluctuations in the number of individuals preparingto teach from year to year.

The Preservice Teacher Preparation Curriculum

Professional preparation generally takes place as part ofa four-year program leading to the baccalaureatedegree. Increasingly, however, programs are extendinginto a fifth year, either as an extension of an under-graduate program or as a separate master's degree pro-gram following completion of a discipline-based bach-elor's degree.

Teacher preparation has three principal compo-nents. First, most coursework during the four or fiveyears is in the liberal arts, with a major emphasis for sec-ondary teachers on a single content area in which thecandidate will be licensed, such as history, mathematics,or biology. Most elementary teachers have traditionallymajored in elementary education, but increasingly theyattain a major in one of the liberal arts disciplines or afield like psychology or human development.

Second, the remaining coursework is in the studyof education as a field of inquiry, including teachingmethods. Typically these courses include an introduc-tion to education, educational psychology, general orspecific methods courses, and, at least for elementary

teacher candidates, child development. What was oncea standard requirement for all teacher education stu-dents, a course in educational history and philosophy,is now taken by very few (Good lad, 1990). Educationcourses typically constitute only about one-fifth of thetotal program for secondary education majors (an aver-age of 26 credit hours out of a total of 135), while can-didates in elementary education usually complete moreeducation courses (an average of 50 credit hours out ofa total of 125).

Finally, there is a variety of field experiences forcandidates. Candidates in most teacher education pro-grams (about 86 percent) are required to undertakesome field experiences prior to student teaching. Oftenduring the initial phases of the program, students spendone or two days per week observing or tutoring inschools. In over two-thirds of the teacher education pro-grams, field experiences are also required in one ormore methods courses later in the program's sequence.Such experiences allow candidates to apply what theyare learning through classroom observations and workwith students before entering an intensive studentteaching experience (AACrE, 1987).

Building on these field experiences, all candidatesare involved in practice teaching (also called studentteaching), which takes place near the completion of apreparation program and occurs in elementary and sec-ondary schools under the supervision of a cooperatingteacher. Typically, student teaching has occupied anaverage of 350 hours during one full 15 -week semesterof the higher education institution, which is slightly lessthan a full school semester in an elementary or sec-ondary sch, A, due to differences in academic calendars(AACTE, 1987). Increasingly, however, student teachingis based on a school semester rather than on a collegeor university semester, and the duration of studentteaching is increasing. At some institutions, and in manymaster's degree programs, student teaching is a full twosemesters, integrated with seminars and coursework.

Sometimes student teaching engages students intwo different placements, so that they can experiencevaried classrooms. Typically, candidates in studentteaching experiences are supervised by faculty from theSCDEs as well as by their "cooperating teacher" in theschool in which they are placed. College supervisors aretypically doctoral students who have had teaching expe-rience and supervisory training, teacher education fac-ulty, or other SCDE staff. College supervisors averagesix or seven visits to a student teacher per semester(AACI E, 1987).

Given that the college supervisor spends a limitedamount of time with the student during the studentteaching experience, the cooperating teacher is veryinfluential in the student's practical or. clinical experi-ence. This influence often proves to be differentially

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beneficial depending on the skills and abilities of thecooperating teacher. Programs do not always hand-pickthe teachers they will work with. Principals may choosecooperating teachers "based on administrative conve-nience rather than educational value" or based on thosewho volunteer (Darling-Hammond & Goodwin, 1993).Cooperating teachers may receive little or no trainingfor their roles and few rewards. They sometimes havelittle contact with the preparation program directly.

There are several junctures at which "loose link-ages" can occur among the three components of teacherpreparation programsliberal arts education, profes-sional study, and practical experiences (Good lad, 1990;Good lad, Soder, & Sirotnik, 1990; Schwartz, 1988; Zeich-ner, 1986). The fact that colleges have traditionally exert-ed little influence on the nature or quality of thepracticum or student teaching placements is but oneexample of this fragmentation. Other disjunctures canreduce the connections made between subject-mattercontent, educational theory, and practical application.Such lack of connections may reinforce teachers' con-ceptions that content and theory have little utility in the"real world" of the classroom.

To encourage greater continuity between theoryand practice, a number of institutions have begun to cre-ate professional development schools (PDS) in close col-laboration with nearby school districts. These are part-nerships between schools of education and local schoolsin which the school becomes a site for the clinical prepa-ration of cohorts of prospective teachers. The PDS mod-els state-of-the-art practice, involves school and univer-sity-based faculty in developing a program of learningfor beginning teachers, and frequently also provides asite for developing collegial research on teaching (Dar-ling-Hammond, 1994a). Based on surveys of teacherpreparation institutions, by 1994 more than 200 profes-sional development schools had been started across theU.S. (Abdal-Haqq, 1992; Darling-Hammond, 1994a).

Most faculty (70 percent) and students (69.7 per-cent) view their preservice programs as good or out-standing in preparing graduates as entry-level teachers(AACTE, 1988). The majority of the remaining facultyand students assess their preparation as adequate. Onearea, however, stands out as in need of more attentionthan others: When asked whether teacher educationgraduates were prepared to teach in culturally diversesettings or to teach academically "at-risk" students, asubstantial minority of faculty (29.7 percent) and stu-dents (28.6 percent) indicate that graduates are "less-than-adequately" prepared (AACTE, 1988). While a sim-ilar percentage of each group reported that they werevery well prepared or adequately prepared, this is clear-ly an area where changes in the conditions of school-ing and in the expectations of teachers are propellinggreater changes in schools of education as well.

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Differences in Teacher Preparation Programs

Because no universal standards for either licensing oraccreditation are enforced, a wide range of teacherpreparation programs exists. Most of the reform effortsaimed at teacher preparation in the last decade focus onstructural differences. These structural differencesinclude adding a fifth year, increasing (or, in a fewstates, limiting) the number of credit hours in profes-sional education, increasing the amount of field-basedexperience, and creating alternative routes to teaching(Feiman-Nemser, 1990).

A five-year or fifth-year program involves com-pleting teacher preparation in a five-year extendedbachelor's program or a fifth-year master's degree pro-gram following undergraduate school. A five-year pro-gram is considered to provide greater flexibility for theintegration of theory and practice because the extend-ed time allows greater opportunity for an in-depth,supervised internship connected to coursework.Though many of the reform reports of the last decadehave advocated this change in teacher preparation, four-year baccalaureate programs still predominate (Wong &Osguthorpe, 1993).

Preparation programs differ in other ways due todifferent conceptual orientations and different levels ofquality. In some, students learn a great deal about learn-ing and child development; in others they do not. Insome, a subject-specific view of pedagogy is emphasized;in others, generic approaches to pedagogy are taught. Insome, teachers learn about curriculum development andstudent assessment; in most others, they do not.

These differences are attributable t" ;everal dif-ferent causes. State regulations governing licensing andprogram approval are one source of variation. Forexample, when legislative edicts in New Jersey, Texas,and Virginia reduced the amount of professional edu-cation coursework undergraduates could take to nomore than 18 credits, most programs had to eliminateor greatly reduce coursework in learning and childdevelopment, and focus on generic rather than subject-specific approaches to pedagogy.

On the other hand, a number of states, such asNew York, Connecticut, and Arizona, require at least amaster's degree on top of a strong subject-matter degreefor full professional licensure; these requirements gen-erally incorporate 40 credits of professional educationcoursework and a lengthy supervised practicum orinternship, in addition to subject-matter preparation.Thus, the meaning of a teaching license, in terms ofknowledge and skills represented, varies tremendouslyfrom state to state (Darling-Hammond, 1992).

Similarly, although teachers are increasinglyexpected to major in a discipline while also preparingto teach, this also varies according to state licensing and

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program approval requirements. By 1991, for example,about 63 percent of mathematics teachers had majoredin their field. However, this ranged from 25 percent inAlaska to 87 percent in Maryland. The proportion of sci-ence teachers who had majored in their field increasedfrom 64 percent in 1988 to 70 percent in 1991, rangingfrom 41 percent in New Mexico to 85 percent in Con-necticut (Blank & Gruebel, 1993).

Because professional accreditation is not univer-sal, a great many programs operate without the core setof standards that guide those that are accredited. Addi-tional sources of variation in program content includethe conceptions of teaching and teacher knowledgeunderlying state program approval guidelines andassessments of beginning teachers (Darling-Hammondwith Sclan, 1992), variations due to the recent prolifer-ation of state-approved "alternate routes" to licensure,and variations due to the v.. of teaching adopted byindividual institutions.

Links Between Teacher Education Curricula andStudent Standards

In most states, higher education and K-12 education areregulated by separate state boards, and, in some cases,they are administered by separate state agencies. As aconsequence, there is usually little articulation betweenthe standards that govern teacher education and licen-sure and state curriculum standards for elementary andsecondary school students. In some cases, standards forteachers and those for school students may even be inconflict with each other. Some states, such as Maine,Minnesota, and Vermont, have identified expectationsfor elementary and secondary students, and have thentranslated these into expectations for what teachersneed to know and be able to do to help school studentsachieve those expectations. Performance-based stan-dards for both students and teachers are the result ofsuch efforts.

National voluntary standards-setting efforts by pro-fessional associations do not have the force of law, butare becoming more prominent in the discourse abouteducation. In fields ranging from mathematics and En-glish language arts to science, social studies, and thearts, standards for curriculum, evaluation, and teachingare being developed by practitioners, content special-ists, and scholars from schools, universities, and pro-fessional associations. These are intended to reflect highexpectations that all students can meet rigorous learn-ing standards. Some argue that these standards couldalso serve as a foundation for considering what allteachers and teacher education programs should do toguide that learning.

Professional teaching associations that are devel-oping standards for students, such as the National Coun-

cil of Teachers of Mathematics and the National Coun-cil of Teachers of English, also influence national pro-fessional accreditation for teacher education becausethey also serve as the subject-matter representatives inassessing content areas in the NCATE process. Studentstandards developed by professional organizations arealso taken into account in the development of standardsfor advanced teacher certification through the NationalBoard for Professional Teaching Standards and the asso-ciated state licensing standards development efforts ofINTASC. (These are discussed more fully in the "PolicyInitiatives" section, below.)

LICENSING REQUIREMENTS

Initial Licensing

Each of the 50 states currently has its own standards forlicensure, which organize the labor market for theteaching profession to a great extent (Sykes, 1989). First,licensing requirements constrain the supply of profes-sionals in a given field by establishing minimum quali-fications for entry. Second, licensing determines the linkbetween qualifications and assignment. Unless there areno qualified candidates available, teachers are supposedto be assigned to the field within which they have alicense. Finally, because licensing defines the coursesand tests teachers must take to gain entry, it defines oneaspect of the knowledge that guides practice.

There are a great many licensing fields. Statesgrant licenses in over 50 fields, defined by subject areaand level of schooling (e.g., secondary English, mathe-matics, biology, elementary education, special educa-tion for handicapped students, bilingual education) andother functions such as educational administration andeducational support personnel, such as teachers' aides.Typically, local educational agencies recruit and hire alleducation personnel.

During the 1980s, most states adopted changes inspecific teacher licensing requirements that affected thecontent of teacher education in one way or another. Inaddition to requiring testing as a condition of licensure,the most notable changes by a number of states includeincreases in required hours of college credit in a subjectarea for secondary teachers, evaluation of classroomperformance for beginning teachers in their first year ofpractice, and continuing education requirements for re-licensure.

While most states increased the amount ofcoursework teachers would need to undertake tolearn about teaching, a few actually reduced theamount of professional education coursework under-graduates could take, leaving them with little prepa-ration in child development or pedagogy before they

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are licensed. State requirements now vary so substan-tially that a teacher licensed in one state frequentlydoes not meet the licensing requirements in anotherand is required to take additional coursework or meetother state-specific requirements on moving from onestate to another.

In addition, requirements for teaching in privateschools sometimes differ from those in public schools.Most states (about 30) require teachers in private schoolsto be licensed; however, others do not. In 1991, about60 percent of private school teachers held regular oradvanced teaching licenses; another 20 percent held theprovisional licenses that beginning teachers hold untilthey have successfully completed an induction programand/or final assessment for licensing (NCES, 1993a).

Most states (47) now require some form of test-ing for licensure. Of these states, 26 test for basic skillscompetency; 17 test for general knowledge; 27 test forprofessional knowledge; and 23 test for subject areacontent knowledge (Coley & Goertz, 1990). In contrastwith licensing tests in most other professions, which aredeveloped and administered by members of the pro-fession, tests for teachers are developed by commercialvendors or state agencies. About half of these states useall or parts of tests put out by commercial vendors, forexample, the National Teacher Examinations (NTE)developed and administered by the Educational Test-ing Service (ETS). The other half use tests developedand administered by the state itself.

Many critics have charged that teacher licensingtests have tapped very little of what might be called aknowledge base for teaching (Darling-Hammond, 1986;MacMillan & Pendlebury, 1985; Shulman, 1987). Conse-quently, efforts are under way in many states to developnew approaches to assessing teachers. In response toconcerns that the previous generation of teacher tests,based largely on multiple-choice responses to brief, sim-plified questions, failed to measure teaching knowledgeand skill, test developers have also been redesigning theirassessments. For example, ETS has recently replaced theNTE with a new testing series that aims for more perfor-mance-based assessments of teaching knowledge. Moreitems in the paper-and-pencil component require essayresponses by teachers, and a classroom observationalinstrument has been added. Other changes are occurringin state-developed teacher assessments.

The National Board for Professional Teaching Stan-dards (NBPTS) has gone many steps further in its newexaminations for the advanced certification of highlyaccomplished veteran teachers. For NBPTS certification,the assessment is entirely performance-based, using anextensive portfolio assessment completed over severalmonths of classroom work augmented by complex per-formance tasks completed in an assessment center. Statesin the Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support

Consortium are developing licensing standards andassessments for beginning teachers that are compatiblewith those developed by NBPTS. Together, these stan-dards establish a continuum of what teachers need toknow and be able to do, from entry into teaching throughthe development of highly accomplished practice.

Continuing Requirements for Licensure

Generally, the first three years of work are consideredprovisional or nontenured employment. Teachers areusually evaluated annually, most often by the princi-pal, using a checklist type of instrument. In the firstyear of teaching, a growing number of states arerequiring a state-mandated process for evaluation thatprecedes the issuance of a continuing state license.Thereafter, evaluation is the province of the localschool district, and procedures vary widely. Mostteachers receive a successful evaluation and aretenured at the end of this time period. Once teachersare tenured staff, termination of employment is con-siderably more difficult.

Until recently, most states had few, if any, require-ments for teachers to satisfy after they were initiallylicensed. However, states increasingly arc disallowingthe "lifetime" license and are requiring teachers to con-tinuously renew their credentials with additional formalcollege coursework or in-service training. At least 32states now have requirements for licensure renewal. Onaverage, licensure renewal takes place every three tofive years. Professional development activities used tosatisfy licensure renewal typically include additionalcoursework and attendance at professional conferencesor workshops. Some states are considering giving cred-it for, teacher leadership activities and mentoring ofbeginning teachers.

Over the last few years, the trend has been toenact more restrictive relicensing standards. In the past,many states have not specified the quality or nature ofthe additional courses required. More states are nowrequiring teachers to successfully complete courses incontent or pedagogical areas applicable to their teach-ing. Additionally, many local school districts haverequirements for the continuing education of teachersthrough school- or district-sponsored professionaldevelopment programs, courses, self-directed study, orsome combination of these activities.

Conditions Under Which Requirements forLicensure Are Waived or Altered

Traditionally, whenever shortages of teachers haveoccurred, states would issue emergency or temporarylicenses to underprepared candidates to fill vacancies.This occurred in a large-scale fashion during the 1920s,

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the 1950s and 1960s, and the late 1980s. Estimates sug-gest that over 50,000 candidates a year are now enter-ing teaching without full preparation for the fields theyare teaching (Feistritzer, 1988; NDRC, 1993). Theseteachers teach primarily in central cities and poor, ruralareas and are typically assigned to schools serving low-income students and students of color, where teachershortages are more prevalent.

During the 1980s, while there were efforts to raisesalaries and standards to increase the quality of theteaching force, states also loosened standards to addressshortages in the supply of teachers. In addition to allow-ing emergency licenses, more than one-half of the states(39 as of 1991) implemented alternative routes to licen-sure. Some states' alternative routes are restricted toareas of teacher shortages or to specific geographicareas; others are not. Many programs target inner-city orrural school districts with serious shortages (Darling-Hammond, 1992).

Most alternate routes to licensure are aimed atrecruiting candidates with bachelor's degrees in otherfields. These programs range from one- or two-year mas-ter's degree programs, structured to enable entry for mid-career changers, to short summer courses prior to hiring.

High-quality alternate routes that do not lowerstandards for entry to teaching but provide intensive,targeted preparation and supervision in a master'sdegree program have proven reasonably successful atrecruiting and preparing mid-career recruits and othernontraditional entrants to teaching (Coley & Thorpe,1985; Darling-Hammond, Hudson, & Kirby, 1989).

However, the short-term alternate routes haveproven less successful at preparing candidates well orretaining them in teaching. Unlike traditional entrants ofteacher education programs, candidates in the shorter-term routes take little education coursework or studentteaching prior to entering; they assume full-time teach-ing responsibilities following a brief orientation seminar,usually six to eight weeks. These candidates are sup-posed to receive on-the-job supervision while taking theeducation courses that are required; however, thissupervision often does not materialize (Darling-Ham-mond, 1992).

Research indicates that candidates having gonethrough full preparation programs are more highly ratedand more successful with students than are teacherswithout full preparation (Ashton & Crocker, 1987; Evert-son, Hawley & 7lotnik, 1985; Greenberg, 1983; Haber-man, 1984; Olsen, 1985; for a review, see Darling-Ham-mond, 1992). Studies of teachers admitted throughemergency licensing and quick-entry alternate routesfrequently note that the candidates have difficulty withcurriculum development, pedagogical content knowl-edge, attending to students' differing learning styles andlevels, classroom management, and student motivation

(Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1990; Grossman, 1988; Lenk,1989; Mitchell, 1987).

In comparison with beginners who have complet-ed a teacher education program, those novices whoenter without full preparation show more ignoranceabout student needs and differences and about thebasics of teaching, are less sensitive to students, less ableto plan and redirect instruction to meet students' needs(and less aware of the need to do so), and less skilled inimplementing instruction (Bents & Bents, 1990, Bledsoe,Cox, & Burnham, 1967; Copley, 1974; Darling-Ham-mond, 1994b; Gomez & Grobe, 1990; Grossman, 1988;Rottenberg & Berliner, 1990). They are less able to antic-ipate students' knowledge and potential difficulties andless likely to see it as their job to do so, often blamingthe students if their teaching is not successful.

ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Induction Programs

Teacher induction programs for new and beginningteachers were launched in at least 25 states during the1980s (Darling-Hammond, 1990b). In many cases, theseprograms were introduced to provide for a str te-required, on-the-job evaluation as a condition for a con-tinuing license. In others, mentor teachers assist thebeginning teachers, but evaluation is not directly linkedto the mentoring process.

In the beginning, in teacher evaluation programslaunched by a number of states, teachers receive provi-sional licenses, usually valid for up to three years, oncompletion of a teacher preparation program and otherstate requirements. While employed as full-time teach-ers, they are evaluated formally on their teaching per-formance in order to receive a regular or continuinglicense. The performance assessments are conductedthrough a state-established system. Evaluators mayinclude a teacher, a principal, and district or state per-sonnel. Typically, the beginning teacher is observed andevaluated two or three times throughout the year, usinga state-developed instrument that covers classroommanagement, interpersonal skills, teaching methods,and so on.

Evaluators can recommend that the teacherreceive a regular license, be removed, or be asked toparticipate ;n an in-service training or development pro-gram and wen reevaluated (Coley & Goertz, 1990).These programs are largely state-funded, with somelocal support; however, mentoring is rarely funded orprovided. Because many of these programs haveemphasized evaluation rather than support, they haveoften provided too little assistance to beginning teach-ers and have not helped them improve their capacity to

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address problems of practice (Borko, 1986; Fox & Sin-gletary, 1986; Hu ling-Austin & Murphy, 1987).

Other models of support for beginning teachers areemerging. States like New York, California, and Min-nesota have funded mentors for beginning teachers toprovide ongoing support for developing competence.While there is currently no defined period of inductionor transition following initial licensure, and no common-ly accepted model, the availability of induction programsis increasing. A 1991 survey found that 48 percent ofteachers with three or fewer years of experience report-ed that they had participated in some kind of formalinduction program during their first year of teaching(NCES, 1993b,c).

Ongoing Professional Development

There are at least five different approaches to profession-al development that function across various school set-tings: individually guided professional development, obser-vation/assessment, development/improvement processes,training, and inquiry (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990).Traditionally, professional development activities for teach-ers have aimed to improve "job-related knowledge, skills,or attitudes" (Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990, p. 234), andthey serve mainly as a "vehicle of organizational mainte-nance" (Little, 1993, p. 146).

Training is the most widely used form of profes-sional development. Districts and schools establishobjectives based on district or school goals. A deficitperspective frames many training activities, focusing onwhat knowledge and skills teachers are lacking. Muchdistrict-based training is general in nature and is deliv-ered en masse to large groups of teachers on a specificday set aside for the purpose.

The typical format for training is a workshop ses-sion presented by an "expert" who sets the content andcourse of activities. Districts may offer a series of work-shops annually from which teachers may choose. Fre-quently, little or no follow-up and support are providedto enable teachers to practice or incorporate the knowl-edge and/or skills presented in the workshop into theirparticular classroom setting. A training model of profes-sional development is often fragmented, relying on a col-lection of workshops and/or course offerings, as opposedto a continuous and ongoing program of professionaldevelopment for teachers (Miller, Lord, & Dorney, 1994).

Recent critics of traditional staff developmentstrategies have argued that, frequently, the implemen-tation of district policies takes precedence over teacherlearning guided by investigations into concrete prob-lems of practice (Miller, Lord, & Dorney, 1994). Suchstaff development does not address teachers' variousexpertise and contexts, or encourage diverse areas ofprofessional inquiry.

2 4 2

Individually guided professional developmentemphasizes learning that is designed by the teacher. Thepremise here is that individuals can best judge theirlearning needs and are capable of self-directed and self-initiated learning. Many districts offer courses fromwhich teachers can choose, or reimburse teachers forcollege courses they take. Often teachers receive cred-it on the salary scale for courses they take. Teachers typ-ically choose these courses based on their own sense ofwhat will benefit them and their teaching.

Observation/assessment models of professionaldevelopment include such forms as clinical supervision,peer coaching, and teacher evaluation. In most districts,relatively little time and attention are devoted to teacherevaluation or supervision. Virtually all of the responsi-bility resides with school principals, who may havesupervisory responsibility for 100 or more teachers andinadequate time, expertise, or resources for the task(Wise, Darling-Hammond, McLaughlin, & Bernstein,1985). Although peer coaching has gained greater atten-tion in the last decade, this model of professional de',el-opment is not yet used by many schools or teachers(Sparks & Loucks-Horsley, 1990).

Initiatives to promote and enhance school improve-ment have provided the impetus for professional devel-opment through a school development/ improvementprocess. In trying to address the various barriers to edu-cational improvement, some states, districts, and schoolshave sought to effect whole-school change. As teachersbecome agents of change, participating in schoolimprovement activities, curriculum and assessment devel-opment, and shared decision-making structures, theylearn a great deal about curriculum and teaching issues,often more deeply than through other, more traditionalstaff development activities (Little, 1993). Thus, theseapproaches to school improvement prove to be strategiesfor professional development as well.

Recent reform efforts call for changes in teacherpractice away from didactic, teacher-centeredapproaches to those that view the teacher as a guide orfacilitator of students' active learning. In order forteachers to teach with their students' needs in mind,they have to inquire both into students' thinking andlearning, and into the effects of their teaching. Thisview of teaching is most closely related to an inquirymodel of staff development, in which teachers them-selves formulate the questions about teaching andlearning that can hest facilitate the growth of their prac-tice. The inquiry model of professional developmentmay include such activities as teacher study groups,teacher research, or teacher collaboratives/networks.Some recent research suggests that this type of profes-sional development is more meaningful for teachersand has greater impact on teaching practice (Little,1993; Miller, Lord, & Dorney, 1994). Though these

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kinds of professional development opportunities areincreasing, they are not the norm.

When professional development seeks merely totrain teachers for compliance with state or districtrequirements, teacher reflection on concrete problemsof practice and integration of knowledge and practicerarely occur. Developmental and inquiry models of pro-fessional development are beginning to create newkinds of opportunities that enable study, reflection,problem solving, and collegial learning.

Participation and Incentives

Teachers are most likely to participate in district-spon-sored workshops during the school year (74 percent),followed by committees dealing with subjects other thancurriculum (46 percent), curriculum committees (36 per-cent), professional growth activities sponsored by pro-fessional associations (35 percent), and workshopssponsored by the school system during the summer (24percent). In 1991, half of all teachers reported earningsome college credit in the previous three years. Youngerteachers were more likely than their older counterpartsto have participated in district-sponsored programs orto have earned college credit in the last three years(NEA, 1992).

Teacher participation in professional association-sponsored professional growth activities increased from25 percent in 1971 to 35 percent in 1991. This increasemay reflect the growth in membership in subject-matteror professional special-interest associations, from 38percent in 1981 to 48 percent in 1991. Professional asso-ciations' increasing involvement in articulating subjectcurriculum and assessment standards in the last decadeis perhaps another influence promoting greater teacherparticipation (Little, 1993).

Incentives to participate in professional develop-ment opportunities are usually salary-based. In additionto cost-of-living raises, teachers receive salary increaseswhen they obtain a certain number of college/universi-ty or district in-service credits and as their years of expe-rience in teaching rise. For example, a teacher with five

years' experience and a bachelor's degree is placed ona specific salary-scale step. This teacher would move upsteps on the salary scale by increasing his or her yearsof experience and by obtaining college/university ordistrict in-service credits. Other professional develop-ment opportunities sometimes come under the auspicesof the local union contract and sometimes are at the dis-cretion of school or district administrators.

Funding for ongoing professional development isnot substantial in most local school districts. Overall, U.S.school districts spend less than one half of 1 percent oftheir budgets on professional development for teachersas compared to 8-10 percent of expenditures allocated

by businesses to employee training and education (Dar-ling-Hammond, 1994a). In times of budget cuts, profes-sional development is usually the first item eliminated.

Although professional development activities havetraditionally been implemented from a district level,some recent decentralization of these activities, shiftingtheir control to the.school level, has occurred. Decen-tralization has sometimes, but not always, translated intogreater teacher input in and engagement with profes-sional development. Inadequate resources and insuffi-

cient technical assistance have hindered some schoolefforts (Miller, Lord, & Domey, 1994, p. 126).

The configuration of professional developmentactivities has direct implications for "the nature of staffdevelopment work, teachers' perspectives, and fundingpatterns" (Miller, Lord, & Domey, 1994, p. 121). Recent-ly, in recognition that school reform efforts require timefor teacher learning, some states have begun to adddays to the school year that are state-funded andreserved for the professional development of teachers.A few schools that are restructuring have also foundways to rearrange the normal school schedules, whichtypically allocate almost no time for joint planning orconsultation, in ways that allow for greater teacher col-laboration and professional learning.

POLICY ISSUES AND TRENDS

Current Policy Issues and Problems

In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Edu-cation issued a report called A Nation at Risk, whichbrought to the forefront issues and concerns regardingthe nation's educational system. This report and a bar-rage of other reports that followed focused on percep-tions of declining student achievement in an era requir-ing greater levels of educational success for all students.Educational reforms over the next several years werecharacterized by greater state control in determiningeducational processes and outcomes through mandatesfor higher educational standards.

In 1986, a "second wave" of educational reformfollowed, with reports from the National Governor'sAssociation, the Education Commission of the States,the Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy,the Holmes Group, and others. These reports affirmedthe need to improve education by emphasizing theneed to professionalize teaching (Darling-Hammond &Berry, 1988). Recruitment, preparation, licensure, andrenewal of a competent teaching force are now wide-ly recognized as among the central policy issues facingthe United States in its educational reform efforts.

The emphasis on professionalism in teachingurged by these reports and sought in some emerging

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reforms of licensing, certification, and teacher educationis one that follows the path of many other professionsin the United States over the past 100 years, starting withmedicine, and continuing through law, architecture,engineering, nursing, and many other occupations. Pro-fessions can be characterized by a specialized knowl-edge base, a commitment to client welfare, and the def-inition and transmission of professional standards(Darling-Hammond, 1990b). Occupations that havesought to become professions have increased theirrequirements for education, created standards of knowl-edge and ethical behavior that govern entry and prac-tice, and created means for enforcing these standards.

By these tenets, teaching in the United States isonly a quasi-profession. It is the only licensed occupa-tion in the United States that still allows some individ-uals to enter the profession without preparation andwithout meeting common standards. In most states,standards (requirements for teacher education, licens-ing. and testing) are not developed or enforced by theprofession. Except in the small number of states withprofessional standards boards for teaching, standardsare set by legislatures, lay boards, and commercial test-ing companies. While professional teaching associa-tions have worked to define a common knowledgebase, state policies do not always ensure that all prac-ticing teachers have mastered that knowledge base.The issues of how better to define, transmit, andenforce professional teaching standards are amongthose a variety of government and professional agen-cies are currently tackling.

Policy Initiatives

Various teaching associations are now making efforts tocreate structures that define professional membershipby virtue of knowledge and competent practice, andmore states are joining the handful that have delegatedlicensing decisions to professionally constituted stan-dards hoards. Organizations such as the National Sci-ence Teachers Association (NSTA) are creating theirown standards for certifying members. The HolmesGroup of education school deans is considering whatknowledge constitutes a fully professional course ofpreparation and how that should he delivered. Theseefforts are buttressed by a recent major revision of thestandards used by the National Council for Accredita-tion of Teacher Education for evaluating teacher prepa-ration programs.

Private, nongovernment professional associationsare currently quite active in influencing the develop-ment of teaching. Three key policy strategies are nowunderway toward professionalizing teaching: First, theNational Board for Professional Teaching Standards wasestablished in 1987 to create an assessment structure

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for advanced professional certification of highly accom-plished teachers (NBPTS, 1991). By developing volun-tary national certification standards, the NBPTS is defin-ing what expert, experienced teachers need to knowand be able to do. As districts and states begin to rec-ognize certification as a meaningful indicator of exper-tise for salary and appointment purposes, as well as fordesigning evaluation programs, the standards areexpected to have increasing practical effect and reach.

Second, model licensing standards and assess-ments for beginning teachers have been developed bya group of over 20 states belonging to the InterstateNew Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium. TheINTASC standards are derived from the National Boardstandards, which embody criteria for identifying excel-lent teaching as the basis for exploring what beginningteachers should be prepared to know and be able to doin order to develop over time into board-certifiable,highly accomplished teachers. More than a dozen stateshave already adapted or adopted these standards fortheir state licensure requirements, and many others areconsidering doing so.

Finally, the National Council for the Accreditationof Teacher Education has begun to reexamine its stan-dards so that they are consistent with the INTASC andNational Board standards. This means reevaluating thecontent of the standards to ensure that they represent asimilar conception of teaching knowledge and skills andchanging the structure of the standards from input-based regulations to outcome-based goals for thedemonstrated abilities of candidates. Instead of justshowing what courses and faculty they have, programsshould also be able to demonstrate that their configu-ration of learning experiences addresses all of the stan-dards and that they are carefully assessing candidatestoward attainment of the standards.

INTASC and NBPTS standards create a continuumof expectations for the teaching profession, from prepa-ration to advanced practice. In doing so, these standardsclarify "the nature of teaching desired and define theeffective teacher" (Wise & Darling-Hammond, 1987, p.31). The push for coherent, performance-based assess-ment of teacher knowledge and skills present in allthree of these initiatives is a trend that may ultimatelyenable states and professional organizations to developand maintain a coherent accountability system for teach-ersone that may eventually provide a common con-ception of teaching and a common set of standards forlearning to teach that would permeate both teacher edu-cation programs and licensing requirements.

In addition to these efforts to articulate whatteachers should know and he able to do, some statesare seeking to connect their school restructuring effortswith initiatives to reform teacher education. Theseefforts are aimed at creating schools to meet an infor-

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mation- or knowledge-based society and economy.They seek to help students learn to frame problems;find, integrate, and synthesize information; create newsolutions (problem solve); work and learn indepen-dently; and work cooperatively. In order for this tooccur, teachers must be able to bring together all thatthey know about cognition, different approaches tolearning, the structures of their content areas, and moreauthentic measures of achievement in a varied teachingrepertoire (Darling-Hammond, Wise, & Klein, 1995).

One example of a joint strategy for mutual restructuringof student learning and teacher learning is the adventof professional development schools as places thatexemplify the goals of school restructuring and that pro-vide learning opportunities for new and veteran teach-ers (Darling-Hammond, 1994a).

Thus far, most of the effort to improve the caliberof teaching and teacher education has taken place onthe state level. However, there are a number of majorfederal initiatives emerging that support teaching andthe professional development of teachers.

A new federal law, the Goals 2000: Educate Amer-ica Act, establishes a framework for comprehensive edu-cation reform, by supporting states, communities, andschools in efforts to raise the expectations for all stu-dents based on the establishment of challenging acad-emic standards. Title III of Goals 2000 authorizes a stategrant program designed to support, accelerate, and sus-tain state and local improvement efforts aimed at help-ing all children reach challenging standards. The actrequires that mandated state improvement plans reflectthe input of classroom teachers in outlining strategiesfor improving teaching and learning and students' mas-tery of basic and advanced skills in academic subjects.State plans must also describe a process for familiariz-ing teachers with state content and performance stan-dards and developing the capability of teachers to pro-vide high-quality-instruction in the core areas. Localsubgrants, awarded, by states, might also support pro-fessional development efforts.

The recently enacted Improving America's SchoolsAct of 1994, the reauthorization of the Elementary andSecondary Education Act (ESEA), builds on Goals 2000by providing nearly $11 billion to school districts andschools to improve teaching and learning, primarily fordisadvantaged students. Among the key provisions of thenew ESEA is the Eisenhower Professional Developmentprogram, which will support sustained, intensive, high-quality professional development tied to academic stan-dards. The program, which requires school districts andschools to develop plans for improving teaching, recog-nizes the different needs of schools and provides teach-ers and principals with important roles in determiningtheir training needs. Efforts supported under the Eisen-hower program are intended to move away from short-

term, one-time professional development activities andtoward more sustained, long-term efforts that becomeintegrated into the daily life of the school.

Other provisions in ESEA, among them activitiessupported under Title I (Helping Disadvantaged Chil-dren Meet High Standards) and Title VII (Bilingual Edu-cation, Language Enhancement, and Language Acquisi-tion Programs) also authorize substantial resources for

professional development.Also, the U.S. Department of Education is working

with other federal agencies to examine how to integrateservices for students and tl eir families and exploring theinterprofessional development issues for educators andother human resource personnel. Such efforts willattempt to coordinate funds and the evaluation of vari-ous federal efforts in this area. Time will tell how thesemany and varied initiatives will unfold as the nationlooks to schools for ever-more ambitious attainments,and to teachers for making them come to fruition.

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