Ecological restoration and the role of botanic gardens 6_1.pdf · Botanic gardens: meeting the...

Ecological restorationand the role of

botanic gardens

BGjournalJournal of Botanic Gardens Conservation International

Volume 6 • Number 1 • January 2009

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Contents

Editors: Suzanne Sharrock and Sara Oldfield

Cover Photo: Foreground: native highland forestremnant; background: grassland vegetation followingdeforestation and continued ‘slash and burn’ practice.Northwest of Antananarivo, Madagascar. (BGCI).

Design: John Morgan, SeascapeE-mail: [email protected]

BGjournal is published by Botanic Gardens ConservationInternational (BGCI). It is published twice a year and issent to all BGCI members. Membership is open to allinterested individuals, institutions and organisations thatsupport the aims of BGCI (see inside back cover forMembership application form).

Further details available from:

• Botanic Gardens Conservation International, DescansoHouse, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3BWUK. Tel: +44 (0)20 8332 5953, Fax: +44 (0)20 8332 5956E-mail: [email protected], www.bgci.org

• BGCI-Russia, c/o Main Botanical Gardens,Botanicheskaya st., 4, Moscow 127276, Russia.Tel: +7 (095) 219 6160 / 5377, Fax: +7 (095) 218 0525,E-mail: [email protected], www.bgci.ru

• BGCI-Netherlands, c/o Delft University of TechnologyJulianalaan 67, NL-2628 BC Delft, NetherlandsTel: +31 15 278 4714 Fax: +31 15 278 2355E-mail: [email protected]

• BGCI-Canarias, c/o Jardín Botánico Canario Viera yClavijo, Apartado de Correos 14, Tafira Alta 35017,Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Gran Canaria, Spain.Tel: +34 928 21 95 80/82/83, Fax: +34 928 21 95 81,E-mail: [email protected]

• BGCI- China, 723 Xingke Rd., Guangzhou 510650 China.Tel:(86)20-37252692. email: [email protected]/china

• BGCI – South East Asia, c/o Registry, Singapore BotanicGardens, 1 Cluny Road, Singapore 259569.E-mail: [email protected],

• BGCI-Colombia, c/o Jardín Botánico de Bogotá,Jose Celestino Mutis, Av. No. 61-13 – A.A. 59887,Santa Fe de Bogotá, D.C., Colombia. Tel: +57 630 0949,Fax: +57 630 5075, E-mail: [email protected],www.humboldt.org.co/jardinesdecolombia/html/la_red.htm

• BGCI-Deutschland, c/o Botanische Gärten derUniversität Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 171, 53115 Bonn,Germany. Tel: +49 2 2873 9055, Fax: +49 2 28731690,E-mail: [email protected]

• BGCI(US) Inc, c/o Chicago Botanic Garden,1000 Lake Cook Road, Glencoe, Illinois 60022, USA.E-mail: [email protected], www.bgci.org/usa

BGCI is a worldwide membership organisation establishedin 1987. Its mission is to mobilise botanic gardens andengage partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people and the planet. BGCI is an independentorganisation registered in the United Kingdom as a charity(Charity Reg No 1098834) and a company limited byguarantee, No 4673175. BGCI is a tax-exempt (501(c)(3)non-profit organisation in the USA and is a registerednon-profit organisation in Russia.

Opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarilyreflect the views of the Boards or staff of BGCI or of itsmembers

Guest editorial

Botanic gardens in the age of restoration

The Connect to Protect Network: Botanic gardens working torestore habitats and conserve rare species

Botanic gardens: meeting the restoration challenge withcritically endangered plants - a case history, Symonanthusbancroftii (Solanaceae)

Restoring valuable spekboomveld using the internationalcarbon market

Inter situ conservation: Opening a “third front” in the battle tosave rare Hawaiian plants

The Silesian Botanical Garden as a natural habitat garden

Reintroduction of threatened plant species in Russia

Short communication: Restoring threatened plants of the Amazon

Notice: The Highgrove Florilegium

Resources

International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in ConservationRegistration Form

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Guest editorial

BGCI • 2009 • BGjournal• Vol 6 (1) • 0202

includes an impressive range anddiversity of plant-related datagenerated through years of researchand practice - an invaluable resourcewhich can support the emergingscience of restoration ecology.However, there is an urgent need tocollate and share this informationthroughout the global network – a clearrole for BGCI - which links botanicgardens worldwide and maintainsglobal databases covering the work ofbotanic gardens and their plantcollections.

If they are to assume an important rolein restoration, the worldwide coverageof botanic gardens should be astrength. At a practical level, TheMillennium Seed Bank Project providesa strong model of a cohesive network,involving partners in many countriesaround the world. We now need tobuild on this and to enhance the bondsof commitment and cooperationthroughout BGCI’s global botanicgarden network. We need to agree onstrategic priorities where the science ofrestoration ecology would be mostusefully applied to achieve maximumbenefit for all.

Kate A. Hardwick andStephen D. HopperRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK.

gardens also commonly employ a widerange of horticultural techniques, fromlarge-scale irrigation and weed controlto the precision art ofmicropropagation, and staff membersare well used to dealing with thediverse whims of the many species intheir living collections – all experiencewhich could prove valuable in restoringcomplex plant communities.

Restoration may be a slow processand research in this area calls for acommitment to research-basedmonitoring associated with adaptivemanagement over considerableperiods. Many botanic gardens canoffer the level of stability and long termcommitment required to undertakesuch a task, as well as having thenecessary botanical skills.

Unlike most other research institutions,botanic gardens have their ownestates, which will sometimes cover arange of habitats. This gives them thepotential to carry out, experiment withor demonstrate various restorationtechniques. The potential to showrestoration in action is particularlyexciting, offering the chance to inspirevisitors to adopt methods they haveseen.

Botanic gardens are globally dispersed,representing a broad spectrum ofregions and floras. They have provenskills in the long term storage ofdiverse data, with specimen andcollection records accumulated overcenturies. Their information base also

Botanic gardens have long played acrucial role in documenting plantdiversity and supporting efforts toprotect it. Now, in the face ofaccelerating climate change and lossof biodiversity, it is clear that repair andrestoration of damaged plantcommunities is needed more than everbefore. With the unique combinationof scientific and practical plant-basedskills in botanic gardens, they areideally placed to support a new surgein restoration science andmanagement.

An international workshop was held atthe Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew inJune 2008 to identify the ways in whichbotanic gardens could do more tosupport the science of ecologicalrestoration. The following importantareas were among those identified.

A thorough understanding of the plantcommunities proposed for restorationis an essential starting point – theirspecies and genetic composition, howthey function ecologically and how theyare likely to adapt to future climatechange. The historical specimens andrecords safeguarded by most botanicgardens, along with leading expertisein botany, conservation genetics andcomputer modelling, can help togenerate this vital information. On thepractical side, increasing numbers ofbotanic gardens are now augmentingtheir living collections with seed banks,while developing storage, handling andgermination protocols to enable theseeds to be put to use. Botanic

Introduction

Storm Cunningham’s latest book,provocatively entitled reWealth(McGrawHill), presents globalrestoration as a $2 trillion globalindustry. His mantra is that we can nolonger exploit the planet in the beliefthat there is an inexhaustible supply ofnatural resources and that restorationof our natural capital assets (as well asthe built and social capital of humansocieties) is critical if the planet is to besustained. The question remains as tojust how well botanic gardens areseizing the opportunity to be aneffective and integral part of the globalrestoration challenge?

Building a common vision

For the past three decades or so,botanic gardens have been on ajourney of discovery. The journey wasa response to a world call-to-armsbased on the pollution scares of the1970’s (the scene was set by RachelCarson’s Silent Spring) followed by thedire predictions of a global biodiversitymelt-down and the Rio Summit in1992, which culminated in theestablishment of the Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD). While theCBD committed countries to conservetheir biodiversity, it was still severalyears before a specific plan forconserving plant diversity at the globallevel emerged. Following concertedaction by the world’s leading botanists,the Global Strategy for PlantConservation (GSPC) was adopted by

the Parties to the CBD in April 2002,strengthening botanic gardens’connections globally. The GSPCincludes 16 outcome-oriented targetsto be met by 2010 and Target 8focuses on ex situ conservation andrestoration. This target providedbotanic gardens for the first time with aunited vision – avert plant extinctionthrough ex situ conservation.Seedbanks, tissue culture, cryogenicsand DNA fingerprinting emerged ascharismatic technologies employed tosave species.

GSPC Target 8: 60 per cent ofthreatened plant species in accessibleex situ collections, preferably in thecountry of origin, and 10 per cent ofthem included in recovery andrestoration programmes.

Today, the world’s 2,500 botanicgardens have assembled a formidablescientific armoury in the fight againstextinction. The scientific capacity ofbotanic gardens through such initiativesas the Millennium Seedbank Projecthas meant that ‘…there is notechnological reason why any speciesneed go extinct’ (Paul Smith, Head,Millennium Seed Bank Project).Through their living collections andseedbanks, the world’s botanic gardensand arboreta conserve a vast numberof plant species. In an attempt tomonitor progress towards Target 8, in2004 BGCI launched its PlantSearchdatabase, which provides information

on plants in cultivation in botanicgardens, and links this information tothreatened plant databases. At least12,000 globally threatened species aremaintained in botanic gardencollections and some 100 plant speciesare now only found in botanic gardens!But where to next? Do seedbanks orartificially maintained populations in abotanic garden constitute conservationor do botanic gardens need tocollectively take the next step in theconservation journey and restorespecies and habitats? If Target 8 of theGSPC is to be achieved, the answer isclearly the latter.

The restoration challenge

Although reintroduction of threatenedspecies in the wild has so far beenrelatively restricted, recovery of wild

BGCI • 2009 • BGjournal• Vol 6 (1) • 03-05

Above:

For many

species such

as Grevillea

pythara now

reduced to a

single individual

in the wild, the

only future for

in situ

conservation

will rely on

restoration of

nearby

landscapes and

assisted

migration to

new safe-sites.

(K. Dixon)

Botanic gardens in the age ofrestoration

Authors: Kingsley Dixon and Suzanne Sharrock

03

populations of depleted species maybe increasingly important in repairingdamaged ecosystems and restoringconnectivity at a landscape scale.However, for many of the world’sthreatened species, repatriation tonature is just not an option. With 60%of the land area of the planet nowdisturbed by humans, we can nolonger rely on finding suitable andnaturally resilient wild locations for allspecies; such areas just don’t exist.For example, of the 2,814 conservationspecies in Western Australia (doublethe flora of the United Kingdom),at least half exist in highly disturbedhabitats where invasive species,disease (particularly Phytophthora),salinity and pests mean that the criticalecological equilibrium needed tosupport long-term, self-perpetuatingpopulations is not in place. Similarscenarios are now being played out inmany countries.

The conservation mantra is thereforeturning towards how habitats can berebuilt, revitalised and restored,heralding a new era and newopportunities for botanic gardens as‘restoration hubs’. Restoration isinextricably tied to the globalconservation challenge. Restorationtakes a dysfunctional ecosystem andreturns it to health and ecologicalequilibrium as a dynamic component

of the conservation picture.In Cunningham’s words, ‘..restoration..takes a dying, useless or ugly asset andreturns it to health, value and beauty..’What better ideal for botanic gardensthan to engage in the reclamation ofabandoned and seemingly ‘useless’land while providing the ecologicalframework for repatriation of species.With over 200 million visitors annually,the capacity for botanic gardens to linkactive restoration to awareness withincommunities presents newopportunities for focusing educationand extension programmes.

Restoration in a time ofclimate change

Climate change introduces an addedcomplexity to ecosystem restoration.It is no longer ‘simply’ a question of

restoring an ecosystem to its previousstate by the reintroduction of species,but in the face of a changing climate,new species assemblages may alsoneed to be considered. Restorationactivities will also need to take intoaccount the migration needs of plantspecies as they attempt to move intonew climatically secure, safe havens.In ancient, stable floras such as thosefound in South Africa and temperatesouthwestern Australia, the prospect isparticularly daunting as new researchshows that many major plant groupslack capacity for long-distance, short-time frame dispersal. Iconic plants,such as Banksia, face the prospect ofdwindling populations unable toeffectively migrate to safe-sites by the2050 date when climate change isexpected to spell the end for a third ormore of the world’s plant species(Thomas et al., 2004; Fitzpatrick et al.,2008). For many plant speciestherefore, in today’s highly fragmentedand developed landscapes, assistedmigration (see Box 1) may be the onlyway to secure species in environmentswhere there will be some hope ofsustaining populations outside of their‘protective custody’ environments inbotanic gardens.

The role of botanic gardens

Restoration ecology, the science ofrestoration, is an emerging andenergetic discipline that brings intofocus and play, an array of conceptualand technological tools. For botanicgardens, these tools representchallenges and opportunities to cross-cut science and operational areas forcreating a ‘one-stop-shop’ inrestoration. For example, botanicgardens invest substantially inhorticultural science with livingcollections that represent many years

BGjournal• Vol 6 (1)04

Assisted migration, or theestablishment of plant species orcommunities in areas not presentlywithin their ‘native’ ranges, is acontentious issue that placesdifferent conservation objectives atodds with one another. There arenumerous examples where movingspecies beyond their current rangeinto natural and agriculturallandscapes has had significantnegative consequences. However,the growing threat of biodiversityloss due to climate change meansthat if preventing climate-drivenextinction is a conservation priority,assisted migration must beconsidered an option. Botanicgardens are well placed tocontribute to the debate, which

should include assessments ofpotential benefits and risks usinglessons from natural successiondynamics, experimentalintroductions and restorationecology.

Issues that will need to need takeninto account include:

• The need for basic currentdistribution data;

• The accuracy of predicted futuredistribution based on modelling;

• The importance of community /inter-species interactions;

• Extent and type of intraspecificdiversity in the source population;

• Potential for invasiveness in thenew habitat.

Right: Today,

conservation and

reintroduction

strategies are as

much about

restoring habitat

for threatened

species as

protecting their

germplasm

and genetic

resources

off-site.

(Tony Scalzo,

right and

K. Dixon, far

right)

Box 1: Assisted migration

of research and trial and error indeveloping horticultural excellence.Linking this capacity with the otherresearch capacities in botanic gardensrepresent a unique opportunity forcomplimentary up-skilling forrestoration activities. Few otherorganisations are so equipped todeliver such a potent combination ofskills and ability linked to a strong andvibrant horticultural heritage.

Furthermore, the worldwide network ofbotanic gardens together holds awealth of information and experienceon cultivating plant species in differentenvironments. In the face of rapidclimate change, exchange of suchinformation will be invaluable indeveloping efficient and sustainablerestoration programmes. In support ofthis, BGCI has developed two newmodules for its PlantSearch database,which will allow botanic gardens toshare information on propagationmethodologies and restoration effortson a species-by-species basis.At present these modules consist of aset of internal web pages on the BGCIwebsite and a desktop application thatallows institutions to enter data withoutbeing connected to the internet.A working prototype will be developedfollowing consultation with BGCImember gardens around the world and

agreed initial data entry will beundertaken for Magnolia, Acer,Quercus and Rhododendron and forthreatened plants of Russia.Information collected through this dataentry will be used to provide casestudies to plan the development of amanual on the restoration ofendangered tree species.

Conclusion

Although important players in theglobal restoration challenge, it is clearthat botanic gardens will not be able totackle this alone. Restoration of naturehas been aspired to for generations.The seamless transition fromconservation to restoration aswitnessed from the middle of the 20thcentury with the calls of Aldo Leopold(Sand County Almanac) to protectnature and natural resources (“A thingis right when it tends to preserve theintegrity, stability, and beauty of thebiotic community. It is wrong when ittends otherwise”) to the ascendancy ofthe restoration ethic we see today insuch books as reWealth, call uponintegration – at the scientific,cultural/social, economic and politicallevels. For botanic gardens, linkingwithin and beyond our institutionalboundaries to embrace broaderscientific, economic and social

agendas will be fundamental forensuring botanic gardens use theirformidable capacity to deliverbroadscale benefits in species andecosystem restoration.

References

�Thomas, C.D., Cameron, A., Green,R.E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L.J.,Collingham, Y.C. et al. 2004.Extinction risk from climate change.Nature, 427, 145–147.

�Fitzpatrick, M.C., Gove, A.D.,Sander, N.J. and Dunn, R.R. 2008.Climate change, plant migration,and range collapse in a globalbiodiversity hotspot: the Banksia(Proteaceae) of Western Australia.Global Change Biology, 14(6): 1337-1352.

Kingsley DixonDirector ScienceKings Park and Botanic GardenWest Perth, 6005Western Australia;Visiting ProfessorThe University of WesternAustralia.Email: [email protected]

Suzanne SharrockDirector of Global ProgrammesBGCIDescanso House199 Kew RoadRichmond TW9 3BWUK.Email: [email protected]


Left:

Community-

based coastal

restoration in

the biodiversity

hotspot of

southwest

Western

Australia

(K. Dixon)

Below:

The global

restoration

challenge is

being embraced

across all

sectors of

society

(K. Dixon)

Introduction

Throughout the world, coastal habitatsare gravely threatened by sea levelrising. Focusing on the ecosystems andspecies at greatest risk of extinction inSouth Florida and the Caribbean,Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden hasbegun a conservation initiative forglobally endangered pine rocklands.Our efforts directly link ecologicalrestoration to rare species conservation,while engaging the public to participate

in the solution to a dauntingconservation problem. We created TheConnect to Protect Network thatincludes concentrated seed collectionsof common and rare pine rocklandspecies, collaborations with theeducational programme ‘FairchildChallenge’ to engage communitymembers in pine rockland restoration,and partnerships with private and publicland owners to create pine rocklandgardens as stepping stones betweenpine rockland fragments.

The Connect to ProtectNetwork

Globally endangered pine rocklandsoccur only in South Florida, theBahamas, and Cuba. Known by theirSouth Florida slash pines (Pinus elliotiivar. densa) and saw palmettos(Serenoa repens), they support over400 native plant species, of which 31are endemic, five are listed as federallyendangered, and five are candidatesfor listing.

Rapid development in South Floridahas endangered pine rocklands andtheir rare species. Once foundextensively on limestone uplands inSouth Florida, today less than 2%remain as small fragments outside ofthe Everglades National Park. Manyare protected by the Miami-DadeCounty, but some remain onunprotected public and private land.

When habitats become fragmented,plant populations become isolated andshrink in size. Fragmentation reducesthe opportunities for pollinators to findflowers, which in turn may decreaseseed production and the genetic healthof these populations. Rare plants livingin pine rocklands are particularly


The Connect to Protect Network:Botanic gardens working to restorehabitats and conserve rare species

Authors: Joyce Maschinski, Scott Lewis, Don Walters,Jennifer Possley, Samuel J. Wright, Julissa Roncal andCaroline Lewis

Above: Pine

rocklands

habitat

(Metrozoo

Pineland)

(Jennifer

Possley)

vulnerable to catastrophic events,such as hurricanes, and recovery fromlosses becomes more questionable.To help preserve and strengthen ourremaining pine rocklands and toincrease the numbers of pinerockland plants growing in Miami-DadeCounty, Fairchild Tropical BotanicGarden recently launched the Connectto Protect Network with funding fromthe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Ourobjective is to create corridors and“stepping stones” to connect isolatedpine rockland remnants and restoreexisting parcels to improve foresthealth. These corridors will serve toincrease the probability that bees,butterflies, and birds can find andtransport seeds and pollen acrossdeveloped areas. Public and privately-owned pine rockland parcels maybecome part of the network. Ifdegraded, parcels will be restored andplanted with native pine rocklandspecies. It is our hope that theinterchange of seeds and pollen willimprove gene flow and the likelihoodthat these species will persist over thelong term. Threatened andendangered species planted incorridors will have increased numbersand reduced extinction risk.

Pine rockland seed collections

Meeting the goals of the Connect toProtect Network will require plantingmany native pine rockland species thatare not in the commercial trade.In preparation, we have collectedseeds of pine rockland plants to learnabout their germination, storage andcultivation requirements. Ex situcollections provide insurance against

species extinction, plants forreintroduction or augmentation, andmaterial to study the biology of rarespecies. Seed banks are a convenientand inexpensive way to conservegermplasm in a relatively small space.Although orthodox seed storageinvolving drying and freezing seedsgenerally works well for plants oftemperate regions, it is unknownwhether south Florida subtropicalspecies will withstand drying orfreezing. Therefore, we have beguntesting seeds to determine optimalseed storage requirements for thesespecies.

To date we have collected over 50,000seeds of 35 species for tests and long-term storage at The National Center forGenetic Resources Preservation in Ft.Collins, CO, USA (Table 1).Germination, desiccation and freezingtrials indicate that most of the pinerockland species we have examinedare capable of orthodox seed storage.

Collaborations with theFairchild Challenge

Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden’senvironmental education outreachprogramme for middle and high schoolstudents is called the FairchildChallenge. Comprised of a menu ofmultidisciplinary competitions, this freeannual programme is designed forstudents of diverse interests, abilities,

talents, and backgrounds and is opento all schools in the Greater Miamiarea. Successfully reaching atraditionally under-representeddemographic group at botanicalgardens, last year more than 40,000students and 1,800 teachers from morethan 100 middle and high schoolsparticipated in the programme.

With the Fairchild Challenge, weengaged students in diverse activitiesrelated to the Connect to ProtectNetwork. As part of a 2007 FairchildChallenge contest, Miami PalmettoHigh School student Yunxin Jiaodesigned the winning logo andsuggested the slogan, “Connect toProtect” for our initiative.

Fairchild Challenge participatingstudents have also helped us restoreendangered species habitat.In October 2007 and February 2008,100 students helped restore a fire-suppressed pine rockland that is hometo the federally endangered crenulatelead plant (Amorpha herbacea var.crenulata). Because pine rocklands areadapted to periodic natural fires, whichare infrequent in Miami-Dade Countyurban landscapes, conditions that areoptimal for Amorpha growth andseedling recruitment are limited. In theabsence of fire, shrubs and vinescreate dense shaded conditions and adeep layer of pine needles and palmfronds accumulate on the ground.


Left:

Students assist

with crenulate

leadplant habitat

restoration by

removing forest

litter and dead

leaves that

accumulate due

to fire

suppression

(Joyce

Maschinski)

Far left:

The winning

logo and slogan

for the project

was designed

by Miami

Palmetto High

School student

Yunxin Jiao.

Left: Liatris

chapmanii

(Jennifer

Possley)


• Decrease extinction risk throughrestoring ecosystem health andreintroducing rare species;

• Empower the community, especiallymiddle and high school students, tohelp be part of the solution.

Acknowledgments

This work has been funded by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, The FloridaDept. of Agriculture and ConsumerServices, Division of Plant Industry andMiami-Dade County Natural AreasManagement & EnvironmentallyEndangered Lands Programs.

Key references:

�Guerrant, Jr. E. O., Havens, K., andMaunder, M. 2004. Ex situ plantconservation: supporting speciessurvival in the wild. Island Press,Washington D.C.

�Maschinski, J. and Wright, S. J.2006. Using ecological theory toplan restorations of the endangeredbeach jacquemontia in fragmentedhabitats. Journal for NatureConservation 14: 180-189.

�Maschinski, J., Possley, J., Bradley,K., Wright, S., Stolt, J., Walters, C.,and Collins, M. 2007. Developingcorridors to alleviate problems ofurban fragmentation on rare plantpopulations in South Florida: March2007. Report to U.S. Fish andWildlife Service on Agreement No.401816G137, South FloridaEcological Services Office, VeroBeach, FL.

plants and seeds, assistance withinstallation, and ideas about howgardens can be incorporated intomaths and science instruction.

Experimental introductions ofrare species

Unfortunately many South Florida rarespecies habitats are rapidly changing,such that they are becoming unsuitablefor sustaining rare plant populations inthe long-term. Surrounded byinhospitable matrices, migration andpopulation expansion is prevented.Worse still, there may not be anysuitable habitat remaining within theirhistoric range into which they candisperse even if assisted by humans.Existing anthropogenic impacts leavefew patches of land with naturalvegetation of any sort, much lesspatches with special characteristicsrequired by rare species.

Though the prospects are daunting,Fairchild has conducted experimentalintroductions of the regions’ rarestspecies. After Fairchild scientistssystematically review ecological,political and logistical criteria ofpotential reintroduction sites, we workclosely with local land managers torestore habitats and introduce rarespecies. Initial findings of our studiessuggest that it is possible to introducespecies to novel habitats. By treatinginitial reintroductions as experiments tolearn about the capacity of species togrow under current availableconditions, we are hedging betsagainst uncertainty and improvingchances for species persistence intothe next century.

Conclusions

At Fairchild, we are concerned aboutthe persistence of the rare andcommon plants in South Floridahabitats that are predicted to beinundated by sea level rise within thenext 100 years. Our proactiveapproach includes the following steps:

• Ex situ conservation through livecollections and seed banking toincrease options available for thefuture;

• Connect forest fragments withcorridors to increase the probabilityof pollination and seed dispersal;

Thanks to the efforts of students weremoved 110 bags of leaf litter andstacked several large piles of vines andpalm fronds! Miami-Dade CountyNatural Areas Management crewsfollowed the students’ efforts bythinning hardwood trees and shrubs toopen the canopy. Fairchild will return tomonitor Amorpha growth and seedlingestablishment. But in addition to thepotential benefits of the restoration onthe rare species, the enthusiasm of thestudents and their teachers waspowerful. Many wanted to know whenthey could come back to continue thework, so we suspect that we havesome committed conservationists tohelp with future projects.

Several schools are also creating pinerockland gardens in their schoolyards.Schools located near corridors andnatural areas serve as “steppingstones” between natural areas,increasing total space occupied byplants in the urban matrix and providinghomes for the pollinators. In addition,these school gardens give students anopportunity to gain real experience inecology, habitat restoration, andconservation. Fairchild facilitates thecreation of these gardens by providinginstruction to teachers, pine rockland

Above:

Lantana

canescens seeds

are capable of

orthodox

storage and may

hold the key to

the species

survival in

Florida (Jennifer

Possley)

Right: Corridors

may improve

pollinators

visitation of pine

rockland species

like the U.S.

federally

endangered

crenulate

leadplant

(Amorpha

herbacea var.

crenulata)

(Jennifer

Possley)

�Wendelberger, K. S., Fellows M. Q.N. and Maschinski, J. 2007. Rescueand restoration: Experimentaltranslocation of Amorpha herbaceaWalter. var. crenulata (Rybd.) Isleyinto a novel urban habitat.Restoration Ecology online doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2007.00325.x

�Wright, S. J. and Thornton, H.2003. A ranked list of restorationsites for J. reclinata. In Maschinski,J., Wright, S. J., Thornton, H.,Fisher, J., Pascarella, J. B., Lane,C., Pinto-Torres, E. and Carrara, S.Restoration of Jacquemontiareclinata to the South FloridaEcosystem. Final Report to the USFish and Wildlife Service for GrantAgreement 1448-40181-99-G-173.

Correspondence to:Joyce MaschinskiFairchild Tropical Botanic GardenCenter for Tropical PlantConservation11935 Old Cutler RoadMiami, FL 33156, USA.Email: [email protected]

Left: Pine

rocklands

habitat (K.S.

Wendelberger)


�Possley, J., Maschinski, J.,Rodriguez, C. and Dozier, J. 2008.Alternatives for reintroducing a rareecotone species: manually thinnedforest edge versus restored habitatremnant. Restoration Ecologyonline doi 10.111/j.1526-100X.2008.00395.x

�Roncal, J., Maschinski, J., Schaffer,B. and Gutierrez, S. M. 2008.Introducing endangered species ona changing landscape: A case studyof Amorpha herbacea var. crenulata(Fabaceae) in South Florida. InMaschinski, J., Wright, S. J.,Wendelberger, K., Pascarella, J.,Schaffer, B. and Roncal, J. 2007.Ongoing efforts to reintroduce andstudy two endangered plantspecies, beach jacquemontia andcrenulate lead-plant. Final report toU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,South Florida Ecological ServicesOffice, Vero Beach, FL.

�Wendelberger, K.S. and Maschinski,J. 2008. Linking GIS, observationaland experimental studies todetermine optimal seedlingmicrosites of an endangered plant ina subtropical urban fire-adaptedecosystem. Restoration Ecologyonline doi:10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00422.x

�Maschinski, J. and Lewis, S. 2008.Fairchild launches the Connect toProtect Network. The TropicalGarden, Spring 2008.

�Myers, R.L. and Ewel, J. J. 1990.Ecosystems of Florida. University ofCentral Florida Press. Orlando,Florida, USA.

�Possley, J., Hines, K., Maschinski,J., Dozier, J. and Rodriguez, C.2007. A common passion: multipleagencies and volunteers unite toreintroduce goatsfoot passionflowerto rockland hammocks of Miami,Florida, USA. Native Plants Journal8:252-258.

Genus Species Date tested Days to 1st Duration # Seeds/ Fresh Desiccated Stored 1 Commentsgermination of test trial week at

(days) 20o C

Asclepias viridis 9/15/2008 8 43 100 77% 87% 87%Brickellia mosieri 3/24/2008 4 14 100 54% 50% 55%Chamaecrista deeringiana 10/31/2008 2 4 100 88% 93% 90% Seeds incisedChamaecrista nictitans var. 9/26/2008 3 5 100 98% 97% 100% Seeds incised

asperaCrotalaria pumila 2/14/2008 11 164 100 1% 2% 60% Acid for 5 minutesEchites umbellata 2/15/2008 5 21 100 94% 96% 98%Gaura angustifolia 2/15/2008 5 38 100 60% 62% 64%Melanthera parvifolia 11/27/2007 6 38 100 21% 25% 33%Mimosa quadrivalis 9/5/2007 2 91 100 90% 12% 10% With incision, frozen

var. angustata seeds germinated to95% in 6 days

Morinda royoc 8/7/2007 17 116 100 24% 23% 22% With acid, frozen seedsgerminated to 46%

Physalis walteri 6/26/2007 9 56 100 52% 59% 55%Piloblephis rigida 10/16/2007 3 22 100 36% 28% 33%Smilax havanensis 11/27/2007 62 251 100 32% 34% 32% Acid for 5 minutesTrichostema dichotomum 5/31/2007 6 50 100 50% 64% 71%

Table 1. Example of germination,desiccation and freezing tolerance of14 pine rockland species.

Introduction

The wheat-belt region of WesternAustralia is one of the most extensivelycleared landscapes in Australia withless than 2% of bushland remaining insome areas. The wheat-belt wasunderestimated in terms of biodiversity

values and high levels of local andregional endemism and is nowconsidered one of the most significantbiodiversity melt-down regions in thebiodiversity hotspot of southwestWestern Australia (WA).

In the wheat-belt, many plant speciesare now restricted to small refugialhabitats, often along roadsides and insmall, scattered reserves sitting in a seaof wheat! Symonanthus bancroftii(Solanaceae) or Bancroft’sSymonanthus - named after Dr JosephBancroft (1836-94, www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A030084b.htm), is one ofthe rarest species in Western Australiaand occurs in this region. The plantwas thought to be extinct as the lastknown collection was in the 1940s.However the remarkable discovery of asolitary plant on a road-verge remnantin 1997 precipitated renewed interestin this species. The euphoria of thediscovery was quickly dispelled whenit was discovered that the plant was amale and that the impossible wasneeded – to find a female plant – andthus began a dedicated programme tolocate more plants, a turning point forthis species. Following intensesearching in 1998 by local enthusiastsand a local LandCare group, anotherplant was found and with incrediblegood fortune this plant turned out to bea female! So the journey began torebuild the entire species from theoriginal ‘Adam and Eve’ for the species.

Both plants were found in disturbedand highly vulnerable habitats, one ona road-verge (the male plant) and theother (female) beside a railway track.Both sites were subsequentlyprotected with fencing but areunfortunately still at risk to a variety ofpotentially lethal disturbances. For thisreason urgent ex situ propagation wasconsidered necessary. As the plantswere widely separated it wasconsidered unlikely that naturalpollination could occur even if theplants were compatible, or that itwould occur quickly enough toestablish a seed bank before the plantsperished. In addition, as these are verysmall plants, taking cuttings wasdeemed to be too risky. Tissue culturewas therefore the logical choice forrapid propagation.

The Conservation Biotechnologyresearch group at the Botanic Gardensand Parks Authority (BGPA) (Kings Park


Botanic Gardens: meeting therestoration challenge with criticallyendangered plants - a case history,Symonanthus bancroftii (Solanaceae)

Authors: Eric Bunn and Kingsley Dixon

Right: The

original male

plant of

Symonanthus

bancroftii

(E. Bunn)

A reintroduced

male seedling

plant in a

restored

population

(E. Bunn)

& Botanic Garden) are specialists intissue culture of recalcitrant nativeplants, particularly rare andendangered species. The task ofestablishing a micropropagationmethod was begun in 1997 with thefirst collection of a small amount ofshoot material from the male plant.Collection of this type of material (andindeed all such collections of rare andendangered plant material) is carriedout by authorised Kings Park scientificstaff with special permits from therelevant State Authority (in this casethe Dept of Environment andConservation or DEC). The initiation ofmaterial of the male plant into tissueculture was successful and a furtherstudy program was developed during1998 to produce plants and overcomeproblems with the high mortality ofshoots in the early stages of cultureestablishment. This study programresulted in a highly successfulmicropropagation procedure that wasdeveloped just in time to initiate shootmaterial of the second (female) plantfound in 1998 (Panaia et al, 2000). In2000-2001 micropropagated femaleplants were artificially pollinated withpollen from micropropagated maleplants at Kings Park as part of aprogramme to study the reproductivebiology of S. bancroftii (Ye et al, 2007)

and resulted in production of the firstseed of this species to be seen in over50 years. Funding for setting up of fieldtrials in 2002-4 was secured by theBruce Rock LandCare group withassistance from BGPA and theThreatened Species Network – WWFAustralia.

Over 2,400 plants (male and female)were produced from themicropropagation programme andplanted in field sites from 2002-2006.Survival was low overall as many ofthese years saw below average rainfallaccompanied by higher than averagetemperatures in summer, and in 2006the driest June on record wasexperienced. Creating a wateringsystem for the critical first seasonestablishment also proved extremelydifficult without a reliable water source(water needed to be carted to on-sitetanks on a regular basis from nearbyfarm dams which were heavily drought-affected). Nevertheless, by 2004 in onefield site approximately 25-30% ofplants had survived two summers andthese formed the basis of a stablereintroduced group of about 90 plantswith a male:female plant ratio ofapproximately 1:3. Native insects wereobserved visiting flowers of both maleand female plants in the field sites.From this sub-population seed wascollected from female plants in 2006-2007. Utilizing the skills of the SeedBiology research group at Kings Park,a germination procedure wasdeveloped and seedlings weregerminated for the first time insufficient numbers to replacemicropropagated plants inreintroduction trials. Although the firsttentative seedlings transplants in 2006were not particularly successful, followup plantings in 2007 and 2008 arelooking much more promising and afurther 135 plants are now growing,spread over the two reintroductionsites. The change to a more reliablewatering system (access to regionalmains water for both restoration siteswas made possible with assistance ofWA Water Authority) for the earlyestablishment of seedlings in 2007 hasenabled much higher survival than waspossible in the past. In addition, withthe assistance of DEC and Bruce RockShire an automatic watering system isbeing developed. An existing manualpump system at the second site is run

from a battery linked to a solar panel.It is likely that if micropropagatedplants were used again, survival ofthese would also be much better thanpreviously experienced. Although thecost of producing plants fromseedlings is much cheaper thanthrough tissue culture, the in vitroprogramme has enabled enough plantsto be produced to create a stablereintroduced population capable ofproviding ample seed for furtherrestoration, so has proved invaluable.

This project has also provided anopportunity to study the effects ofextreme loss of genetic provenance onnative species and the capacity of aspecies to rebound from such severedepletion. It is known that some plantspecies have undergone quite extremegenetic ‘bottlenecks’ in the past andwere able to rebound and build up thespecies again (the much publicisedWollemi pine from eastern Australiahad its origin in Jurassic times and is


Left: Plants

about to be

transplanted to

field (note well-

developed root

system resulting

from specially

modified slit

250 mm deep

pots to

encourage deep

extensive root

systems

(E. Bunn)

A native butterfly

species on a

male flower of a

reintroduced

plant

(G. Messina)

Left: Shoots of

S. bancroftii

growing in

tissue culture

(E. Bunn)

Bottom far left:

Two-year old

male plant in a

restoration site

(watering was

found essential

for at least the

first year to

maximise

establishment

of plants)

(E. Bunn)

now reputedly of very low geneticdiversity but has still managed tosurvive!). The reintroduced populationsof S. bancroftii represent a unique insitu ‘laboratory’ for these types ofstudies.

The continued survival of Symonanthusto the present day can be attributed toa partnership between conservationagencies and volunteer communitygroups who located the remainingplants, and the dedication of BGPAstaff and research students. Theprogramme illustrates the power andbenefits of building ‘citizen science’and partnerships for conserving rareand threatened species from abiodiversity hotspot.

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge staffand volunteers of DEC, Corrigin andBruce Rock LandCare groups, BruceRock Shire, Water Authority of WA, theWorld Wildlife Fund, various BGPA staff(with special thanks to Bob Dixon andKeran Keys) and students, andvolunteers from Friends of Kings Parkwho all assisted with this project overthe years and made it possible.

References

�Panaia, M., Senaratna, T., Bunn, E.,Dixon, K. and Sivasithamparam, K.2000. Micropropagation of thecritically endangered WesternAustralian species Symonanthusbancroftii (F. Muell) L. Haegi(Solanaceae). Plant Cell, Tissue andOrgan Culture 63(1): 23-29.

�Ye, Q., Bunn, E., Krauss, S.L. andDixon, K.W. 2007. Reproductivesuccess in a reintroducedpopulation of a critically endangeredWestern Australian shrub,Symonanthus bancroftii(Solanaceae). Australian J. Botany55:428-432.


Top:

Close up of S.

bancroftii pollen

grain on the

stigma of a

female flower

(during artificial

pollination)

(E. Bunn)

Above:

Germination of

the pollen and

pollen tube

penetrating

stigma tissue

(E. Bunn)

Right:

Developing fruit

on a female

plant (E. Bunn)

Eric Bunn and Kingsley DixonKings Park and Botanic GardenWest Perth, 6005Australia;andFaculty of Natural and AgriculturalSciencesSchool of Plant Science,University of Western AustraliaNedlands, 6009Australia.Email: [email protected];[email protected]

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

M51M44M40M35M33M26M18M13M5M3M0

Survival of micropropagated plants of three genotypes (Sb1 = original maleplant, Sb2 = original female plant and Sb3 = daughter plant) of Symonanthusbancroftii in a field site near Ardath, W.A. from original planting (M0 = June2004) through to M51 (Sep 2008). Note the initial large loss of plants due totransplant shock M3-5) and again after the first summer (M13). By the secondyear after transplanting (M26) the population stabilized and losses insubsequent years (2007-8) have been minimal.

Months (0-51 from planting), non-linear

PlantSurvival(%)

Sb1Sb2Sb3

Introduction

Think of the south-eastern Cape, SouthAfrica, and an image that springs tomind is a stately kudu browsinggracefully in dense, tangled foliage. Orcontented elephants in Addo ElephantNational Park, placidly foraging onthorny branches and succulent leaves.The supporting vegetation is known asThicket, (or more formally, theSubtropical Thicket Biome) which hasits heartland near Addo, and isdistributed as far as Riversdale in thewest and the Great Fish River in theeast. It is an ancient and complexvegetation type, expressed in differentforms, ranging from low noorsveld at

its inland margins, to the dense bushwith emergent tree euphorbias andaloes characteristic of valley slopes.But what few are aware of is the extentof devastation of thicket vegetationwrought by poor farming practices.

Forms of thicket vegetation that havebeen especially ravaged by overgrazingin the past century, are those rich inspekboom or igwanishe, Portulacariaafra. There is evidence that even in theshort space of a decade, heavybrowsing, especially by mohair-producing angora goats, can convertdense shrubland into a desert-likestate. Of some 16,000 square kmformerly covered in spekboom-rich

thicket, some 46% has undergonesevere degradation and 34% moderatedisturbance. Unfortunately, removinglivestock and resting the veld does notlead to natural recovery of thevegetation, as seedling establishmentis constrained by the exposed soil’stemperature extremes and reducedwater-holding capacity. Essentially, torestore this thicket type requires activeintervention, which is what this articleis about.

Degradation of thicket has negativesocio-economic repercussions.Reductions in diversity, soil carbon, soilquality, and plant productivity all leadto lower livestock productivity (Millsand Fey, 2004; Mills et al., 2007).Decreases in availability of wood, wildfruits and medicinal plants used byrural communities also result inlowered income – approximately $150per annum per household – which is asignificant amount for struggling ruralpeople (Cocks and Wiersum, 2003).

Restoration is expensive, and theactive restoration of thousands ofhectares of formerly healthy thicket,rich in spekboom plants, appears atfirst sight to be unfeasible. But there iscompelling scientific evidence thatspekboom - with its rather specialcharacteristics, together with thepossibilities of earnings via the carbonmarket, and the creation of jobs in theeconomically depressed rural areas -may provide an all-round solution (Millsand Cowling, 2006; Mills et al., 2007).

BGCI • 2009 • BGjournal• Vol 6 (1) • 13-15 13

Restoring valuable spekboomveldusing the international carbon marketOne of the biggest restoration trials in the SouthernHemisphere aims to re-establish badly degradedspekboomveld and investigate carbon-trading opportunities

Authors: Shirley Pierce, Richard Cowling, Anthony Mills,Mike Powell and Ayanda Sigwela, R3G*

Left:

Flowering

spekboom

(A. Mills)

Below:

Mike Powell in

front of a

healthy stand of

spekboom,

Portulacaria

afra (A. Mills)

BGjournal• Vol 6 (1)

year. The different-aged plantingsenabled estimates of potential rates ofcarbon sequestration, with the oldeststand having sequestered 11 kg ofcarbon per square metre over 27 years,indicating an average rate of 0.42 kg ofcarbon per square metre per year (Millsand Cowling, 2006). This rate of carbonsequestration is comparable to manytemperate and subtropical forests, andpotential earnings through carboncredits are likely to rival forest-plantingschemes.

Impressive results

The biome-wide trial commenced inJanuary 2008, and already more than100 of the planned 300 plots havebeen established. Farmers have beenkeen to participate in allowing trialplots to be located on their land, andmany are going ahead with their ownplantings. The trial plots (50 x 50 meach) are located in degraded thicket,and each plot is fenced off andmanually planted with spekboomtruncheons by trained teams under thesupervision of GIB. Increments incarbon (above and below ground) arethen monitored to determine rates ofcarbon storage.

Preliminary observations suggest thatas the productive and water-efficientspekboom shrubs establish sufficientlyto shade the soil surface and producelitter, the quality of the soil startsimproving. This enables other flora andfauna to re-establish, and biodiversitybegins to return. There is still muchscope for horticultural research withinour project to increase the survivorshipof cuttings and to determine effects ofsoil properties (both biological andinorganic) on growth rates. Botanicgardens are well positioned to play arole in this critical part of restorationprojects. Our project would welcomecollaboration on this front.

Concurrent with the field trials, R3G isinvestigating the complex requirementsto qualify for carbon credits. Trade incarbon in afforestation and restorationoperates via two main paths: the formalcompliance market (controlled by theClean Development Mechanism, anarrangement under the Kyoto Protocol),or via the informal, voluntary market(Bumpus and Liverman, 2008). Thespekboom project may well be best

land. Furthermore, spekboom is thoughtto be especially efficient in capturingcarbon as it is among those special aridplants which can switch from using the‘normal’ photosynthetic pathway (C3) toanother water-conserving (CAM)pathway when conditions are dry. Theability to use the C3 pathway when thesoil is moist means it is more productivethan those succulents that use onlyCAM.

The Restoration Research Group (R3G)is a group of scientists who arecurrently evaluating the feasibility ofmassive-scale restoration of thicket.Their project includes possibly one ofthe biggest restoration trials in thesouthern hemisphere. Spanning theentire Thicket Biome, a distance ofabout 800 km, this investigation aimsto determine areas for ‘optimalsurvivorship’ and best growth fromcuttings of the succulent-leaved shrub,spekboom, as well as variation in ratesof carbon sequestration.

One aim of this trial is to determine thepotential for re-planting to earn carboncredits on the international market as afuture means of funding land restorationon freehold and communal land. R3G isworking in close partnership with theDepartment of Water Affairs andForestry’s Working for WoodlandsProject and supported by poverty-alleviation funds from the government’sExpanded Public Works Project. Theactual re-planting is being supervisedby the Gamtoos Irrigation Board (GIB),the implementing agency which hasbeen managing large-scale plantingsover the last three years, restoring closeto 400 ha in the Baviaanskloof NatureReserve (a World Heritage Site), theAddo Elephant National Park and theGreat Fish River Reserve.

Data on the remarkable rates of carbonstorage under re-planted spekboomwere collected on the farm Krompoort,between Uitenhage and Steytlerville,inland of Port Elizabeth. Over the last30 years, the far-sighted farmer, MrHenry Graham Slater, hassystematically restored a degradedhillslope using spekboom truncheons.Now, the oldest spekboom plants standmore than 2 m tall and cover 90% ofthe planted site, an impressive growthfrom truncheons planted in bare groundunder a rainfall of only 250-350 mm per

How grazing affects spekboom

It is interesting that, althoughspekboomveld evolved under thegrazing of hulking megaherbivores -elephant and black rhino - it is especiallyvulnerable to heavy grazing by goats.The explanation for this anomaly is thatindigenous animals feed from above,promoting the natural umbrella-shapedcanopy. In contrast, goats tend to feedfrom underneath, with the result thatovergrazing destroys this canopy. Withindigenous browsing, the shrub forms a‘skirt’ of branches which are able to rootand proliferate on contact with theground, while broken branches are ableto re-establish, much like plantedcuttings. The theory is that the plant’sunique umbrella-shaped canopymaintains a cool, drier microclimateconducive to accumulating carbon-richground litter, which may also explain therates of carbon sequestration which areextraordinarily high for an aridenvironment (Mills and Cowling, 2006).

Carbon storage in spekboom

Currently, there is an initiative which isbuilding on the sound scientific evidencethat spekboom is something of a‘superplant’ when it comes to itsextraordinary carbon storing capabilities.Data gathered over the last seven yearsshow that carbon storage in intactspekboom thicket in the arid south-eastern Cape exceeds 20 kg of carbonper square metre of vegetation, which isequivalent to that of moist subtropicalforests (Mills et al., 2005; Mills et al.,2005). In addition, the plant’s ability tosprout from re-planted truncheons,without irrigation or cultivation in anursery, makes it a very good candidatefor large-scale restoration of degraded

14

BGjournal• Vol 6 (1)

�Mills, A. J. and Cowling, R. M. 2006.Rate of carbon sequestration at twothicket restoration sites in theEastern Cape, South Africa.Restoration Ecology 14: 38-49.

�Mills, A. J., Cowling, R. M., Fey, M.V., Kerley, G. I. H., Donaldson, J. S.,Lechmere-Oertel, R. G., Sigwela, A.M., Skowno, A. L. and Rundel, P.2005. Effects of goat pastoralism onecosystem carbon storage in semi-arid thicket, Eastern Cape, SouthAfrica. Austral Ecology 30: 797-804.

�Mills, A. J. and Fey, M. V. 2004.Transformation of thicket to savannareduces soil quality in the easternCape, South Africa. Plant and Soil265: 153-163.

�Mills, A. J., O’Connor, T. G.,Donaldson, J. S., Fey, M. V.,Skowno, A. L., Sigwela, A. M.,Lechmere-Oertel, R. G. andBosenberg, J. D. 2005. Ecosystemcarbon storage under different landuses in three semi-arid shrublandsand a mesic grassland in SouthAfrica. South African Journal ofPlant and Soil 22: 183-190.

�Mills, A. J., Turpie, J., Cowling, R. M.,Marais, C., Kerley, G. I. H., Lechmere-Oertel, R. G., Sigwela, A. M. andPowell, M. 2007. Assessing costs,benefits and feasibility of subtropicalthicket restoration in the EasternCape, South Africa. In: RestoringNatural Capital Science, Businessand Practice: 179-187. Aronson, J.,Milton, S. J. and Blignaut, J. (Eds.).Washington DC: Island Press.

Corresponding author:Anthony MillsDepartment of Soil ScienceStellenbosch UniversityWestern Cape, South Africa.Telephone and Fax:+27-21-7151560Email: [email protected]

credits on international markets whichcan provide employment and income torural communities. Surely a win-win-winsituation!

Amended from an article publishedin Veld & Flora, the Journal of theBotanical Society of South Africa.

*R3G –the Restoration Research Group- comprises a group of scientistswhose strength lies in a uniquepartnership, applying their scientificexpertise with the practicalimplementation of the South AfricanGovernment’s Department of WaterAffairs and Forestry’s Working forWoodlands Project, which trains andemploys contracting teams funded bythe Expanded Public WorksProgramme (EPWP) under thesupervision of the Gamtoos IrrigationBoard. The scientists are based atRhodes University, StellenboschUniversity and Nelson MandelaMetropolitan University. Seewww.r3g.co.za.

References

�Bumpus, A. G. and Liverman, D. M.2008. Accumulation bydecarbonization and the governanceof carbon offsets. EconomicGeography 84(2): 127-155.

�Cocks, M. L. and Wiersum, K. F.2003. The significance of plantdiversity to rural households inEastern Cape province of SouthAfrica. Forestry, Trees andLivelihoods 13: 39-58.

suited to the latter market, whichfollows many of the formal proceduresof the formal compliance market butrelies on individuals who care aboutclimate change, or else is dependenton those corporate companies withsocial responsibility programmes.The voluntary market also takes intoaccount the sustainable developmentof rural livelihoods and benefits forbiodiversity. A critical aspect for eithermarket is accurate quantification ofcarbon stocks in landscapes beforeand after the restoration. These carbonstocks include carbon in soils, litter andbiomass. In order to earn the carboncredits, auditors need to be contractedto validate the project and certify thatthe carbon quantification is scientificallyrigorous. This adds large transactioncosts to a restoration project aiming toearn carbon credits and a rule of thumbis that any project less than 10,000hectares is unlikely to earn sufficientcredits to warrant the transaction costs.Seeing projects of this sizeimplemented across the Eastern Capeis the ultimate goal of the Working forWoodlands programme. Greeninvestors who back the carbon marketare, however, at this stage still requiredto make this vision a reality.

Ultimately the potential benefits ofrestoration to degraded thicketlandscapes are enormous from anenvironmental, social and economicperspective, leading to: increasedwildlife carrying capacity, reduced soilerosion, improved water retention andinfiltration in the soil, and the return ofbiodiversity, while earning carbon

15

Left: Spekboom,

Portulacaria

afra (M. Powell)

Left:

A restored slope

(foreground)

(A. Mills)

BGCI • 2009 • BGjournal• Vol 6 (1) • 16--1916

Anyone who has taken a course inconservation biology, or even read abook on the subject, knows that thereare fundamentally two kinds ofconservation: in situ and ex situ. Theformer, aimed at preserving specieswhere they presently occur naturally,will perhaps always rightly be the frontline of conservation. The latter,however, has become increasinglyimportant as botanical gardens, zoos,and other cultural institutions strive tosave the rarest species by growingthem under intensive care in livingcollections and backing this effort withseed banks, tissue culture, and otherrelatively expensive high-tech methods.

Each strategy has its advantages anddisadvantages (Table 1). In places likeHawaii, where approximately half thenative flora is considered at risk ofextinction in the next few decades,scientists and conservationists havebegun asking themselves how they cando more for these roughly 500 species,through innovative and more cost-effective strategies that aim to bridgethe gap between these twomethodologies. Although the term hasbeen around for over a decade, theconcept of “inter situ” conservationfirst came to the attention of the publicin Hawaii through a radicalexperimental plan that was hatched by

paleoecological researchers whosefocus was originally on the past, notthe future, of rare plants and animals.

Listening to the fossils

Since 1992, our group has beenexcavating a remarkable fossil site, atMakauwahi Cave on Kaua`i’s southshore. It is generally acknowledged asthe richest in the Hawaiian Islands.This ancient limestone feature, a largecave system complete with stalactitesand highly endangered blind caveorganisms that live their entire lives incomplete darkness, contains a largeopen sinkhole in the center that wasactually a lake inside the cave forthousands of years. Soft sedimentsthere are filled with splendidly preservedseeds, pollen, bird bones, snail shells –even fossil DNA and a thousand-yearrecord of human activity. From artifactsof not just stone but wood, gourd shell,and plant fibers we have been able tolearn how Hawaiians used plantresources for many centuries. The siteprovides a continuous record of all thathappened on the landscape for 10,000years or more.

Like most lowland areas of the state,the surrounding acreage has beendominated by a handful of invasiveplant species introduced to the islandsince the arrival of Europeans in thelate 18th century. A few years ago, ourgroup decided to enlist the aid of thelarge contingent of communityvolunteers that had helped us with thefossil dig to attempt to recreate, to the

Inter situ conservation:Opening a “third front” in the battleto save rare Hawaiian plants

Authors: David A. Burney and Lida Pigott Burney

Right:

Hibiscus

waimeae is a

favourite among

the over 100

native species

used in the

inter situ

restorations on

Kaua`i (Alec

Burney)

extent possible, the plant communitiesthat the fossils showed us grew therefor thousands of years before therecent human transformation of thelandscape through deforestation andthe introduction of a host of invasiveanimals and plants.

By this time we had obtained a leaseon the cave and surrounding propertyfrom the owners, Grove FarmCompany. In addition to an array oflimestone sea cliffs, rolling dunes, andthe largest limestone cave in Hawaii,the property also contained someabandoned farmland covered in atangle of thorny non-native bush.That was in 2004. By now, thanks tothe efforts of nearly everybody on theisland from school classes, BoyScouts, and native Hawaiian groups, tothe numerous retirees and tourists onKauaì, much of the land surroundingthe site features the native plants thatwe have inferred, from the fossilrecord, to be the ones that existedthere before.

This was no easy process. Techniqueswere developed to use heavyequipment, such as mowers, tractors,and rotary tillers, to convert the weedyfarmland back to bare soil and startover, planting native species, includingmany quite rare ones, where we knewthey once had grown. We soon foundthat, in this dry leeward habitat, nativeplants could best outstrip the

aggressive invader plants if we putthem on an automated drip irrigationsystem, similar to the ones used formaize and other crops by our farmerneighbours nearby, until they werethoroughly established – generallythrough two of the long, intensely drysummers. After that, many natives hadgained a sufficient head start on theweeds to hold their own.

Because the site is on top of andadjacent to the habitat of three speciesof endangered blind cave invertebratesand a potential breeding and foragingsite for endangered birds andinvertebrates, we have developedtechniques for controlling the weedsand insect pests that avoid the use ofherbicides and pesticides. Thechallenges have been great, but theMakauwahi Cave Reserve, as we havecome to call it, now hosts nearly 100native plant species and provideshabitat for rare Hawaiian animals.For several extremely rare plantspecies, we can now say that thelargest “wild” populations in existenceare thriving there, planted bythousands of willing hands.

So what kind of conservationis it?

So what is it, in situ or ex situconservation? Well, both, and neither.As this idea has caught on and spreadto other sites on Kauaì and elsewhere

here in the islands, we have come torefer to this as inter situ to signify itsintermediate status. The basic idea isto conserve rare species byreintroducing them to sites where theyonce grew, but have been eliminated inrecent decades or centuries by humanagencies such as, here in Hawaii, thehighly destructive impact of introducedgoats, pigs, and rats.

One of the first places that this ideahas caught on is on the properties ofthe National Tropical Botanical Garden(NTBG) and those of collaboratinglandowners. At Läwaì-kai, theuniquely beautiful coastal propertymanaged by NTBG as part of thehistoric Allerton Gardens on Kauaì’ssouth shore, just a few kilometers fromMakauwahi Cave, invasive vegetationhas been removed from the beachstrand and coastal forest and replacedwith not just the three hardy nativeplant species that had persisted there,but dozens of other natives that corescollected from the adjacent marsh aswell as the detailed record from othersites along the south shore such asMakauwahi shows were there when thePolynesians arrived a little more than amillennium ago.

Other natives have been reintroducedto the restoration sites NTBG maintainsalong nearby Lawai Stream, on thecliffside in Lawai Valley, and on theupper edge of McBryde Garden.


Left: View of the

rare native

plants growing

in the sinkhole

at Makauwahi

Cave, as seen

from the

darkness of the

large cave on

the south end

(Alec Burney)

The Lawai Forest Restoration is nearNTBG’s ex situ collection of nativeplants from throughout the state ofHawaii, the largest living collections ofthis flora found anywhere. To supplyall the plants needed for these andother restoration efforts, NTBG’sConservation and Horticulture Centerhas stepped up production in its state-of-the-art micropropagation,greenhouse, shadehouse, and sunnynursery facilities to the point that theorganization has planted out nearly12,000 specimens in the past year, andcurrently has over 18,000 plants in potsawaiting their “turn.”

One of the most spectacularconservation projects of NTBG is thebeautiful Limahuli Garden and Preserveon Kauaì’s north shore. The nearly1000-acre property contains a massivearchaeological site and culturalrestoration, featuring centuries-oldstone terraces and pondfields forgrowing taro (Colocasia esculenta) andother traditional Polynesian crops.A key effort here, as well as at NTBG’sKahanu Gardens near Hana, Maui, is togrow not only native plants in contextsthat span the full range of in situ, ex situ,and now, inter situ techniques, but alsoto collect and propagate the rapidlydisappearing old Hawaiian varieties ofPolynesian crops such as breadfruit,banana, coconut, kava, and – of course– for the mainstay of Polynesian diet,more than 50 varieties of taro.

Watch out, it’s spreading!

The inter situ approach has spreadrapidly to other properties throughoutKauaì, notably Grove Farm’s Iliahiproject, near our Kilohana Crater coringsite, where the fossil pollen recordreaches back all the way to the latePleistocene, more than 27,000 yearsago. Another is Kawaihau Wetland, a

collaboration between NTBG, DucksUnlimited, the US Fish and WildlifeService, and the USDA NaturalResources Conservation Service thathas been creating new habitat forendangered endemic waterfowl andnative wetland plants on propertyowned by singer/actress Bette Midler.Plant choices there were guided by theresults of a sediment core from thewetland containing a 7,000-year recordof fossil pollen and spores.

With only 0.2% of the land area of theUnited States, and 43% of theendangered plant species, thechallenges to conservation in Hawaiicontinue to be daunting. Classic insitu and ex situ methods ofconservation will continue to be major“fronts” in the eleventh-hour battle tostem the tide of extinction. They needall the support they can get fromgovernment and private sources, farmore than they are getting now. Butopening a “third front” in the strugglemakes a lot of sense, to fill the manygaps in coverage of our conservationefforts, particularly in reclaiming theabundant lands available forconservation but not currently beingused because of their state ofdegradation and commitment to otherpurposes. By blending advancedagricultural techniques such asconservation tillage, mulching,integrated pest management, and dripirrigation with large-scale conservationefforts on marginal lands – using therecords from sedimentary fossils,archaeological sites, historical

evidence, oral traditions, and oldherbarium sheets as a guide to whatwas growing there just moments ago inevolutionary and ecological time – wecan bring resources and people intothe fray that can never reach the last insitu stand of a rare plant, and extendthe reach of ex situ botanical gardensto larger land areas, more diversehabitats, more people, and a longer listof species. As our meticulous record-keeping has shown, this approach ischeap and efficient, with a low per-plant cost and high survival rate.

Conserving more than wethought

One realization that has emerged fromthis expanded inter situ effort is that,by preserving these plants, we are alsohelping preserve native Hawaiianculture. Many native plants and rareHawaiian cultivars are integral to localculture, but the lore is slipping awaybecause the plants are otherwise justtoo rare and inaccessible — perhapseven illegal — for cultural practitionersto use them, and most young peoplewill never even see them. AtMakauwahi Cave and at Limahuli,McBryde, and Kahanu Gardens ofNTBG, young and elderly Hawaiians,as well as persons of otherbackgrounds with an interest inpreserving traditional cultures,frequently come together to grow anduse these nearly-forgotten plants inways they could never do in an in situcontext. In inter situ projects,subsequent generations of these


Right:

Girl Scouts

from Kauaì

plant natives at

Iliahi, the Grove

Farm Ecological

Restoration

Project. Over

1000 young

people from the

island have

assisted in

planting several

thousand native

plants at this

site, not far

from Kilohana

Crater (David

Burney)

Above:

Map of Kauaì

showing location

of Makauwahi

Cave and other

sites mentioned

in text. Asterisk

symbol shows

sites that have

yielded useful

paleoecological

information, and

dots show

restoration sites

that have been

able to use this

information

restored plants, now reproducing ontheir own in places where they wereonce abundant, then extirpated, andnow re-established, hold out thepossibility that subsequent generationsof people will still know about theseplants, their lore, and uses both pastand future. With this increasedaccessibility, even the mostendangered plants can potentially bestudied and understood, so thatprecious in situ populations are notimpacted, but better management canpotentially be applied through researchfocused on rare species’ biology,ecology, and ethnobotany.

One of the most heartening triumphs ofour inter situ experiments is that, forthe first time, some rare plants are nowbeing made available for restoration ona larger scale. A current NTBG projectin collaboration with the StateDepartment of Forestry and Wildlifeand the US Fish and Wildlife Service isa good case in point. We arereintroducing native plants to theremote uninhabited Lehua Islet just

north of Kauaì`s neighbour island ofNiihau, guided by fossil pollen andcharcoal identified from deposits there– since rabbits and rats now beingeradicated had driven most nativeplants to extinction years ago.Producing enough seeds to restore a300-acre (122 ha) island is a tall order.Recently NTBG interns and volunteershave been able to gather, under theguidance of NTBG field botanistNatalia Tangalin, huge quantities offully accessioned weed-free nativeplant seeds for the restoration effort.So, in the space of a few years of intersitu efforts, we can now say that ourrestoration sites are restoring othersites!

Key references:

�Burney, D.A. and Burney, L.P. 2007.Paleoecology and “inter-situ”restoration on Kauaì, Hawaiì.Frontiers in Ecology and theEnvironment 5(9): 483-490.

�Burney, D.A., and Kikuchi, W.K.P.2006. A millennium of humanactivity at Makauwahi Cave,Mahaùlepu, Kauaì. Human Ecology34:219-247.

�Burney, D.A., and Flannery, T.F.2005. Fifty millennia of catastrophicextinctions after human contact.Trends in Ecology and Evolution20:395-401.

D. BurneyDirector of ConservationNational Tropical Botanical Garden3530 Papalina RoadKalaheo, HI 96741, USA.Email: [email protected]

L.P. BurneyManager, Makauwahi CaveReserveP.O. Box 1277Kalaheo, HI 96741, USA.


DEFINITION

In situ: Conservation efforts applied tospecies in a pre-existing wild condition intheir current range. .

Ex situ: Efforts based on intensivelyhuman-controlled environments such asbotanical gardens, zoos, genebanks, andpropagation facilities.

Inter situ: The establishment of a speciesby reintroduction to locations outside thecurrent range but within the recent pastrange of the species.

DISADVANTAGES

Site may be remote, expensive to maintain,and undergoing degradation. Problemsleading to rarity may be unabated.Stochastic events such as storms, diseaseoutbreaks, and human over-utilization aredifficult to factor into planning

Stops or even diverts evolution. Speciesmay become “domesticated” and nolonger suitable for reintroduction. Per unitcost may limit number of species and/orindividuals that can be managed with thisintensity.

Insufficient knowledge of community andecosystem function limits our ability toreconstruct complex biotic webs. Somefollow-up care is required to effect mostsuccessful reintroductions. Legalobstacles may inhibit innovativeconservation efforts for rarest species.Long-term persistence of reconstructedcommunities needs evaluation throughlong-term monitoring.

ADVANTAGES

Species is presumably adapted to the sitealready. Co-evolution with other species inthe community may be critical to survivaland ecological function.

Provides a second line of security for rarespecies by allowing specimens to be grownin the absence of challenges faced innature. Gives people a chance to seebiodiversity up close and near home.

In effect bridges the gaps between in situand ex situ. Species can be moreaccessible and better protected than former,and produced at much lower unit cost thanlatter. Evolutionary processes can beretained to varying degrees. Newpopulations can be controlled ormanipulated to enhance or preserve geneticdiversity

Table 1. Comparison of three “fronts”in conservation.

Left: Aerial view

of an inter-situ

restoration site

at Makauwahi

Cave, where

rare native

plants are being

grown on

abandoned farm

land (Matthew

Bell)


Introduction

Poland is facing a dramatic loss ofbiodiversity and this is thought likely tocontinue through the coming decades.Of particular concern are various typesof grassland habitats (such as haymeadows) as these are considered tocontain the highest numbers of rareand endangered plant species persquare metre in Poland. While thesehabitats are protected under the EUHabitats Directive, habitats influenced

by agricultural activity must be used,otherwise with the passing of timenatural succession will change thecharacter of plant associations andthus in most cases negatively influencebiodiversity. But when used improperlythe biodiversity of these agriculturally-influenced associations will also belost. The area of these grasslands hasdecreased dramatically throughout thepast decade (especially after EUaccession), as farming has becomemore and more intensive.

Protected areas are not the only meansof conserving biodiversity. Sometimes,quite incidentally, managed habitatscan offer refugia for species that are indecline in protected areas. Managedlandscapes can and do supportbiodiversity, and a big challenge forresearchers is to consider how to bestintegrate biodiversity conservation inboth strictly protected and in managedareas. Here is an opportunity for‘habitat’ botanical gardens. Botanicalgardens are professionally managedareas, where besides high botanicdiversity habitats for considerablenumbers of invertebrates and smallvertebrates can also be found.

Natural conditions of theSilesian Botanical Garden

The Silesian Botanical Garden is one ofthe youngest botanical gardens inPoland. Although it has been existencefor 9 years, it was officially establishedas a union of associations in 2003. TheGarden is located close to Mikołów

City, south of Katowice City – capital ofthe Silesian Province, the mostindustrialized part of Poland. TheSilesian Botanical Garden covers anarea of about 100 hectares and is partof a bigger landscape complex. Thislandscape complex of 524 ha alsoincludes a special forest farm forforestry management (70 ha), anecological landscape park (182 ha) andarable lands with field margins (172ha). The area reserved for the SilesianBotanical Garden includes a variety ofhabitat types suitable for both aquaticand terrestrial flora and fauna(Szendera et al. 2005). Over 650species of vascular plants, includingover 100 rare and 30 legally protectedtaxa can be found in the garden, aswell as many natural land types uniqueto Upper Silesia.

The Silesian Botanical Garden asa natural habitat garden

Author: Paweł Kojs

Above:

The ponds

present a

wonderful living

environment for

numerous plant

species in the

garden

Right: Fruits of

Prunus spinosa

and other

species are an

important

source of food

for birds and

other animals

during the long

winter

Right:

Fruits of Pyrus

communis

Forty nine plant communities havebeen identified in the Silesian BotanicalGarden, of which 8 are communities ofunknown syntaxonomical position.These plant associations reflect a rangeof habitat types: woodlands, water,swamps, muddy banks, temporarilyflooded swamps, meadows,grasslands, nitrophilic forest margins,clearings and disturbed land (Wilczek etal. 2005). Six communities occur on theRed List of Upper Silesian PlantCommunities (Celinski et al., 1997).

Special attention is paid to thecommunities of unidentifiedsyntaxonomical position, composed ofstrictly protected plants: communitieswith Equisetum telmateia andcommunities with Gentianella ciliata.

What conditions must befulfilled to establish acollection of living plants ofrare or endangered speciessignificant for biodiversityconservation?

To have an endangered plant in abotanic garden does not necessarilymean that it is in a conservationprogramme. In botanic gardens even adiverse population of an endangered

species without its natural environmentwill systematically lose its ability tocompete and survive in its “normal”habitat. In botanic gardens it is thegardener, not nature, that provides themost significant factors that influencethe direction of the micro-evolution ofsuch a population. By modifying(simplifying) the environment, we mayunintentionally eliminate the processesof co-evolution of plants, fungi,animals, bacteria or viruses and thusreduce the ability of certain populationto adapt to the much more complexnatural ecosystem. This may result inthe reintroduction of species into theirnatural habitats being unsuccessful.

Goals and aims of the SilesianBotanical Garden

The main aim for this new botanicalgarden is the conservation of the localflora in Upper Silesia and neighbouringareas, merging ex situ and in situconservation methods. The large areaof the Silesian Botanical Gardenprovides a good opportunity for theconservation of many plantcommunities (woodland, wetland andxerothermic associations) in semi –natural habitats (secondary habitats).It also paves the way for research onsecondary habitats e.g. to establish theminimal effective area for a givenhabitat or procedures for the bestpractice in management of secondaryas well as natural habitats (Loreau etal., 2001). The key research task maywell be to develop our understandingof how managed interventions canmimic natural disturbance processesand patterns, and how these cancontribute to the conservation of

biodiversity. Climate change will be animportant factor influencing future landuse change (Thomas et al., 2004). Landuse change, in turn, will influence thedistribution of habitats and species in awarmer world. More research isneeded to develop an understanding offuture land use and landscape changeas well as the effects on natureconservation networks.

Other aims of the Silesian BotanicalGarden are the following:

1) to create appropriately largehabitats which would be identical orsimilar to natural habitats and toprovide the best possible conditionsfor regeneration of populations ofprotected, endangered or rareplants – the main focus of ourconservation activities;

2) to establish secondary habitats forpriority habitats (Council Directive92/43/EEC on the conservation ofnatural habitats and of wild faunaand flora) occurring in the provinceof Silesia;


Forest communities Threat categories

Ass: Circeo-Alnetum Oberd. 1953 VAss: Luzulo pilosae-Fagetum Mat. 1973 VAss: Tilio-Carpinetum Tracz. 1962 V

Others

Ass: Filipendulo-Geranietum Koch 1926 RAss: Aegopodio-Petasitetum hybridi R. Tx. 1949 RAss: Cirsietum rivularis Ralski 1931 I

Table 1: Associations of endangered plants occurring in the wild in the SilesianBotanical Garden listed in Red List of Upper Silesian Plant Communities (Celinskiet al., 1997)

Above: The

extensively used

meadows,

featuring an

abundance of

vanishing and

protected

species, are a

slowly

disappearing

element of our

landscape.

Left: Abandoned

limestone

quarries are

secondary

habitats rich in

rare species of

flora. Mikolow

Limestone is

one of the

highest

viewpoints in

Silesia Province

(340 m a. s. l.)

Above far left:

The winter

aspect of water

meadows and

rushes in the

Silesian

Botanical

Garden. The last

few winters in

the Silesian

Botanical

Garden were

snowless

3) to provide additional habitats (notlisted in Annex 1) suitable for allspecies that are fully or partlyprotected by law currently occurringin the Silesian District (there are 136such species of vascular plants);

4) to organize a local seed bank forrare and endangered plants in theUpper Silesian region.

Methods

Firstly we developed the naturalpotential of the Silesian BotanicalGarden to recreate habitats which havebeen negatively affected by humanactivity during the last few hundredyears. This process is based on themethod of enriching chosen plantassociations by planting appropriatespecies of herbaceous plants, treesand bushes. There are also activitiesaimed at restoring the plantcommunities associated withagricultural land. The aim is to createhabitats that are as similar as possibleto the natural conditions in order toprotect the future generations of plantsfrom biased selection caused by thechange of environmental conditions

and genetic erosion caused by toosmall a population in a small area.The main source of seeds and habitats(parts of habitats) for the recreation ofhabitats are areas outside the gardenpresently being influenced byinfrastructural development (mainlyroads, new factories, new settlements,etc.).

Activities and plans

Because of its convenient location inthe centre of the Silesian conurbation,the diversity of accessible habitats andits relatively large area, the SilesianBotanical Garden has particularopportunities to protect largepopulations of plants which are headedfor extinction in Silesia, in natural andsemi-natural environments.

We also think of the Silesian BotanicalGarden as the interface betweenhumans and nature. The garden actsas a node, from which impacts radiateout into the surrounding areas. We aimto help the general public tounderstand the need to conservehabitats and communities, therebyconserving species more effectively.We hope this would not only addresstoday’s threatened species but wouldslow the decline of common species,preventing them from becomingtomorrow’s threatened species. This isespecially important in view of climatechange scenarios.

Conclusions

The proposed solution refers to part ofour “genetic heritage” which should beprotected. That is, collections of nativeplants growing wild. The importantelement of this solution is a goodknowledge of the natural position ofprotected, endangered and rare plantsin a particular region, taking intoaccount nature reserves and ecologicalarable lands for seed collection as wellas strengthening wild populations byplanting good specimens from exsitu/in situ cultivation. The advantagesof the Silesian Botanical Garden allowmany species of vascular plants to bebrought under protection in appropriatehabitats in their natural or semi-naturalassociations.

References:

�Celinski F., Wika S., Parusel J., (Eds.).1997. Red List Of Upper SilesianPlant Communities In: Parusel J.B.,(ed.) Centrum Dziedzictwa PrzyrodyGórnego Slaska Raporty i opinie.Tom 2: 39-68, Katowice

�Habitats Directive COUNCILDIRECTIVES 92/43/EEC, 21 May1992. On the conservation of naturalhabitats and of wild fauna and flora.

�Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Inchausti, P.,Bengtsson, J., Grime, J. P., Hector,A., Hooper, D. U., Huston, M. A.,Raffaelli, D., Schmid, B., Tilman, D.and Wardle, D. A. 2001. Biodiversityand ecosystem functioning: currentknowledge and future challenges.Science, 294: 804-808.

�Southwood, T. R. E. 1977. Habitat,the template for ecologicalstrategies. Journal of AnimalEcology 46: 337-365.

�Szendera, W., Włoch, W., Kojs, P.,Jura, J. and Wilczek, A. 2005. Naturalpotential of the Silesian BotanicalGarden in conservation of wild plantand crop plant diversity. Biul. Ogr.Bot., Muzeów i Zb., 14: 9-18

�Thomas, C.D., Cameron, A., Green,R.E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L.J.,Collingham, Y.C., Erasmus, B.F.N.,Ferreira de Siqueira, M., Grainger,A., Hannah, L., Hughes, L., Huntley,B., van Jaarsveld, A.S., Midgley,G.F., Miles, L., Ortega-Huerta, M.A.,Townsend Peterson, A., Phillips, O.L. and Williams, S.E. 2004.Extinction risk from climate change.Nature 427: 145-148.

�Wilczek, A., Jura, J., Włoch, W.,Kojs, P. and Szendera W. 2005. Thesignificance of the field shrubs andhedges in biodiversity conservation.The old field shrubs and hedges ofSilesian Botanical Garden. Biul. Ogr.Bot., Muzeów i Zb., 14: 49-54

Pawel KojsBotanical Garden - Center forBiological Diversity Conservation,PAS Warsaw,Silesian Botanical Garden,Mikolow, Poland.Email: [email protected]


Above:

Fruits of Rosa

canina appear in

the autumn

Right: Field

margins in the

Silesian

Botanical

Garden provide

and enhance

wildlife habitats

across arable

farms. Field

margins are

also thought to

act as corridors

for the

movement of

fauna and flora.

The flowering

plant is

Crategus

monogyna

Photo credits:

Wieslaw Włoch

BGCI • 2009 • BGjournal• Vol 6 (1) • 23-26 23

Introduction

The conservation of individual speciesand plant communities in situ ispreferable to preservation ex situ.However, in many regions the scale ofecological degradation does not allowthe conservation of plants undernatural conditions. In such cases, theintroduction of threatened species intoconservation areas for future recoveryand the reconstruction of entirecommunities may be regarded as apotential measure for saving plantsthreatened with extinction.

A number of projects and programmesinvolving species recovery andrestoration have been carried out overthe last 40 years in Russia and theformer USSR. In recent years however,interest in reintroducing rare andthreatened plants has considerably increased and the number of related

publications has also grown. Despitethis, the basic methodologicalprinciples for plant reintroduction,especially related to threatenedspecies are underdeveloped. There isalso a lack of coordination ofreintroduction activities with respect toselecting priority species for urgentconservation and fundraising forimplementing plant restoration andrecovery programmes.

In 2007, BGCI organised twoworkshops to evaluate the currentsituation of threatened plantreintroduction in Russia as well as totrain botanic garden staff in developingand implementing recovery

programmes. A pre-meeting surveycarried out by BGCI revealed that morethan 100 plant species are included inrecovery and restoration programmesimplemented by Russian botanicgardens and nature reserves. However,only 28 of these species are listed inthe National Red Data Book, equivalentto about 4% of the total number ofthreatened species in Russia. Thusrestoration activity should be increasedsignificantly to reach 10% ofthreatened species, as proposed inTarget 8 of the Global Strategy for PlantConservation.

Following the two workshops, amanual providing detailed guidance forplant reintroduction was published in

Reintroduction of threatened plantspecies in Russia

Authors: Antonina Shmaraeva and Irina Ruzaeva

Left:

Seed collection

of Stipa

pulcherrima

Left:

Crambe tataria

English and Russian by BGCI(Gorbunov et al., 2008) and two pilotthreatened species reintroductionprojects were launched in 2008. Theseprojects are located in the southernpart of the European territory of Russia:Samara Region in the middle region ofthe Volga River and Rostov-on-DonRegion close to the delta area of theDon River. Historically these areregions where extensive agriculturecovered vast areas of vulnerablesteppe landscapes. Both projects aretargeted at restoring the steppe flora inareas that are in a serious stage ofdegradation due to anthropogenicpressure. This degradation is having adisastrous effect on landscape andbiological diversity and due to this, theconcept of steppe landscaperestoration is becoming increasinglypopular in Russia.

Reintroduction of rare speciesof steppe flora in Rostov-on-Don region

The first project is being implementedby the Botanical Garden of theSouthern Federal University which islocated in Rostov-on-Don - one of themajor cities in the south of Russia. Theecological situation in the Rostov-on-Don area is described as critical due tothe practically complete extinction ofzonal steppe vegetation. In most of theterritory the natural vegetation isalready destroyed: 60 % of the area isunder arable land, about 9% is

covered with water, roads andsettlements and the remainder is undersevere development pressure.

The vascular flora of the Rostov-on-Don area includes more than 1,900species of which 46 are included in theRed Data Book of the RussianFederation and 217 are in the local RedData Book of Rostov-on-Don region.Rare species mainly include obligatesteppe plants of genera such as Stipa,Crambe, Tulipa etc. Two ecologicallyimportant steppe species, which formplant communities of Don Riversteppes were selected as the objectsfor the reintroduction experiment.The area and population of both ofthese species is declining due tohabitat disturbance and destruction.Stipa ucrainica P. Smirn. is endemic tothe Black Sea coast and is listed in theRed Data Book of the RussianFederation (2V category). It is the mainindicator species of the dry steppes ofthe Don River basin. Stipa pulcherrimaC. Koch is a vulnerable species alsoincluded in the Red Data Book of theRussian Federation (2V category). It isa dominant plant of mixed pasturesand stony steppes.

The specific goal of the project was tocreate sustainable artificial populationswith Stipa ucrainica and Stipapulcherrima as dominant species in anarea of 30,000 sq.m in a speciallyprotected natural steppe landscape

within the boundary of the botanicalgarden. In addition to Stipa spp.,populations of some rare herbaceousplants typical for the Don River steppewere also included in the artificialcommunities: Iris pumila L., Eremurusspectabilis Bieb., Salvia austriaca Jacq.and Crambe tataria Sebeok.

Establishment techniques

The method is based on sowing seedmixtures of numerous species,including seeds of rare plants collectedfrom natural communities, into aploughed soil (Dzybov, 2001). Itprovides the model environmentalconditions necessary for the stablegrowth of introduced mixtures of rareand endangered steppe species. Theseed preparation includes handcleaning which is labour intensive andtime consuming, but it providessignificant similarity in speciescomposition and abundance betweennatural and experimental communities.The mixture includes seeds of not lessthan 50 plant species. It consists of30% grasses (dominating species),10% leguminous plants and 60% otherherbaceous species.

Seed collecting

Field trips to 7 administrative districtsof Rostov-on-Don region wereorganized to evaluate naturalpopulations of rare species and to


Right:

Stipa

pulcherrima

Below: Near-

Azov steppe –

the natural

vegetation for

creation of

artificial

communities in

the Botanical

Garden

collect seeds of steppe plants. Two -three populations of species such asStipa ucrainica, Stipa pulcherrima,Crambe tataria, Iris pumila, Eremurusspectabilis, Salvia austriaca, Bellevaliasarmatica, Centaurea ruthenica,Hedysarum grandiflorum, Hyacinthellapallasiana and Linum hirsutum weredescribed in each location. Thesecommunities were not significantlydisturbed and were thus used as thebasis for the creation of artificialpopulations in the botanical garden.

Seeds of 98 typical steppe speciesfrom 28 families and 71 genera werecollected in order to provide floristicaland taxonomical diversity of createdcommunities and to conform to the

natural analogues. Two plots of artificialsteppe (15,000 sq.m. each) wereestablished at the end of October.Stipa pulcherrima is the dominantspecies for one plot, with a total of 88species included in the seed mixture,12 of which are rare. Stipa ucrainica isthe dominant species for the other plot,where the seed mixture includes 87species with 9 rare species. The seedsof Stipa pulcherrima, Stipa ucrainicaand some other rare species wherecollected from different parts ofRostov-on-Don region to providegenetic heterogeneity and thusstability, in the reintroducedpopulations. These two newlyestablished plots add to a fragment ofartificial steppe dominated by Stipadasyphylla which had already beencreated in the botanical garden.

If the weather conditions ofwinter–spring 2009 are favourable, thenthe mass germination of seeds will takeplace during the next year of theexperiment. If there is some loss ofseeds, additional sowing during thenext 2 years will be provided.

Long-term perspectives of theproject

The work implemented so far is just thefirst stage of the reintroductionexperiment. During the next 2 years thedevelopment of the artificial

communities and the rare plantpopulations will be closely observedand the plots will be appropriatelymanaged. After 4-5 years, seeds ofthese populations should be ready foruse in restoring Stipa ucrainica andStipa pulcherrima populations in otherspecially protected natural territories ofRostov-on-Don Region. The plots ofartificial steppe created through theproject will be included in theecological path which is currently beingdeveloped in the garden as the part ofthe programme for environmentaleducation. The artificial steppe area willbe a good example of regionalvegetation recovery and plant diversityconservation.

Rare plant reintroduction innatural habitats

The second project is beingimplemented by the Botanical Garden ofthe Samara State University. The flora ofSamara Region is abundant anddiverse; it comprises more than 2,500species of higher plants. Intensiveagriculture has led to the devastation ofmost steppe plant communities, whichnowadays are only preserved in remoteareas. However, there has been a recenttrend towards the reduction of intensiveagriculture and the transformation ofsome areas into fallow lands. Here wesee a gradual succession replacementof early coloniser species by thecommon steppe and meadow plants.But the most valuable and rare


Left:

Hyacinthella

pallasiana

Below:

Centaurea

ruthenica

Left:

Sowing the

seed mixture

components of plant communities thatwere already lost cannot reappearwithout special intervention(reintroduction of seeds or plants).

The following plant species listed in theRed Data Books of the RussianFederation and Samara Region wereselected for this project: Paeoniatenuifolia L. – considered extinct inSamara Region for the last 50 yearsbut which has recently started toreappear in some remote areas;Juniperus sabina L. - a very rarespecies which is gradually decreasingin number and which grows onlimestone soils in stony steppes and inpine forests; Iris pumila L. – a rarespecies with a stable population.It is an ornamental plant and grows invarious parts of Samara Region.Its populations are highly damaged byhuman interference and especially bysteppe fires. Its reintroduction tonatural ecosystems is considered to beeasier than for the first two species.The specific goal of the project is tooptimise rare plant reintroductiontechniques for various plantcommunities of forest-steppe andsteppe in the Middle Volga River area.

Results

Four reintroduction sites have beenselected using the following criteria:

• environmental conditions that meetthe needs of a plant (type ofcommunity, quality of soil,microrelief and microclimate);

• intensity of anthropogenic pressure(cattle grazing, recreation intensity,distance from villages and townsetc.);

• accessibility to conduct periodicalobservations.

Preparation of experimental materialJuniperus sabina cuttings wereobtained from 3 small populations inthe Zhigulevskiy State Reserve andpropagated vegetatively at the botanicgarden. 150 cuttings were successfullyrooted and will be ready for planting inspring 2009. The botanic gardennursery has also prepared more than150 plants of Iris pumila from plantsthat are growing in the botanicalgarden. In spring 2009 Iris pumila willbe planted in the Krasnosamarskyforest and Juniperus sabina will beplanted in Zhigulevskiy State Reservein order to create populations andincrease the number of plants of thesespecies.

Planting of experimental material inreintroduction sites170 plants (sprouts with 3-5 buds) ofPaeonia tenuifolia were obtained bysplitting mother shrubs from thecollection of the botanical garden.Reintroduction was conducted inautumn (September-October) 2008, withthe prepared plants being planted inmodel plots in the reintroduction sites atChubovskaya steppe and inKrasnosamarsky forest (speciallyprotected natural territories of SamaraRegion). Planted specimens wereprotected from the influence of adjacentplants by partial removal of competitors.In addition seeds of the species werealso planted in both plots.

Long-term perspectives

Intensive research on the reintroducedplants will be conducted at the modelplots by students, postgraduatestudents and professors at the Polygonfor Monitoring Studies of Samara StateUniversity. The main focus of theseactivities will be the monitoring of theestablished reintroduction sites and thecreation of new sites. The work ofcreating a network of reintroductionplots (which was launched in 2003) willalso continue in different areas ofSamara Region.

Conclusion

Plant reintroduction activities in Russiahave been enhanced due to BGCI’sreintroduction programme initiated in

2007 and two pilot projects on therestoration of threatened steppespecies have been successfullylaunched. However much work remainsto be done in sustaining and monitoringthe artificial communities that havebeen created, as well as expandingreintroduction activities in Russia.

References

�Dzybov, D.S. 2001. Metodagrostepej. Uskorennoevosstanovlenie prirodnojrastitel'nosti. Metodicheskoeposobie. Saratov. 40 pp.

�Gorbunov, Yu. N., Dzybov, D. S.,Kuzmin, Z. E. and Smirnov, I. A.2008. Methodologicalrecommendations for botanicgardens on the reintroduction ofrare and threatened plants BGCI,BGCI, Russian Botanic GardensCouncil, Main Botanic Garden ofRussian Academy of Sciences.Moscow, Russia. 52 pp.

Antonina ShmaraevaSenior Research ScientistLaboratory of Natural FloraBotanical Garden of theSouthern Federal UniversityBotanical slope 7Rostov-on-Don, Russia, 344700.Email: [email protected]

Irina RuzaevaHead of the Flora DepartmentBotanical Garden of Samara StateUniversityMoscow highway 36Samara, Russia, 443086.Email: [email protected]


Right:

Iris pumila

Below:

Eremurus

spectabilis

Photo credits:

Antonina

Shmaraeva

2727BGCI • 2009 • BGjournal• Vol 6 (1) • 27

Situated in the upper reaches of theEcuadorian Amazon, the OrchidBotanical Garden of Puyo, Ecuadorfinds itself in the unique position as acenter of restoration for threatened andendangered tropical plants. While smallin size at merely seven hectares, theGarden has been working for almost30 years restoring a degraded pastureland and serving as a refuge for plantsthreatened by deforestation.

While preserving intact primary forestsclearly has a higher ecological value,significant emphasis is also beingplaced upon reforestation programmesin Ecuador. However, many of thesereforestation programmes lack localbotanical knowledge and in the 20thcentury, much of the deforested sierra(mountain) region of Ecuador wasreforested with non-native pine andeucalyptus. These trees, planted inmonocultures, do not encourage thegrowth of understorey plants.Furthermore, the poor quality ofrainforest soil means that manydeforested lands are only profitable forcattle ranching for 5-10 years. Afterthis time high rainfall has eroded thesoil, nutrients have been leached fromthe soil that remains, and lack of treecover has dried up springs and soilmoisture. For this reason, ecologicalrestoration in the rainforest is not asimple process. In the Orchid Garden,local, non-chemical materials, such assawdust, animal manure and compostderived from food waste were used toimprove the soil. With time, treesbegan to grow again, springs that had

dried up began flowing again andpollinating insects returned to theforest. In the 21st century, asdeforestation continues, reserves andgardens such as the Orchid BotanicalGarden of Puyo are crucial as a seedbank and reference for restorationefforts.

The Orchid Botanical Garden isworking to meet the targets of theGlobal Strategy for Plant Conservationby maintaining populations of locallyrare rainforest species such asGuyacan (Tabebuia guayacan), Ceibo,and Canelo (Ocotea spp.). It has alsorecently opened a visitor center,complete with thousands of individualphotos documenting the insectcolonization that has occurredthroughout the nearly thirty-year historyof the garden. While about 80% of theEcuadorian Amazon remains forested,most residents live in urban centers farremoved from primary forest. With thisin mind, the garden is planning oninitiating education programmes toteach school children about localendangered species and their role inthe timber trade.

As a small reserve with an even smallerstaff, the Garden puts a strongemphasis on capacity and networkbuilding with regional and internationalpartner organizations. The Gardenworks with U.S. Peace Corpsvolunteers in the Puyo region to assistwith outreach activities. The reserve isa member of the Orchid ConservationCoalition’s 1% for Orchid Conservation

Program, a project which usescharitable proceeds to purchase andconserve endangered orchid habitat.The garden also works with the Societyfor Ecological Restoration tocoordinate volunteer and studentprogrammes involving reforestation inlocal communities. These restorationactivities include a combination ofcommunity education along withpractical techniques such as soilfertilization and transplanting.

Recently the Orchid Botanical Gardenhas developed a web site:www.jardinbotanicolasorquideas.com.In the coming year the Garden plans toexpand its educational activities andfurther develop the potential of itsvisitor center. The Garden is looking forassistance to create a databasedetailing the orchid species andcorresponding pollinators of the zone,which it can then contribute to theBGCI plant search database. TheGarden is also looking for studentgroups to help us facilitate restorationand reforestation efforts withneighboring communities.

Matt BareJardin Botanico Las OrquideasCasilla 16-01-710PuyoEcuador.Email: [email protected]

Short communication:

Restoring threatenedplants of the Amazon

Author: Matt Bare

Top:

Pleurethalis

spp., one of the

orchids being

conserved in

the Orchid

Botanical

Garden

Above:

Degraded

pasture land

adjoining the

Botanical

Garden shows

how the Garden

looked before

restoration

Credits:

Matt Bare

Throughout history, “the patron has

been an important figure in the

publication of many florilegia. With The

Highgrove Florilegium, The Prince of

Wales is continuing that tradition but

also breaking new ground in that, this

is the first florilegium of a garden

belonging to a member of the British

Royal Family…Today the term is also

frequently emblematic of a group of

artists who are specifically drawing

plants with a particular association or

from a certain location, such as the

groups working at Hampton Court or

the Chelsea Physic Garden. This is the

spirit in which The Highgrove

Florilegium has been compiled, a work

that promises to be one of the most

significant of the 21st century.

The history of the florilegium is not so

much titles and dates but more one of

passion, dedication and

determination.’’

Taken from The Preface by Christopher

Mills from The Highgrove Florilegium.

Addison Publications 2008.


Notice:

The Highgrove Florilegium

Right: Cosmos

atrosanguineus

The art of depicting plants, originally asa means of identifying species formedicinal purposes, goes back some2000 years and is still thriving today.It is widely acknowledged that there isnow a renaissance of contemporarybotanical art. The great period ofbotanical painting was from 1740–1840and coincided with the voyages ofdiscovery when new plants wereintroduced to Europe. The celebratedFranz and Ferdinand Bauer, Pierre-Joseph Redouté and Georg DionysiusEhret (1708-70) were all producingmagnificent flower paintings during thistime.

A record for posterity of a royalgarden

It is out of this European tradition ofbotanical painting that The HighgroveFlorilegium is being created. Anne-Marie Evans founded the diplomacourse at the English GardeningSchool at London’s Chelsea PhysicGarden and it was here that, with oneof her students, her idea ‘to record forposterity a collection of plants from achosen garden’ came into being. Theproposal was discussed with His RoyalHighness The Prince of Wales whowelcomed the suggestion that hisGloucestershire garden, Highgrove,should be the subject of a florilegium.

Seven years in the making

Lists of plants were drawn up by thehead gardener David Howard, withadditional suggestions from otherbotanists including ProfessorChristopher Humphries at the NaturalHistory Museum. To this end the plantsdepicted are classified according torecent molecular phylogenetic studies.Artists were approached by Anne-Marie who, through her teaching, hascontacts around the world. Artistssuggested other artists and botanicalgardens made recommendations. Toadminister the project and its growingnumber of artists, The HighgroveFlorilegium Committee wasestablished. Visits to the garden werearranged and sometimes plantspecimens were provided for the artiststo work from in their own studios. Thefinished paintings were submitted toa selection committee withrepresentatives from the worlds of art,botany and design which has ensureda consistent and high standardthroughout.

Printed and hand-bound byUnited Kingdom’s leadingcraftmen

As with many other collections ofbotanical paintings it was decided topublish the Highgrove watercolours,and in a manner appropriate forEngland’s first royal florilegium. Therewas a long series of proofing trials on avariety of specially made papers to findthe most appropriate finish. Theimages are accompanied by theNatural History Museum’s text givingthe formal Latin name and a briefhistory of their discovery or creation,distribution, ecology and uses. TheHighgrove Florilegium is presented as atwo-volume work, half-bound in redgoatskin with hand marbled papersides.

Edition limited to 175 setsThe Highgrove Florilegium is availableto purchase in a in two-volume setfrom a limited edition of just 175. Eachcopy is signed by HRH The Prince ofWales and all royalties go to ThePrince’s Charities Foundation. If youwould like to know more about how toacquire one of these sets containing120 plates in total, please call Amandaon +44 (0) 207 602 1848 or [email protected]



Resources

Books and journals

Ecological restoration. Principles,values and structure of an emergingprofessionClewell, A.F. and Aronson, J.

This book is a concise referencedocument that will be valuable toall interested in or involved inecological restoration.Fundamental principles such asthe important selection of areference model and therecognition of people asecological influences areaddressed in general introductorychapters. The underlying

importance of plant species compositionis stressed as, “it is the plant communitythat gives an ecosystem its structure andprovides habitat.” The book’s laterchapters are aimed at more experiencedpractitioners of ecological restoration.Case studies of ecological restorationprojects around the world are included as“virtual field trips”. Included as anAppendix are the Society for EcologicalRestoration International’s, Guidelines fordeveloping and managing ecologicalrestoration projects, 2nd Edition.

The book builds on and develops theSociety for Ecological RestorationInternational’s Primer of EcologicalRestoration (http://www.ser.org/content/ecological_restoration_primer.asp), ofwhich Clewell and Aronson were amongthe three principle authors.

Available from Island Press as part of thebook series “The Science and Practice ofEcological Restoration.”ISBN: 978-1597261692. 2007.Details of other publications published forthe Society of Ecological RestorationInternational can be found at the website:www.ser.org

reWealthStorm Cunningham

Restorative development is the largest,fastest-growing new source of prosperityin today’s global economy. ReWealthunveils the astonishing growth of thistrend, presenting the context andstrategies for taking advantage of thetremendous wealth of restorable assets -while renewing and revitalising the worldaround us.

In an age of climate change, destructivedevelopment and species extinction, thisbook points to a new paradigm ofrestoration and redevelopment. Theauthor suggests a definition of reWealthas “living in a way that leaves both us andthe world healthier and wealthier witheach passing day”, and proposes that a5,000 year legacy of depletion anddestruction can be turned into a $100trillion worldwide inventory of restorableassets. The author argues that leaving theworld better than we found it is a verydifferent proposition from merely slowingthe rate of depletion and pollution.Conservation is essential but it doesn’taddress the needs of wildlife whosehabitat has already been destroyed.Sustainability is certainly a worthy goal,but what about the vast majority of theplanet that is already badly damaged? Isprotecting it from further damage goodenough? Why not restore it?

In reWealth,redevelopment expertStorm Cunninghamreveals a vast newrealm of fast-growing,highly profitableopportunities torevitalise ourcommunities and ourplanet. He outlinesnew practices andstrategies that achieve rapid, resilientrenewal, and shows how wealth can begenerated by replenishing naturalresources, rebuilding communities,redeveloping polluted land, restoringstructures and revitalising economies.

ISBN 978-0-07-148982-9. McGraw-Hill.2008. 398 pages.

Methodological recommendations forbotanic gardens on the reintroductionof rare and threatened plants.Yu. N. Gorbunov, D.S. Dzybov, Z.E.Kuzmin and I. A. Smirnov.

This manual, published in Russian andEnglish, describes methodologicalapproaches for the reintroduction of rarespecies of plants into natural habitats.Problems of terminology and theselection of species for reintroduction arediscussed. The manual also focuses onissues related to preliminary studies,selection of initial starting material,determination of natural habitats and

processes for thecreation andmonitoring ofreintroducedpopulations.Special attention ispaid to thenecessity ofproviding geneticdiversity withincreated populations

and the need for thorough documentationof the work carried out. A separatesection is dedicated to the method ofreintroduction of plant communities(agrosteppe creation) and examples ofpractical experience of reintroduction ofrare species in various regions of Russia(Bashkortostan, the Far East, Irkutsk andVladimir regions) are given.

Published by BGCI, the Russian BotanicGardens Council and the Main BotanicGarden of the Russian Academy ofSciences named after N.V. Tsitsin. 2008.Tula: Grif & Co. 52 pages. ISBN 978-1-905164-28-8. Copies available fromBGCI.

Guidelines for the translocation ofthreatened plants in Australia -Second EditionL. Vallee, T. Hogbin, L. Monks,B. Makinson. M. Matthes and M. Rossetto.

The Australian Network for PlantConservation first established guidelinesfor the translocation of threatened plantsfor conservation purposes as a result ofresolutions from the Australian Networkfor Plant Conservation conference inHobart, 1993. The need for revision wasrecognised as the number oftranslocations being carried out grew,bringing to light new information ontechniques and approaches. This secondedition puts more emphasis on evaluatingwhether translocation should go ahead,monitoring and evaluation, and involvinglocal communities. The main points arebrought together in useful case studiesfrom across Australia. Written by peopleexperienced in threatened planttranslocations, this 80 page colourpublication includes information on:definitions and objectives; decidingwhether translocation is a viable option;the translocation process from projectproposal, development, through tomonitoring; community participation andcase studies.

3131BGjournal• Vol 6 (1)

ISBN: 0 9752191 0 3. 2004. Copiesavailable from the Australian Network forPlant Conservation Inc, GPO Box 1777,Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.Email: [email protected] site: www.anpc.asn.au

Handbook of Ecological RestorationMartin Richard Perrow, A. J. Davy

The two volumes of this handbookprovide a comprehensive account of therapidly emerging and vibrant science ofthe ecological restoration of both habitatsand species. Ecological restoration aimsto achieve complete structural andfunctional, self-maintaining biologicalintegrity following disturbance. Inpractice, any theoretical model ismodified by a number of economic,social, and ecological constraints.Consequently, material that might beconsidered as rehabilitation,enhancement, reconstruction, or re-creation is also included. Restoration inPractice provides details of state-of-the-art restoration practice in a range ofbiomes within terrestrial and aquatic(marine, coastal and freshwater)ecosystems. Policy and legislative issueson all continents are also outlined anddiscussed. The accompanying volume,Principles of Restoration defines theunderlying principles of restorationecology. The Handbook of EcologicalRestoration will be an invaluable resourceto anyone concerned with the restoration,rehabilitation, enhancement or creation ofhabitats in aquatic or terrestrial systems,throughout the world.

Published by Cambridge University Press.2002. ISBN: 978-0521791298. 618 pages

Journals

Ecological restorationEcological Restoration is a forum forpeople interested in all areas ofecological restoration. The technical andbiological aspects of restoringlandscapes are featured, as well asemerging professional issues, the role ofeducation, evolving theories of post-modern humans and their environment,land-use policy, the science ofcollaboration, and more. The quarterlypublication offers original feature articles,short notes, and book reviews as well asabstracts of pertinent work publishedelsewhere. Published since 1981,(originally as Restoration & ManagementNotes) Ecological Restoration is theoldest publication to deal exclusively withthe subject of restoring ecosystems.Ecological Restoration is published forthe University of Wisconsin-Madison

Arboretum by the University of WisconsinPress and in association with the Societyfor Ecological Restoration International.Ecological Restoration is available as astand-alone subscription or at adiscounted rate for members of SERI orthe Friends of the Arboretum.

Further information: www.ecologicalrestoration.info/firstpage.html

Websites

Centre for Plant ConservationGenetic considerations in ecologicalrestoration: an annotated bibliographyLand managers often face the need toplan and implement re-vegetation orrestoration work for disturbed ordegraded habitats. Often there isrelatively little background information toprovide the context about a focal speciesor the greater plant community. Acommon concern, particularly for largerscale restoration, centres on how to makedecisions about the selection of wildsource material to be used. Managersneed information about the importance oflocal genetic adaptation in restorationwork, and how to maximize the chancesfor success and minimize the possibilityof any deleterious effects. However, mostbiologists and land managers are notgenetic experts and have limited time todevote to in-depth study of the issues.

The Center for Plant Conservation (CPC),with the assistance of a number ofpopulation geneticists, conducted aliterature review to explore some of thekey issues and has made thatbibliography available on their website.While initially intended to presentavailable literature on the topic ofecotypes, the scope of the bibliographywas expanded as a result of discussionswith numerous authorities on the subject.The current bibliography now presentsliterature on topics broadly relevant togenetic considerations in ecologicalrestoration. Inclusion of literature is notlimited to peer-reviewed scientific articles,but also includes grey literature, includingbook chapters, papers from meetings andsymposia, and reports.

www.centerforplantconservation.org/Education.html

Global Partnership on ForestLandscape RestorationThe Global Partnership is a network ofgovernments, organisations, communitiesand individuals who recognise theimportance of forest landscaperestoration and want to be part of acoordinated global effort. The partners

will learn from one another's experiencesand identify, undertake and support forestlandscape restoration activities. TheForest Restoration Information Service(FRIS) plays a critical role as aninformation resource and in promotinginformation sharing among partners andother restoration practitioners. Thepartnership will serve as a model of howthe international forest community canmove constructively from dialogue toaction by linking policy and practice.

www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/restoration/globalpartnership/

Conferences

19th Conference of the Society forEcological Restoration (SER)InternationalMaking Change in a Changing WorldPerth, Western Australia, 23-27 August2009.

SER International meetings provideimportant international fora for scientistsand practitioners who look to restorationas a means to conserve decliningbiodiversity and failing ecosystems.

The following sessions are likely to be ofparticular interest to BGCI members:

The Role of Botanic Gardens andSeed-banks in Ecological Restoration:Next StepsPrincipal Organizer: Kate Hardwick,Royal Botanic Gardens, UK

Native Plant Materials Development andUse in a Changing WorldPrincipal Organizer: Kayri Havens,Chicago Botanic Garden, USA

Sourcing Seed in a Changing World:Genetic Implications for RestorationSuccessPrincipal Organizers: Siegy Krauss, KingsPark and Botanic Garden, AustraliaDavid Coates, Department ofEnvironment and Conservation, Australia

Doing Restoration: A PractitionersPractical Guide to Restoration Techniquesand TechnologyPrincipal Organizer: Kingsley Dixon, KingsPark and Botanic Garden, Australia

For more information on this meetingvisit www.seri2009.com.auor email [email protected]


Formal Board Resolution or other form of approval Please Tickfrom relevant governing bodies (e.g. universityauthorities, local, regional or national government

Informal E.g. by Director/Senior staff.

International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in ConservationRegistration Form

Please register your contributions to the International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation

Name of Institution

Name of responsibleperson

Position

Date ofRegistration

Date

Address

Type of Registration

BGCI would welcome copies of any formal resolution, motion or other form of endorsement.

Declaration

This institution welcomes the International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation as a global framework for thedevelopment of institutional policies and programmes in plant conservation for botanic gardens.

Without imposing any obligations or restrictions (legal or otherwise) on the policies or activities of thisinstitution/organisation, we commit ourselves to working to achieve the objectives and targets of theInternational Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation.

Please sign and detach this registration form and send it to The Secretary General, Botanic Gardens ConservationInternational, Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3BW, U.K.

Thank you for registering with the International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation.

Please keep a duplicate copy of this form for your records.

Email

Signed

Established in 1987,BGCI links more than 500botanic gardens andconservation organizationsin 115 countries, workingtogether to savePLANTS FOR THE PLANET.

BGCI’s INSTITUTION members receive numerous benefits:• Opportunities for involvement in joint conservation and education projects• Tools and opportunities to influence global conservation policy and action• Botanic Garden Management Resource Pack (upon joining)*• Regular publications:

- Cuttings – newsletter on botanic gardens and plant conservation (2 per year)- BGjournal – an international journal for botanic gardens (2 per year)- Roots - Environmental Education Review (2 per year)- A wide range of publications and special reports

• Invitations to BGCI congresses and discounts on registration fees• BGCI technical support and advisory services

• Regular publications:- Cuttings – newsletter on botanic gardens and plant conservation (2 per year)- BGjournal - an international journal for botanic gardens (2 per year)- Roots - Environmental Education Review (2 per year)

• Invitations to BGCI congresses and discounts on registration fees

J Conservation donor (BGjournal, Roots and Cuttings reports and more) 250 400 350K Associate member (Cuttings and BGjournal) 40 65 50L Associate member (Cuttings and Roots) 40 65 50M Friend (Cuttings) available through online subscription only (www.bgci.org) 10 15 15

Institution Membership £ Stlg US $ € Euros

Individual Membership £ Stlg US $ € Euros

How to join Botanic Gardens Conservation Internationaland help us to save plants from extinction

INDIVIDUAL members and donorssupport BGCI’s global network forplant conservation, and areconnected to it through ourpublications and events.Membership categories include:

Corporate Membership is available; please contact BGCI at [email protected] for further details.

*Contents of the Botanic Garden Management Resource Pack include: Darwin Technical Manual for Botanic Gardens, A Handbook for Botanic Gardenson the Reintroduction of Plants to the Wild, BGjournal - an international journal for botanic gardens (2 past issues), Roots - Environmental EducationReview (2 past issues), The International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation, Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, Environmental Educationin Botanic Gardens, additional recent BGCI reports and manuals. BG-Recorder (a computer software package for plant records) available on request.

A BGCI Patron Institution 5000 8000 7500B Institution member (budget more than US$2,250,000) 750 1200 1000C Institution member (budget US$ 1,500,000 - 2,250,000) 500 800 650D Institution member (budget US$ 750,000 - 1,500,000) 350 550 450E Institution member (budget US$ 100,000 - 750,000) 185 300 250F Institution member (budget below US$100,000)* 85 130 115

*Generally applies to institutions in less developed countries

Payment may be made online at www.bgci.org/worldwide/members/, or by cheque (payable to Botanic Gardens Conservation International) orVISA/MasterCard sent to BGCI, Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K or Fax: +44 (0) 20 8332 5956.

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