Economic Advance and Social Unrest

Britain’s Industrial Leadership

Natural resources, adequate capital, native technological skills a growing food supply a mobile social structure strong foreign and domestic demand for goods Latin American wars of independence opened

markets to Britain, United States/Canada wanted British goods, Controlled markets of southern Asia

Migration

More people living in cites Pressure on physical resources of

cities Railroads, canals, improved regular

roads people could leave place of birth easily

Railroads Necessary for heavy transport over

long distance First steam‑powered locomotive invented

c. 1800 but it attracted little attention George Stephenson reduced the weight,

improved the efficiency, Helped to build the first railway in Great

Britain, 1825 Great era of railway construction in Great

Britain, on European continent In United States came after 1850

Labor Force Varied levels in the early 19th century

Varied from decent wages to subsistence wage Some virtual slave labor level jobs

Women and Children in coal mines City based labor

Larger percentage of artisans, craftsmen Workers slowly lost control over their ability to set their own

wages (Proletarianization) New factories and machines eliminated skilled labor

Lower costs = more profits for factories Cottage system eliminated Less skill required for a specific task, less generalization

Factories determined the hours and type of work laborers could obtain Master and apprentice system eliminated Artisans lost ability to control or create guilds

Chartism

In the late 1830s, Britain acquired a mass working class movement organized around a "People's Charter” Movement began when in 1836 William Lovett (1800-1877)

formed London Working Men's Association.

The Charter had Six Points - all connected to how Parliament was run Universal male suffrage Annual elections Secret ballots Equal electoral districts Abolition of property qualifications for MPs Payments of members of parliament.

The movement was radical and quite sophisticated. Not entirely united as a movement - some would not accept

violence. Once conditions improved in late 1840s it lost some of its force. But

at one stage it had the support of 1/2 the people.

Early 19th c. Social life

Class, Family, and Gender

Changes in Social Structure

Growth of bourgeoisie (bankers, factory and mine owners, merchants,

shopkeepers, managers, lawyers, doctors) Values of work, thrift, ambition, caution

critics said materialism, selfishness, callousness Working class made up of rural laborers

farmers, cottage workers), miners, city workers

artisans, factory workers, servants Artisans

construction, printing, tailoring, dress making, food preparation, craftspeople were being squeezed by cheap, factory produced goods

Servants outnumbered factory workers and the chief profession of working class (esp. women)

Family Structure Family transformed from being basic

unit of production and consumption to being just basic unit of consumption

Early 19th c. families employed as a unit Mid/late 19th c. – factory work for

unskilled, unmarried women and children, supervised by some skilled men

Separation of families

Child Labor

High skilled workers could afford to send children to school Low skilled workers had their children work

with them English Factory Act of 1883

No children under 9 Limited hours for children 9-13 Required factories to pay for education Work day for adults and teens- 12 hours

Younger children –4 – 6 hours

Depiction of Society in Novels(Not in the book- just to add substance

18th c. fiction – focus on individual personalities 19th c. fiction – portrayal of social life in all varieties (manufacturers,

financiers, starving students, workers, bureaucrats, prostitutes, underworld figures, thieves, aristocratic men and women)

Honore de Balzac 95 novels many characters driven to climb social ladder

Charles Dickens Also climbing social ladder (father in debtors’ prison) Daily life of London Affects of industrialization and urbanization Problems of poor

Charlotte Bronte Jane Eyre Life of orphaned girl, becomes a governess, refuses to get ahead

through marriage George Sand (Amandine-Aurore Dupin)

Female French novelist Dressed like a man, smoked cigars

Women in Early Industrial Revolution

Gender division of labor Low paid factory work for single women Wages for men allowed some to support

family without wife working Supplements from working children Factory work still in the minority Most women were domestic servants or in

cottage industries Woman’s work more narrowly defined

Domestication and Subordination of Women

Domestication Women should live their lives within the

domestic sphere No education, no professional career,

no political life Women were legal incompetents

(children, insane, criminals)

Privileged Classes

Boys attended secondary schools/ girls home or church school Men wore practical clothing:

long trousers, short jackets, dark colors, no makeup (previously common – aristocracy), simple cut hair

Women dressed for decorative effect: Tightly corseted waists, long hair, requiring hours of brushing and pinning up, long, cumbersome skirts

Science reinforced stereotype Women were once seen as sexually insatiable (Middle Ages),

now described as incapacitated by menstruation and largely uninterested in sex (morally superior) – “Victorian woman”

Physicians and scholars considered women mentally inferior

Study Group/Individual Notes

Create Notes on the following subjects Problems of Crime and Order

New Police Forces Prison Reform

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Problems of Crime and Order

Political and economic elites in Europe were profoundly concerned about social order

Two major views about containing crime and criminals emerged during the nineteenth century: prison reform and better police systems

On of the key feature of the theory of a policed society is that crime may be prevented by the visible presence of law-enforcement officers

Government used to send criminal to prison ships called Hulks (not so incredible)

Individual cell for each prisoner and long periods of separation and silence among prisoners

Classical Economics

Economists whose thought derived largely from Adam Smith dominated private and public discussions of industrial and commercial policy, and often associated with Laissez-faire

Favored economic growth through competitive free enterprise

Distrusted government action Government should

maintain sound currency, enforce contracts, protect property, and impose low tariffs/taxes

Maintain enough armed forces and naval power to protect the nation’s economic structure and foreign trade

Zollverein=free trading union

Thomas Malthus Proposed that the population would out grow

the food supply Working class+ more $$ = more children =

more food and wages needed David Ricardo

Iron Law of Wages Wages go up- Parents have more children More Children working = Lower wages Lower wages = less children

Govt Policies and Classical Economics

France – July Monarchy built large building projects,

Did not address the issue of poverty Germany

The Zollverein – free trading union to eliminate tariffs Britain

Jeremy Bentham Used Utilitarianism as guide for govt. policies 1834 Poor Law

Dispersed relief at workhouses Poverty became an official social stigma

Repealed the Corn Laws Abolish tariff on grain that would lead to lower food prices

Irish potato famine real reason Started period of free trade in Britain

Early Socialists- French Utopian Socialists

Count Claude Henry de Saint-Simon (1760-1825) Planned economy -

Believed modern society requires modern management. Government by a board of directors.

Did not agree with wealth redistribution, but of making all not-poor by good management.

Followers known as Saint-Simonians

Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - Socialist Communities Dealt with problem of tedium in work - each worker have

several jobs and wander around from one to another so as to avoid tedium.

Proposed that special industrial communities be set up. There were called Phalansteres or Phalanxes. They  were communities on about 200 acres of land with 1500 people.

One set up in the US - Brook Farm, Mass, 1842-1847.  T

Only place this sort of socialism has ever worked is Israel - the kibbutz is an example of a Phalansteres.

Louis Blanc (1811-1882) - (Not really a Utopian.) Leader of industrial workers in the Paris region. Part of the French Cabinet (main government

committee) in France in just after the Revolution of 1848.

The state should promote socialist programs and guarantee employment through "National workshops."  Set up for a while, until liberals displaced Blanc from the government.

Pierre Joseph Proudhon (more an Anarchist) Claimed that the worker was source of all wealth,

and so would be able to use it. He ended up working for Louis III Napoleon.

Early English Socialism

Robert Owen (1771-1858) Born poor, Important and successful factory owner. Committed to improving life for workers. In his industrial center at 

New Lanark - Built houses and schools for children. Did not pay workers off during a depression. Made a Profit. He later organized an unsuccessful copy in the US at New

Harmony. Owen's Aims:

Thought people could be made better by better conditions (goes back to Locke).

Shows no need for bad conditions or low wages. Basically paternalistic. Ended his long life as a spiritualist

The Grand National Consolidated Trade Union The GNCTU was a mass union founded by Owen in 1830s. Tried to unite all workers into once huge union. Suffered a collapse in the 1830s. The idea that workers should be organized in unions was central to later

British socialism.

Anarchism

abolition of both capitalism and the state supported by followers of Blanc, Urged development of a professional

revolutionary vanguard to attack capitalist society

Attacked the banking system Society should be organized on the basis

of mutualism

Marxism Termed communism

Abolition of private property Derived from German Hegelianism, French socialism, and

British classical economics Conflict between dominant and subordinate social groups

generated conditions that led to the emergence of a new dominant social group. These new social relationships, in turn, generated new discontent, conflict, and development

Fate of proletariat is fate of humanity Human history must be understood rationally and as a

whole Class conflict become simplified during the early nineteenth

century into a struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat

Proletariats eventually will take over and organize production through propertyless and classless communist society

Karl Marx(1818-1883)

German. Born in Trier in Rhineland. Father was Jewish convert to Lutheranism for

employment reasons.

Marx himself was often anti-Semitic.

Married to an aristocrat's daughter. Went to Universities of Bonn, Berlin and Jena.

Published radical papers in Koln and Belgium, [Rheinische Zeitung] until 1849 when he came to live in London for many years.

Friedrich Engels(1820-1895)

German manufacturer's son. Lived in England and managed factory in

Manchester. Always politically aware and interested in the plight

of the workers.   His Condition of the Working Class in England

(1845) remains a classic account of the poverty in early industrial Manchester. 

Engels supported Marx for many years. Marx's only real friend. Met 1844 Co-wrote the Communist Manifesto with Marx

Marx and the First International 1864-1876

(The International Working Men's Association)

Marx worked to unite all the socialist organizations

It included, Trade unionists, socialists, anarchists,

and Polish nationalists. He made an accommodation to the

evolutionary trends in Socialism.

The Appeal of Marxism

It is important to note that Marxism was very appealing to many in Europe.

Authority as a Science:  Marxism claimed to be "scientific." Marx said he had proved his doctrines.

There was the belief what he said would inevitably come about.

1848 Revolutions

Series of liberal/nationalistic revolutions erupted across Continent, similar conditions: severe food shortages widespread unemployment bad living condition Extreme nationalism, especially in Austria

Dynamic force for change originated with political liberals; pushed for more civil liberty representation unregulated

economy; motivated by British success liberals tried to motivate urban working classes, then they

began to fight each other Results stunning:

French monarchy fell, others shaken; revolutions were false spring, didn’t establish liberal/national

states; liberals isolated themselves from working class, fell easy

prey to reactionary armies

France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

Liberal opposition to corrupt Louis Philippe minister Guizot hosted criticizing banquets; poor harvests brought working class on liberals

side; govt. banned banquets Feb21,1848 Parisian workers paraded clashed on Feb22, Guizot resigned Louis Philippe abdicated, fled on Feb24

The National Assembly and Paris Workers

Liberal opposition led by Alphonse de Lamartine made provisional govt.,

wanted to call for assembly to write republican constitution working classes wanted social rev. as well led by Louis Blanc, they demanded representation in

cabinet: Blanc+2 other radicals made ministers and govt. organized national workshops for work/relief for unemployed

Apr23, election(male suffrage) chose National Assembly, controlled by moderates and conservatives small landowning peasants feared socialists

In May, govt. troops/Parisian crowd clashed; National Assembly phased out workshops – June, barricades went up in Pari

General Cavaignac moved to destroy opposition killed 3.4K: drive for social revolution had ended

Emergence of Louis Napoleon Uprising confirmed political power of conservative property

holders, Wanted safety for property;

1848 presidential election Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew): doomed the republic Louis dedicated to own fame, modern dictator who quarreled w/Assembly:

1851, Assembly refused to let president run for reelection Dec2, Napoleon seized power; troops dispersed Assembly, he called for new elections: 200 people died, 26K arrested,

10K transported to Algeria Napoleon elected through plebiscite, Dec1852, plebiscite approved creation of empire (2nd time

in 50 yrs France turned from republic to Ceasarism)

Frenchwomen in 1848:

major feminist activity 1848-52, some even tried to vote Vesuvians: most radical group, demonstrations lost

support from modest feminists Organized Voix des femmes(Women’s voice), newspaper

and later society; members relatively conservative, argued for more liberty – provisional govt. ignored them

French feminists defeated and frustrated, crackdown on clubs, close of workshops repressed women – women associated w/newspaper tried to organize

workers groups Jeanne Deroin/Pauline Roland arrested/tried/ imprisoned

by 1852, entire feminist movement eradicated

The Habsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted

Habsburg empire susceptible to revolution: borders cut national lines/govt. rejected

liberal institutes/perpetuated serfdom Even Metternich urged reform, 1848, confronted w/big rebellions:

Vienna/Prague/Hungary/Italy/Germany

The Vienna Uprising:

Louis Kossuth, Magyar nationalist Hungarian diet-ist, demanded Hungarian

independence(March3,1848), 10 days later, students led disturbances in Vienna; Army failed to restore order Metternich resigned/fled

Emperor Ferdinand(r.1835-48) promised moderate/liberal constitution:

radical students formed democratic clubs May17, emperor/imperial court fled to Innsbruck Govt. of Vienna controlled by over 200 concerned people

Habsburg govt. actually feared serf uprising emancipated serfs immediately after Vienna uprising Hungarian diet abolished serfdom March1848 serfs now had little reason to support revolution

The Magyar Revolt

Magyar leaders of March Rev. guaranteed no central govt. in Vienna

Hungarian diet passed the March Laws: ensured religious equality/jury trials/free press/nobility

taxes; Emp Ferdinand approved measures

Magyars hoped to have independent Hungarian/Habsburg state; tried to annex Transylvania/Croatia/Eastern Habsburg

Empire; national groups resisted, didn’t want Hungarian language

imposed – late March, Vienna govt. sent Count Joseph Jellachich to

aid national groups; by Sept, he was leading invasion force against Hungary

(liberalism v. nationalism)

Czech Nationalism

Mid-March, Czech nationalists demanded Bohemia/Moravia be permitted to constitute autonomous Slavic state(like Hungary),

conflict b/t Czechs/Germans Czechs summoned congress of Slavs in Prague: under

Francis Palacky Pan-Slavic Congress issued manifesto calling for

national Slav equality/ stop to foreign Slav repression idea of Pan-Slavism important later in history, Russia uses to try to gain support of nationalist minorities

Radical insurrection broke in Prague day Congress closed(June12);

General Prince Alfred Windischgraetz suppressed radicals by June17; local Germans approved “divide and conquer” worked

Rebellion in Northern Italy:

in addition to Hungary/Czechs, Habsburg faced war in northern Italy;

rev. against Habsburgs began in Milan, March18; 5 days later, Austrian commander retreated

King Charles of Piedmont wanted to expand kingdom of Lombardy, aided rebels; Austrians losing until General Radetzky defeated

Piedmont/suppressed revolution Vienna/Hungary needed to be recaptured: Emp. Ferdinand returned to capital, new assembly trying to write constitution; when new insurrection

broke in Oct., imperial govt. crushed it; Emp Ferdinand abdicated for his nephew Francis Joseph(r.1848-

1916) real power lay w/Prince Felix Schwarzenberg(army) Jan 5,1849, troops occupied Budapest, by March, Austria imposed

military rule over Hungary/repudiated constitution Magyars revolted again, crushed w/support from Tsar Nicholas I of

Russia Habsburg govt. survived gravest internal challenge

Italy: Republicanism Defeated Many Italians hoped King Charles of Piedmont would drive Austria

away liberal/ nationalistic hope shifted to Pope Pius IX w/liberal reputation in Rome, political radicalism on rise

Democratic radical killed Count Pelligrino Rossi (Nov15,1848) liberal minister of Papal States Next day, demonstrations forced pope to appoint radical ministry

pope fled to Naples Feb1849, radicals proclaimed Roman Republic, repubs flocked to Rome:

Giuseppe Mazzini/Giuseppe Garibaldi hoped to unite Italy March, radicals in Piedmont fored Charles Albert to renew war

w/Austria; After immediate defeat at Battle of Novara, King abdicated for son,

Victor Emmanuel II(r.1849-78): defeat meant Roman Republic must defend itself alone Louis Napoleon of Franc supported pope/didn’t want powerful Italy,

Attacked Rome/restored pope: Early June, 10K French soldiers siege Rome/dissolved Roman Republic – Pius IX

returned/renounced liberalism/became conservative

Germany: Liberalism Frustrated

Wuerttemberg/Saxony/Hanover/Bavaria all had insurrections for liberal govt/greater German unity

major rev. occurred in Prussia

Revolution in Prussia:

March1848, large disturbances erupted in Berlin Frederick William IV believed trouble came from

foreigners, refused to attack Berliners/announced limited reforms king also called for Prussian constituent to from

constitution; next day, saluted slain subjects/made concessions/implied

that Prussia would aid movement towards unified Germany (monarchy capitulated)

Prussian constituent assembly were radical/democratic

Frederick William IV ignored them liberal ministry resigned/replaced by conservatives Apr1849, assembly dissolved/monarch proclaimed own

constitution: 3-class voting: all adult males could vote, but weighed by ability to pay

taxes, ministry/Prussian army responsible to king alone

The Frankfurt Parliament

May18,1848, reps from all German states gathered in Frankfurt to revise organization of German Confederation,

wanted to write moderate/liberal constitution; Frankfurt Parliament lost support of workers/artisan by not restoring

guilds(liberals wanted laissez faire)/divided them permanently Frankfurt Parliament called in troops of German Confed. to

suppress radical insurrection(Sept,1848) liberals didn’t want violence/destruction of property

Parliament floundered on inclusion of Austria in united Germany Grossdeutsch wanted inclusion Kleindeutsch wanted exclusion – Austria rejected unification, Germany always looked to Prussia for leadership anyways

Parliament produced constitution(March27,1849) afterwards, delegates offered crown to Frederick William IV

he rejected, though monarchies came by grace of God, not constitutions – on his refusal,

Frankfurt Parliament began to dissolve troops drove off remaining members

German liberals couldn’t step up to the plate failed to unite Germany/ confront realities of power in German states