Ecological sanitation latrines: The experience of Nepal · of ecological sanitation toilets. Need...

Ecological sanitation latrines:The experience of Nepal

This paper highlightsacceptance and userelated issues,lessons learned andchallengesexperienced forscaling up of EcoSan.

September 2008

WaterAid’s mission is toovercome poverty byenabling the world’spoorest people to gainaccess to safe water,sanitation and hygieneeducation.

WaterAid/Marco Betti

WaterAid in Nepal

The urbanisation trend indeveloping countries includingNepal is accelerating, thusexacerbating the condition ofproper sanitation coverage. Despitegreater sanitation coverage in urbanareas compared to rural parts ofNepal, access to sanitation facilitiesdoes not solve the problem ofimproved sanitation. This isbecause conventional latrinesnormally lead to various otherpressing environmental problems,along with the injustice of scarcewater resources for flushing latrinesto keep excreta out of sight, whichmeans that other community-accepted sustainable solutions areneeded. Therefore, considering thepresent context and sanitationsituation of the country, there is aneed for a holistic approach to callfor hygienic, sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives and hence,ecological sanitation toilets.

This paper argues that Nepal'shistorical acceptance of ecologicalsanitation, and its recent experiencein using the approach - set out in theevidence presented here - mean thatEcological Sanitation (Ecosan) couldbe very valuable. It could confrontthese problems and provide

Abstract

Fieldwork paper

potential "added value" to the livelihoodlink through agricultural production andwater and environment conservation. Thispaper highlights acceptance and userelated issues, lessons learned andchallenges experienced for scaling up.

Ms. ChandrawatiMaharjan from Gamcha,

Kirtipur showing hercomposting latrine.

WaterAid/Anita Pradhan

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Global contextThere are at least 2.6 billion people (ie 80% ofthe global population in the world) withoutimproved sanitation. But technically, evenaccess to improved sanitation does not solvethe problem of sanitation becauseconventional latrines (usually pit latrines orpour flush latrines) often fail to sanitise andtherefore do not provide safe sanitationaccess to the maximum number of people.Among the reasons for this are: in many areassoil conditions are inappropriate forconventional types of sanitation, andelsewhere, the water table is often too high,rendering ground water susceptible topollution. In addition, conventional latrines (iethe septic tank and sewage treatmentsystems) often discharge into the environmentwith little or no sanitisation, or nutrientremoval. Therefore, the figure for people inneed of access to hygienic and sustainablesanitation is actually higher than 2.6 billion.

While the proportion of people having accessto sanitation services is considerably greaterin urban areas than in rural areas in Nepal,the situation is changing because of thedemographic change taking place, and whichis characterised by rural to urban drift. Thisrapid and uncontrolled drift has been fuelledby rural dwellers' desire for jobs, which theyseek to provide a better income and standardof life.

Additionally, the reality of the situation inurban areas may be compounded byoverstated estimates of coverage; this is dueto the nature of informal settlement in andaround towns and cities. There are largedisparities between "haves", who reside inthe formal city and have access to reasonablelevels of service (often at subsidised rates),and the "have-nots", who have createdsettlements that are not yet adopted by thecity authorities.

Context of NepalThe current global trend of urbanisation iscreating pressure on Nepal's eco-system. Nepalis also struggling with the most rapidurbanisation trend in the South Asian sub-continent, with around 15% of its totalpopulation living in 58 designated urban areas.This figure is expected to reach 23% by 2016because the urban population is increasing at6.6% a year, reflecting an increase in migrationto towns as an escape from rural poverty,conflict and the reclassification of emergingtowns from villages to municipalities.

Present sanitation coverage in Nepalindicates that only around 46% of the totalpopulation has access to some kind of latrinefacilities. The scale of the problem is furtherillustrated by the present achievement madeby the country to meet MillenniumDevelopment Goal (MDG) targets. The toiletsconstructed in some parts of the countryoften fail to meet required level of hygiene.The challenge is to increase the toiletcoverage and its accessibility by increasingthe depth of understanding amongcommunities to ensure sustained use andhygiene behaviour. In all circumstances, atoilet must be hygienic, safe, environmentallyfriendly and affordable.

Background

Mr. Gopal Dongol and others from Khokana,Lalitpur testing the potato grown up using thecompost from the composting latrine. Thepotato was grown up as part of the researchinto the impact of urine on agricultureproductivity at his field.

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Most of Nepal's major cities are short of waterand subject to critical environmentaldegradation. Their urban areas are among themost polluted; the peri-urban areas are alsogradually being polluted, as seweragedischarged from centralised systems ispolluting surface water and seepage fromsewers and septic tanks, while pit latrines arepolluting groundwater. Even if the sanitationcrisis can be communicated to andunderstood by more people, the need to findeco-friendly alternatives to conventionaltechnologies for developing countries likeNepal remain. Therefore, considering thepresent context and sanitation situation of thecountry, there is a dire need of holisticapproach to call for hygienic, sustainable andeco-friendly alternatives, and hence the optionof ecological sanitation toilets.

Need for alternatives

The goal of closing the nutrient and watercycles needs to be fulfilled on a large scale torender current sanitation practices eco-friendly.However, it is generally agreed that it is wise tore-use nutrients and save resources. The Ecosantoilet technology fulfils this aim and provideseffective alternative solutions, with or withoutwater, because this technology can be viewedas a three-step process, dealing with humanexcreta: ie containment, sanitisation (treatment)and recycling.

Basic principles of Ecosan latrine:Offers a safe sanitation solution thatprevents disease and promotes health bysuccessfully and hygienically removingpathogen-rich excreta from theimmediate environmentEnvironmentally sound because it doesn'tcontaminate groundwater and also savesscarce water resources

An introduction to Ecosan

Recovers and recycles the nutrients from theexcreta and, thus, creates a valuable resource toreduce the need for artificial fertilisers in agriculturefrom what is usually regarded as a waste product.

The Ecosan latrine, therefore, represents aconceptual shift in the relationship between peopleand environment, being built on the necessary linkbetween people and soil. The technology helps tomaintain healthy humans and a natural environmentby using affordable and appropriate technologies,and matching the needs of the country.

The basic objective of this paper is to share thestatus of Ecosan latrines in Nepal and theexperiences achieved so far in promoting Ecosanlatrine technology in Nepal. In addition, the paperhas the following specific objectives:

To understand the historical context behind thepromotion of Ecosan latrines in Nepal and itsrelevance in its urban contextTo highlight the status of Ecological Sanitation(Ecosan) latrines in Nepal and share theexperiences regarding gender roles, livelihoodlink, financing systems and the lessons learntTo understand and analyse the major issues andchallenges in acceptance and use of Ecosanlatrines in Nepal for scaling upTo understand the options pointing the wayforward to scale up this technology to confrontvarious environmental problems in anacceptable and affordable way.

Objective

FIGURE 1 Ecosan – closing the sanitation loop

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The methodology below was adopted whilepreparing this paper:

The paper was prepared with referenceto the report: "Study of Ecosanassessment in Nepal" prepared byWaterAid Nepal (WAN) and theEnvironment and Public HealthOrganisation (ENPHO)1 in 2007.Besides this, additional sources ofinformation to shape this paper were the

Methodology

Understanding technology and types ofEcosan latrines in NepalThe Ecosan latrine technology, promoted inNepal to date, works on a three-systemprocess. The first system collects faeces inshallow pits separating them from urine andthe second system processes faeces forcomposting (ie two of its three main systemsprocess the excreta in shallow pits). The thirdsystem keeps urine separate from faeceswhere they are processed separately.

All the Ecosan latrines in Nepal are promotedand built on the principle that when soil andashes are added to faeces, the mixture rapidlybreaks down to produce compost that is anasset to any farm or garden. The mixture isodourless, as long as it is not too wet. Ecosanlatrines are permanent, easy to handle,generate rich compost over time, and arecheap compared (limiting not only to initialinvestment) to other sanitation technologies.

Therefore, Ecosan latrine technology, havingthree step structures - containment,sanitisation and recycling - takes the principleof environmental sanitation a step further asit is structured on the aforementioned three

Ecosan latrines in Nepalkey steps. This means it keeps the nutrient andwater cycle in a closed loop sanitation processwith a low energy approach that uses acomplete natural process.

The Ecosan latrines constructed in Nepal aremore or less the same design but with slightmodifications in design, construction materialsand use. Based on the principles of operation,the following types are the major ones:

Double Vault Urine Diversion (DVUD)

review of various available literature, researchpapers, articles and reports on varioussanitation options including ecologicalsanitation; re-use of human excreta, pathogendie-off, etcField observations through visits to thesettlements and interaction with Ecosan users,their neighbourhood and Ecosan promoterswere also conducted to flavour this paper withfield-based experiences.

Ms. Shova Maharjan fromGamcha, Kirtipur cleaning hercomposting latrine.

1 ENPHO is an implementing partner of WaterAid in Nepal

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Single Vault Moveable Container Type(SVMCT) - also called indoor EcosanTwo Vault Solar Model (TVSM)Urine Diversion Pour Flush (UDPF) - alsocalled wet Ecosan toilet

Relevance of Ecosan latrines in urbancontext of NepalGrowing cities such as Kathmandu have beenaffected by water crisis and environmentimbalances in the recent decade ofurbanisation. Thousands of migrants andconcrete cultures demand a water andsanitation facility. Ironically, more water isbeing wasted for flushing toilets than is usedfor drinking. A conventional sanitation facilityis intricate in terms of commission andoperation. It harbours many loopholes. Itadds more wastewater than is manageable.Rivers and ponds now are merely an opensewer for most periods of the year.

An alternative approach to the gradualdecline of the existing scenario has been putforward in recent years as a solution to thewater crisis and pollution control. However,the approach adopted by the Ecosan toilettechnology is not new for farmers of urbanand peri-urban areas of Nepal, particularlyKathmandu Valley, which has been practicingthe use of "night soil" in combination withanimal waste, kitchen and other agriculturalwaste as the main fertilisers in theagricultural fields for decades. In this context,apart from fulfilling the sanitation purpose,the Ecological Sanitation (Ecosan) system isreviving the traditional, yet forgotten, art ofapplying night soil to agricultural fields. Inaddition, the Ecosan toilet also incorporatesalmost all the dimensions of environmentalsanitation concerning water conservation,pollution minimisation and environmentalsoundness.

The Ecosan latrine - a hygienic sanitationoption - prevents pollution, fights infections,saves water, promotes zero waste

management and encourages foodproduction. Realising these benefits, theurban farmers of Nepal, particularly urbanand peri-urban dwellers of Kathmandu valley,historically accepted the technology andcreated an environment to persuade othersto replicate it. Considering its potential to"add value" to agricultural production and towater, and its environment conservation, ithas become gradually easier to promote thistechnology in other peri-urban areas. Ecosanlatrines, therefore, seem to be the rightproduct at the right time, particularly for theurban and peri-urban dwellers. Based on theliterature, the demand for these latrinesseem to be fuelled by:

Declining fertility of landIncreased cost of artificial fertiliser, andrelated povertyHigh number of subsistence farmers inthe urban and peri-urban areasMinimum use of waterPossibilities of groundwatercontamination reduced (where there is ahigh water table).

Status of Ecosan latrines in NepalIn Nepal, the concept of Ecosan toilettechnology was piloted in Nepal in 2002 withthe implementation of Double Vault urinediverting dry toilets by ENPHO (with thesupport of WAN in Khokana, by theDepartment of Water Supply and Sewerage(DWSS), and with technical support from theDevelopment Network (DNet) Pvt Ltd) andfinancial support from the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) in Siddhipur. BothKhokana and Siddhipur are the peri-urbanareas and are located in the outskirts ofLalitpur sub-metropolitan city but within theLalitpur district of Nepal. Both programmeswere well accepted and admired by thecommunity as they had two advantages.Firstly, for the service of latrine facilities and,secondly, because the human wasteproduced therein was recoverable andrecyclable, creating a valuable resource for

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agricultural needs. This was for the first timein Nepal that latrines were linked toeconomic benefits and livelihoodopportunities for people.

With the success of the pilot programmes,the Ecosan latrine technology was graduallypromoted to various other parts of urbanand peri-urban areas of Nepal by manyleading organisations including: Water AidNepal (WAN) through partners such asENPHO, LUMANTI (Support Group forShelter), Centre for Integrated UrbanDevelopment (CIUD), Nepal Water for Health(NEWAH), and DWSS. During the pilot stage,Thimi municipality was engaged withNEWAH in promoting this type oftechnology. However, support wassporadically also being provided atmunicipal levels, which are not now fullyinvolved in promoting and developing thistechnology. The passivity of municipalitiesmay be because of vacant local bodies, ielack of elected representatives in localgovernments or may be put down to theirinadequate knowledge of Ecosan and itsthree-fold benefits, which made themsuspect the functioning of Ecosan in urbanareas.

Within five years of experiences in Nepal, 517Ecosan toilets were constructed andpracticed, with 97% of them in proper use, iekept clean, well maintained and subsequentuse the compost as fertiliser for their localagricultural fields. Similarly, around 100Ecosan toilets are under construction underWAN's support through its implementingpartners. The majority of the Ecosan toiletswere constructed within the peri-urban areasof Kathmandu Valley, and as few as 8% wereconstructed outside the valley.

Some 81% of Ecosan users list agriculture astheir main occupation, with 73% owningagricultural land of more than 510 m2, andsome 8% do not own any land. Around 91%of Ecosan users do not have any alternative

toilets except open defecation, 4% have pitsan, 4% have pour flush san and theremaining 1% have modern flush san.The Nepalese government recognised theEcosan toilet as one of the most importantand inevitable sanitation options availableand suggested, in its paper on sanitation,that Ecosan needs to be promoted(SACOSAN, 2003). This technology is alsobeing gradually piloted in rural areas ofNepal by ENPHO and DWSS, with slightmodifications in the concept and design.Based on the acceptance of the technologyby the rural community, ENPHO, DWSS andother agencies (mentioned below) are alsotrying to replicate this modified Ecosan toilettechnology in rural areas, under the name:WET Ecosan toilet.

Actors involved in promoting Ecosantechnology in Nepal work on two levels:a. Implementation level: ENPHO, Lumanti,

CIUD, NEWAH, NRCS, CODEF, DNet Pvt Ltd,Plan Nepal, DWSS etc

b. Donor level: WaterAid Nepal, WHO, UN-HABITAT and Practical Action Nepal as ofnow.

Assessment of Ecosan latrines in Nepal: anindication of successThe assessment study of the Ecosan toilet inNepal was conducted by WaterAid Nepalthrough ENPHO in 2006 in 440 householdsof 18 clusters, including five clusters outside

2006

0

200

300

400

500

600

100

2003 2004 2005

Year

ECOSAN

num

ber

FIGURE 2 Number of ECOSAN toilets in Nepal

Source: WAN and ENPHO, 2006

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Kathmandu Valley. In addition, theneighbours (32% of the surveyedhouseholds using Ecosan toilets) are alsoincluded in the study so their perception onthe merits and pitfalls of this technology canbe documented and considered.

Perception of Ecosan usersThe general perceptions of people onECOSAN were found encouraging. 71% of theusers felt excited whereas 19% expressedtheir satisfaction. However 9% expressed theneed for further improvement whereas 1%expressed negative perceptions towards thistechnology. Similarly, the majority of theneighbours of the ECOSAN users (44%)expressed a positive perception of ECOSANwhereas 36% expressed satisfaction and 18%expressed the need for further improvementand 2% of them are not convinced.

The motivation for becoming attracted to theEcosan toilet is mainly due to easyavailability of fertilisers (according to 71% ofrespondents). Similarly, 17% expressed thatEcosan offers safe sanitation andenvironmentally sound technology and, thus,protects the environment. Some 9% ofrespondents were influenced by theirneighbours' use of Ecosan latrines, and 3%were attracted by the subsidy.

Around 93% of Ecosan toilets are used by allfamily members, including children; some4% are used only by adults, and theremaining 3% are used only by female familymembers. Similarly, 98% of respondents useEcosan for defecation and urination, while2% do not use it for urination, particularlymales, which may be due to difficulties theymight have in urinating in standing positions.Use of faeces and urineTechnology of the Ecosan toilet, as alreadymentioned, constitutes three steps (iecontainment, sanitisation and recycling),which are practiced by collecting in the vault,composting and finally applying the compostin the field as fertiliser.

Composting of organic waste is one of thetraditional practices of farmer families inNepal, especially in Kathmandu. Mostfamilies are aware about the need to storethe content of the vault (ie faeces for fewdays) before applying it in the field.

So, the majority of the users (54%) practicethis by storing for a few days either in the sun(24%) or in a shed (30%) before fieldapplication. After emptying the vault, some27% mix the faeces with other compostingmaterials in a compost pit for co-compostingbefore applying to the field. The remaining19% said that due to lack of space forcomposting, they apply the vault content(digested faeces) directly in the field.

Though toilet owners are very much awareof the importance of urine and its nutrientvalue, its application is not practiced asmuch as expected. Only 33% of the usersapply in the field, whereas 46% of themprefer to use it for composting. Similarly,due to lack of agricultural land on which to

FIGURE 3

Not good 1%

Good but uneasy 18%

Okay 36%

Very good 44%

So So 19%

bad 1%

good but uneasy 9%

good 71%

Perception of users towards ECOSAN


General perceptions of users and neighbours towards ECOSAN

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apply urine, 2% of them shared with theneighbours once the urine collection tanksare full while the remaining 19% used tothrow it down the drain. Some 70% useurine for vegetables, 22% for all kinds ofcrops and 6% use it in annual crops such aswheat, maize, and paddy, etc. However,efforts to improve the collection, storageand use of urine are necessary for betteroutputs by preventing the possible loss ofnutrients through waste of urine downdrains.

All Ecosan users collect urine in a urinecollection tank, kept inside the toilet andused in the agricultural field in a 1:3 ratio ofurine to water. Some 60% of the Ecosanusers had experience of increment inproduction, 24% noted little difference, and16% found no change in production at all.Regarding quality of taste, 55% experiencedimproved quality and taste, 15% found nochange and the remaining 30% didn't noticeany difference.

None of the Ecosan users expressed concernsregarding a decrease in production inquantity and quality when urine was appliedas fertiliser. Indeed, the majority expressedpositive results in production whencompared to that grown without theapplication of urine. They also respondedthat urine acts as a pesticide.

FIGURE 4 Uses of faeces after emptying vault chamber

Directly to field 19%

Ca-composting beforefield application 27%

Store for few daysprior field application 54%

Willingness to install Ecosan latrinesIn project areas where Ecosan toilets arebeing promoted, every household does nothave an Ecosan toilet. Some are usingconventional sanitation options likeprimarily pit san, flush san and opendefecation. Some 60% of Ecosan usersexpressed that their neighbours hold astrong interest in and appreciation of thetechnology; 32% are generally positive, and11% feel dissatisfied and unconvinced withthis technology. Around 65% of the peoplepracticing open defecation (ie without anyform of toilet facility) expressed willingnessto build Ecosan toilets (40% with and 25%without subsidy), 14% are indecisive, and21% are not willing to invest in any form oftoilet.

Link with agricultureIt is encouraging to know that only 2% of theusers are against Ecosan toilets, whereas the

FIGURE 5 Application of urine

Shared with neighbours 2%

Waste in drains 19%

Used Directly in the field 33%

Used for composting 46%

FIGURE 6 Changes in production due to application of urine

Don’t Know 16%

Increased 60%

No change 24%

Source: WAN and ENPHO, 2006 Source: WAN and ENPHO, 2006


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majority (69%) expressed their satisfaction ofthis technology and requested to scale up asfar as possible. Some 14% indicated theneed to expand the coverage (but withmodification as per the location andindividual needs) whereas 13% expressed theneed for awareness while promoting thetechnology to scale up in new areas.

Most of the Ecosan users are agriculturalistsby occupation and so, more or less, familiarwith the methods of making compost andco-compost through mixing the humusformed in toilets with infertile and worked-

FIGURE 7 Changes in quality due to application of urine

Don’t Know 30%

Increased 55%

No change 15%

FIGURE 8 Willingness to install ECOSAN toilets

No to ECOSAN 21%

No Subsidy 40%

Indecisive 14%

Need Subsidy 25%

out soil. They mostly appreciate that all thefertile materials can be mixed to form anenriched soil suitable for planting vegetablesand other crops. Such humus, when properlyused in agriculture, helps to improve foodyields considerably, thus providing morefood security and improving the nutritionalstatus of the beneficiaries. The urine on theother hand can be used as the main fertilisersource for growing crops, such as greenvegetables and maize, etc. The potential foran important relationship between sanitationand agriculture has been appreciated andusers are further motivated by this to useEcosan toilets.

BOX 1 Research on pathogen die off in stored faeces

Untreated human faeces contain large amounts of pathogenicorganisms, which may be of high risk to the users. For safehandling, it is imperative that the faeces should be free ofpathogenic organisms. Hence, a better understanding on thefate of micro-organisms (including pathogens) during thestorage period is essential to provide safe and sanitary use ofhuman faeces as fertiliser. A storage period of six months hasbeen set for the complete inactivation of micro-organisms inEcosan of various countries.

Research on the investigation of pathogen die off in storedfaeces was conducted in different design of Ecosan latrines,with different storage periods ranging from 180 to 300 days byWAN and ENPHO in 2005 in Nepal. The study revealed that thefaeces storage period of 300 days is sufficient for the completeinactivation of pathogen (Ecoli, Total coliform and Enterococci)indicators as per the standards given by WHO and USEPA.Similarly, it was also revealed that the pathogen die off is moresignificant in co-composted faeces.

Ms. Astha DeviSahukhal, at her family'scomposting latrine




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Gender roles in Ecosan latrinesEcosan has had an interesting effect on thegender roles associated with latrineconstruction. During the assessment study,it was found that in households withEcosan toilets (dry Ecosan or wet Ecosan, ieurine diversion toilets), the task ofemptying the urine container and the vault(also called faecal bin) seems to be that ofmales, but when it comes to conventionalpit-san toilets, the task was usually carriedout by women. Thus, Ecosan related task

has not contradicted societal norms aboutthe division of duties, while new ideasregarding benefits of recycling nutrients canintroduce new values. In addition, theproduction of fertiliser through the use ofEcosan toilet has influenced both gendersin the importance of latrines and theirproper maintenance to benefit from thecompost produced. However, someconcerns were shown by somecommunities about disposing of menstrualblood in the Ecosan toilet, and such apractice also poses a challenge for thereuse of urine as fertiliser.

The experience, based on thefindings of the Ecosanassessment study conductedby WAN and ENPHO in 2006,showed that the use ofEcosan is accepted not onlyby the adult members of thefamily, but also by thechildren (as they were madeaware by the family) and inschools through a value-based water and sanitationeducation programme. Themen shared oppositeinterests to the women, whowere more interested in thehygiene aspects of latrine usethan the fertiliser. However,the end result is the same, areduction in children's faecesaround the compound andsettlements' surroundings.Apart from the children,women too, who otherwisepracticed open defecation,now used this toilet withgreater confidence, privacyand security at any time(particularly at night) as theyused to during opendefecation.

A compostinglatrine user fromThimee showing

his latrine.


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Financing Ecosan

Costs of Ecosan: a comparison with othersanitation optionsThe ecological sanitation (Ecosan) toilet is anew type of toilet in which urine and faecesare collected separately and used as fertiliserand manure, respectively for growing cropsand vegetables. The farmers of thecommunity accepted the technology andcreated an environment to persuade othersto replicate it considering its potential to"add value" to their agricultural production,to the water and to environmentconservation.

Similarly, the quality of toilets relating towater conservation and environmentalsoundness are least discussed. However, theEcosan toilet incorporates all of thesedimensions and therefore seems to be a littlebit costly at the time of investment. But thisapparent costliness is felt before people havereally analysed its future benefits - more thanany type of other sanitation option. On thisvery basis, the Ecosan toilet should not beconsidered as expensive sanitation option,although the community people often sharedthis misconception.

Despite all its merits, one of the commoncriticisms faced by Ecosan promoters is thatthe toilet is expensive. No doubt, there is acost associated with building structures thatcan separately collect and store faeces andurine properly; Ecosan toilets do cost morethan simple pit latrines. However, one needsto understand that Ecosan is more than atoilet; it is actually a toilet and a treatment orrecycling system. In this context, the cost of

Ecosan is significantly less than other toiletsand treatment systems.

Subsidy policy for constructionof an Ecosan toiletWaterAid Nepal considers subsidy as apromotional tool, not a crutch, ensuring thatthe rate at which latrines are built remainsacceptably high while simultaneously, thelevel of subsidy is not so high that theproduct is devalued. However, achieving theright balance is difficult and should beregarded as more of an art than a science.When we look at the subsidy policy forpromoting Ecosan toilets in Nepal, everyhousehold should always make a financialcontribution towards the cost of their Ecosantoilet, even though in some cases this maybe relatively small. The programmecontributes only to the pan level, whichincludes two vaults for faeces storage, aurine storage tank, and two pans in case ofdry Ecosan otherwise one for wet Ecosantoilet.

The Ecosan promotion programme howeverconsiders the materials, which would includebricks, grass, bamboo and labour (unskilled)works, etc, provided by latrine users whilediscussing the financial aspects of latrineconstruction. The reason behind this is thatthe value of labour (ie the value of a person'stime) is equivalent to the amount of moneythat the person could have earned if theywere not employed in latrine construction,and thus considered this an "opportunitycost" in community contribution for latrineconstruction.

Further details can be found in Annex 1.

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So far, various organisations, includingENPHO, have been promoting Ecosan toiletsby providing technical assistance as well asfinancial assistance to cover the cost of thetoilet till pan level. The project providesfinancial contribution to the pan level onlyand wants the rest of the superstructure tobe built by the owners. So, out of the totalcost of an Ecosan toilet: ie (Nepal rupees)NRs 16,000 (GBP £120); NRs 6,000 (GBP£45) will be contributed by the toilet userand NRs 10,000 (GBP £75) by the project to

ensure financial contribution up to pan level,again excluding unskilled labour works. Thiscontribution from the project, which amountsto around 60% of the total costs, isconsidered a subsidy and has beeninstrumental in generating demand evenwhen the technology is relatively new. Aspeople become more aware about thebenefits of the technology, the subsidy canbe gradually reduced or replaced byprovision of low-interest loans throughrevolving funds.

Social status of Ecosan toilets: There is amisconception among potential users thatmore costly and water consuming toilets arethe best, which has led them to install watercarriage toilets. At present, most Ecosantoilets are constructed in poorercommunities with financial subsidies as apromotional tool. Unfortunately, this feedsthe existing misconception that the Ecosantoilets are specifically developed for poorersections of the community.

Orientation to the outsiders on the use ofEcosan toilet: The major problem raised bythe users of the Ecosan toilet is the need toorient and familiarise outsiders or guestswith how to use the toilet. There were hardlyany complaints regarding the odour andcleaning of toilets (unlike other toilets, onecannot pour water freely to clean an Ecosantoilet). In fact, the majority of users didn'treport any problems with their Ecosantoilets.

Challenges in developmentand scaling up

Odour: A few Ecosan toilet users didcomplain about a bad smell and it is stillconsidered an issue by them. It was observedthat a shift from conventional pit or flushtoilets to Ecosan will be more easily acceptedif there is little or no odour from the excreta.Covering the faeces with additives (such asash, rice husks, saw dusts, lime, etc)effectively reduces the smell, and zero smellcan be achieved by ventilation. Problemsexperienced with the odour are not a resultof a fault with the technology, but a lack ofsufficient level of awareness and knowledgeon proper functionality and maintenance ofthe Ecosan toilet among users.

Space constraints: Despite being a goodand environmentally friendly technology, alack of space within people's housesobstructed the installation of some Ecosantoilets. Similarly, the lack of an agriculturalfield also discouraged the communitypeople to install this type of latrine. Despitethe absence of agricultural land, somepeople installed an Ecosan toilet with somemodifications in their households andprovided the content of the vault to theneighbours for application in their field. It is

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believed that the constraints of space withinpremises or the lack of agricultural land arethe main challenges faced to scaling up thistechnology. The driving factor for thepromotion of the Ecosan toilet is due to itseconomic value rather than its health value.Because of this reason, as in peri-urbanareas, it has not been possible to promoteand scale up this technology in the informalsettlements (eg slums and squatters) inmost of the dense urban areas, where otheroptions of sanitation facilities are beingpromoted.

Level of awareness and knowledge on theimportance and management of urine: Thelevel of satisfaction from the use of urine asa fertiliser is low compared to the use ofhuman excreta (faeces). This may be due to anumber of reasons:

a. Lack of understanding, knowledge andawareness regarding the effectivemethods of urine handling, recycling andits use in co-composting. It is eithersimply not collected and thereforewasted, or collected in small vessels (inmost cases) that are not airtight, leadingto nitrogen loss

b. Transportation of urine from toilet to farmarea is problematic

c. Confusion regarding quantity of urineapplication in the field and for co-composting

d. Low level of knowledge on theimportance of urine, its nutrient potentialand subsequent impact on agriculturalproduction. Lack of quantitative benefitsof urine application is hindering themotivation for the use of urine.

Less consideration of environmentalsoundness attributed by Ecosan toilet: Theenvironmental benefits of the Ecosan

toilets are not considered much by theusers. The main reason for this is due to alack of proper rules and regulations for theprevention of pollution in natural waterbodies. People are discharging the highlypolluted black water directly into thenatural water body. In this situation, it isvery obvious that the value ofenvironmental protection that can bederived from this Ecosan technology will beinsignificant.

Initial investment: Initial investment for anEcosan toilet is relatively high compared toother sanitation options. As a result, thepeople normally expect and demand subsidyto adopt the technology. Subsidy is nothingmore than a promotional tool and is financialassistance to the hardcore pore for adoptingsanitation facility. People need to beconvinced, however, about the futurebenefits that can be reaped from thistechnology from an agriculture and anenvironmental perspective.

Changes in people's perception andbehaviour: During the course of promotingthe Ecosan toilet within the communities, it isfelt that one of the major challenges is tochange the existing perception and behaviourof the people. Obviously, it and cannot beexpected to change perceptions that arecenturies-old overnight. This is morechallenging in the rural areas and urbanareas, particularly out of the KathmanduValley. The reason might be that Ecosan toilettechnology, as such, is not new for farmers ofurban and peri-urban areas of KathmanduValley, who have used a combination of nightsoil with other organic waste as the mainfertilisers in their agricultural fields fordecades. However, piloting has alreadystarted in other urban and peri-urban areasoutside Kathmandu valley and in some ruralareas to pave the way for identifyingmethods of promotion with the requiredmodification.

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Promotion: Based on observation andexperience, I believe that the one-size-fits-allapproach is not appropriate. Differentcultural, geographic and demographicsituations produce different reactions toEcosan technologies. Many communities areinterested in these technologies in light ofthe convincing demonstration of improvedcrops due to the value of faeces as organicfertilisers. Whereas some communities arestill attracted to a permanent structure insidethe house, but showed little interest incontent re-use. The promotion of Ecosanmay, therefore, have more success whenpresented as an option in a range oftechnologies rather than through a doctrineposition that states: "this is the only way".

Do not scale up too fast: first createappropriate 'sellable' toilet devices, eyes arewatching you!

Technology: Approaches to technologymust be more flexible in terms of choice oftoilet type and use of materials. Over

Way forward for scaling-up

designed, expensive or importedcomponents make replication difficultwithout subsidies.

Every sanitation technology needs someuser education and orientation. For newusers, Ecosan may introduce another levelof complexity at the initial stage. Therefore,users need to be made fully aware of theirresponsibilities and provided withappropriate instructions and follow-upsuntil confident in handling operationalproblems.

Awareness generationThe generation of awareness aboutEcosan latrines among users, activists andat the political level is strongly needed. Atpresent, it is insufficient to enhancesanitation coverage.The IEC (Information, Education andCommunication) materials for thepromotion and use of Ecosan toiletscurrently being carried out are notsufficient. More audiovisual, IEC materialsand media campaigns on the topics arenecessary for generating increasedawareness.The major principles of the Ecosan toiletand its potential benefits should bedisseminated among school studentswho make excellent representatives forEcosan toilets by encouraging potentialusers in their community.A bigger awareness programme on theuse of urine and faeces with a nutrientrecycle concept should be designed withthe aim of providing knowledge on themerits of Ecosan toilets.

This agenda should be set, however, as one ofadvocacy while promoting and expandingEcosan latrines. While scaling up, the pros andcons should be disseminated widely, allowing

Buddhi Sapahi and his grand-daughter Gyani Maya from Thimeewith vegetables produced usingcompost from the composting latrine.


15

users to take the final decision between thevarious sanitation options available.

Management requirementsThe practical demonstration of theusefulness of the by-products of humanexcreta in agriculture is seen as animportant component of all ecologicalsanitation programmes. Consequently,the crucial step of linking toilets with amethod of producing humus or urine foruse in agriculture (or forestry) must beemphasised. This very importantmanagement procedure is vital to thesuccess of Ecosan toilets.In Ecosan toilets, success depends onproper management, and thus dependson user participation to a far greaterextent than conventional sanitationsystems. It is no longer a case of sit andflush or squat and deposit. Ecologicalsanitation embraces a philosophy, whichthe users must believe in and practicedaily. Disseminating and convincing ofsuch an understanding and practicetakes time.

Role of subsidiesAlmost all the projects used some form ofsubsidy to promote or supportwidespread use of this new technology.The subsidy approach for promotingEcosan latrine technology must beadopted as a promotional tool andshould be promoted only in such a waythat users require some form of "buy-in"from it, on one hand or alternatively, mustavoid distorting decision-making to theextent that wrong choices are made.While discussing the role of subsidies inpromoting Ecosan toilet, the poorestmembers of the community should gainaccess to the benefits that improvedsanitation can bring. There are areas for

potential improvement andexperimentation by developing variousoptions including graded subsidysystems.Hardware subsidy should be governed bya clear subsidy policy of the promotingorganisation, with explicit objectives andpolitical commitment to the total amountof funds that would be necessary ifprogrammes were scaled up.

Research and development: The initiationsof WAN through its local level partners areprimarily designed to implement anddemonstrate alternatives (orcomplementary approaches) toconventional sanitation practices.Alongside the emphasis on research anddevelopment to be placed to adapttechnologies to local conditions, here aresome areas recommended for R&D forfurther promotion of Ecosan technology:

a. Concept of trading in urine and faecesshould be developed. Commercialisationof nutrient recycling from human excreta,thereby linking with livelihood isnecessary for further promotion of thistechnology

b. More research on sanitisation of faecesshould be done to find out the effectiveand easy way of sanitising the excreta

c. Research on reducing the volume of urineis also deemed necessary as a reductionof urine volume may be the best way toease its transportation.

The outcome of the design process shouldbe a pleasant and affordable toilet facilitythat sends a hygiene promotion message toother families and is easily replicable.

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In summary, the advantages of Ecosan toilets- as perceived by users - indicate mostly thefertiliser value of excreta and nutrientsrecycle; and cheaper substitution of organicfertiliser to expensive chemical fertiliser,resulting in a reduced use of chemicalfertilisers. Water saving is another potentialmerit in addition to the contribution made bythis technology in protecting the naturalenvironmental and preventing groundwaterpollution.

Ecosan latrines are well accepted by all themembers of the families without any genderconflicts. They are gender friendly, asindicated by their satisfactory maintenanceshared among male and femalecounterparts. This appreciation for Ecosanlatrines extends to the majority of theirneighbours, who also showed a positiveattitude. Some 65% of the neighbourswithout any latrine facility, showed theirwillingness to build an Ecosan latrine. Thisdemonstrated the good impression ofEcosan in the peri-urban settlements ofNepal, where agriculture is a commonlivelihood.

Similarly, the level of knowledge amongEcosan users regarding use of human excretais comparatively better than the level ofsatisfaction from the use of urine as afertiliser: which is low compared to the useof human excreta (faeces). The majority ofusers found their production increased whenusing human excreta as fertiliser and thisstimulated their neighbours towards Ecosanlatrine.

The rate of direct application of urine in thefield is comparatively low and is notimpressive compared to the efforts made,despite disseminating the importance ofurine and its nutrient value among the

Conclusions

Ecosan users. However, the users preferred touse urine for composting rather than in thefield directly. The reason for this is thedifficulty in transporting urine to the field.

It is known to all that because of theirpressing priorities in fulfilling other basicneeds, the majority of people in developingcountries do not want to invest in toilets,believing them to be a sheer waste of money.Nepal is definitely not an exception to this.This indicates that people do not fullyunderstand the importance of toilets.Investment in Ecosan toilets is also the same.People are interested to install the Ecosantoilets, but without investing their ownmoney. That people expect subsidies forconstructing Ecosan toilets despite the cost

Ms. Asta from Tiganidigging out compost fromthe composting latrine.


17

of Ecosan (dry toilet is comparatively morethan wet ones) is simply reasonable and iswithin the reach of any person, either poor ornon-poor. The cost-effectiveness of Ecosan isjustifiable if one considers the potential forEcosan latrines to "add value" to agriculturalproduction and to conserve water and theenvironment.

The use of subsidy policy in promoting anysanitation technology must be cautious. Itwill definitely help to achieve some short-term gains, but appears to militate againstlong-term affordable solutions of the typethat will be necessary to achieve meaningfulprogress for further expansion of thistechnology. Future approaches must be moresensitive to what local economies andcustoms can embrace.

In summary, the people using Ecosanlatrines have started to view excreta as aresource, rather than a waste, and realisedits economic value to the process ofdeveloping a sustainable latrine buildingprogramme. This is definitely because ofthe ability of Ecosan latrines to producefertiliser and link with the livelihoodopportunities through generating incomefrom existing agricultural practices. Thishas added a much needed, direct andeasily recognised benefit to building andusing a latrine. Ecosan, in addition, will nodoubt help to improve health, water savingand food production.It is logical and cost effective in theory andpractice and can be equally pro-poor andpro-rich. Thus, the level of acceptance ofEcosan by the users and willingness toinstall by non-users indicated possibilitiesof further scaling up this technology withinthe peri-urban settlements. However,scaling up in rural areas, where it is beingpromoted on a pilot basis, still remains a

challenge, as it requires further awarenesson behavioural changes.

Despite its many positive aspects, thisapproach will be of little use unless thetarget communities are willing to adopt it.Therefore, it is important that generalprinciples of Ecosan toilet models areadapted to local conditions rather thanintroducing universal, specific technologiesdeveloped under different conditions.

Ms. Ria Maharjan fromGamcha, Kirtipur collectingurine to use as fertiliser inthe kitchen garden.


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ReferencesCotton A, Saywell D (1998) On Plot sanitation in low income urban communities, WEDC,Loughbourough University

DWSS (2003) Country Paper on Sanitation in Nepal, in South Asian Conference on SanitationSACOSAN, 2003, Local Government Division, Government of the People’s Republic ofBangladesh

Johansson M, Jonsson H, Hoglund C, Stintsing A R, Rodhe L (2001) Urine Separation Closing theNutrient Cycle Final Report on the RandD Project “source separated Human Urine: A FutureSource of Fertiliser for agriculture”, in the Stockholm Region, Stockholm Vatten,Stockholmshem, HSB

Jonsson H, Salomon E, Stinsing A R (2004) Tentative guidelines for agricultural use of urine andfaeces, in Ecosan-closing the loop Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on ecologicalsanitation

Manandhar A (2004) Investigation of the Fate of Indicator Microorganisms in Source SeparatedHuman Faeces and of the Impact of Urine Application on Potato Crop, M.Sc. Thesis ES 04.02.UNESCO-IHE

Manandhar D R et al (2004) Practice of Ecological Sanitation Toilets in Peri-Urban Community ofNepal, 30th WEDC International Conference, Vientiane, Lao PDR, 2004

Nawab B, Nyborg I L P, Esson K B, Jemsen P D (2006) Cultural preferences in designing ecologicalsanitation system in Northwest, Frontier Province, Pakistan, Journal of Environmental Psychology,Vol – 26, Issue – 3, September 2006

Nygatan L Ecosan research factsheets, Stockholm Environment Institute

Sherstha R S (2003) Implementation of Ecosan: Challenges and Opportunities in Nepal

Upreti H and Paudel P (2005) Effect of human urine on crop yield, ENPHO magazine, WorldWater Day 2005

Vinneras B, Jonsson H, Salomon E, Stinsing A R (2004) Tentative guidelines for agricultural use ofurine and faeces, in Ecosan-closing the loop Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium onecological sanitation, incorporating the 1st IWA specialist group conference on sustainablesanitation

WAN and ENPHO (2006) Report on Assessment Study of Ecosan Latrines in Nepal

WAN and ENPHO (2005) Research report on Investigation of Pathogen Die-Off in Stored Faeces

WAN and ENPHO (2005) Research report on Effect of Urine on Crop Yield

WEDC (2002) Sanitation for urban poor, paper prepared by Water, Engineering and DevelopmentCentre in 2002 for Sanitation Connection

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The construction cost associated with Ecosancan vary from place to place depending uponmaterials used, designs adopted andfluctuations in market price. The average cost ofa dry double vault Ecosan toilet with brick andcement superstructure in Kathmandu Valley isaround Rs 16,000 (US$ 230). Overall theconstruction cost can be divided into two parts:

a. Construction up to pan level: This includestwo vaults for faeces storage, a urine storagetanks and two pans in case of dry Ecosan. Thecost of Ecosan up to pan level in Kathmandu isNRs 10,123 and its breakdown is presented inTable 1 below:

b. Construction above the pan level: This isalmost the same as for any other toilet andthis cost will vary significantly depending onthe materials used for building the walls androofing. The cost is estimated to be aroundNRs 6,000 if built using brick and cementwith a CGI roof. The cost comparison of theEcosan toilet with other toilet options isgiven in a Table 2 below:

While comparing the cost of an Ecosantoilet as a whole with the other types ofsanitation facilities prevailed in rural andurban areas of Nepal (based on the studyconducted by ENPHO under WaterAidNepal's support), it was revealed that thecost of the Ecosan toilet ranks as the thirdcheapest. While accounting the additionalvalue (both positive and negative) of theby-products (eg urine and faeces) of thesetoilets (as mentioned below in Table 3),one will definitely express that Ecosantoilet is cost effective and sustainable inthe long run. Generally, the cost ofhandling of faeces, treatment of waste, etc,is not usually included for other sanitationoptions.

TABLE 1 I Breakdown of material cost for Ecosan latrine up to panlevel for Kathmandu Valley

S.N. Description Quantity Unit Rate Amountof work (NRs.) (NRs.)

1 Bricks 650 bag 3.50 2,275.002 Cement 5 cuft 500.00 2,500.003 Sand 35 cuft 22.00 770.004 Aggregate 15 cuft 33.00 495.005 MS bar 10 kg 50.00 500.006 Mason 6 nos 250.00 1,500.007 Pan 2 nos 350.00 700.008 Pipe and Fittings

* 3" Poly bend 1 nos 55.00 55.00* 3" Poly tee 1 nos 60.00 60.00* 3" Poly cowl 1 nos 30.00 30.00* 3" Poly pipe 6 rft 20.00 120.00* 2" PVC tee 1 nos 110.00 110.00* 2" PVC bend 3 nos 90.00 270.00* 2" PVC net cap 3 nos 20.00 60.00* 2" PVC pipe 1 rm 45.00 45.00* 1/2" GI nipple 2 nos 24.00 48.00* 1/2" GI socket 1 nos 20.00 20.00* Plastic tap 1 nos 15.00 15.00* 100 liter plastic 1 nos 550.00 550.00container

Total10,123.00

SN Toilet options Cost (NRs) Remarks

1 Single pit latrine 10,0002 Double pit latrine 12,0003 Soak pit 3,5004 Ecosan 10,100

TABLE 2 I Cost comparison of various latrine options(up to pan level)

The indicatedcost is only forconstruction upto pan level

Annex – 1: Costing of an Ecosan toilet and its comparisonwith other latrine options

TABLE 3 I Cost comparison of sanitation options in rural and urban areas

Description Toilet with Twin pit Single pit Flush toilet Flush toilet Ecosan toiletseptic tank sulabh sulabh with modern with reed bed

treatment treatment facilities facilities Remarks

1 Individual toilet cost 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 6,000 16,000

2 Septic tank and soakage pit 12,000 6,000 3,000

3 Sewer line 12,000 12,000 @ 2000 per capitaassuming average HHsize is 6

4 Treatment plant cost 3,000 @500 per capitaexcluding land cost

5 RBT treatment plant cost 11,000 @11000 per familyexcluding land cost

6 Operation cost 600 200 300 300 60 200 @ 50/ capita/year in (basically for de-sludging) modern treatment and

10/capita/year for RBT

7 Maintenance cost 186 140 100 250 300 185 @1% maintenance costfor all types offacilities

8 Monetary value of No Low Low No Low 2,100 Extracted fromurine and faeces financial

analysis of Ecosantoilet

Total 18,786 12,340 9,400 21,550 29,360 14,285* *[= (sum of 1 to 8)-(9)]

9 Fertiliser value No Low Low No Low High Note: All amountsexpressed in Nepalesecurency

10 Water requirements High Medium Medium High High Low

11 Risk of ground water pollution Medium High High No No No

WaterAid’s mission is to overcome poverty byenabling the world’s poorest people to gain accessto safe water, sanitation and hygiene education.

For more information, please contact:For more information, please contact:For more information, please contact:For more information, please contact:For more information, please contact:WaterAid in NepalKupondole, Lalitpur, NepalGPO Box: 20214, Kathmandu, NepalTelephone: + 977 1 5552764 / 5552765 / 5011625Fax: + 977 1 5547420Email: [email protected]

www.wateraid.org/nepal www.endwaterpoverty.org.np

Environment and Public Health OrganisationEnvironment and Public Health OrganisationEnvironment and Public Health OrganisationEnvironment and Public Health OrganisationEnvironment and Public Health Organisation110/25 Adarsa Marga-1,Thapagaon, New BaneshworGPO Box: 4102, Kathmandu, NepalTelephone: + 977 1 4468641, 4493188Fax: + 977 1 4491376Email: [email protected]

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www.iys2008.org.np

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