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0000053809Jurnal Produktiviti - [Journal].

ILMU

Setiap tahun golongan profesional dan calon-calon profesional dariinstitusi-institusi pengajian tinggi membuat kaftan dan penyelidikanmengenai produkfiviti dan pengurusan tenaga manusia. Dari safamasa he suatu masa prestasi tenaga manusia diukur melalui pemerhatiandan kajiselidik, namun pihak yang kena selidik dan pekerja sendirikhususnya jarang yang mendapat maklumbalas dari hasil kaftantersebut.

Sesungguhnya manusia adalah aktivis yang sering berubah-ubah. Kecen-derungan yang berubah-ubah itu bukan saja terjadipada cara mengurusdan membuat keputusan; malahan perubahan juga sering terjadi padacara berfikir dan cara bertindak golongan pekerja hatta cara merekamenerima arahan dan cara melaksanakannya.

Berdasarkan hakikat inilah kita menyedari bahawa organisasi daninstitusi-institusi manusia yang wufud merupakan makmal-makmal ka/itenaga yang amat kompleks; di mana setiap detik manusia bertindakdan jentera bergerak, semuanya men/adi bahan pemerhatian dan kaftanyang amat berguna ke arah pembentukan budaya kerja di masa depan.

Bagaimanapun, samada kaftan-kaftan dibuat semata-mata untuk keper-luan akademik, kaftan perbandingan atau pengumpulan data; namunkebanyakan hasil-hasil kaftan tersebut masih tersimpan didalam bentuktests di pusat-pusat pengajian atau badan-badan tertentu.

Sesungguhnya 'membekukan' dan menyalurkan hasil-hasil itu hanyakepada golongan tertentu di dalam bidangnya, hanya akan menambah-kan jurang ilmu di antara beberapa peringkat manusia. Tegasnya,pekerja juga harus diberi pengetahuan dan maklumbalas akan kesan dariaktiviti yang mereka lakukan. Ini penting kerana proses pelaksanaansesuatu kaedah baru tidak boleh diasakkan secara drastik, melainkanmemerlukan penyerapan, kefahaman, kesedaran dan asimilasi yangberperingkat-peringkat tetapi berterusan.

Oleh itu kami menyeru kerjasama penulisjpengkaft serta golonganprofesional dan pengurusan supaya membuka 'peti khazanah' ilmu yangterpendam dan tersimpan, guna dimanfaatkan kepada semua golonganpengurusan, pekerja dan rakyat biasa yang terlibat di dalam prosesproduktiviti negara secara total.

53803

Penerbit/Pu blisherPu&at Daya Pengeluaran Negara(National Productivity Centre)

Jalan Sultan,Petaling Jaya, Malaysia.

Tel: 7557266Pe n asih at/ Adviser

Ir. Haji Arshad Haji Marsidi(Pengarah)

Pengarang/Sdi/orMah Lok Abdullah

Pen. Pengarang/Sufi EditorSujaidi Dasuki

Haji Ahmad BerekRuslan Khatib

Lim Yew ChongSugunarajahSuci Thomas

Suhaimy Abdul TalibJurina Abd. HamidNor Aim AmdzahAb Rahim YusoffSuhaimi HamadSantha Kumari

Pauzi Hanipi

Kami mengalu-alukan sumbangan rencana untuk dimuatkan di dalam majalah ini.'Journal Produktiviti' diterbitkan enam bulan sekali, menampung semua aspek ekonomidan pengurusan serta lain lain bidang yang ada hubungannya dengan proses produktiviti.Kencana-rencana yang tersiar akan diberikan honorarium dan tidak semestinya merupa-kan pendapat PDPN.

'Journal Produktiviti' diterbitkan oleh Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara(Kementerian Perdagangan dan Perindustrian) Peti Surat 64, Petaling Jaya,Selangor, Malaysia. Telefon: 7557266 (15 tatian), Telek: MA 36312 PDPN

TOWARDS AN ISLAMIC LAW IN MALAYSIA- ITS IMPACT ON PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT

Datuk Dr. Professor Ahmad Ibrahim

BIODATA

Born IS.5.1916 — Singapore. Educated Raffles Insti-tutions, Singapore, Raffles College, Singapore, St.John's College, Cambridge, England and Middle Tem-ple, London.B.A London 1935Queen's Scholar, Straits Settlements, 19351st class Honours Economics Tripos, 1st class HonoursLaw Tripos.B.A (Cantab), 1039, M.A (Cantab) 1960, LL.D Singa-pore 1070.Barister-at-Law, Certificates of Honour, 1941.Served as Magistrate, District Judge and Crown Coun-sel, Singapore.Senior Crown Counsel, State Advocate-General, Attor-ney-General 1965-1968

Has also been in private practice.Member of legaslative Council, Singapore.Member of the Muslim College Fund Raising Committee in Singapore.Professor of Malaysian Law, University of Malaya 1972-1983. Dean Faculty of Law.Professor of Law and Shaikh, Kulliyah of Law, International Islamic University since 1983.Professor Emeritus, University of Malaya, 1984.Publications1. Islamic Law in Malaya2. Family Law in Malaysia and SingaporeAll numerous articles in legal journals.Research Interests1. Islamic Law2. Family Law3. Criminal LawHave recently visited Pakistan, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and England.Public ServiceMember of the Islamic Consultative Committee, ( a Committee to advise the Prime Ministeron Islamic Issues).Have been actively involved in the discussions and preparation of legislation for the adminis-tration of Islamic Law, Islamic Banking and Takaful.

ABSTRACT

Islam does not prevent us from seeking wealth in lawful ways. Trade andindustry are encouraged and the State should encourage and foster economicand industrial development. However Islam lays down certain rules of being fairand equitable in our relations and not causing hardship. All trade relations

should be clearly spelt out and not be tainted by uncertainly, gambling or riba.In the past the Muslims were inhibited from taking an active part in commerceand industry because of the prevalence of interest payments in the economy.With the setting up of institutions like the Bank Islam which enable financialtransactions to be carried out without riba, a greater opportunity is given toMuslims to take part in development and they should make use of this oppor-tunity.

The Federal Constitution provides that Islam is the religion of the Federa-tion but other religions may be practised in peace and harmony in any part ofthe Federation. Islam is not only a religion in the Western secular sense but it isa way of life. It covers all aspects of life, not only the relations between man andGod, but the relations of man in society and in the universe. It deals not onlywith the way of attaining salvation in the world to come but also with the wayof attaining success in this world. The Muslim is taught to pray —

"Our Lord, give us good in this world and good in the Hereafter and defendus from the torment of the Fire."

(Surah al-Baqarah (2): 201)

The basis of the Islamic teachings is contained in the Holy Quran, whichMuslims believe, was revealed by God and conveyed through the Prophet Mohamad(s.a.w.) to guide us to attain good in this world and in the next. Apart from theHoly Quran we have the example of the Holy Prophet himself (s.a.w.) to applyand exemplify the teachings contained in the Holy Quran. It is incumbent on aMuslim to obey the teachings of God as contained in the Holy Quran and asexemplified by the example of the Prophet (s.a.w.). The Holy Quran states:—

"O you who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those chargedin authority among you. If you differ in anything among yourselves referit to Allah and its Messenger, if you do believe in Allah and the Last Day.That is best and most suitable for final determination."

(Surah An-Nisa, (4): 59)

The rules which have been revealed for the guidance of mankind arecontained in the Shariah, which are based in the original teachings to be found inthe Holy Quran and in the Sunnah of the Prophet (s.a.w.) These have beenelaborated by Muslim jurists by the use of their powers of reasoning into asystem of Islamic law. Besides the religious duties like prayer, fasting, pilgrimageand zakat which are incumbent on Muslims, Islam gives guidance for our dailylife and lays down certain principles which can form the basis of our political,economic and social life.

When Malaysia was under the domination of the British, the Malays losttheir control over political, economic and social affairs. In particular the Britishintroduced the English Law and this meant that the Islamic Law was no longerapplicable to the Malays in Malaysia. Codes of law based on the English Law

were introduced into Malaysia, like the Penal Code, the Evidence Act, the Con-tract Act, the Criminal Procedure Code and the Land Code. Thus in a largesegment of the legal system the Malays could no longer follow the Islamic Law.The Shariah Courts were stripped of most of their powers and were confinedto dealing with family law and minor criminal offences. While the status of theCivil Courts and the Civil judges were raised high, the Shariah Courts were keptas subordinate courts and the judges of the courts were given a status even lowerthan the Magistrates of the Civil Courts. In the face of the supersession of theirlaws and institutions, the Malays were forced to retire and isolate themselvesfrom the commercial and economic life of the country. The Malay rulers had asemblance of sovereignty and there were laws to protect Malay rights in theadministration and land but effective political power passed to the British andeconomic power was shared between the British and the Chinese and the Indians.With independence, the Malays came into political power and they found thatthey had to govern the country in alliance with the Chinese and Indian citizensof Malaysia. The question was what principles should be followed in the political,economic and social life of Malaysia. As Muslims the Malays were bound toaccept the guidance of the Shariah, based as it is on the Holy Quran and theSunnah of the Prophet (s.a.w.). On the other hand, many of the laws and institu-tions in Malaysia are based on the English law and in certain respects these areincompatible with the Islamic Law.

In seeking the freedom to practise their religion the Malays then must tryto return to the Islamic Law. While the Islamic family law has been left to beadministered in the Shariah Courts in Malaysia, the laws relating to the administra-tion of the law, which were drafted during the British period, left much to bedesired. The laws were State laws and little effort was made to promote uniformityin the laws between the States. The jurisdiction of the Shariah Courts was limitedand in criminal matters they could only deal with offences which were punish-able with a fine not exceeding $1,000 or with imprisonment for a term notexceeding six months. In some cases, the Islamic Law could not be applied asthere was legislation which superseded it. Thus the Evidence Act contains aprovision relating to the legitimacy of children which is contrary to the IslamicLaw but in the case of Ainan v Syed Abubakar [1939] MLJ 209 it was held thatthe Evidence Act, being a law of general application is applicable to Muslims,thereby displacing the Islamic Law. The Guardianship of Infants Act, 1961, isapplicable to Muslims and its application may sometimes be in conflict with theIslamic Law, as shown in the case of Myriam v Mohamad Ariff [1971] 1 MLJ265, where the High Court made an order for custody which was inconsistentwith the order of the Shariah Court. In Naisiah v Abul Majid [1969] 2 MLJ 174the High Court allowed an application for damages for breach of promise ofmarriage, although the parties were Muslims and would not have been able to doso in the Shariah Courts. Sometimes too because of the doctrine of precedent,decision of the Privy Civil might have to be followed even though it is contraryto Islamic Law as shown in the case of Commissioner of Religious Affairs vTengku Mariam [1970] 1 MLJ 222. Morever the validity or otherwise of a Muslimmarriage might be decided in the Civil Courts according to English rules ofprivate international law as in the cases of In re Maria Hertogh [1951] MLJ 164and Martin v Umi Kalsom [1963] MLJ 1.

Changes are therefore required. Steps have been taken to have a uniformIslamic Family Law which can be adopted by the States, and legislation to adoptthis uniform law has been enacted in a number of States including Kelantan,Kedah, Negri Sembilan, Melaka and Wilayah Persekutuan. Besides seeking tohave uniformity in the law and its administration, the new legislation providesfor the application of the Islamic Law in such matters as legitimacy, guardian-ship and wakaf. The jurisdiction and status of the Shariah Courts have also beenincreased and improved. It is proposed to have Shariah Subordinate Courts andShariah High Courts and also a Shariah Court of Appeal, which it is hoped willeventually function at the Federal level to hear appeals from all the State ShariahHigh Courts. In line with the streamlining of the courts, the qualifications andstatus of the Shariah Court judges will also be improved. New laws relating tothe criminal and civil procedures of the Shariah Courts and the law of evidenceto be followed in the Shariah Courts are being drafted. It is also hoped to providethat the Shariah Courts should have exclusive jurisdiction over such mattersand that the Civil Courts will no longer have jurisdiction in matters which fallwithin the jurisdiction of the Shariah Courts.

In the past Muslims have been loath to take part in commercial activitiesbecause of their fear of going against the Islamic Law. In particular there is aclear prohibition against the taking of interest in Islamic Law.

"0 you who believe! Observe your duty to Allah and give up what remainsdue to you from riba, if you are in truth believers. And if you do not, thenbe warned of war against you from Allah and His Messenger. And if yourepent then you have your principal (without interest). Wrong not and youshall not be wronged."

(Surah al-Baqarah (2): 278-279).

The Muslim is in fact encouraged to take part in trade. In the Holy Quranit is stated —

"O you who believe! Eat not your property among yourselves in vanitiesbut let there be amongst you traffic and trade by mutual goodwill."

(Surah An-Nisaa (4): 29).

However, he is warned —

"Those who devour riba will not stand except as stands one by whom theEvil one by his touch has driven to madness. That is because they say"Trade is like riba". But Allah has permitted trade and forbidden riba."

(Surah Al-Baqarah (2): 275).

In order to encourage the Muslims to take to trade and industry thereforeit is necessary to have institutions which follow the Islamic principles and eschewriba transactions. This is why the Islamic Bank has been set up and a proposalhas been made to have an Islamic system of insurance, the Takaful.

It is of course difficult to get out of a riba system of economy and it willtake time for the Muslims to prove that the Islamic system provides a viablealternative system. In the meantime, the Government has taken steps to en-courage the Malays to invest in, for example, the Tabung Haji and the AmanahSaham Nasional.

Commercial activities in Malaysia have been largely influenced by theWestern capitalist system and this is another reason why the Malay feels reluctantto take part in such activities. Here again the Islamic Law gives guidance andperhaps some of its principles can be universally applied.

Honesty and justice in all transactions have been stressed in the Quran:

"Give just measure and cause no loss to others by fraud and weigh withscales true and accurate. And withhold not things justly due to men nordo evil in the land working mischief."

(Surah Shu'araa (26): 181)

"Woe to those who deal in fraud — those who when they have to receiveby measure from men, exact full measure but when they have to give bymeasure or weight to men, give less than due. Do they think that they willnot be called to account?"

(Surah at-Tarfit (83): 1-4)

The Hadith of the Prophet (s.a.w.) also contain many rules of guidance forbusiness based on truth and justice.

(a) The Prophet (s.a.w.) once came upon a heap of grain and when heput his hand into it his fingers felt some dampness. He asked theowner of the grain how that came about. On being told that rain hadfallen on it, he said "Why did you not put the damp part on top ofthe grain so that the people might see it? He who deceives has nothingto do with me."

(Sunan Abu Daud Vol. 2 p. 982)

(b) The Prophet (s.a.w.) said "both parties in a business transaction havethe right to annul it as long as they have not separated; and if theyspeak the truth and make everything clear they will be blessed intheir transaction; but if they tell a lie and conceal anything theblessing on their transaction will be blotted out."

(Sahih Muslim, Vol. Ill p. 804)

(c) The Prophet (s.a.w.) said "no one withholds goods till their pricesrise but a sinner."

(Sunan Abu Dawud Vol. 2 p. 980)

(d) The Prophet (s.a.w.) said "A person should not enter into a transac-tion when his brother is already making a transaction."

(Sahih Muslim Vol. Ill p. 799)

Islam has its own law relating to commercial transactions (muamalat).Owing to the predominance of English Law these principles no longer formpart of the law in Malaysia. To this extent again the Muslim has been deniedthe right to profess and practise his religion and this explains his reluctance totake part in such commercial activities and his desire to have the principles ofthe Islamic Law reapplied.

Although Islam affirms the absolute precedence of life hereafter over theworldly life, it does not reject the life of this world entirely. Islam permits neitherescape nor retreat but affirms that Allah has made subservient to men all that isin the earth and in the Heavens.

"Say: Short is the enjoyment of this world. The Hereafter is the best forthose who do right. Never will you be dealt with unjustly in the very

(Surah An-Nisa, (4): 77)

"And He has subjected to you, as from Him, all that is in the Heavens andon earth. Behold in that are signs indeed for those who reflect."

(Surah al-Jathiya (45): 13)

"So eat of the sustenance which Allah has provided for you, lawful andgood. And be grateful for the favours of Allah, for is is He whom youserve'" (Surah An-Nahl (16): 114)"Eat and drink of that which Allah has provided and act not corruptly,making mischief in the world."


"O you who believe! Forbid not the good things which Allah has madelawful for you and exceed not the limits. Surely Allah loves not those whoexceed the limits. And eat of the lawful and the good that Allah has givenyou and keep your duty to Allah in whom you believe."

(Surah al-Maida (5): 90-91)

According to the Holy Quran participation in economically creativeactivity is obligatory for every Muslim. He is also expected to work hard.

"And whom the prayer is finished then may you disperse through the landand seek of the Bounty of Allah; and celebrate the praises of Allah oftenthat you may prosper."

(Surah al-Jumn'a (62): 10)

"And in no wise covet those things which Allah has bestowed His giftsmore freely on some of you than on others; to men is allotted what theyearn and to women what they earn. But ask Allah of His bounty. For Allahhas full knowledge of all things."

(Surah An-Nisaa (4): 32)

"Man can have nothing but what he strives for."(Surah An-Najm (53): 39)

The Prophet (s.a.w.) said —

"If God provides anyone of you with an opportunity for earning liveli-hood, let him not leave it unexploited until it is exhausted or becomesdisagreeable to him."

(Ibn Majah)

"He who seeks the world lawfully to refrain from begging, to cater for hisfamily and to be kind to his neighbour, will meet Allah with his face shininglike the full moon."

(Bayhaqi)

Islam urges us to gain mastery over nature because all resources in theheavens and the earth have been created for the service of mankind.

"Do you not see that Allah has subjected to your use all things in theheavens and on earth and has made his bounties flow to you in exceedingmeasure both seen and unseen?"

(Surah Luqman (31): 20)

Islam has prohibited begging and urged Muslims to earn their livelihood.The Prophet (s.a,w.) said —

"Beg not anything from the people."(Sunan Abu Daud)

"The hand that is above is better than the hand that is below."(Sahih al-Bukhari)

"A man has not earned better income than that which is from his ownlabour."

(Ibn Majah)

One of the goals of the state should be to create such an economic environ-ment that those who are willing to work and are looking for work are able tofind gainful employment in accordance with their abilities. Unless this is donethe society cannot even succeed in its spiritual aims, because those unemployedwould be subjected to a life of hardship unless they depend on unemploymentrelief or resort to begging or immoral practices, which would be against theteachings of Islam.

Muslim jurists have therefore held that the basic objective of the Shariahis to cater for the interests of the people and relieve them of hardship. ImamGhazali, for example, said that the objective of the Shariah is to promote thewelfare of the people which lies in safeguarding their faith, their life, their in-tellect, their posterity and their property; and that therefore whatever ensuresthe protection of these five serves the public interest and is desirable. Ibn Qayyimemphasised that "the basis of the Shariah is wisdom and the welfare of thepeople in this world as well as in the hereafter. This welfare lies in complete

justice, mercy, happiness and wisdom; anything that departs from justice tooppression, from mercy to harshness, from welfare to misery, and from wisdomto folly, has nothing to do with the Shariah."

It is possible that in the pursuant of an economically full prosperous life aperson can go to the extreme and make material welfare an end in itself byignoring spiritual values, acquiring wealth through unfair means, exploitingothers and subjecting them to wrong and injustice. This is why Islam emphasisesthat even in the pursuit of wealth we should remember God. Remembering Godin this context does not imply spending most of one's life hi saying prayers orfasting or confining oneself in the mosque, but it implies living a morally res-ponsible life in accordance with the teachings of Islam, earning only by rightmethods and abandoning all the wrong ones, and considering wealth as a trustfor which account is to be rendered to God.

"When the prayer is ended then disperse in the land and seek of Allah'sbounty but remember Allah much so that you may be successful."

(Surah al-Jumu'a (62): 10)

Ibn Kathir in interpreting this verse says, "Remember God much" meansthat while selling or buying and taking or giving you must remember God muchso that these worldly pursuits do not cause you to lose sight of what benefitsyou in the hereafter."


"Fear Allah and be moderate in your pursuit of wealth; take only thatwhich is allowed and leave that which is forbidden."

(Ibn Majah)

"There is nothing wrong in wealth for him who fears Allah."(Sahih Al-Bukhari)

If there is a conflict then we must be content with whatever can be acquiredrightfully even though it may be little.

"Say: not equal are things that are bad and things which are good, eventhough the abundance of the bad may dazzle you. But keep your duty toGod, O men of understanding, that you may prosper."

(Surahal-Maida(5): 103)

Islam therefore creates a harmony between the material and the moral byurging us to strive for material welfare but stressing at the same time that weplace this material effort on a moral foundation thus providing a spiritual basisto material effort.

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"But seek with the wealth which God has bestowed on you the home ofthe hereafter but neglect not your share in this world and do good toothers as God has been good to you, and seek not to make mischief in theland. For God loves not those who do mischief."

(Surah al-Qasas (28): 77)


"The best of Muslim is he who is concerned about the affairs of this worldas well as the affairs of the hereafter."

(Ibn Majah)

"He is not the best of you who renounces this world for the hereafter noris he who neglects the hereafter for this world; the best of you is he whotakes from this world as well as the hereafter."

(Mawardi)

Islam aims at establishing a social order where all individuals are united bybonds or brotherhood and affection like members of one family created by oneGod from one couple.

"0 mankind! We created you from a male and a female and made youinto nations and tribes that you may know each another. Verily the mosthonoured of you before God is the most righteous of you; surely God isknowing, aware."

(Surah al-Hujurat (49): 13)

The Prophet said -

"Mankind is the family of God and the most beloved of them before himis one who does good to his family."

Since Islam considers mankind as one family, all members of this familyare alike in the eyes of God and before the law revealed by him. There is nodifference between the rich and the poor, between the high and the low orbetween the white and the black. There should be no discrimination due to raceor colour or position. The only criteria of a man's worth is character, ability andservice to humanity.

The Prophet said -

"Certainly God looks not at your faces or your wealth; instead he looksat your heart and your deeds."

(Sahih Muslim)

"The noblest of you are the best in character."(Sahih al-Bukhari)

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In this respect Islam emphasises the importance of justice, justice occupiesa place of such paramount importance that being just is considered to be anecessary condition of being pious and God-fearing, the basic characteristics ofa Muslim.

"0 you who believe! Stand out firmly for God as witnesses to fair dealingand let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve from justice. Bejust: that is next to piety; and fear God for God is aware of what you do."

(SurahAl-An'am(6): 152)

"0 you who believe! Stand out firmly for justice as witnesses to God, evenas against yourselves or your parents or your kin and whether it be againstrich or poor, for God can best protect both. Follow not your low desires,lest you swerve and if you distort justice or decline to do justice, verilyAllah is well-acquainted with all that you do."

(SurahAn-Nisaa(4): 135)

The concept of brotherhood and justice and equal treatment of all indivi-duals in society and before the law should be accompained by economic justiceso that everyone gets his due for his contributions to society and there is noexploitation of one individual by another. The holy Quran urges us "And with-hold not things justly due to others."

(Surah As-Shuraa (26): 183)

It also teaches us —

"Help you one another in righteousness and piety but help not one anotherin sin and rancour."

(Surah Al-Maida (5): 3)

Under the Islamic system no one is permitted to injure another or beinjured in return. The rule of caveat emptor (purchaser beware) does not apply.No technicality of law will protect such a transaction, for the purchaser byseeing to it that he is not deceived and does not suffer an underserved loss.

"Deal not unjustly and you shall not be dealt with unjustly."(Surah al-Baqarah (2): 279)

"Woe to those who deal in fraud — those who when they have to receiveby measure from men exact full measure but when they have to give bymeasure or weight to men give less than due. Do they not think that theywill be called to account?"

(Surah al-Tatfit (83): 1-4)

"O you who believe! Stand out firmly for Allah as witnesses to fair dealingand let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong anddepart from justice. Be just: that is next to piety and fear Allah. For Allahis well acquainted with all that you do."

(Surahal-Maida(5):9)

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The Prophet (s.a.w.) has said "Whoever amongst you can give a profit tohis brother, let him do so". (Sahih Muslim) He also said "Why do you restrainyour brother from that which will benefit him and is also profitable to you."

(Malik)

In the relationship of employment and employee also Islam emphasisesthe need for justice. An employee is entitled to a just wage for his contributionto production and it is unlawful for an employer to exploit his employee.

The Prophet said —

"Three persons who will certainly face God's displeasure on the day ofjudgment are: one who dies without fulfilling his commitment to God;one who sells a free person and enjoys the price and one who engages alabourer receives due work from him but does not pay him his wage,"

(Sahih al-Bukhari)

"An employee is entitled to at least moderately good food and clothingand not to be burdened with labour except what he can bear."

(Malik, Muwatta)

"Your employees are your brothers whom God has made your subordinates.So he who has his brother under him let him feed him what he feeds him-self and clothe him with what he clothes himself."

(Sahih al-Bukhari)

In return Islam places certain moral obligations on the employee.


"God loves that when any one of you does a job he does it perfectly."(Baihaqi)

An employee who excels in his devotion to God and also renders to hismaster what is due to him of duty, sincerity and obedience, for him thereis a double reward with God."

The employee must be honest and trustworthy.


"He whom we have appointed for a job and have provided with livelihoodthen whether he appropriates beyond this is ill-gotten."

(Abu Dawud)

Islam also emphasises distributive justice and incorporates in its system aprogramme for redistribution of income and wealth so that every individual isguaranteed a standard of living that is humane and in harmony with regard tothe dignity of man inherent in the teachings of Islam.

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The Prophet (s.a.w.) declared —

"He is not a true Muslim who eats his fill while his next door neighbour ishungry."

Umar, the second Caliph, explaining the redistributive justice in Islam,emphasised in one of his public addresses that everyone had an equal right inthe wealth of the community, that no one, not even he himself, enjoyed agreater right in it than any one else, and that if he were to live longer, he wouldsee to it that even a shepherd on the Mount Sana received his share from hiswealth. The Caliph Ali is reported to have stressed that God has made it obligatoryon the rich to provide the poor with what is adequate for them; if the poorare hungry or naked or troubled it is because the rich have deprived them (oftheir right), and it will be proper for God to account them for it and to punishthem. The jurists have almost unanimously held the position that it is the dutyof the whole Muslim society in general and of its rich in particular to take careof the basic needs of the poor and if the well-to-do not fulfill this responsibilityin spite of their ability to do so the state can and should compel them, toassume their responsibility.

The Islamic programme for distributive justice has three prongs. FirstIslamic teachings imply the rendering of assistance in finding gainful employmentto those unemployed and then looking for work and a just wage for those work-ing. Second it emphasises the payment of zakat from the rich to the poor whobecause of personal disability or handicaps are unable to attain a respectablestandard of living by their own effort. Third, it provides for a division of theestate of a deceased person among a number of individuals so as to acceleratethe distribution of wealth in society.

Islam however does not require that everyone be rewarded equally irrespec-tive of his contribution to society. Islam tolerates some inequalities of incomebecause all men are not equal in their character, ability and service to society.

"It is he who made you agents and inheritors of the earth. He has raisedyou in ranks some above others that he may try you in the gifts he hasgiven you."

(Surah Al-An-Am (6); 165)

"God has bestowed his gifts of sustenance more freely on some of youthan on others. Those more favoured are not going to thro\y back thegifts to those to whom their hands possess, so as to be equal in that res-pect. Will they then deny the favours of God?"

(SurahAn-Nahl(16):71)

"It is we who portion out between them their livelihood as the life of thisworld and we raise some of them above others in ranks so that some maycommand work from others. But the mercy of your Lord is better thanthe wealth which they amass."

(Surah Az-Zukhruf (43): 32)

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The Quran, the Sunnah and the fiqh literature have discussed in detail therules relating to the acquisition and disposal of private and business property.Islam also recognises the significance of the market mechanism and the profitmotive. A Muslim jurist, Jaziri, has stated —

"Buying and selling are allowed by the Shariah so that people may profitmutually. There is no doubt that this can also be a source of injustice,because both the buyer and the seller desire more profit and the lawgiverhas not prohibited profit nor has he set limits to it. He has however pro-hibited fraud and cheating and ascribing to a commodity attributes it doesnot possess."

Although property is allowed to be privately owned in the Islamic system,it is considered as a trust from God, because everything in the heavens and earthreally belongs to God, and man enjoys the right of ownership only as a trust.

"To God belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth."


Because man holds the wealth he owns on trust from God, he is bound bythe conditions of the trust or more specifically the moral values of Islam, particu-larly the values of the lawful and the unlawful, brotherhood, social and economicjustice, equitable distribution of income and wealth and fostering of the com-mon good. The wealth a person owns should be acquired in accordance with theteachings of Islam and should be used for the objectives laid down by suchteachings.

In contrast to the capitalist system which is morally neutral and makesdecisions only on the basis of the laws of supply and demand, the Islamic eco-nomic system cannot be morally neutral. The allocation of resources musttherefore be in conformity not only with the consumer's preferences but alsowith the norms of Islam.

In the capitalist market system since the individual is the primary ownerof his own goods, be may do what he pleases with them. Hence there is no moralsanction against the destruction of output by say burning or dumping into the seain order to raise prices or to maintain them at a higher level. But in the Islamicsystem since all wealth is a trust from God, it would be a grave moral crime todo so. The destruction of life and property has been declared by the Quran tobe equivalent to spreading mischief and corruption in the land.


Success in the competitive struggle under the capitalist system may bepossible through means which are morally questionable and which conflictwith the goals of social and economic justice and equitable distribution ofincome. Such success is morally reprehensible in Islam and should thereforebe avoided.

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All this shows that while the market system has been recognised in Islamit needs to be modified to make it conform to the ideals of Islam. This explainstherefore the anxiety of the Muslims that the Islamic Law relating to commercialtransactions should be recognised and enforced.

In regard to the criminal law there are certain crimes which are regardedas so serious that they called for severe punishment from God. For these certainfixed punishments have been provided as a deterrence to mankind. Among suchcrimes are murder, illegal sexual intercourse, theft and drunkenness. Althoughthe punishments imposed are fixed and unalterable, the evidence required forthe proof of such offences is of a very high standard. For illegal sexual inter-course, for example, the evidence of four impeccable witnesses is required. More-over the Muslims are advised to avoid such punishments as far as possible and thepunishments cannot be imposed where there is any doubt. In the case of otheroffences the Judge is free to impose the discretionary or taazir punishment whichhe deems fit.

The call for the introduction of Islamic Law does not mean that there isany attempt to impose the Islamic Law on those who do not profess the religionof Islam. Rather Islam gives them the freedom to follow their own system ofreligious or customary law. Where the law relates to matters of belief and religiouspractices, the law in fact is applicable only to Muslims and cannot be enforcedon non-Muslims. There has been no case in Malaysia where the Islamic Law hasbeen forced on the non-Muslims. In the Malay States, the Chinese were freeto follow their own customary law and when there were proposals to modify thislaw and to apply the English system of law, a Royal Commission was set up toenable those affected to give their views. When the Islamic Bank was set up,non-Muslims were free whether to deal with the bank or not. There are, how-ever, certain values to be found in the Islamic system which are universallyacceptable.

As Dato Musa said recently —

"The Islamic values which the Government wanted to inject in the societyare honesty, anti-corruption, public trust and trustworthiness, efficiency,diligence, moderation, tolerance and thrift. The values also include thoseon contribution to the society as opposed to oneself and respect forscience and technology."

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In seeking the implementation of the Islamic Law the Muslims In Malaysiaare only asking for the freedom to follow and practise their religion, so thatthey will be better able to take part in the commercial and industrial develop-ment of Malaysia. In doing so they certainly do not seek to prevent other religionsfrom being practised in peace and harmony in Malaysia. What the Muslims arestriving for is in line with the New Economic Policy which has two prongs, theeradication of poverty irrespective of race and the restructuring of society andthe creation of a more just society where the nation's wealth is more equallyshared. As Dato Musa Hitam said recently, "The justification for the New Eco-nomic Policy goes beyond the moral values of giving the weak a helping hand.It is our conviction that a more equitable distribution of wealth and a morebalanced participation of all the communities in the economy is an indispensablecondition for a stable and united Malaysia."

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JAPANESE SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT -THE MALAYSIAN APPLICATION

Hiroaki Kosaka

B1ODATAPresent Position

of Matsushita Electric Co., (M)

of Matsushita Group in

Managing DirectorBerhad, andRegional RepresentativeMalaysia.Tertiary EducationStudied at University of Southern California & Wood-bury College of USA (Bachelor of Business (Adminis-tration)Experience1. Joined Matsushita (Japan) in 1961 and served in

the field of Personnel development2. Since 1972 was the Director of Overseas Training

Centre of Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd,Japan,,

F.ngaged in education and training of Matsushita employees of all levels in the organisationincluding its overseas subsidiaries.3. Since February 1983 has been holding the present post.

ABSTRACT

This article emphasises on the Japanese Management techniques from theinter-related features of collective wisdom; trust and harmonious labour rela-tions; organisation and their style of control; strategy formulation and imple-mentation where decisions are made through an exchange of information andconcensus of opinion; long team manpower development based on the system of"development within and promote from within"; and a sharing of managementphilosophy and information to enhance a sense of unity among employees.

The article relates the successful application of these management tech-ques in Malaysia.

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I. Basis of Japanese Management — People-centered Management

Corporate performance is not the outcome of a single factor. It involvesthe combination of many factors which include business environment, strategy,organization, administrative systems, the make-up of top management, andhuman resources. In discussing Japanese management techniques we realise it hasvarious inter-related features. To date, comparisons of management features havefocused mostly on Japanese companies' life time employment system, companyunions, and the paternalistic atmosphere, etc. Before explaining the respectivefeatures, it is important to realize the overall picture of Japanese managementand its underlying base.

(1) Collective Wisdom — Learning from Everybody

The most important basis of Japanese management is to gatherthe wisdom of the people within the company, and to use it tostrengthen the company. For instance, at Matsushita Electric Indus-trial Co. Ltd. in Japan, which is our parent company, 72,000 em-ployees made 6 million suggestions in 1984, of which 1.2 millionsuggestions were graded as quality suggestions, and an average of91.7 suggestions per person. All over Japan, workers are of excellentquality because they not only produce things, but they also thinkwhile making products. Utilizing the collective wisdom is not re-stricted to production, but it is used in sales, research and develop-ment, etc. The wisdom of all the people in the organization isgathered and efforts to improve the quality of work and productivityare continuously put into practice. Moreover, such a gathering ofwisdom is also conducted at the middle-management and top-management levels. This group decision-making and participativemanagement is based on the belief that better decisions are madeand implementations become more effective through the utilizationof the group wisdom. This is the most outstanding feature ofJapanese management and one of the key strengths of Japanese com-panies. In order to use the wisdom accumulated on the job-site, theemployee should be able to generate new ideas, devise a system ofmotivation and draw out and utilize this wisdom. In general, Japaneseworkers have a high level of education and are industrious. An inter-national survey on the meaning of work disclosed that Japaneseworkers consider working to be an indispensable part of life ratherthan something to be endured or, merely, a means of making a living.This result confirms what we experience daily. To collect the wis-dom contributed by the people within a company, a system mustbe devised to compile and utilize this wisdom. The well-knownquality control circle is just one link in such a system. Many of thecharacteristic management practices in Japanese companies lendthemselves to gathering and using the collective wisdom of employees.

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(2) Trust and Harmonious Labour and Management RelationsOne of the key points in drawing out the industriousness of

workers is to build a good and trusting labour-management relation-ship. There is no quick and easy way to do this.

Continuous dialogue between labour and management is im-portant in establishing good relations. When the company perfor-mance shows good results, the fruits are distributed to the workers.If the company is in difficulty, employee dismissals are avoided asmuch as possible, and everyone from the top management downsubmits to a reduction in pay. The conditions and problems facedby the company are explained down to the last employee. Manage-ment consults and discusses with labour the major changes in thecompany policies. Promises made to the labour union are faithfullykept. The favourable labour management practices are establishedand maintained on the job-site by educating the supervisors. Com-petent people are assigned to labour relations and personnel posi-tions. People' who have experience in labour relations and personnelare promoted to top management.

Consistency and persistency in such practices builds good andharmonious labour-management relationships. This takes many longhours and much effort. The employees' willingness to contributeindustriously to the company is also based upon their belief that,"the company belongs to the employees". The management, also,tends to consider the well-being of the employees before the interestof the stockholders. Literally speaking, separation of ownership andcontrol has taken place.

(3) Corporate Strategy

The secret to good management is to do the right thing in theright way. In other words, the right strategy must be put togetherand carried out in the right way through the corporate organization.This is called design implementation of strategy. The differenceshere are strategic ones that result in the difference in performance.

The management methods used in Japanese companies involvethe continuous improvement of production methods and gradualmodification of products. By capitalizing on this feature, manyJapanese companies have emphasized corporate strategies founded

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on production technology. Japanese companies have shown theirstrength in automobile, iron and steel, electric home appliances, elec-tronics and precision machinery industries, in which productiontechnology is the key to success. At the same time, many Japanesecompanies have aggressively invested in manufacturing facilities.Their financial strategy relies upon "indirect financing" (borrowingfrom banks) which is closely related to aggressive investment.

According to a paper entitled "Japanese and U.S. Manage-ment Methods Compared" by Associate Professor Okumura, at theGraduate School of Business Administration, at Keio University, thebiggest difference in the corporate strategies is that Japanese com-panies use an operational strategy that is closely linked to productionand sales, while U.S. companies focus on products and strategic con-cepts. What this means is that Japanese companies adopt strategiesthat are based on the practical know-how, derived from quality con-trol, cost reduction and product improvement. In this sense Japanesecompanies are extremely inductive.

American companies on the other hand, are deductive. Firstthey formulate a strategic design (the product itself). Then they breakdown the design into a logical and tactical program and an actionprogram. Everything is executed from the top down.

The second difference in strategy is that of long-term build-upversus the flexible allocation of resources. U.S. corporations activelybuy and sell companies and projects in line with their strategic design.Japanese corporations, however, strive to grow using the managerialresources they have established within the company over the longrun. Therefore, Japanese companies are sometimes stuck with un-profitable undertakings from which they cannot withdraw. Japanesecompanies have a long-term perspective and, therefore, try to nurturea number of projects simultaneously. This is a cumulative strategypowered by a series of small reforms.

These differences between U.S. and Japanese corporate strate-gies have helped Japanese corporations achieve impressive productionresults. Many U.S. corporations think only of short-term profitabilityand are engrossed in the money game of buying and selling com-panies.

(4) Organization

The structure of a Japanese company on an organizationalchart looks similar to that of a Western company. Furthermore, anincreasing number of companies have adopted multi-divisional forms,project teams, task forces and other systems born in Western coun-tries. However, there are many differences in organization anddecision-making.

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The Japanese corporate structure is highly indistinct as far asformality, hierarchy and specialization are concerned, whereasWestern organizational structures are bureaucratic. The Westernstructure aids in the execution of action programs in accordancewith their strategic designs, while the Japanese organization struc-ture stimulates internal creativity.

Another point to be made is that the Japanese organizationis controlled by people and not by the system. Japanese companiesare people-oriented and process-oriented in their style of control.Therefore, information sharing, frequent communication anddecision-making by consensus are important. The development ofhuman resources is another important point. The focus is put on thethe generah'sts as opposed to specialists, as in Western organizations.While Japanese companies want their personnel to acquire a widerange of experience and knowledge, Western companies look forspecial skills that can be of use to any company. To develop the per-sonnel in the desired way, Japanese companies periodically rotatetheir workers to different jobs. From the Japanese organizationalstructure mentioned above one clearly sees how the Japanese orga-nization is fluid, flexible and adaptable in meeting changing circum-stances.

II. Japanese Management System

(1) In strategy formulation and implementation, the middle-management(Bucho and Kacho) plays an important role. The role of Kacho isespecially important. A Kacho has to draw up plans of action to meetthe demands from the top, and minimize problems by pulling toge-ther information from the various job-sites. Consequently, the qua-lity of Kacho's decisions greatly affects the company's performance.

(2) Although job descriptions and job manuals exist, they are abstractand are practically useless in actual decision-making. Instead, decision-makers are not constrained by rules or manuals and can behave flexi-bly. A flexible way of getting things done is practiced.

(3) The appraisal of managers and employees is conducted not only onshort-term job performance ability but on the long-term potentialof the employees. Personnel records are kept for a long time and areused as data in promoting and transferring.

(4) The semi-formal interpersonal network among managers plays a veryimportant role in the gathering and the exchange of information andin coordinating decisions. It is not only the manager himself, butalso the company which takes positive measures in the formationof a semi-formal interpersonal network.

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(5) The various personnel management practices contribute to the effec-tive functioning of the organization. For instance, job rotation(1) promotes sharing of values and information (2) promotes theformation of an interpersonal network; and (3) help to developgeneral management skills.

(6) Offices in Japanese companies are designed so that the Kacho orBucho work together with subordinates in one large room. By work-ing together in a large room, the people can interact frequently andinformation can be shared.

(7) Disagreement and disharmony in decision-making is apt to occur in aflexible management situation. To eliminate such discord, exchangeof information, broad consultation before decision-making (nema-washi), and the written transmission of information and approval(ringi), are conducted prior to the decision-making process.

(8) Japanese companies have devised various means for determining thewisdom of employees. Small group activities, suggestion boxes, groupcompetitions, campaigns for increased productivity, etc., are methodsof skillfully eliciting wisdom and ideas from employees.

(9) Long-term Manpower Development and Growth in the Company

As the saying goes, the enterprise is the people. It is the peoplein the enterprise who enhance it and make it successful. Its successdepends on the ability and quality of the people. Indeed, the qualityof the work depends on the quality of the people. In Japanese com-panies recruitment occurs once a year, in April. Graduates are re-cruited from respective schools.

Broadly speaking, there are two ways to find and secure "keypersonnel". One is to recruit the person Jrom the company, based onthe qualifications required for the post together with the terms andconditions for hiring. The other is to develop capable people withinthe company according to careful planning and to have them assumehigher posts as soon as they are available. The former is the type ofpersonnel management based on "scouting", often used in the Wes-tern countries as well as in this country. The latter is the type of per-sonnel management based on "development within", which we usein Japan. It is hard to decide which of the two is better, as we havedifferent labour markets and labour practices. But if we confineourselves to the objective of securing "key personnel", then I wouldsay the system of "develop within, and promote from within" is pre-ferable, even in taking into account the custom of "job-hopping".

The reasons for this are as follows:

(i) First of all, even using the "scouting" system, it is noteasy to recruit the most desirable person;

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(ii) Secondly, even if you could recruit such a person, it wouldtake them a long time to fully learn the company's basicbusiness philosophy, management system and the overallaspects of the company's operations; and

(iii) Thirdly, employee morale may decline.

Besides, "key personnel" are expected to satisfy the followingrequirements:

(i) To fully understand the "corporate culture" particularlythe basic management philosophy, and to be able to in-culcate it into their subordinates with firm conviction^

(ii) To be aware of the fact that their status puts them in anintegral place in the management of the company wherethey must be able to make judgements from that pointof view.

(iii) To fully understand the company's management prac-tices and to be able to display good leadership abilities;

(iv) To be a model of self-development efforts and also to beeager to train and develop subordinates;

(v) To have confidence in the company and to try to con-tribute to the development of the company businessover a long period of time, with the belief that the com-pany's growth will eventually lead to one's own benefit."

(10) Sharing of Management Philosophy and Information to Builda Sense of Unity among Employees

In Japan, many companies establish clear objectives astheir management philosophy. Matsushita's "National servicethrough Industry" is an example. A management philosophygives meaning to the activities of the company and helps tomotivate the people from within. Even in companies which donot have a management philosophy in written form, the uniquecorporate culture reflects the company's unique thoughts andvisions, which have been strengthened over the years andhanded down as a tradition in the company. Young people areinfused with the corporate culture through contacts with su-periors and elders, training and various meetings within thecompany. The corporate culture may be informal but it alsoincludes rigid rules of actions and decision-making within thecompany. The group-training of the new employees, the generalassembly held every morning, and so on, are important meansof sharing in the corporate culture. How to make this corporateculture as market-oriented as possible, is a main concern toJapanese management. Expressions such as "Management byevery employee", "Challenge for taking risk", "Customer-oriented", and so on, are important means of corporate cul-ture management.

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Professor Ouchi of the University of California, wrotea book entitled THEORY Z. He analyzes management stylesand calls the American style, type-A, the Japanese style, type-B and his, type-Z, which is a combination of the Americanand the Japanese styles. According to him, some Americancompanies have already established the type-Z style of manage-ment; GE, IBM, and Texas Instruments are but a few. What dothey have in common? They have a clear management philoso-phy that makes it possible for employees, all over, to commu-nicate with each other. The company philosophy creates acommon environment, and it gives rise to a common spirit. Itworks much like the way a lump of yeast works when it is putin a mass of dough. The yeast spreads throughout the dough.In the same way, once the company spirit is understood, it willbecome part of all employees' activities.

Sometime ago, I read a Japanese edition of Reader'sDigest which I am going to share in part with you. It was writ-ten by an Italian and in it he quoted a man who was once theMinister of Industry. That man said that the materials a coun-try has to work with are not important, the crops it producesare not so important, the natural resources it has are not im-portant either, but its wisdom is important. That is to say that,education, technology, and a sense of social unity are impor-tant. The people have to have a common way of looking atthings and a common set of goals so that they may pursuethose goals together; there lies the foundation of economicpower. Those things, he said, are the foundation of Japan'seconomy. One of the strongest things about Japan, he said, isthe way in which the Japanese change the things they encoun-ter. They make non-Japanese things Japanese. Therefore, Ihope you will always remember the universal way of lookingat things, the universal set of goals, and the means to pursuesuch goals.

III. Implementation of Human Resources Development in Malaysia

Now I would like to talk a little about our practices in Malaysia.

Matsushita Electric started its manufacturing operations in Malaysia 18years ago in 1967 when Matsushita Electric Co., (Malaysia) Berhad was esta-blished in Shah Alam industrial site. Matsushita Electric Malaysia, or MELCOM,as we usually call it, manufactures home electrical appliances and consumerelectronic products for sale to home market in Malaysia and for export to worldmarkets. I would like to say here that the establishment of MELCOM was verymuch due to the strong encouragement which we received from the esteemedgovernment of Malaysia.

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In later years, two more factories were also established in Sungei Way FreeTrade Zone. One manufactures room air conditioners primarily for export andthe other makes electronic components, also primarily for export. A fourthfactory has recently been established in the state of Johore to manufacturetelevision components. In addition to these, there is also one supplementaryfactory and one sales company, the latter being responsible for the distributionof the products supplied by our Malaysian factories as well as those from Japan.So, at present, we operate one sales and five manufacturing companies in Malay-sia and employ a total of 4,300 employees. We have been very favourably im-pressed by the way in which they are progressing.

In the case of our Malaysian operations, during the past 18 years we havebeen making efforts and then building on them with the aim of establishing inour Malaysian companies a spirit of independence and self-determination. Forthis purpose, we are making an effort to cultivate the skills of our Malaysianemployees and increase their managerial capabilities. It will then be possible forthem to be truly Malaysian and yet truly a part of Matsushita in their daily opera-tions and management.

Another important point to think about in local human resource develop-ment is having people remain with the company, because one of the prime con-cerns of our personnel development program is developing the people in thecompany. We do not hire specialists from outside to fill positions, instead, wedevelop the abilities of the people we have in the company and promote them tomanagerial positions or do specialists'jobs.

Individual potential is developed mainly through on the job which we con-sider this to be the core of the personnel development in industry aided by bothguidance given by the superior and one's own strong desire to be developed. Be-sides OJT there are ample opportunities of seminar participation is also en-couraged in the company, in local training institutes and to be sent to Japan.From Malaysia more than 500 people have been dispatched to Overseas TrainingCentre of Matsushita in Japan for their training.

Speaking of the training in Japan or OTC training, it has given tremendousassistance to our local human resource development. It is no exaggeration to saythat we have been more than successful. For example, our training and educa-tion programs in Japan for the foreign employees have gained wide interest andattention both in Japan and overseas. Here, I want to point out the strong pointsof providing training in the parent company in Japan.

Firstly, by being exposed to the headquarters organisation, the businesspolicies and practices and by observing that the company philosophy is actuallyimplemented, they gain confidence in this organisation they belong to. Theirlocal company may be still a young and small enterprise and not very wellknown, but realizing that they are part of the multinational Matsushita groupthey can feel some sort of pride

Secondly, they can see on the spot how the people in Japan work and thatemployee participation in management is not an empty saying but that it reallycan be done. This experience gives them confidence in trying to apply the ideasin their work place back home.

The third merit of studying Matsushita's history, philosophy and practicesis that everyone in the Matsushita family comes to share the same objectives andculture that originated in and was inherited in the parent company organisation.

Morever, by meeting different members of the worldwide "Matsushitafamily", everyone can exchange experience and learn from each other.

These four factors have been of great relevance in the building of a strongsense of unity among all Matsushita companies. After all, there is the samebasis, the founder's management philosophy which has served as a commonguideline for all Matsushita employees throughout the world for more than halfa century and has doubtlessly contributed to the prosperous business operationsand the Matsushita employees' welfare.

To come back to the case of MELCOM. It is true that through continuousand systematic OJT and study in Japan, many local employees have alreadyreached managerial and other responsible position, so that fewer Japanese staffneed to be dispatched and only in advisory capacity.

Certainly our large investment in the development of the Malaysian em-ployees has paid off. We find in our statistics comparatively low labour turnoverand absenteeism rates. According to Matsushita's survey, 85% of all Matsushitaoverseas employees who have received training in Japan, still work for the samecompany. We are quite satisfied with this achievement. Indeed, it is most essen-tial to be successful in securing a long-term commitment from our employees.Only if the employees stay longer in the company they can be fully developedand be promoted. In the case of MELCOM, when we celebrated our 15th anni-versary in 1982, there were 88 employees who were awarded for 15 years service.18 years ago when the enterprise was started, 112 people had been recruited.This means that 79% of those pioneers have remained in MELCOM, which nodoubt has helped to make the company what it is now. The kind of corporateculture that everyone may share in MELCOM could only be built because thepeople did not quit. We are proud to have a rather highly motivated and loyalworkforce. The attitude, behavior, morale and sense of identification of thepeople have been improved as MELCOM's corporate culture has been built andstrengthened. We think it is not only our duty to continously upgrade ourMalaysian employees' technical and managerial skills, but we have a deep con-cern for our employees* personal welfare and develop them fully into responsiblemembers of the company and the society as stipulated in our corporate philoso-phy.

After 18 years of operation in Malaysia, the localization in terms of per-sonnel has reached a high level. Parallel to this natural evolution the technologytransfer from Japan to Malaysia and localization in terms of production haveprogressed. The company management must always think of localizing materials

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and parts. Local purchasing or self-manufacturing of materials and parts as muchas possible is not only the company's interest but also meet the government'sexpectancy. In MELCOM the local content of our products has reached a fairlylarge percentage. On the average it is 66%. For our iron production, local con-tent accounts for 94%, followed by rice cookers 88%, electric fans 82%, drybatteries 80%, and so forth. Besides, our investment in machinery has been con-tinuous, and a smooth and gradual transfer of higher technology has taken place.

This high degree of localization of the manpower, production and materialsupply has only been possible due to the company's constant investment andtraining. After all, the Matsushita philosophy emphasizes the concept of a manage-ment based on "collective wisdom" or participation in management by all. Torealize this, in every company we focus on the effective use of Small GroupActivities.

Although many factors would have played individually and collectivelyin bringing about Matsushita's success and growth yet perhaps among thesethe single most important factor could have been through the concept of amanagement based on Collective Wisdom. Under this concept, the CollectiveWisdom of each and every individual employee is tapped for the common bene-fit of the company.

The morning assembly, suggestion, I.E., QCC activities and weekly Mana-gers meetings and a whole host of other activities like the task group, workgroupand inter-departmental committees on trouble-shooting etc., contribute towardsthe collective improvement of the company. Without this collective effort Mat-sushita would certainly have not reached this level of greatness and prosperity.

In MELCOM, we have 131 Q.C. Circles which comprise 80% of the work-force. Then, through our suggestion system we have received a total of 89,473pieces suggestion in 1984. On the average, there have thus been contributed 73.3suggestions per employee. There are other small group activities, such as I.E., theB.S. movement, the safety committee, to name just a few.

Last year, for example our small group activities have produced the follow-ing results:

Material Cost Down Saving : MS2.00 million (2.141)Material Spoilage Saving : M$93 thousand ( 93)This amounts to total savings of MS2.2 million.

Through our small group activities our material spoilage could be reducedfrom 498 thousand in 1983 to 405 thousand in 1984 and our target for 1985 is280 thousand.

Such active participation by everyone in management improves both theproductivity and the organizational climate as well.

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Apart from the financial and productivity gain, the company also witnessedimproved communication between and amongst management and workers at alllevels. Even the climate of industrial relations showed marked improvementfrom previous years.

We have recently started a new training programme for our employees.Until recently, our Japan training programmes lasted from a minimum of 2 weeksup to about 6 months. Lately, we have started a trial two-year programme forour Malaysians employees. A selected number of Malaysian personnel from exe-cutive and managerial levels. Under this programme, 3 people have already com-pleted their training in Japan and at the present time another 5 are sent to Japanto attend educational programmes which will continue for two years. Duringtheir stay in Japan, they study not only management skills and methods, butalso learn the Japanese language, thereby being exposed to the Japanese way ofthinking and way of life.

The purpose of this 2 year programme is for these staff members, aftertheir education and training in Japan, to return to Malaysia to replace Japaneseengineers and managers who remain there only because there is a limited numberof qualified Malaysian engineers and managers and trying to be ready for futuremanagement successors. They will also be instrumental in transferring know-howand knowledge more smoothly and efficiently from Japan to their Malaysiansubordinates and supporters.

While reading, some of you might feel that among what you said wouldbe difficult in applying in this country." I am dully aware that different socialback-grounds, way of thinking, living habits, different religious faith and otherdifferences can create unnecessary misunderstandings and conflicts. There arealso the more fundamental differences of our life views and world conception,which also can result in diffifulties in mutual understanding and friendly com-munication and cooperation.

Because of these differences, there can be difficulties in our trying to transferour skills and knowledge to those people in our overseas companies. This is evenmore true when we are tyring to pass on managerial concepts or a philosophywhich originated in Japanese minds.

I believe, however, that when there is a clear-cut objective which is mutuallyunderstood and supported, and when there are efforts and cooperation fromboth sides to foster mutual trust and friendship, there will be no difficulty whichcannot be overcome if we have patience and confidence. Time will solve them, Ibelieve this.

Our operations in Malaysia are rooted solidly in the soil of Malaysia, andtheir purpose is to serve the further development and prosperity of Malaysia andher people.

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In order to achieve this purpose, the development and education of moreand more Malaysian employees' skills and capabilities will continue. They willbe managing and operating the Malaysian companies on their own initiative andwith full autonomy.

And, as cooperative efforts and projects continue, both in Malaysia and inJapan, for our mutual improvement and development as human beings, we shallsee results.

We have plenty of patience, strong confidence and ample time to accom-plish this. Tan Sri Konosuke Matsushita, our founder, once said, "Success is inthe hands of the man who will not cease his efforts until he obtains it." This isvery true with all of our overseas operations including those in Malaysia and theother ASEAN nations.

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THE OPERATIONS RESEARCH MODEL AS A PARTICIPATIVEMECHANISM: A COMPLEMENT TO THE QUALITY CONTROL

CIRCLE MODEL

Teh Hoe Yoke

Position Currently-heldAssociate Professor, Division of PublicAdministration, University of Malaya.Academic Qualification

i) B.A. Hons. (Economics), University of Malaya.ii) M. Sc. (Operational Research), London School

of Economics.ui) M0P.A., University of Pittsburgh.Area of SpecializationUse of quantitative methodology with particularemphasis on public-sector applicationsAreas of Research Interest

i) Problem solving methodoloqies and techniquesii) Group problem solving processes

iii) Use of quantitative techniques in public-sectordecision-m aking.

Current Principal Research ProjectWriting a book on aspects of group problemsor/ing with particular emphasis onproblem solving "technology".

ABSTRACT

This article first attempts to discuss the weaknesses of the Quality ControlCircle mechanism both as a problem-solving and motivational device. Basically,the principal weaknesses He in its ineffectiveness in dealing with the more com-plex probelms of the organisation and its failure to act as a participative mecha-nism for the higher-level staff members of the organization. As a solution to thewekanesses, the article proposes that the Operational Research model be conver-ted into a participative mechanism so as to complement the QCC mechanism infacilitating participative problem-solving in organizations and shows how thisconversion can be done.

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The current trend in Malaysia is for the public and private-sector organiza-tions to look to Quality Control Circle (QCC) as the key to raising productivitywithin these organizations. The belief that QCC is the answer to higher pro-ductivity is predicated on two theoretical concepts. One concept is Maslow'spostulation that the human being has a multitude of needs, one of which is theneed to self-actualise, to achieve something significant.l QCC by allowing workersto utilize their creativity in the area of problem-solving provides the opportunityfor those workers involved in these activities to self-actualise. By meeting an im-portant need of the workers QCC helps to create happy workers which in turnleads to higher productivity for the organization. In this respect, QCC is used asa motivational device.

The second concept is from McGregor who posits that the pool of problem-solving talents within any organization is quite large; the possession of problem-solving talents is not confined to only those at the managerial level but is relativelywidespread among the lower-level workers.2 T he QCC model can then be said tohave been developed as a means of tapping this reservoir of talents for thepurpose of solving the numerous problems within the organization and, with this,help to raise the productivity of the organization.

While it is recognised that QCC is both a motivational and problem-solvingdevice, the emphasis in most organizations is to perceive QCC more as a motiva-tional device with the problem-solving function being given secondary considera-tion.3 This is not to say that QCC has not had an impact as a problem-solvingdevice; in fact, a number of organizations in U.S. and Japan have realised millionsof dollars in savings resulting from QCC activities.4 However, notwithstanding itsachievements in solving problems, it appears that the model's use as a motiva-tional device tends to take precedence over its use as a problem-solving device.The emphasis on the motivational contribution of QCC may be quite under-standable as the model appears to have a certain degree of inadequacy as aproblem-solving instrument.

This paper will attempt to explain why the QCC model is an inadequatedevice for utilizing the problem-solving potential within the organization. Itwill then propose and describe a complementary model for tapping the problem-solving potential within an organization as well as discuss the ramification ofusing such a model.

A. QCC Model: Inadequacies as a Problem-solving Device

Before preceding to enumerate the deficiencies of the QCC model it willbe necessary to define what is a QCC model. One definition states 'a Quality

1 Stephens P. Robbins, The Administrative Process (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall 1976), p. 303.

2 Ibid., p. 302.3

A view shared by Japanese participants at the Quality Control Circle Presentation held atthe National Productivity Centre, 27th September, 1983.

4 Joel E. Ross and William C. Ross, Japanese Quality Citcles and Productivity (Reston,Virginia: Reston Publishing Company, 1982), p. 4.

32

Based on the above reasoning it would appear that the homogeneity ofworking background of QCC members may be a weak point in problem-solving.Though the number of success stories attributed to QCC may seem to imply thatthe above reasoning may not be valid, it is possible that the success stories maynot necessarily prove the merit of QCC as a problem-solving device. The reasonfor this is that the number of success, though spectacular in some cases, mayactually be rather small compared to the total number of QCC's in existence.Even if this is not so — which means QCC has been fairly successful as a problem-solving device — it could be that the nature of the operational problems whichare tackled by QCC groups may be such that only a relatively low level of creati-vity is needed for resolving these problems and as such the homogeneity factormay not be a serious deterrent to the problem-solving process. However, at thehigher-organizational levels the level of creativity called for may be much higherand to induce the occurrence of creativity one may need to have the stimulatingeffect of heterogeneity. If this were so, then the homogeneity factor may deterthe QCC model from being successfully applied to problem-solving at the higherlevels.

A third possible deficiency of the QCC model as a problem-solving mediummay be the nonsystems approach which it adopts towards a problem. A QCCgroup tends to view its problems from its department's perspective and not fromthe perspectives of other departments. Most problems within an organizationtend to be multidimensional and the solution of a problem within a particularcontext without considering other dimensions may lead to the creation of pro-blems for other departments. It is possible that the dysfunctional effects of thegroup's solution to the other departments may outweigh the benefits which thesolution gives to the group's department. An example of a dysfunctional extra-departmental effect would be a QCC group in a production department makinga product design modification to solve a production problem, which may lead tothe product with its modified design becoming unattractive to customers andhence creating problems for the marketing department. Thus, the nonsystemsapproach may lead to undesirable effects from the overall organizational view-point. If one accepts the view that most problems are multi-faceted and that,furthermore, often these facets correspond to departments, then the fragmentedapproach of individual QCC group can be considered to be unsuitable for problem-solving unless the problem tackled does not have extra-departmental dimensions.

From the above there appears to be the possibility that QCC may havelimited potential for mobilising the organization's problem-solving talents to thesuccessful solution of the multitude of the organization's problems. Given this, itmay be necessary to consider a different problem-solving model for the purposeof utilizing effectively the problem-solving talents within the organization. Thismodel may either supplant the QCC model or act as a complementary model. Itis my view that the utilization of another model as a complementary model tothe QCC model may be a more attractive proposition — the new model fordealing with problems where QCC may have difficulties and the QCC model foroperational problems for which it seems to be well-suited.

The need for a complementary model may also be supported from anotherview point. As stated earlier, the QCC model serves not only as a problem-solving

33

Circle is a small group of employees doing similar or related work who meetregularly to identify, analyse and solve product-quality and production problemsand to improve general operations'.5 Additional characteristics which help todefine the QCC model are: voluntary membership and the use of certain simpleanalytical procedure and techniques to analyse and solve problems. Basically, theQCC model is used to serve two purposes: as a motivational device by allowingworkers to participate in a limited manner in the problem-solving activities ofthe organization and as a problem-solving device by channeling the workers'creative and problem-solving talents towards solving some of the organization'sproblems.

As a problem-solving device the QCC model appears to have a number ofdeficiencies. First, the model uses a relatively unsophisticated approach toproblem-solving. The procedure used consists of the following steps: problemidentification, problem analysis and solution determination. The gist of problem-analysis is to determine the cause or causes of the problem; in this task, relativelysimple diagrammatic techniques — fishbone diagram and pareto diagram beingthe two main ones — are used to facilitate the task of isolating the importantcauses of the problem. Once the principal cause or causes have been determinedthe search is made for a solution to eliminate the cause or causes. The relianceon a simple analytical procedure and simple analytical techniques seem to implythat the model tends to rely on the innate ability of the group members to solvethe chosen problems. The reliance on innate ability accompanied by the use ofsimple analytical techniques may be sufficient for the relatively simple opera-tional problems but unfortunately most of the organization's problems tend tobe far from simple; this is especially so for problems at the higher organizationallevels. Most of the literature on QCC identify the focus of QCC activities to bethe operational problems' for which QCC appears to have had a fair measure ofsuccess. However, such problems represent only one of the clusters of problems,albeit an important one, within the organization. Thus, if QCC were to be thesole means for tapping the problem-solving talents within the organization then asizeable portion of the problems of the organization, which could derive benefitsfrom the vast problem-solving potential of the organization's human resource,would not be able to avail themselves of this potential.

A second possible deficiency of QCC as a problem-solving device withinthe organization arises from the membership characteristics of the group. Basedon the fact that members of a QCC group perform similar work it would meanthat the group will comprise workers from a single unit or department within theorganization. The homogeneity of work background may represent a weaknessin the area of problem-solving. Problem-solving is basically a creative process butthe similarity of working background may lead to the generation of mundane ideasrather than creative, novel solutions to the problems. On the other hand if themembers are heterogenous in background it is possible that often an idea submit-ted by a member may lead to the development of other ideas in the minds of theother members - a kind of synergic process - and with such a process betterand novel solutions may be found for the problems.

5 Ibid., P. 6.

34

device but also as a motivational device; it motivates those involved by providingthem an opportunity to participate in problem-solving activities. However, giventhat QCC tends to be utilised mainly for operational problems, those who getthe opportunity to participate are the lower-level operational staff. Since at thehigher level QCC may be an ineffectual problem-solving device this means thatQCC activities at the higher levels may be limited and thus the higher level per-sonnel will not have the opportunity to participate in such activities; this, ofcourse, means that QCC will not operate as a motivational medium for thesehigher-level personnel. So in order to utilize the problem-solving talents of thesepersonnel and, at the same time, motivate them a different participative problem-solving model needs to be found.

B. The Operations Research (OR) Model

This problem-solving model, if modified, may be used as the QCC-equivalentfor dealing with the more complex problems of the organization. The pure ORmodel6 may be described by the following characteristics:

(i) The problem-solving group under this model consists of experts fromdifferent disciplines. This characteristics is necessary for dealing withthe multiple facets of a complex problem as well as to provide forthe emergence of snergic effect in the interaction of ideas from dif-ferent experts.

(ii) The group uses a fairly elaborate analytical procedure in which oneof the elements is the building of models, usually mathematical inform, of the problem so as to facilitate the problem analysis.

(iii) The OR model has developed a sizeable compendium of very usefulmathematical techniques for facilitating the analysis of a problem.The OR model evolved during the Second World War when groups ofscientists from different disciplines were used successfully to savevarious operational problems of the British and American war efforts.In the process of solving these problems the groups created a numberof highly-useful quantitative techniques to facilitate the problem-solving process. When the war ended the techniques so derived weresufficient to create a new area of specialization called Operations Re-search, and the skills and knowledge of this new specialization, whenapplied to business and other problems, achieved a very good successrecord.

The OR model of problem-solving is commonly used in the industrialisedcountries. Its use in organizations tends to be characterised by the followingfeatures:

For a more elaborate description of the OR model, see C.W. Churchman, R.L, Ackoff andE.L. Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research (New York: John Wiley, I9S7).

35

(a) The members of the problem-solving teams under the OR model arethose who are highly-trained in the OR techniques. To the extentthat these OR specialists are predominantly economists, mathema-ticians and engineers who did post-graduate training in OperationsResearch. The teams comprising of these specialists do not trulyreflect the concept of 'multi disciplinary team approach' since onlythree disciplines tend to be represented in these teams.

(b) The OR specialists tend to be housed within a single unit in theorganization and are utilised to solve problems which arise in theorganization. This organizational setup means that these problem-solvers tend to be alien to the departments in which the problemsare located.

(c) The OR model is used basically as an instrument to solve the pro-blems in the organization; it is not used as a medium for motivatingpersonnel nor is it used as a device for participative problem-solvingaimed at utilising the talents of its personnel.

C. The Operations Research Model as a Complement to the QCC Model

The OR model can be utilised to complement the QCC in both its roles -as a motivational device and as a means for tapping the latent problem-solvingtalents of an organization. It can be a complement in the sense that while QCCis allowed to operate with regard to the solution of simple operational problemsthe OR model can be used to handle the more complex problems which tendgenerally to have extradepartmental dimensions. The OR model will be moreeffective for the more complex, multifaceted problems because of certain charac-teristic features of the model. Firstly, its multidisciplinary or multidimensionalapproach as reflected in its heterogenous team composition and its problem-solving philosophy will allow for the problem to be resolved taking into consi-deration all relevant dimensions; an auxiliary benefit of the team composition isthat the heterogenous background of the team members may be a facilitativefactor towards the stimulation of creativity in the problem-solving process.Secondly, the more elaborate analytical procedure and techniques available inthis model will allow a more indepth analysis of the complex problems and thusallow for better solutions to be obtained.

As explained earlier the OR model when applied in organization does nottake the form of a participative problem-solving medium. Thus, in order for theOR model to operate for the same purposes as the QCC model, albeit at a dif-ferent level, it will be necessary to make certain changes to transform the ORmodel into a participative problem-solving medium without, of course, losing itsgood features during the transformation. The necessary modifications are thefollowing:

(i) The traditional organizational form of the OR model where theproblem-solvers are housed in a single organizational unit will need

36

to be abandoned. For the model to be used as a participative problem-solving medium the OR groups to be set up from time to time willconsist of representatives of different departments to conform withthe multidimensional concept of the model.

(ii) The team members will be trained to have a certain degree of com-prehension of the OR methodology but will not be OR specialists.However, they will be aided in the use of OR methodology by anOR specialist. This OR specialist will play the same roie as a facili-tator in the present QCC setup. However, while a QCC facilitatorwill play a relatively passive role — mainly providing advice — theOR specialist in the team under the OR model will play a moreactive role; he will, in particular, provide the major assistance in theactual application of the OR techniques relevant to the problem.

(iii) The degree of sophistication in model-building — an important ele-ment in the OR procedure of problem-solving — will need to bereduced to a level which is compatible with the numerate skills ofthe group members. The implication from this is that relatively simpleOR models (techniques) which have wide ranging applications willneed to be selected for use by these groups; these techniques aresimple only in a relative sense and their usage may entail a fairly highlevel of numerate competency from the users. The considerabledegree of numerate skills which most OR techniques require of theirusers should not pose a serious problem as many of the widely-appliedOR techniques have been translated into computer programmes and-such programmes make it easy to apply these techniques. These pro-grammes are also readily available for use with micro computers, aninstrument which is becoming quite common in most organizations.

With the above modifications the OR model can be used as a participativegroup problem-solving medium like the QCC model; the modified OR model willbe used for the more complex problems and tends to involve higher-level person-nel while the QCC model will operate with regard to simple problems with itsmembership coming primarily from the lower-level operational staff. Although theQCC model and the OR model modified to function as a participative mechanismwill have the same intended purposes — to tap the organization's reservoir ofproblem-solving talents and to motivate its personnel - there will be distinguishdifferences between the two participative problem-solving models. The differencesmay be summed up as follows:

(i) Analytical Modus Operand!. The analytical procedure and supportinganalytical techniques used by QCC groups will be simple while theOR model groups will use a fairly complicated analytical procedureequally complicated analytical techniques.

(ii) Role of Facilitator. In the QCC model there is a facilitator who actsas advisor to groups. In the OR model, however, there is the equiva-lent of the QCC's facilitator; he will be an OR specialist who willadvise the group members on the use of relevant techniques as well

37

as carry out the numerical computations required by the techniquesused. Thus, the OR specialist tends to play a more significant rolethan is the case of the facilitator in the QCC model.

(iii) Membership Characteristics. The members of a QCC group will befrom a single unit, which makes them homogenous in terms of thework background. In the OR participative model the members willbe representatives of different departments and hence have hetero-genous work background.

Besides these three differences which have actually been touched on muchearlier in the paper, there is one more important difference. QCC groups tend tooperate after office hours and, consequently, tend to be sporadic in their opera-tions. The problem-solving groups under the OR model will have to operate at amore intensive basis. The data demands and analytical efforts are considerablymore using the OR procedure and techniques and, as such, until the given pro-blem is solved the group members will either have to be assigned full-time to theproblem-solving task or be relieved from a significant portion of their usual dutiesso that their participation in the problem-solving task will be effective. So afourth difference between the two models is that QCC groups tend to functionon a sporadic and less intense basis while the OR groups will be more intensiveand continuous in the problem-solving efforts. The table below summarises thedifferences between the two models.

Differences between OR and QCC Groups

Aspect

Nature of Problems

Membershipcharacteristics

Facilitator's Role

Analyticalprocedure

Analyticaltechniques

Intensity ofefforts

QCC

Simple, OperationalProblems(a) Members of some

organizational unit(b) Homogenous back-

groundAdvisory

Simple

Simple

Sporadic and lessintense

OR

Complex

(a) Representativesof departments

(b) Heterogenousbackground

Advisory as well asperforming requiredcomputationsElaborate, withparticular emphasison model buildingRelatively complex,often mathematicaltechniquesContinuous andintense

38

D. Implementation Implications

The introduction of a novel mechanism into any organization requirescareful planning of its implementation in order to ensure that the mechanismtakes root and grows within the organization. Several considerations need to betaken into account in the implementation of the OR model as a participativegroup problem-solving medium in an organization and these include: trainingneeds for various categories of personnel, necessary back-up facilities, a systemfor inventorying problems in the organization and the mode of implementation.

Training needs will constitute one of the major elements of the implemen*tation scheme since the various techniques and concepts to be used by the groupparticipants will be new to the organization's members. The training will beneeded by those organization's members who would be involved in varyingdegrees with the activities of the OR participative model. There are at least threecategories of personnel who would need to have training of varying degrees ofdepth in OR methodology: the decision-makers who will need to evaluate anddecide on the findings of the OR groups, the members of the OR participativeproblem-solving groups, and the OR specialists who are to act as resource per-sonnel (the equivalent of a facilitator in the QCC mode). The last category willneed the most intensive training in OR and this will probably take one to twoyears; this will mean that the lag time between the decision to use the OR parti-cipative medium and the actual operation of such groups may be about twoyears. In order to cut down on this leadtime, the alternative would be to recruitan OR specialist rather than train an internal staff member. With the recruit-ment of an OR specialist the training needs of the other categories can becatered to as the OR specialist can provide the needed training.

Another important element in the implementation is the need to establisha computer facility to back up the analytical work of the OR groups. Most ofthe computational needs of the analytical efforts of the groups' problem-solvingactivities can be met by computer programmes designed to carry out such com-putations. The development of microcomputers and the relatively low-cost ofsuch microcomputers make the proposition of using OR participative groups avery feasible one. A 128-K byte microcomputer should be adequate for most ofthe computational requirements of such problem-solving groups. An importantconsideration in the purchase of the computer hardware is the software back-up; it is important to buy a microcomputer from a company with an adequatesupply of software, particularly the OR-applications software.

A third implementation consideration is the mode of establishment ofsuch groups. There are two models of establishing the groups: one is to establishthe groups and to allow the groups to search for and identify problems needingattention; the other is to identify problems which require attention and, oncethis is done, groups are then established to solve these problems. There are prosand cons associated with each mode. It is possible that the second mode may bemore cost-effective but the use of this mode necessitates the prior establishmentof a problem-identification and prioritization system. Such a system will havethe purpose of identifying problems within the organization and then, based oncertain criteria, prioritise the problems so identified.

39

A fourth consideration has to do with the intensity of implementation.The two possibilities are: to establish a large number of groups right at the out-set, or to start with a few groups and gradually, based on the 'demonstrationeffect', increase the number of groups. The second mode has two advantages.First, the training and other needs will be less if we start with a few groups andgradually build up. This will allow for more adequate planning and this will re-duce the probability of confusion occurring among the participants. Additionally,by concentrating on a few groups the result may be realised earlier and if theseresults lead to successful resolution of the problems tackled the 'demonstrationeffect' will have a positive influence on the groups which are subsequently formedand it will also give credibility to the viability of the OR participative problem-solving mechanism throughout the entire organization and, as such, this will pavethe way to its subsequent acceptance within the organization. As the saying goes,'success breeds success'.

E. Conclusion

Many management/organization theorists today agree that the vast reser-voir of talents which exists within an organization remains untapped and that theproper utilization of these talents towards the analysis and solution of the orga-nization's numerous problems will certainly raise the productivity of the organi-zation manyfold. One mechanism which has been developed for tapping thetalents of the organization's personnel towards the solving of the organization'sproblems is the QCC device. However, as the discussion in this paper shows, thismodel has several deficiencies which will severely limit its ability to operate as ameans of channelling the organization's problem-solving talents towards thesuccessful solution of the organization's problems. If top management is seriousabout the utilization of its personnel's talents in its problem-solving efforts thenit should consider implementing the proposed OR participative problem-solvingdevice to complement the effort of the QCC device.

While the implementation of the OR participative problem-solving mecha-nism will require more careful planning since its requirements tends to be morethan those of the QCC mechanism, the present-day advance in microcomputertechnology, the relatively low cost of microcomputers and the availability ofaccompanying softwares, particularly those relating to OR applications, makethe implementation of OR participative problem-solving groups a highly feasibleproposition.

Bibliography

1. Churchman, C.W., R.L. Ackoff and E.L. Arnoff, Introduction to Operations Research.New York: John Wiley, 1957.

2. Dewar, Donald L., The Quality Circle Guide to Participation Management. EnglewoodCliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1980,

3. Ingle, Sud, Quality Circles Master Guide, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.; Prentice-Hall 1982.

4. Ross, Joel E. and William C. Ross, Japanese Quality Circles and Productivity. Reston,Virginia: Reston Publishing Company, 1982.

40

PRODUCTION AND INPUT-USE EFFICIENCY IN THE PLYWOODMANUFACTURING INDUSTRY OF PENINSULAR MALAYSIA

Mohd Shahwahid Haji Othman*

BIODATAMohd. Shahwahid Hj. Othman is a Resource Fco-

mics Lecturer al the Faculty of Resource Economicsand Agribusiness, UPM.

He obtained his B.S. (Forestry) from UPM andM.A. (Resource Management and Policy) from StateUniversity of New York, Syracuse.

His research interests are on the economics andtrade-related studies on the timber-based industries.

ABSTRACT

Production Junction for the plywood industry of Peninsular Malaysia isestimated. Plywood output is regressed with capital and labour as independentvariables. The returns to scale underlying this industry is estimated. The findingsof this study do provide useful indications on efficiency of input utilisation,subject to potential sources of bias noted in the paper.

Introduction

This article is an attempt to estimate the production function of the plywoodindustry in Peninsular Malaysia. Plywood output is regressed using two majorinputs, capital and labour. This function allows us to understand the inter-relation between these two factors in plywood production. An attempt is madeto evaluate the efficiency with which these inputs are used in production. Thereturns to scale underlying this manufacturing industry is also estimated.

The plywood industry was chosen as it is the second most important primaryprocessing activity within the timber-based sub-sector. From a total exportearnings of $1.20 billion from timber products, plywood provided $0.25 billionin 1983. This is next in importance after sawntimber. In terms of employmentgeneration the manufacturing of plywood created 13,472 jobs or 29 percent ofthe total 47,091 in the timber-based industry for 1982. Plywood manufacturingutilised 1,382,582 M3 or 15 percent of the total domestic consumption of logs,

" Key to author's name: M. Shahwahid H.O.* The author wishes to thank Ismariah Ahmad for the valuable data collection without

which this study cannot be conducted.

41

second to only sawntimber manufacturing. With forest harvesting expected to beregulated to an annual coupe of 155,800 hectares after 1985, annual log pro-duction will be reduced to 7 million M3. This implied a decline in domestic logsupplies to sawntimber and plywood mills. The plywood mills will need to in-crease the recovery rates from every one cubic metre of log processed to facethis new challenge of limited log availability. Under these circumstances, a studyon the production function and efficient use of the productive factors of theplywood industry becomes more important,

Specification of production functionThe unrestricted Cobb-Douglas production function is adopted in this analysis.

This functional form is used for four reasons, (a) it is simple to use, (b) it pro-vides useful information regarding economies of scale, (c) it enables input factorproductivity to be evaluated, and (d) other functions are not significantlybetter.1 The form of the function is stated in the following equation:

Q = AK3Lbeu

The log transformation of this equation is:l n Q = In A + a I n K + b I n L + u

where Q is output of plywood (in thousand cubic metres)

K is value of capital as measured by depreciation of machinery and equip-ments employed in the production process (in thousand 1983 MalaysianRinggits)

L is number of labour (in thousand man-hours)A is a constante is a constant term that is approximately 2.718u is the disturbance terma and b are the coefficients of capital and labour respectively in the original

function.The choice of variables is dictated by the availability of data. Social inputs

such as level of education, managerial-entrepreneurial quality, and research anddevelopment which are known to influence the utilisation of machine capacityand production of output are excluded. The capital and labour inputs used areaggregated owing to difficulty of disaggregation. It is acknowledged that in usingaggregated variables quality differences within out inputs are ignored. This mightbias the results. This is particularly true in the case of labour, where data con-straints prevent the division of the number of skilled and unskilled labour.2

Zvi Griliches (1963) applied several other forms, in particular the Transcendental and Con-stant Elasticity of Substitution function, without any appreciable improvement in theresults.G.V.L Narasimham and M.Z. Fabrycy (1974) applied Constant Elasticity of Substitutionand Homothetic Isoquant, and concluded that these forms do not provide a significantimprovement over the Cobb-Douglas functional form.

In the case of Cobb-Douglas function, the omission of quality is equivalent to leavingout a variable having a positive coefficient. High quality labour is usually associated withlarger capital input and will increase marginal productivity of capital. On the other hand,quality is a substitute for quantity of labour. Holding capita] constant, firms with highquality labour will use less gross labour man-hours. Hence, capital input coefficient may beoverestimated and labour input coefficient underestimated. See Z Griliches (1957)pp. 12-20.

42

Labour in this study consists of both skilled workers such as machine operatorsand unskilled workers who are mainly general workers in the production process.Other categories of labour such as the managerial and professional levels, tech-nical and general workers, and clerical staff are excluded since they do not con-tribute directly to the production of plywood.

Capital in this study is represented by depreciation of machinery andequipments used in production for the year. In this way capital is treated as aflow of input services rather than a stock variable. Only the flow of input serviceswithin the selected production period from the capital stock is relevant to theproduction function for that period.

As far as possible, quantity data is preferred as units for the variables,labour inputs are measured in man-hours. Unfortunately, for capital no suitablephysical units of measure are available, as a result of the aggregative nature ofthis variable. Depreciation of machinery and equipments is measured in valueterms. The use of value rather than quantity data leads to little bias in the results,if cross-sectional relative prices are not too large (Griliches, 1963). Variations ofrelative prices of machinery and equipments between mills, although present, arelimited to differences in transportation costs. Which are considered relativelylow within Peninsular Malaysia.

Data on the quantity of plywood output, labour man-hours, and deprecia-tion of machinery and equipments were obtained from the 1983 Survey of Ply-wood Industry by the Economic Unit of the Forest Department. Out of the 40plywood mills surveyed, complete data collection is obtained from 25 mills. Asa result estimation of the production function is limited to these 25 samplesonly.Estimation of Production Function

The main results of the estimation of production function are given inTable 1. The coefficient of multiple determination (R2 ) of 76 per cent is rela-tively high and is acceptable considering that the production function is esti-mated using cross-sectional data. Another outcome of estimating productionfunction from cross-sectional data is the occurrence of high correlation amongsome of the independent variables. A simple correlation coefficient betweencapital and labour of 0.65 is obtained in our estimated function (Table 2). Thismay not necessarily lead to multicolh'nearity problem as long as the correlationcoefficient do not exceed 0.83 and provided that this correlation coefficient isnot high relative to the overall degree of multiple'correlation among all variablessimultaneously4. In this case the coefficient of multiple correlation is 0.87.

See E.G. Heady and J.L. Dillion: Agricultural Production Functions, Iowa, USA (1964)page 136.

4 See L.R. Klein: An Introduction to Econometrics, Prentice Hall, New Delhi (1965) page101, as quoted by G.R. Saini(1969).

43

Number ofobservation

25

Constantterm

(In A)

-2.8316

RegressionCapital

(a)

0.5176*

(0.1120)

coefficientsLabour

(b)

0.2613**(0.1095)

Table 1: Coefficients of plywood production for Peninsular Malaysia

Coefficient ofmultiple

determination (R2)

76%+

Table 2: Simple correlation coefficients between variables (in logarithms) usedfor the estimation of production function of the plywood industry inPeninsular Malaysia.

Variable Plywood output Capita! Labour

Plywood output 1.000Capital 0.839 1.000Labour 0.732 0.649 1.000

Coefficient of multiple correlation for the production function is 0.87.

Another way of testing the existence of multicollinearity problem is byestimating the production function for various other data samples. Although thisapproach is not exact but it would allow for examination of variation in estima-ted regression coefficient — little variation indicating multicollinearity is not aproblem. However, due to limited sample numbers this test is not carried out.

The coefficient for capital is statistically significant at 1 percent level whilethe coefficient for labour is significant at 5 percent level. This coefficient forcapital is greater than that for labour. In Cobb-Douglas production function, thecoefficients of the independent variables are also their production elasticities.Judging from the high elasticities of output with respect to capital than tolabour, it can be concluded that at least in plywood manufacturing, that outputis more responsive to percentage changes in capital than in labour.

Given the regression results and caveats noted earlier the regression equationappears to be linear in logs and all regression coefficients are statistically signi-ficant. The coefficient of multiple correlation, R, is high in relation to the simplecorrelation coefficient between capital and labour thereby reducing multi-collinearity problems. Furthermore, the coefficient of multiple determination isat acceptable level, considering that the regression is based on cross-sectionaldata. Thus, the regression equation provides reasonable approximations for theplywood industry in Peninsular Malaysia.

* Significant at 1 per cent level** Significant at 5 per cent level+ Indicates that in the F test, the statistics for the regression turned out to be significant at

1 per cent level.

Note: Figures in parentheses are standard errors.

44

Returns to scale

The estimated unrestricted production function enables us to estimate thereturns to scale that prevail in the plywood industry. The sum of the productionelasticities indicates the returns to scale. The returns to scale are decreasing,constant or increasing, depending on whether.the sum of the production elasti-cities is less than, equal or greater than unity respectively. These interpretationsshould be exercised with a degree of reservation since this form of equation doesnot allow for certain important sources of economies of scale, notably indivisibi-lities and non-homogeneity of the production function (Griliches, 1960). Thesum of the production elasticities derived from the estimated function is givenin Table 3.

Table 3: Indications of returns to scale of the plywood industry in PeninsularMalaysia.

Sum of the production Returns toelasticities scale

0.78 Constant*

The estimated function indicates constant returns to scale in the plywoodindustry of Peninsular Malaysia. This implies that the industry is experiencingconstant cost conditions where a proportionate increase in all inputs results inoutput changes of similar proportion. This finding on constant returns to scalediffers from the decreasing returns to scale obtained for the whole timber in-dustry by Thillainathan (1969). However since his study did not disaggregate thedifferent types of timber manufacturing no conclusive comparison can be made.Plywood is but one of the many timber products manufactured in PeninsularMalaysia.

The finding on returns to scale above is subject to several sources of bias.The use of values for capital rather than quantity could lead to biased estimatesof the regression coefficients and their sums. The direction of the bias is likelyto be downwards. This is probably the case for mills sited in the east coast wheremachinery and equipments of the same size cost slightly more owing to trans-portation costs; since most of these inputs come from the west coast or are im-ported through Singapore. Likewise, neglecting quality differences in labourinput especially when a high proportion (25%) of the labour force consisted ofskilled workers, will lead to an underestimation of the regression coefficient forlabour and an overestimation of the capital regression coefficient. It is not certainif the latter case is enough to compensate for the downward bias in the estimateof returns to scale due to the use of values for capital.

* Indicates that the sum of the production elasticities is not significantly different fromunity at 10 percent level.

45

Efficiency of input utilisation

The production function estimated enables us to develop estimates ofinput utilisation efficiency for the plywood manufacturing industry. An inputfactor is considered to be used optimally if its marginal value product equals itscost. Thus, the basic condition for efficient input factor utilisation is the equalityof marginal value product and input factor cost. Marginal productivity of X., theith input is given by the following equation:

A A

5Y Y

where Y is the estimated plywood productionX. is the ith input factorb. is the coefficient of the ith input factor.

"The most reliable, and perhaps the most useful, estimate of marginal producti-vity is obtained by using X. at its geometric mean, i.e. at the value where log X.

1 A 1assumes its arithmetic mean. Also, Y should be the estimated level of outputwhen each input is held at its geometric mean" (Heady and Dillon, 1964).Table 4 gives the parameters use in estimating the marginal products. Marginalvalue product for each of the individual inputs factors is obtained by multiplyingthe marginal product by the per unit price of the output. The average ex-millprice of plywood is used in this analysis.

Table 4: Geometric means and coefficient of input factors and the estimatedproduction of plywood used in estimating the marginal products.

Coefficients Geometric means (Xj) EstimatedCapital Labour Capital Labour (Thousand) Production of

(a) (b) (thousands) man-hour) plywood (Y) inthousand M

0.5176 0.2613 1256.7697 1522.3341 16.0677

The marginal value products of the respective input factors are given inTable 5. Marginal value product for capital is higher than for labour. From thisobservation no comparative conclusion is possible since the marginal value pro-duct for the latter variable is based on per unit man-hour while the former isbased on per unit Ringgit.

Table 5: Marginal value products of input factors at their geometric means.

Plywood"1" Marginal product (m3 ) Marginal value product ($)ex-mill price Capital Labour Capital Labour($/m )

570.16 6.6175 2.7577 3.77 1.57

+ Based on statistics from the 1983 Survey of Plywood/Veneer Industry by the Forest De-partment, Peninsular Malaysia.

46

To evaluate the economic efficiency of the plywood industry in utilisingthe factor inputs, the marginal value products of these inputs are divided bytheir acquisition costs5. Table 6 gives the ratios of marginal value product toinput factor cost. The acquisition cost of labour of the plywood industry isobtained from the average wage for plywood mill labour employed in the pro-ductive processes from the 1983 Survey of Plywood/Veneer Mills of PeninsularMalaysia by the Forest Department. This average wage rate is $2.93 per man-hour.

Table 6: Ratios of marginal value product to factor cost for the plywoodindustry in Peninsular Malaysia.

Ratio of marginal value product to factor cost

Capital Labour

3.77* 0.54**

The results show that capital gives higher ratio of marginal value productto factor cost as compared to labour. This indicates that the capital is insuffi-ciently used in plywood production. Plywood mills would be better off by em-ploying more capital. This implies the need to depreciate further the machineryand equipments until a point is reach where marginal value product equals factorcost. At this point of consumption, the machinery and equipments are efficient-ly used. Increasing depreciation of machinery and equipments can only happenwhen these capital stocks are used for processing more logs into plywood. This ispossible only if the machinery and equipments are under-utilised. It is reportedthat based on two production shifts, plywood mills are operating at 75 percentand 82 percent maximum technical plant capacities in 1981 and 1982 respective-ly (MTIB, undated).

In the case of labour, a marginal value product to labour wage ratio of lessthan one indicates either an over-employment of labour exceeding the optimumlevel or under-utUisation of labour capability. There is a need to reduce labourman-hours by cutting production shift or by reducing the number of labour.

The above observations suggest the existence of excess capacity withinboth capital and labour inputs. Excess capacity can be defined as under-utilisationof the existing productive capacity. Thillainathan (1969) found that this excesscapacity problem is rampant in the timber industry as a whole. While Radzuan(1975) and Mohd Shahwahid (1985) noted the existence of excess capacityspecifically in sawntimber manufacturing of some states in Peninsular Malaysia.The earlier in Johore while the latter in Selangor and Trengganu.

* Indicates that the ratio is significantly different from unity at 1 percent level.** Indicates that the ratio is significantly different from unity at 5 percent level.

" Since the unit of capital is in monetary terms, therefore the marginal value product mea-sures the marginal earnings obtain for a one Ringgit usage of capital. This is unlike labourinput where the marginal value product measures the marginal earnings from a one man-hour unit of labour used. Thus, in order to determine the efficiency of capital and labourtheir marginal value products need to be divided by one Ringgit of capital value and by thelabour wage for one man-hour respectively.

47

Excess capacity in plywood manufacturing could be associated with unres-tricted entry into the industry. Given a certain level of demand, there are toomany mills in the industry so that each mill is forced to produce below its capa-city. Related to the above, the inadequate planning and improper coordinationin growth of the plywood industry further aggravated the problem. The plywoodindustry together with sawmilling were allowed to expend without consideringthe extent of the resource base. In certain states expansion has exceeded thecarrying capacity of the resource base necessitating log inflows from other states.It is estimated that six states are already facing log deficits (Table 7).

Table 7: .Log production and utilisation within Peninsular Malaysian state in1982.

State

JohoreKedahKelantanMalaccaNegeri SembilanPahangPenangPerakPerilsSelangorTrengganuFederal Territory

Total

Log production(m3)

1,841,565267,595

1,423,75914,579

823,3922,675,074

1351,076,753

5,571324,807

1,388,248

9,841,480

Domestic Logprocessing (m3)

1,881,715255,627721,907110,534735,235

2,114,769116,516814,85010,045

625,9551,127,320937,153

8,951,655

Surplus/Deficit(m3)

- 40,150+ 11,968+701,852- 95,955+ 88,157+560,278-116,381+261,903- 4,474-301,148+260,928-937,153

+889,825*

Attempts should be made to curb this excess capacity problem in plywoodmanufacturing. New mills should not be established. Present mill capacity shouldbe utilised regulating flow of certain species of logs from being exported andfrom being processed by other manufacturing processes such as sawmilling. Thefirst suggestion has been enforced by the ban on exports of logs ever since January1985. The second recommendation may not be feasible since sawmilling too ishaving insufficient quality logs. The importing of logs from East Malaysian states,although possible may not be financially viable with the high royalty ratescharged and the high freight shipping cost incurred making manufacturing costof plywood uncompetitive, A case study on production cost of plywood inMalacca indicated that logs comprised 55.6 percent of total manufacturing cost

* This surplus log volumes either go into other minor industries such as pencil manufac-turing or are exported. This surplus need not necessarily mean that there is no log shortageinto plywood mills because plywood manufacturing requires certain quality species andsize.

Source: Annual Report on Forestry in Peninsular Malaysia for 1982 Ministry of PrimaryIndustries, Kuala Lumpur.

48

(Forest Department, 1981). Importation of logs from Indonesia may not be along-term solution since the Indonesians are working towards domestic pro-cessing and exporting value-added timber products.

Perhaps the only solution is to rely on the untapped resources of the lesserknown species in our forest. It has been estimated that as much as 5 million m3

of these log species is available annually in the forest if harvested (Thang, 1983).But before this can happen much research need to be done in identifying theirtechnical characteristics for end-product manufacturing. One limitation thoughto this suggestion is that these lesser known species are sparsely distributed re-sulting in difficulty of getting sufficient quantity of a particular species necessaryfor smooth mill processing. However if these species are marketted by end-useclassification — where logs are classified into its processing capability in terms ofworkability, colour and other characteristics, for example species suitable forveneer manufacturing or for production of utility sawntimber — there is a possi-bility of sufficient log materials to feed the capacity of the plywood mills. Muchresearch and development is necessary for this to come through.

Conclusion

In this study, the variables used are aggregated and the resultant estima-tions are relatively reliable and wherever sources of bias might arise, their im-portance are explained. In this manner the results can, with due caution, beinterpreted, subject to the named potential sources of bias. The findings of thisstudy should of course, be reexamine when more comprehensive and more dis-aggregated data become available. Particularly, the breakdown on data of qualityof labour by skilled and unskilled labour should be employed in future studies toavoid some of the biases explained in the paper.

The findings of this study are not adequate on their own to provide a re-liable basis for policy decisions. Nevertheless, they do provide useful indicationsfor efficient input utilisations. There is a need to increase utilisation of bothlabour and machinery capacities.

The constant returns to scale obtained is a tenuous one since the Cobb-Douglas type of production function does not allow for sources of economicsof scale such as indivisibilities and disproportionalities by its assumption ofhomogeneity. Adequate study on the subject of economics of scale requires theuse of a production function that is not homogeneous over at least some rangeof the inputs (Griliches, 1963). The presence of substantial excess capacity isassociated to the unrestricted entry of new mills in the industry, insufficientquality logs and under-utilisation of factor inputs.

Lesser known species are log species not classified in the Malaysia Grading Rules (MGR)and thus not popular to end user particularly foreign buyers.

49

Bibliography

1. Forest Department, 1981: Cost of Plywood Production in 1980. Unpublished Report.Forest Department Headquarters, Kuala Lumpur.

2. Griliches, Zvi. (1957): Specification Bias in the Estimates of Production Function.J. Farm Econ. 39:8-20.

3. Griliches, Zvi. (1963): The Sources of Measured Productivity Growth: United StatesAgriculture, 1940-60. J. Pol. Econ. 71:331-346.

4. Griliches, Zvi. (1963): Estimates of the Aggregate Agricultural Production from Cross-Sectional Data. Jf . Farm Econ. 45:419-428.

5. Heady, E.O. and J.C Dillon (1964): Agricultural Production Function, Ames, Iowa,U.S.A.

6. Malaysian Timber Industry Board (undated): Timber Consumption Pattern in Penin-sular Malaysia: 1983-1987. Ministry of Primary Industries.

7. Mohd Shahwahid H.O. (1985): Production and Input-Use Efficiency in the SawmillingIndustry of Peninsular Malaysia. PERTANIKA 8 (2). Forthcoming in August 1985.

8. Narasimham, G.V.L. and M.Z. Fabrycy. (1974): Relative Efficiencies of OrganizedIndustries in India, 1949-58. J. of Devt. Studies. 10(2): 230-240.

9. Radzuan, A.R. (1975): Excess Capacity - A Case Study of Under-utilisation'of Pro-ductive Capacity in the Sawmilling Industry. Faculty of Resource Economics andAgribusiness Staff Paper No. II. University pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor.

10. Saini, G.R. (1969): Resource Efficiency in Agriculture. Indian J. of Agric. Econs.2l:(2):l-18.

11. Thang H.C. (1983): Supply of Under-Utilised Timbers in Peninsular Malaysia. Paperpresented at the National Workshop on Consumption of Under-Utilised Timber, KualaLumpur.

12. Thillainathan, R. (1969): Production Function hi the West Malaysian ManufacturingSector. Malaysia Economic Studies VI (2): 27-35.

50

PENGGUNAAN TENAGA MANUSIA BAGI MENINGKATKANPRODUKTIVITI : BEBERAPA PANDANGAN DAN

ANALISA RINGKAS

Oleh: Sujaidi Dasuki

BIODATA

Mendapat didikan dari Kolej Islam Klang dan KolejIslam Malaya Petaling Jaya, Sepuluh tahun pengala-man sebagai wartawan di Kumpulan Akhbar UtusanMelayu sebelum menjawat Pegawai Kanan Perhubu-ngan Akhbar kepada Menteri Pertanian Malaysia padatahun 1983.

Mulai 1985 bertukar ke Pusat Daya PengeluaranNegara sebagai Pegawai Penerbitan.HADIAH-HADIAH:

1981 - Memenangi Saguhati Cerpen Islam anjuranJabatan Perdana Menteri

1982 - Memenangi Hadiah Kedua Peraduan CerpenEsso-GAPENA

1983 - Mendapat Penghargaan Anugerah KaryaBangsa Sempena 25 Tahun Merdeka (cerpen)anjuran Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia DanSukan

1984 - Mendapat Penghargaan Anugerah Novel Daruliman anjuran Kerajaan NegeriTrengganu & PELITA,8UKU-BUKU YANG SUDAH DITERBITKAN:1 - Musa Ahmad Kembali Kepangkuan (1981) terbitan Tra-Tra Publishing & Trading2 - Kaleidiskop Hussein Onn (1981) terbitan Knight Publisher3 - Jihad di Afghanistan (1981) terbitan Knight Publisher4 — Enviro 2001 — Koleksi cerpen-cerpen sendiri (1981) terbitan Tra-Tra Publishing &

Trading5 - Pengajaran - Koleksi cerpen-cerpen sendiri (1982) - terbitan Tra-Tra Publishing &

Trading6 — Sayambara IV — Koleksi cerpen bersama (1983) terbitan D.B.P.7 — Menunggu — Koleksi cerpen bersama (1981) Yayasan Dakwah Islamiah Malaysia8 — Runtunan — Koleksi cerpen bersama (1983), Jabatan Perdana Menteri9 - ARBAIN - novel (1985) terbitan D.B.P.

RINGKAS AN

Menggalakkan sekumpulan pekerja untuk meningkatkan produktiviti bu-kanlah suatu tugas yang mudah. la merupakan suatu 'perang' terhadap sikap.Rencana ini bukanlah suatu analisa, tetapi lebih merupakan rangkaian beberapapandangan mengenai penggunaan tenaga manusia yang menyentuh soal-soalsikap, suasana kerja, penggunaan teknologi moden -dan juga dasar-dasar organisasiserta hubungkaitnya ke arah peningkatan produktiviti.

Sesungguhnya penekanan terhadap sikap pekerja dan pihak pengurusan iniadalah lebih penting, sebelum sesuatu dasar, kaedah dan teknologi barn diguna-kan. Diharapkan rangkaian pandangan ini akan dapat menjadi titik tolak ke arahsuatu penganalisaan yang lebih terperinci terutama untuk membangun sikap pro-duktif bagi bangsa Malaysia yang kini sedang bangkit dan berkembang ke arahmodenisasi di dalam sistem pengurusan dan industri.

51

PENDAHULUAN

Apabila kita mula menekankan pentingnya bekerja kuat serta meningkat-kan produktiviti, banyak reaksi yang timbul di kalangan orangramai. Dan diantara sekian banyak reaksi, terdapat suatu reaksi yang amat kontroversial dandianggap paling popular di kalangan pekerja terutama pekerja-pekerja di dalamsektor pembuatan. Mereka mempersoalkan: "Jika kita terus digalakkan mening-katkan produktiviti, siapakah yang harus produktif? Pekerja atau majikan?" Ini-lah titik tolak perbincangan kita di mana tenaga manusia lebih banyak digunakanuntuk meningkatkan produktiviti.

Kehidupan manusia sentiasa berubah-ubah mengjkut keadaan dan suasana.Malah bagi kebanyakan orang, perubahan ialah suatu hal yang tidak ada kesudah-an. Persekitaran sosial ialah yang paling rumit dihadapi oleh para pengurus. Olehitu, gambaran sumber tenaga manusia yang cuba diwujud dan dihubunginyatetap berubah. Bukan sahaja bagaimana manusia berhubung antara satu sama laindi dalam organisasi berubah, tetapi bagaimana pandangan mereka terhadap kerjadan bagaimana mereka dikendalikan turut berubah dalam ertikata yang meluas.Perubahan ini berbeza dari organisasi ke organisasi, dari sebuah kawasan geografike satu kawasan geografi lainnya yang menyebabkan pandangan seseorang turutberbeza dari hari ke hari. Oleh itu untuk mengecilkan gambaran sejagat mengenaisubjek ini, agak rumit. Bagaimanapun, komunikasi yang meluas dan berkesanserta dengan maklumbalas yang tepat akan dapat menolong para pengurus me-mahami sifat-sifat dan kehendak pekerja.

Satu hakikat yang harus kita sedari di dalam mentadbirkan tenaga manusiasebagai sumber produktiviti ialah bahawa manusia bukanlah seperti kad-kadnama yang boleh disusun mengikut indeks.1 Mengurus dan mentadbir sekum-pulan orang yang mempunyai berbagai tabiat dan ragam merupakan satu uruseniyang memerlukan hemat yang tinggi lebih dari menghasilkan kerja-kerja seni.Mengurus dan mentadbirnya juga umpama mengadun teknologi semasa yangmemerlukan daya saintifik yang tinggi.

lanya juga terdedah kepada kritik, cemuhan dan bantahan, namun dengan-nya juga mudah menimba pengalaman yang boleh digunakan bagi meningkatkanprestasi sebagai seorang pengurus. Walaupun manusia sendiri tidak rela dijadikansebagai bahan eksperimen, namun berjuta-juta pengurus tetah mendapat peng-alaman dan pelajaran dari 'makmal pengurusan' yang universal ini di mana bahan-nya ialah manusia sendiri. Walau apa pun pendekatannya, baik melalui sainssosial mahupun matematik, namun matlamatnya adalah satu, iaitu untuk meraihkerjasama pekerja/staf bagi menghasilkan produktiviti yang tinggi.

Untuk mengukuhkan kerjasama staf di dalam memperkenalkan kemajuan-kemajuan adalah sama pentingnya dengan menciptakan kemajuan itu sendiri,

Sila lihat Panduan Pentadbiran Awam, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 1979hal 86.

52

dan ini boleh dilakukan dengan menyakinkan staf mengenai keadilan dan ke-cekapan pentadbiran. Tanggungjawab ini tidak boleh diserahkan hanya kepadapenasihat-penasihat luar, walaupun mereka boleh menjalankan berbagai perkara,dengan penerangan yang tertib dan sabar bagi membolehkan perubahan-perubahanitu dapat diterima.2

Penyelia yang baik di dalam pengurusan moden memerlukan seorang 'guru'yang baik. la hendaklah mempunyai bukan saja kemahiran dalam kerjayanyatetapi juga kebolehan bekerja dengan orang yang menyampaikan kemahiran danpenerangan kepada orang lain. la mestilah juga seorang pendengar yang baik danmemberi peluang kepada stafnya bercakap mengenai kerja dan masalah-masalahmereka, walaupun kadang-kadang masalah-masalah itu tidak penting pada pan-dangannya.3

Zaman Primitif

Mentadbir dan mengurus tenaga manusia supaya setiap orang dapat bekerjabersama-sama bagi tujuan sesuatu kumpulan, bermula dari kegiatan suku kaumyang primitif. Sebaik sahaja manusia berkumpul untuk mengukuhkan keselamat-an dari ancaman musuh atau mendirikan sesuatu, manusia mulai menubuhkanorganisasi. Di peringkat awal organisasi setiap manusia dipergunakan bagi meminvpin serta melatih rakan-rakan mereka yang lain untuk memburu. Sebagai per-bandingan, manusia dahulunya digunakan di peringkat kemahiran yang amatrendah sebagai bentuk sumber tenaga, contohnya, kaum lelaki digunakan bagimenarik pedati, bukan kerana kemahiran mereka, tetapi kerana mereka mem-punyai tenaga yang lebih untuk menarik. Kedua-dua perbandingan ini mungkinmasih wujud hari ini.4

Apabila masyarakat lebih teratur dan terutamanya sejak revolusi perindus-trian di Eropah manusia digunakan pula dalam organisasi-organisasi yang lebihmoden. Mereka digunakan untuk melakukan berbagai tugas berlainan, tugas yangdisesuaikan, tugas yang memerlukan penggunaan deria selaras dengan pengguna-an berbagai mesin dan sistem. Yang demikian, manusia telah digunakan bagi me-ngisi kekosongan antara bahagian-bahagian yang tidak dapat dilakukan olehjentera. Kita telah berjaya memajukan berbagai jenis kemahiran baru yang me-nyangkut tenaga manusia yang berkaitan dengan jalinan kerja manusia-jentera.Umpamanya operator sesebuah terminal grafik interaktif yang dihubungkan kesebuah komputer barangkali dapat dianggap salah satu contoh yang'tepat dijadi-kan perbandingan.

Lama-kelamaan penggunaan tenaga manusia telah berkembang serta dikajidari segi falsafahnya melalui penyelidikan dan kajian yang saintifik dan akhirnyamanusia telah menemui tugas-tugasnya yang khusus melalui ilmu pengetahuan.5Di dalam kontek pemburu-pemburu, pengetahuan mungkin hanya sebahagiankecil daripada kemahiran mereka berbanding dengan keupayaannya mengguna-

3 Ibid 89.4

Donald B. Miller, Working With People, Human Resources Management in Action, CIBPublishing Company, Inc., Boston Massachusetts, ha!. 4.

5 Ibid hal 5.

53

kan lembing atau busar panah. Memang benar, seseorang pemburu perlu mema-hami tempat sembunyi, tingkahlaku dan psikologi haiwan yang diburu. Bagai-manapun, hari ini terdapat banyak pekerjaan di dalam organisasi-organisasi dimana penyelarasan fisikal atau kepantasan, atau jalinan kemahiran manusiadengan jentera hanya merupakan sebahagian kecil daripada keupayaan yang di-pergunakan. Di dalam masyarakat yang kompleks, terdapat orang-orang yang di-ambil bekerja terutamanya kerana pengetahuan mereka, iaitu maklumat yangada pada mereka. Contohnya ialah pakar kaji fizik, yang membuat rumusandan konsep-konsep matematik.

Mengurus, menggembeling manusia untuk bekerja, mempunyai beberapapersamaan dengan masa lalu tetapi berbeza pada berbagai kegiatan dan hubung-annya. Untuk memujuk pemburu yang mahir supaya membantu memenuhikeperluan suku kaumnya umpamanya memerlukankepimpinan. Malah di zamanpurba si pemburu perlu didorong dengan memberikannya sedikit ganjaran. Aspekpengurusan ini tidak banyak berbeza hari ini, walaupun lebih rumit, apabila kitacuba memujuk pekerja apa jua bidang kemahiran supaya membeli matlamat-matlamat organisasi dan bekerja untuk organisasi.6

Kehidupan manusia mempunyai berbagai ragam. Bagaimanapun denganadanya perkembangan ilmu, masyarakat manusia mempunyai organisasi-organisasiyang tersusun, di mana keluaran dan proses pengeluaranboleh dikesan. Organisasihari ini pula semakin kompleks dengan menggunakan tenaga manusia dalam ber-bagai jenis kegiatan. Merancang untuk keperluan masyarakat anda, mengambilorang-orang yang bersedia dan melatih mereka bekerja, serta mengatur dan meng-uruskan kegiatan mereka adalah tugas-tugas asas tenaga manusia.

Manusia Bukan Mesin

Telah diakui bahawa di dalam setiap kegiatan pentadbiran/pengurusanunsur manusia serta hubungan antara manusia itu merupakan faktor yang menen-tukan berjaya atau tidaknya proses pentadbiran/pengurusan itu. Ini berertibahawa manusia di dalam suatu organisasi tidak boleh diperlakukan sama denganunsur-unsur pentadbiran lainnya, seperti modal, mesin, alat-alat kelengkapan dansebagainya.7 Pengertian ini menjadi lebih jelas lagi apabila mengaitkan bahawahubungan manusia adalah "keseluruhan rangkaian hubungan, baik yang bersifatformal, antara atasan dan bawahan, atasan dengan atasan, serta bawahan denganbawahan yang lain yang perlu diwujudkan dan dipelihara sedemikian rupa se-hingga tercipta suatu kumpulan kerja dan suasana kerja yang mendalam danharmoni dalam rangka mencapai tujuan."8

Manusia sebagai makhluk termulia di muka bumi semakin lama semakincerdas. Kecerdasan yang semakin meningkat itu mengakibatkan manusia telahdinamakan dengan berbagai 'predikat', seperti homo faber, homo sapiens, homopolitician dan homo economist. Dikatakan juga bahawa manusia itu adalah 'zoon

6 Ibid hal 5.Sondang P. Siangian, Falsafah Pentadbiran dan Pengurusan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,1981, hal 6-7.Ibid hal 7.

54

polition'. Dan di samping kesemuanya itu, Sondang P. Siagian di dalam buku-nya 'Falsafah Pentadbiran dan Pengurusan' berpendapat bahawa manusia modenini adalah 'homo administrators'.9

Inilah sebabnya secara hakiki dapat dikatakan bahawa jika seseorang inginberbicara tentang 'Falsafah Pentadbiran', maka fokus analisanya perlu bertolakdari manusia dan berorientasi kepada manusia kerana seluruh proses pentadbir-an dimulai oleh manusia, untuk kepentingan manusia dan diakhiri pula olehmanusia.10

Tugas seorang pengurus bukan sekadar bertanggungjawab memajukansyarikat di mana dia bekerja, malahan sekaligus dia juga bertanggungjawabmelatih dan membina prestasi penolongnya serta para pegawai di bawahnyaterutama bagi mengatur dan menyusun program-program pengembangan danpembangunan syarikat. Tanpa kecekapan dan kaliber seorang pengurus, sese-buah syarikat itu akan mengalami kegelapan dan kemerosotan . Sebab iturancangan-rancangan haruslah diatur dari satu masa ke suatu masa terutama bagimeningkatkan prestasi dan pembangunan pengurus dan eksekutif bagi menjaminkesejahteraan dan kemajuan perusahaan di masa depan.11

Sehubungan dengan prestasi dan masalah, banyak orang menganggapbahawa masalah-masalah remeh yang dihadapi oleh syarikat akan selesai atauluput begitu saja selang beberapa lama. Ada dua kemungkinan dari sikap peng-urusan yang seperti ini, iaitu samada pihak pengurus tidak berdaya menghadapipersoalan yang sebenarnya wujud di dalam syarikat, atau dia tidak dapat melihatkemungkinan masa depan syarikat. Hal ini biasanya terjadi pada syarikat-syarikatkecil atau syarikat-syarikat pertengahan di mana pengurusnya sering sibuk dengankerja-kerja sampingan di luar tugas syarikat. Dan yang lebih malang lagi bagisyarikat-syarikat kecil seperti ini biasanya para pengurusnya dengan sewenang-wenang meninggalkan syarikat tanpa mempunyai pengganti yang cekap. Inilahbahayanya mengabaikan masalah-masalah remeh dan kecil yang akhirnya sangpengurus sendiri akan terjebak oleh siKapnya yang cuai dan mengambil mudahsesuatu masalah.12

Saiz dan Jenis Mempengaruhi Gaya Pengurusan

Trend organisasi hari ini terbentuk dengan jumlah keahlian dan pekerjayang ramai serta dengan tugas yang lebih banyak berbanding dengan di masalalu. Bilangan orang yang ramai, pelbagai kemahiran yang diperlukan, dan pel-bagai jenis tugas menghendaki bertambahnya penekanan pada pengurusan tenagamanusia. Pengendalian bilangan yang ramai tidak boleh disamakan dengan caraseorang atau dua orang pekerja. Kita perlukan sistem-sistem dan dasar-dasar bagimenjamin keadilan dan hak. Yang demikian, saiz firma serta dengan pertamba-

Sondang P. Siangan, Falsafah Pentadbiran dan Pengurusan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,1981, hal 9.

10 Ibid hat 9.Harold Koontz & Cyril O'Donnell dalam 'Principles of Management An Analysis of Mana-gerial Function', McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1959, hal. 468-469,

12 Ibid hal 519.

55

ban pekerja telah menambah permintaan bagi latihan, teori. dasar atau polisi,program dan sistem. Selain daripada itu, menguruskan saintis yang cukup terlatihmungkin berbeza daripada menguruskan tukang kayu yang mahir. Begitu jugamenguruskan jurujual makanan segera, mungkin berbeza daripada menguruskanguru-guru esekolah tinggi. Kerumitan pengetahuan dan kemahiran yang di-gunakan boleh mempengaruhi amalan pengurusan. Perbezaan pada penekanandan gaya ditentukan oleh jurang perbezaan kemahiran dan pengetahuan. YangYang demikian, faktor pertama di dalam pengurusan ialah mempelbagaikan jenisgaya, konsep dan sistem. Faktor kedua yang membezakan pengurusan manusiahari ini daripada sumber tenaga manusia zaman dahulu ialah peralihan daripengurusan secara mutlak kepada pengurusan demokrasi atau dengan penyertaanramai.13

Perubahan sikap yang terjadi di peringkat akhir di dalam perkembanganorganisasi memanglah suatu proses yang biasa terjadi dan dilalui oleh pegawai-pegawai baru sebagai tindakbalas di antara mereka dan organisasi.14 Bagaimana-pun secara umumnya pembinaan sikap ini dapat ditentukan melalui dua faktor:Pertama, terjadinya sikap yang negatif ialah kerana kesamaran tugas di dalamorganisasi dan peranan yang sepatutnya dilakukan. Kedua, secara psikologi,kejayaan dan pengalaman-pengalaman masa lalu dapat membentuk sikap yangpositif.15

Di dalam memperkatakan perubahan sikap ini, terdapat adanya keber-lainan sikap di kalangan mereka. Perbezaan sikap ini, samada positif atau negatifsering juga terjadi di dalam pembinaan kariernya di peringkat awal mereka me-masuki organisasi berkenaan. Biasanya sesuatu yang terjadi, baik positif mahu-pun negatif menunjukkan kecenderungan yang susah untuk diubah dan ianyamemberi pengaruh yang kuat terhadap pembinaan karier mereka. Menurut Hall& Nougaim16 tahun pertama bagi 'pendatang-pendatang baru' di dalam peng-urusan merupakan masa yang kritikal bagi mereka mendapat pelajaran. Dan ini-lah ketikanya bagi mereka membina dan bersedia untuk membuat perubahan.Jika pengalaman di tahun pertama dapat membina sikap yang positif makatahun-tahun berikutnya akan terus berkembang secara automatik dan begitu jugalahsebaliknya.17

Perubahan sikap secara drastik di dalam pembinaan karier pengurusanmerupakan-suatu tindakbalas di antara kedua pihak,pegawai dan pihak organisasi.Mereka datang dengan harapan, matlamat serta minat dan keyakinan terhadapkerja dan organisasi yang menjadi pilihannya. Begitu juga di pihak organisasisendiri mungkin menaruh harapan yang tinggi agar mereka dapat melakukansuatu kemajuan melalui cara kepimpinan dan pengurusannya serta tidak pula me-lakukan sesuatu yang menurunkan prestasi dan produktiviti organisasi.18

13 Donald B. Miller, Working With People, Human Resources Management in Action, CIBPublishing Company, Inc., Boston Massachusetts, hal. 6.Mitsuru Wakabayashi mengistilahkan di dalam 'Management Career Progress in a JapaneseOrganization' sebagai 'newcomer'.Mitsuru Wakabayashi, Management Career Progress in a Japanese Organization, UMIResearch Press Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1980, hal 51.

16 Ibid hal Si.17 Ibid hal 51.18 Ibid hal SI.

56

Sebenarnya tugas dan tanggungjawab pengurusan boleh ditentukan diantara pegawai dan organisasi semasa proses permohonan jawatan itu dibuat.Apa yang berlaku di peringkat ini hanyalah merupakan suatu 'psychologicalcontract119 di antara kedua belah pihak. Dan berdasarkan 'kontrak' inilah faktor-faktor psikologi telah mendorong tindakbalas kerja di mana ianya telah meng-ambil tempat penglibatan dan peranan sebenar yang harus dilakukan oleh keduabelah pihak.

Sesungguhnya pengurusan yang tidak betul, suasana persekitaran kerjayang tidak sempurna, kurangnya pertimbangan kemanusiaan, dan waktu bekerjayang terlalu lama serta gaji yang rendah telah membawa kepada wujudnya ke-satuan sekerja. Pekerja perlukan seseorang untuk memperjuangkan keperluannyakerana sumber tenaga manusia dilayan seperti sumber modal. Manusia telah di-anggap sebagai barangan. Setengah pihak pengurusan pula melayan tenaga kerjamereka leblh buruk daripada mesin mereka. Alat jentera diselenggara dengancermat, sedangkan eksploitasi tenaga manusia berterusan tanpa pembelaan.

Apabila para pekerja (di seberang peringkat 'hierarchy') merasa dirinya di-anggap hanya sebagai suatu alat pengeluaran, mereka mungkin akan mengurang-kan produktivitinya. Sebaliknya, apabila mereka merasakan majikannya benar-benar menaruh perhatian terhadap masalatinya, masa depannya, kebajikannya,dia mungkin akan meningkatkan produktivitinya.

Penyelia yang sentiasa memberi perhatian kepada para pekerjanya bukansekadar melatih seseorang menjalankan tugasnya dengan baik, malahan dia jugamelatih orang bawahnya untuk jawatan yang lebih tinggi. Tegasnya, dia berminatuntuk menolong orang bawahnya mengatasi "masalah mereka semasa kerja danselepas kerja. Dan dia tentulah lebih mesra dan rela memberi bantuan dan per-tolongan dan bukannya sentiasa menggunakan hukuman dan ancaman.21

Para pengurus dan penyelia yang ideal seperti ini lazimnya apabila dia di-pindahkan ke jabatan-jabatan lain atau bertukar kerja lain akan dapat mengekal-kan sikap semula jadinya dalam menjalankan proses pengurusan dan penyeliaanyang baik dan berkesan. Ini membuktikan bahawa sikap dan tabiat merupakanfaktor yang mempengaruhi keberkesanan tugas.2 2

Manusia Sebagai Komponen Tenaga

Hari ini, sebahagian besar manusia bebas memilih pekerjaan berasaskanpada mutu kerja dan persekitarannya. Satu unsur gambaran pengurusan sumbertenaga manusia yang jelas berbeza ialah perlunya layanan yang lebih baik ter-hadap kakitangan, perlunya pekerja diberi peluang menolong membentuk kerja

19 IbidhalS2.20 Donald B. Miller, Working With People, Human Resources Management in Action, CIB

Publishing Company, Inc., Boston Massachusetts, hal. 7,Pigors, Myers, Malm, Management of Human Resources, McGraw-Hill Book Company,hal 257.

22 Ibid hal 259.

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dan persekitaran kerja. Ini bukanlah pembahan yang dibina di atas kebaikanbudi pekerti manusia. la perubahan yang dibina di atas keperluan perniagaan dandorongan mencari untung. Kadangkala ia -terbina atas kehendak undang-undang.Kerajaan pula membela nasib pekerja melalui undang-undang seperti Akta Ke-sihatan dan Keselamatan Kerja yang menetapkan taraf nilai keselamatan bagipersekitaran kerja.2 3

Pada dasarnya, suasana yang harmoni tidak wujud, malah tidak pernahwujud. Adalah tidak realistik jika menganggap bahawa semua kehendak manusiadapat dihajati. Yang jelas setengah orang terpaksa berjuang bertungkus lumusmempertahankan haknya dan ada pula yang sentiasa bersedia untuk menerimaapa saja dari seseorang walaupun secara paksa.24

Apabila sesuatu persetujuan tercapai, sudah pasti ada pihak-pihak yangtidak puashati dengan persetujuan itu. Keadaan ini membuktikan bahawakeadaan harmoni tidak pernah wujud di dalam industri, sebaliknya sebarang kon-flik mesti akan wujud pula suasana kerjasama walaupun tidak semua yang di-hajati oleh kedua belah pihak akan tercapai. Oleh itu mestilah ada satu undang-undang yang mengawasi keadaan itu daripada konflik itu merosakkan mana-manapihak. Konsep ini sebenarnya bukanlah konsep yang negatif, malah positif dimana kita mempelawa golongan yang mempunyai perbezaan pendapat itu supayadapat bekerjasama.25

Apabila satu kumpulan — samada pihak pekerja atau pihak pengurusanmahukan perubahan, manakala satu kumpulan lagi menolak, maka berlakulahkonflik industri. Kebebasan untuk membuat perubahan dan kebebasan untukmenoiak perubahan memanglah sesuai dengan amalan demokrasi. Dengan yangdemikian ternyatalah bahawa pergolakan di dalam industri memanglah suatuyang biasa terjadi. Bagaimanapun amalan 'kebebasan' ini haruslah dikawal denganundang-undang mengenepikan demokrasi di dalam industri.

Satu unsur lain gambaran sumber tenaga manusia ialah perubahan kepen-dudukan. 2T Kerana perubahan pada kadar kelahiran, lanjutan usia hasil rawatankesihatan yang lebih baik, dan umur persaraan yang dilanjutkan menyebabkantenaga kerja menjadi semakin dewasa. Bertentangan dengan pandangan karut danbeberapa kepercayaan mengenai perihal lanjutnya usia, ini tidak bererti kitaperlu mempunyai ramai kakitangan yang ketinggalan zaman atau tidak setara.Walaupun demikian ianya bererti bahawa cara dan sistem pengurusan berkesanuntuk merangsang seseorang yang berusia dalam lingkungan 50an mungkin sekaliberbeza daripada sistem yang merangsang orang yang berusia dalam lingkungan20an. la bererti bahawa pengurus mestilah mempelajari lebih banyak tentangnilai serta matlamat pekerja di samping menyesuaikan kaedah motivasinya me-ngikut usia.

23 Donald B. Miller, Working With People, Human Resources Management in Action, GIBPublishing Company, Inc., Boston Massachusetts, hal. 7.

24 Alfred J. Marrow, Making Management Human, McGraw-Hill Book Company, NewYork, 1957, hat 33.

25 Ibid hal 34.26 Ibid hal 34.

Donald B. Miller, Working With People, Human Resources Management in Action, Cf BPublishing Company, Inc., Boston Massachusetts, hal. 8.

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Satu unsur lain ialah bertambahnya perkhidmatan khas dan sokongan ter-hadap pengurus.28 Sekiranya pengurus di masa lalu dikehendaki melakukansemua tugas termasuk mengenai sumber tenaga manusia secara persendirian,organisasi besar dan sederhana hari ini menyokong pengurus dengan pegawai-pegawai khas. Ini ada baik dan ada buruknya. Umpamanya, terlalu mudah bagipengurus melepaskan tanggungjawab mentadbirkan gaji kepada pakar gaji. Atau-pun secara mudah pengurus menolak bertanggungjawab memberi latihan ataukursus kepada para pegawai atau pekerja-pekerja. Inilah beberapa contoh aspekburuknya. Walaupun begitu, kerana organisasi dan tugas-tugasnya terlalu rumit,ada kemungkinan melalui pakar-pakar di bidang-bidang tertentu ia dapat mem-berikan perkhidmatan bermutu tinggi. Dengan mengambil tenaga-tenaga kerjaprofesional dengan latihan teknikal khas atau yang memahami selok-belok psiko-logi yang dapat merangsang pekerja terhadap kerja, secara langsung kita dapatmeningkatkan keupayaan pengurus. Dengan ini, organisasi berkenaan dapatmembentuk ikatan baru di antara pengurus dan sumber tenaga profesional dandengan itu juga memberi potensi yang baik dalam pengurusan sumber tenagamanusia.

Perubahan teknologi yang pesat, ciri-ciri perniagaan yang cepat berubahdan perubahan sosial turut membawa perubahan kepada sesebuah organisasi.Tenaga dan keupayaan mengendalikan pembahan merupakan suatu komponenkemanusiaan. Manusia menjadi bahagian-bahagian yang penting di dalam organi-sasi. Manusia melakukan segala-galanya yang membuat sesebuah organisasi ber-jaya atau sebaliknya. Namun demikian penyesuaian manusia mempunyai kesanbaik dan buruknya. Keburukannya ialah timbulnya masalah-masalah sebagai-mana yang digambarkan oleh Alvin Tofler di dalam Future Shock. Salah satudaripadanya yang semakin kerap kita lihat ialah penyesuaian negatif kepadatekanan jiwa disebabkan oleh beban kerja. Kebaikannya pula ialah bertambah-nya daya tenaga dan meningkatkan kepuasan manusia melalui pertumbuhan danpembelajaran yang diperolehi sambil mereka menyesuaikan diri.29

Memang kita tidak boleh memaksa pegawai-pegawai dan para pekerja kitasupaya belajar. Tetapi adalah menjadi tanggungjawab pengurus untuk membinadan memajukan setiap pegawai-pegawai bawahannya demi untuk kepentingandan kemajuan syarikat dan organisasi. Apa yang boleh diterapkan untuk mening-katkan prestasi para pegawai dan pekerja ialah dengan melalui galakan dandorongan. Dengan peranan ini secara tidak langsung, pengurus juga merupakanjumlatih kepada ' subordinate'nya, tetapi tidak ramai pengurus yang menyedariakan peranan mereka sebagai jurulatih.

Untuk itu pengurus haruslah sentiasa dapat mewujudkan suasana dan ke-adaan yang dapat memberangsangkan mereka supaya sentiasa ingin meningkat-kan prestasi masing-masing. Sesungguhnya, hanya 'boss* yang ada di dalam dirimanusia sendiri sajalah yang dapat membangkitkan kesedaran betapa pentingnyabelajar mencari pengetahuan yang kemudiannya mendorong individu itu meng-

28

Ibid hal 9.Ibid hal 8.

2930 Edwin J. Singer & John Ramsden, HUMAN RESOURCES, Obtaining Results From

People at Work, McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK) Ltd., 1972 hal 73.

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ambil langkah untuk belajar demi untuk keperluan tugas.31 Sehubungan denganperanan pengurus sebagai jurulatih, di sini diperturunkan ciri-ciri jurulatihyang baik mencurut J.W. Riegel sebagai yang diterangkan di dalam bukunya'Executive Development' yang ditulis berdasarkan pengalamannya membuatkajian ke atas limapuluh buah koperasi di Amerika.32 Ciri-ciri itu ialah:

— Mereka berminat dengan tugas pekerjanya.— Sentiasa menunggu peluang yang sesuai untuk mengembangkan pres-

tasi pekerjanya dengan memberi tugas-tugas yang lebih berat danmencabar, di samping dia sendiri sentiasa berusaha membantu pe-kerjanya bagi mencapai prestasi yang diharapkan.

— Mereka tahu akan keperluan, kehendak dan kemampuan para pe-kerjanya.

— Kepentingannya memusatkan kepada orang perseorangan, berban-ding dengan pemusatannya terhadap kerja. Misalnya mereka lebihmementingkan usaha-usaha membangun dan meningkatkan prestasiorang-orang bawahannya supaya mereka boleh mengurus, menyeliadan menyelesaikan masalah yang timbul tanpa merujuk kepada pihakatasan. Sikap ini berbeza dengan pengurus yang sering berkata: "Jikaanda ingin kerja anda berjalan dengan sempurna, buatlah sendiri!"Akhirnya seseorang itu akan belajar melalui kesilapan-kesilapan.

— Mereka lebih yakin pada orang bawah, dengan harapan agar orang-orang bawahnya dapat bertanggungjawab terhadap tugasnya. Adalahtidak munasabah seseorang dapat menjalankan tugas dengan sebaik-baiknya sedangkan dia tahu ketuanya sendiri tidak menganggap diaberkebolehan.

Ada banyak lagi sifat-sifat atau kecenderungan khas terutama bagi mena-ngani pengurusan sumber manusia. Antaranya mungkin termasuk perlunya di-tekankan dan difahami sistem-sistem, cabaran pelbagai kebudayaan dalamorganisasi di sesebuah negara, atau kemajuan bahasa-bahasa khas dalam perniaga-an, atau trend pengurusan, atau masalah syarikat induk. Contoh-contoh yang ter-sebut itu tentunya boleh menjadi pembuka jalan kepada usaha-usaha pengurusanmanusia di dalam organisasi yang sentiasa berubah-ubah. Dan pengurusan yangbaik ialah yang sentiasa berkembang. Bagaimanapun, perbezaan antara sebuahtempat kerja yang baik dengan sebuah tempat kerja yang tidak baik ialah per-bezaan pada mutu pengurusan manusia.

Beberapa Teori Dorongan

Membicarakan 'tenaga manusia' sebagai sumber produktiviti kita tidakboleh melupakan teori-teori dorongan yang diperkenalkan oleh Maslow yang ter-kenal dengan 'Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory.'34


Donald B. Miller, .Working With People, Human Resources Management in Action, CIBPublishing Company Inc.,Boston Massachusetts, hal 9.

34 Sila riijuk Maslow, A.H. Motivation and Personality, Harper and Row, 1970.

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Dan berdasarkan teori hiraki yang diperkenalkan oleh Maslow ialah bebe-rapa kajian dan pengamatan terhadap tlngkah laku dan perangai manusia telahdilakukan dari satu masa ke satu masa yang bertujuan untuk meraih sumbertenaga manusia secara maksima, "Maslow sendiri telah menghujah bahawa teori-nya itu hanyalah merupakan suatu garis dasar untuk dijadikan panduan. Penyeli-dikan yang lebih lanjut adalah perlu dilakukan dan beliau sendiri mengakui ada-nya beberapa kelemahan di dalam teorinya. Sebagai contoh, bahawa mungkinseseorang itu tidak sedar akan keperluan seseorang." Tetapi hal ini berlaku ke-rana setengah penulis terlalu yakin dengan teori Maslow ini dan tidak teliti se-masa melaksanakannya dan menganggap mudah dilaksanakan tanpa ragu-ragu. 3S

Sebagaimana yang kita maklum bahawa Douglas McGregor telah memper-kenalkan dua teori, iaitu teori X dan teori Y bag! membezakan tabiat manusiayang diamanahkan tanggungjawab kerja. Dengan teori X dikatakan manusiaperlu dipaksa untuk melakukan kerjanya, sementara teori Y pula mengatakanmanusia itu sendiri yang berusaha memajukan dirinya melalui kerja-kerja yangdipertanggungjawabkan ke atasnya. Di samping itu, ada pula teori Z yang menga-takan bahawa: "manusia tidak boleh dicorakkan samada hitam atau putih, se-baliknya gunakanlah warna kelabu," Selanjutnya teori Z ini mengatakan tidaksemua manusia itu baik dan tidak pula semuanya jahat. Sebaliknya suasanalahyang mempengaruhi samada seseorang itu menjadi baik atau bertindak jahat.36

Teori Z ini sebenarnya telah dicipta oleh Machiavelli walaupun dia sendiritidak pernah menamakannya sebagai teori Z. 37Begitu juga dengan teori W yangdiperkenalkan oleh Dale Carnegie.38 Dengan teori W ini manusia atau pekerjaperlu dipujuk (dengan cara memberi berbagai kemudahan dan perlindungan se-bagai ganjaran dan balasan dari dedikasi mereka terhadap kerja yang telah diper-tanggungjawabkan) sebelum kesedaran mereka terhadap kerja dan kemajuan dirisampai ke tingkat teori Y. Bagaimanapun menurut A.W. Willsmore di dalambukunya 'Managing Modern Man' menekankan ada lima cara yang dapat diguna-kan sebagai dorongan kepada manusia untuk membuat kerja.39

1. Dengan kekuatan — tekankan kekuasaan dengan memaksa pekerjasupaya membuat kerja dan singkirkan mereka yang engkar.

2. Dengan cara yang baik — beri mereka galakan dengan menyediakantempat bekerja yang selesa serta kemudahan untuk mereka.

3. Tawar menawar ^ beri mereka ganjaran yang munasabah dengan per-khidmatan yang mereka lakukan.

4. Persaingan — berilah peluang untuk meningkat dengan lebih tinggidan maju lagi bagi mereka yang mempunyai potensi serta dapat me-laksanakan kerja dengan lebih baik.

Gary Dessler, Organization and Management, Prentice, Inc. Eglewood Cliffs. N.T. 1976hal 210.A.W. Willsmore, Managing Modern Man, Pitman Paperbacks, London, 1973 hal 23S.

37 William G. Ouchi pula berpendapat bahawa teori Znya lebih mementingkan rasional daripendekatan psikologi sebagaimana teori X dan teori Y.

38 A.W. Willsmore, Managing Modern Man, Pitman Paperbacks, London, hal 239.39 Ibid hal 239.

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5. Dorongan dari dalam diri — ada pekerja yang merasa puas jika dapatmelaksanakan tugas dengan baik dan sempurna.

Apa yang paling mustahak di dalam membentuk sifat-sifat pekerja supayadapat mendorong diri sendiri ialah dengan mengubah keperluan (needs) yang adadi dalam diri kepada kehendak (wants) sebelum ianya menjadi suatu tenaga pen-dorong yang amat beikesan yang bergerak dari dalam diri. 40

Berdasarkan beberapa pengalaman yang telah dialami oleh beberapa buahsyarikat, terutama apabila hendak dilaksanakan suatu cara baru di dalam peng-urusan, para pekerja akan ditunjuk ajar mengenai kaedah-kaedah baru yang lebihberkesan dan lebih baik, Biasanya motivasi ke arah itu ada, tetapi perlaksanaanke arah kaedah baru itu tidak betul. la menyebabkan hasil yang diperoleh dari-pada sistem baru itu tidak berjaya sebagai yang diharap-harapkan. Malahan carabaru itu pula telah dijadikan alasan oleh pihak pekerja untuk menempelak kem-bali pihak pengurusan. Mereka sentiasa mencari kesilapan dari perlaksanaan carabaru itu. 41

Faktor Gaji

Ramai eksekutif percaya bahawa buruh hendaklah dibayar dengan gajiyang 'rendah' tanpa mengira sebanyak mana produktivitinya, kerana masa be-kerja mereka tidak seberapa. Sementara para pengurus lain pula menganggap tidakseharusnya terdapat batasan mengenai jumlah gaji yang patut dibayar kepadapara pekerja, tetapi bayaran itu mestilah berpatutan. Bagi pengurus seperti ini,pertimbangan penting mereka ialah bahawa kos buruh seunit hendaklah rendah,tidak kira berapakah kadar gaji yang mereka terima. Sungguhpun terdapatbanyak sistem gaji, namun kebanyakan amalannya sistem pemberian gaji dilak-sanakan berdasarkan falsafah produktiviti43 dan falsafah kuasa beli.44

40 A.W. Wtflsmore, Managing Modern Man, Pitman Paperbacks, London, hal 239.41 Ibid hal 239.42 Leon C. Megginson, A Behavioral Approach to Administration, Richard D. Irwin, Inc,

Homewood, Illinois, hal 370.43 Secara ringkas konsep ini diasaskan kepada beberapa andaian:

i. Para pengusaha hendaklah mengadaka'n kelengkapan yang cekap seperti modalasas, mesin, bangunan dan sebagainya; sementara pengurusannya hendaklah meng-gunakan teknologi terbaru.

ii. Keluaran seunit tenaga buruh hendaklah meningkat tanpa perbelanjaan yang samabanyak pada guna tenaga pekerja.

iii. Jumlah keluaran setiap pekerja hendaklah meningkat.iv. Kos pengeluaran seunit barangan yang dikeluarkan hendaklah terus menurun dan pe-

njimatan itu hendaklah dikongsi bersama pengguna melalui harga yang lebih rendah.v. Pasaran hendaklah meluas yang boleh menghasilkan jualan yang lebih besar.vi. Kos pengeluaran seunit dan bertambahnya hasil dari jualan hendaklah menghasilkan

keuntungan yang lebih banyak.vii. Keuntungan yang lebih banyak kemudiannya digunakan untuk menaikkan gaji

pekerja yang boleh menaikkan taraf hidup mereka. Dan sebahagian dari keun-tungan itu juga hendaklah dikekalkan di dalam perniagaan untuk memperbaikiteknologi pengeluaran dan proses pengurusan.

44 Pada asasnya falsafah kuasa beli ini berdasarkan kepada andaian berikut:i. Syarikat hendaklah membayar gaji yang tinggi kepada kakitangan kerana mereka

merupakan sebahagian daripada tenaga kerja yang mempunyai keupayaan ber-belanja.

62

Walaupun produktiviti itu member! pengertian kepada penggunaan tenagamanusia secara optima, namun ianya bukan bererti bahawa 'full utilization' itu-lah produktiviti. Misalnya penggunaan harta dengan sebaik-baiknya adalah men-jadi ukuran kepada penghasilan mutu keija di dalam sektor industri, tetapi peng-gunaan tenaga manusia secara optima tidak pula menjadi ukuran mutu dan pro-duktiviti di dalam sektor pertanian secara tradisi.

Pada dasarnya penggunaan tenaga manusia secara optima merupakan pem-binaan harta dan menjadi harapan terhadap wujudnya mutu barangan yang baikdan secara tidak langsung meraih kesediaan tenaga kerja di masa depan. Ada tigaciri yang mesti berjalan setari di dalam mengukur tenaga manusia iaitu, peng-gunaannya secara optima, 'productiveness' dan produktiviti. Bagaimanapun didalam membicarakan hal-hal yang mengenai konsep dan polisi atau strategi per-usahaan, penggunaan tenaga manusia secara optima adalah aspek yang atnat di-titikberatkan.45

Di dalam sektor perkilangan dan pembuatan penentuan produktiviti mudahdiukur melalui jumlah unit keluaran dan mutu pengeluaran di samping perkiraanasas seperti jumlah kos dan penggunaan sumber lain tanpa membazir. Tetapi didalam sektor perkhidmatan terutama yang dilakukan oleh orang-orang yang tidakmahir agak sukar untuk menilai prestasi dan produktiviti mereka. J.S. Kirn danW.C. Hammer di dalam rencananya "Effect of Performance Feedback and Goal-setting on Productivity and Satisfaction in an Organization Setting" yang telahdisiarkan di dalam Journal of Applied Psychology, 61 (1976) telah membuatkajian ke atas beberapa kumpulan pekerja tidak mahir yang menjalankan per-niagaan mencuci bangunan. Menurut mereka, empat perkara harus diambil beratdi dalam menilai prestasi pekerja-pekerja tidak mahir ini iaitu (1) kos, (2) kehadiranpekerja, (3) keselamatan dan (4) kualiti kerja. Inilah bahagian yang kritikal didalam kajian ini kerana ianya merupakan asas bagi mencapai matlamat teknikterutama bagi mendapat maklumbalas mengenai pencapaian kerja mereka.46

Menurut J.S. Kirn dan W.C. Hammer, ukuran yang digunakan bagi meng-ukur kos ialah nisbah yang standard dengan kos yang sebenarnya. Dan denganberpandukan data-data yang telah lalu syarikat itu telah menetapkan satu ukurankos yang standard untuk setiap perkhidmatan mencuci bangunan ini bagi setiapseorang pekerja. Dan untuk mengira kos perkhidmatan yang dilakukan itu kitahanya membandingkan kos sebenar dengan kos standard.

Ketidak hadiran masih senang diukur melalui peratus syif seseorang pe-

ii. Bekalan kuasa beli negara hendaklah bertambah.iii. Permintaan berkesan bagi barang-barang dan perkhidmatan hendaklah meningkat

dan jualan syarikat hendaklah turut meningkat.iv. Seluruh pengeluaran di setiap kilang hendaklah bertambah.v. ProduKtiviti setiap pekerja hendaklah lebih besar dan kos pengeluaran seuntt hen-

daklah semakin kurang supaya membolehkan keuntungan.vi. Dari perolehan yang bertambah ini, lebih banyak gaji dapat dibayar dan edaran

dapat diperbaharui.45 Robert E. Sibson, Increasing Employee Productivity, AM ACOM, A division of American

Management Associations, New York, 1 976, hal 2.Robert A. Ullrich dalam 'Motivation Methods That Work - How to Increase the Pro-ductivity of Every Employee, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, hal I 3 & 14.

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kerja yang tidak hadir yang bekerja pada satu masa tertentu. Sebagai contoh jikaseseorang pekerja itu tidak hadir 5 kali dalam satu masa yang mengandungi 100syif, bermakna peratus ketidakhadirannya ialah 5 peratus.

Rekod keselamatan seseorang pekerja pula dikira dengan menetapkan per-tambahan mata kepada kemalangan yang lebih serius. Sebagai contoh kemalanganseseorang pekerja yang menyebabkan kerugian masa diberi mata yang lebih tinggidaripada kecederaan ringan seorang pekerja. Markah penuh bagi rekod kesela-matan 100 mata dan mata bagi setiap kecederaan akan ditolak daripada pen-capaian pekerja-pekerja di dalam waktu itu.

Bagaimanapun yang lebih sukar ialah mengukur kualiti perkhidmatan.Walaupun begitu satu ukuran yang sesuai telah didapati. Bahagian yang berlainandi dalam pekerjaan seseorang diberikan mata yang berlainan. Sebagai misalan,kebersihan lantai diberi mata yang lebih tinggi daripada kebersihan dinding. Iniwajar kerana lantai adalah bahagian yang perlu dicuci lebih kerap berbandingdengan dinding. Penyelia-penyelia bangunan membahagikan setiap aspek dalampekerjaan seseorang berdasarkan sistem ini. Pencapaian yang cemerlang di dalamsetiap aspek tanpa sebarang cela dan cacat akan diberi markah 100 mata.

Bagaimanapun matlamat untuk mencapai keselamatan yang mutlak danmengelakkan ketidakhadiran bekerja akan membawa lebih banyak keburukandari kebaikan dalam tempoh jangka panjang. Pekerja-pekerja yang diamanahkanuntuk mencapai matlamat tersebut didapati telah menyembunyikan kemalangan-kemalangan yang terjadi ke atas mereka dan masih melaporkan diri untuk bekerjawalaupun kesihatan mereka terganggu. Dengan keadaan kesihatan terganggu pe-kerja tersebut tidak akan dapat menghasilkan perkhidmatan yang sepatutnya di-hasilkan sewaktu mereka di dalam keadaan sihat. Dedikasi seperti ini adalahsalah kerana pihak pekerja akan bekerja tanpa kerelaan hatinya.47

Sikap Pengurus

Salah satu daripada karektor pegawai eksekutif ialah sentiasa menjagadisiplin serta sentiasa bersikap tenang dan rasional di dalam sebarang keadaandan suasana. Sifat dan ciri-ciri ini penting kerana ianya merupakan imej danmaruah syarikat di mana seseorang eksekutif itu berkhidmat. Sementara di dalamdunia perniagaan antarabangsa pula mereka juga merupakan 'diplomat' yangmenjadi jambatan penghubung di dalam pengaliran wang dan pertukaran per-khidmatan. Untuk mendapatkan seorang eksekutif yang ideal bagi sesebuahsyarikat tidak hanya bergantung kepada program-program pembatigunan ekseku-tif, yang biasanya dibina melalui latihan-latihan, kursus-kursus baik di dalammahupun di luar negeri. Bagaimanapun yang lebih penting ialah kesediaan paraeksekutif itu sendiri untuk menjadikan tempat kerjanya bukan sekadar sebagaitempat untuk menyara hidupnya sekeluarga.

Di dalam etika kerja dan pengurusan kita sering ditanamkan semangat 'selfbelonging' atau rasa memiliki organisasi tersebut. Soalnya, berapa ramaikah para

47 Ibidhal 15.

64

eksekutif atau pengurus yang rela dan sanggup menolak tawaran gaji yang jauhlebih tinggi dari syarikat lain, semata-mata kerana ingin bangun semula bersama-sama syarikat yang dikendalikannya waktu itu?

Ramai eksekutif berpengalaman mengakui bahawa topik ini amat sukar un-tuk dibincangkan secara khusus. Lagipun pendirian seseorang eksekutif, samadauntuk mencurahkan bakatnya di dalam syarikat yang diwakilinya atau sebalik-nya, biasanya dibuat bukan berdasarkan rasionalnya sendiri; dan bukan juga ber-gantung kepada kepentingan survival semata-mata. Inilah penilaian secara kese-luruhan di dalam suasana tertentu di mana bakat dan kepakaran seseorang bolehdikembangkan di mana keperluan material dan keperluan psikologinya jugadapat dipenuhi.

Semakin lama seseorang pengurus itu berkhidmat di dalam sesebuah syari-kat, bertambah bersarlah kemungkinannya dia akan mempertahankan syarikatitu dengan mengambil perhatian yang lebih serius serta dapat bertindak denganlebih.berkesan terhadap sebarang kritik samada dari dalam mahupun dari luar.Tegasnya, lebih lama seseorang pengurus itu berkhidmat di dalam sesebuah syari-kat itu semakin kurang membuat kesilapan. Sikap 'taksub' terhadap syarikat iniada baiknya dan ada juga tidak baiknya. Bagaimanapun sikap ini tidak boleh di-katakan rasional. 48

Apa yang sering berlaku dari sikap 'taksub' ini ialah setengah dari pengurusitu merasa puashati dengan apa yang telah dicapai serta tidak bersedia mene-rima kenyataan dan tidak mahu menerima perubahan. Pada anggapan pengurus-pengurus jenis ini, pegawai-pegawai syarikat yang mengkritik syarikat dari dalamadalah terdiri dari mereka yang tidak berterima kasih. Apabila sikap ini berleluasadi kalangan pengurus syarikat, ianya akan membantutkan pertumbuhan bakat-bakat muda yang berpotensi di dalam syarikat berkenaan. Inilah sebabnya seringberlaku 'brain-drain' atau pengaliran keluar tenaga-tenaga muda yang penuh de-ngan idea dan semangat untuk membangun. Dan apabila penghijrahan ini ber-laku, maka berkatalah si pengurus yang 'bodoh sombong' itu: "Ah,kamimemangsudah jangka hal ini akan berlaku." Lalu mereka pun berkata kepada pegawai-pegawai dan para pekerja lain dengan menuduh: "Inilah contoh pegawai/pekerjayang tidak setia kepada syarikat!"

Namun demikian memang ada setengah-setengah syarikat yang sengaja me-wujudkan keadaan ini di mana terjadinya penghijrahan beramai-ramai para pe-kerja dan pegawainya termasuk mereka yang mempunyai kepakaran yang ber-taraf profesional. Syarikat ini tidak menyedari akan perebutan eksekutif ber-bakat yang sedang berlaku. Mereka terus bertindak seolah-olah para pekerja danpegawai-pegawai eksekutif itu sebagai 'tawanan industri* yang boleh didapatidengan menawarkan sedikit kelebihan gaji dan ditepuk-tepuk belakangnya.49

Di pihak pegawai-pegawai eksekutif pula mereka tidak nampak kegiatanini sebagai suatu 'trap' terhadap mereka. Sebaliknya mereka menganggap gajiyang diterimanya itu sebagai pengiktirafan syarikat berkenaan terhadap pen-

48 Terry Farusworth dalam Developing Executive Talent, McGraw-Hil! Book Company Ltd.New York, hal 36.

49 Ibid hal 37.

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capaian dan prestasinya dan dia sangat puashati dengan pujukan itu walaupundia sedar tenaganya sedang dieksploit.

Sesungguhnya memang benar bahawa perjalanan sesebuah syarikat itu di-gerakkan oleh pekerja-pekerja yang bekerja di dalamnya. Tegasnya, jika semuapekerja-pekerjanya rajin dan dedikasi, maka maju dan berkembanglah syarikatberkenaan. Lebih jauh dari itu jika sesebuah syarikat itu dapat mengekalkan ke-bajikan mereka, gaji yang setimpal serta ganjaran-ganjaran tertentu, syarikat ter-sebut akan dapat mengekalkan sejumlah besar pekerja yang berpotensi dan dedi-kasi . Tetapi berlainan pula dengan pasaran para eksekutif, di mana di suatu ketikayang sama, iaitu di waktu syarikat sedang berusana mengekalkan prestasi parapekerja, para eksekutifnya ditawarkan berbagai-bagai keistimewaan di pasaranperkhidmatan yang terbuka. Oleh itu pengurus-pengurus haruslah mengurangkanmasa untuk mencanangkan sikap jujur dan setia kepada syarikat, sebaliknyagunakanlah masa yang ada itu untuk menyemak serta memperbaiki tanggagajipekerja-pekerja.

Salah satu daripada kemajuan yang amat menggalakkan di dalam perusaha-an British di dalam beberapa tahun yang lalu ialah bertambahnya dari masa kesemasa syarikat-syarikat besar yang mengamalkan sikap 'businesslike' daripadamementingkan kejujuran semata-mata. Ini berdasarkan kepada kesedaran bahawabetapa perlunya pertukaran 'asset' di antara pekerja dan syarikat. Syarikat-syarikatberkenaan telah menawarkan kerja-kerja yang dikehendaki oleh orangramai,serta dengan suasana tempat kerja yang mesra, selesa dan tidak terlalu fonnal. Disamping itu para pekerja juga telah diberi ganjaran-ganjaran serta lain-lain kemu-dahan mengikut pertimbangan syarikat. Dan sebagai balasannya mereka telahmengharapkan para pekerja juga melibatkan dirinya secara bersungguh-sungguhdi dalam kerja masing-masing dengan semangat dan dedikasi yang tinggi. Padareahtinya pihak syarikat telah menerima pulangan yang diharap-harapkan dimana para pekerja telah menggunakan segenap pengetahuan dan kemahiranmereka ke peringkat yang maksima. Inilah pendekatan yang lebih rasional dari-pada menitikberatkan slogan-slogan kejujuran.50

Menggunakan Kesempatan

Tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa mereka yang terpUih sebagai eksekutif di-pilih dari mereka yang mempunyai daya fikir dan kecerdasan yang tinggi. Merekajuga biasanya mempunyai latarbelakang ihnu pengetahuan dan daya imaginasiyang lebih tinggi daripada pegawai-pegawai biasa. Tetapi di dalam banyak hal, ter-nyata bahawa keberkesanan bekerja kurang mempunyai pertaliannya dengansifat-sifat yang dimilikinya. Sering juga didapati orang yang pintar dan cerdasfikirannya tetapi tugasnya tidak berkesan. Mereka tidak menyedari bahawa ke-pintaran bukanlah suatu pencapaian. Mereka tidak sedar bahawa kepintaranhanya akan berkesan jika disertai dengan kerja keras yang sistematik. Sebaliknyapula terdapat di dalam sesebuah organisasi itu beberapa orang yang kelihatan'lembab' tetapi berkesan di dalam tugasnya.51

30 Ibid hal 38.51 Peter Drucker dalam Eksekutif Yang Berkesan, Dewan Bahasa Dan Pustaka (terjemahan),

1984, hal 1

66

Orang yang komited dengan profesionnya sentiasa mengkaji dan men-dalami bidang tugasnya dari masa ke semasa. Begitu juga halnya dengan pro-fesion pengurusan. Untuk membina sahsiah pengurus yang berkesan bukan se-kadar mengumpulkan teori dan method yang dipelajari dari kaedah-kaedahpengurusan yang popular saja; malah yang lebih pentlng ialah menjiwai parapegawai dan pekerja-pekerjanya supaya segala ilmu dan kaedah pengurusan yangdipelajari itu dapat meraih kerjasama pekerja'di peringkat perlaksanaannya.

Hams juga disedari bahawa pengurus tidak mengeluarkan barangan. Se-baliknya mereka mengeluarkan idea, maklumat dan konsep.52 Maka melaluikombinasi idea, maklumat dan konsep itulah teknik-teknik pengeluaran yangbaru, mudah dan jimat dapat dicipta. Tegasnya, "profesionalisma hanya merupa-kan cebisan dari seluruh operasi pengeluaran dan cebisan itu tidak berguna. Out-putnya perlu disatukan dengan output orang lain sebelum sesuatu bidang ke-pakaran itu dapat diambil manafaatnya."53

Eksekutif yang berkesan ialah mereka yang menaikkan pangkat pekerjanyaberdasarkan prestasi dan kebolehan seseorang pekerja itu. Apabila dia membuatkeputusan yang mengenai tenaga manusia, bukanlah bermaksud untuk mengu-rangkan kelemahan tetapi ialah untuk menggunakan tenaga manusia dengan se-penuhnya.54

Mereka yang cuba melantik seseorang di dalam organisasinya dengan tenagamanusia dengan tujuan untuk mengelakkan kelemahan akhirnya akan mendapatihasil yang sederhana. Pendapat yang mempercayai adanya orang-orang yangsempurna dan serba boleh adalah suatu pendapat yang menggalakkan keseder-hanaan dan mungkin boleh mengakibatkan ketidakcekapan. Sesungguhnya orangyang kuat sentiasa mempunyai kelemahan yang kuat juga. Tidak ada manusiayang mempunyai kekuatan di dalam banyak segi. Dan kalau dinilai secara univer-sal pun menunjukkan bahawa orang yang paling cerdikpun terpaksa dianggap se-bagai manusia yang lemah dan yang gagal sama sekali. Orang yang serba bolehtidak mungkin ada di dunia ini.55

Eksekutif yang sering mempersoalkan apakah yang tidak dapat dilakukanoleh seseorang, tanpa mempersoalkan apakah yang dapat dilakukan oleh orangitu, semata-mata hanya mengelakkan kelemahan, dan tidak cuba untuk member -kesankan kekuatan adalah eksekutif yang lemah. Dan kemungkinannya dia me-lihat kekuatan yang ada pada orang lain sebagai ancaman terhadap dirinya.56

Pengurus yang praktikal ialah mereka yang dapat mengambil keputusandengan berkesan melalui teori dan falsafah yang dapat dijadikan panduan bagimereka. Ada orang yang membuat kerja melalui pengawasan, paksaan hattaancaman, baru mereka membuat kerja, walhal kerja-kerja itu merupakan tang-gungjawab yang telah dipersetujui ketika mereka mula melamar kerja. Semenfara52

Ibid hal 79.Ibid hal 78.

53


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segolongan pekerja yang lain pula bekerja dengan bersungguh-sungguh, bersema-ngat dan penuh minat serta memperoleh kepuasan dari kerja-kerja yang dilaku-kan. Rahsia di antara kedua-dua golongan pekerja itu dapat diungkapkan sebagai'treat them rough and tell them nothing' dan 'always treat them well and keepthem in the picture'.57

Adalah silap memisahkan teori dan praktik di dalam operasi pengurusan,terutama di dalam usaha-usaha menyatukan tenaga manusia supaya mereka dapatmenghasilkan produktiviti yang tinggi. Ini benar kerana keduanya berkait rapatantara satu sama lain. Seorang yang praktikal menganggap tidak ada sesuatuyang tidak boleh dilaksanakan, dan teori pula berperanan sebagai pembantuke arah perlaksanaannya samada ianya boleh diterima atau tidak. Bagi para ahlisains sosial pula melihat hal ini sebagai suatu hal yang boleh diperbinCangkan.Dan jika munasabah ianya boleh diujl dengan cara yang sistematik dengan me-lihat tabiat dan kelakuan manusia dan pekerja khususnya.58

Sesungguhnya sebarang rumusan mengenai tabiat dan tingkahlaku manusiaterutamanya untuk dimanafaatkan sebagai sumber tenaga memerlukanpengamat-an dan masa yang panjang. Sebarang teori atau formula atau apa jua catitanmengenai potensi dan prestasi manusia di masa-masa yang lalu amat bergunauntuk tujuan pengkajian dan penyelidikan bagi organisasi-organisasi mutaakhir.Oleh itu, selagi manusia terus berorganisasi, selama itulah tenaga manusia terusdigunakan dan selama itu jugalah sikap, tabiat dan kecenderungan manusia terusdikaji bagi diterapkan ke dalam sistem pengurusan moden dan mutaakhir. Untuktujuan itu, semua aktiviti dan tugas manusia sebagai sumber tenaga haruslah di-senaraikan dan direkodkan bagi dijadikan bahan rujukan kepada para pengkaji dimasa-masa yang akan da tang. Dan di dalam menyenaraikan tugas ini dua aspek pen-ting haruslah dititikberatkan, iaitu aspek perancangan dan aspek perlaksanaan.59

Reran cangan

* Penyenggaraan sistem rekod pekerja dan keperluan mereka. Ini bererti me-majukan sesuatu sistem maklumat termasuk semua kategori manusia bagitujuan perancangan. la mestilah termasuk cara-cara mengenali orang yangmempunyai tugas khusus (iaitu tukang kayu untuk pembinaan, guru yangberpendidikan) dan kumpulan pekerja am seperti setiausaha, pembuatmodel, jurujual, dan profesional kejuruteraan. la mestilah mengandungidata mengenai manusia hari ini dan di masa depan.

* Gambaran mengenai keperluan kakitangan masa depan mengikut kuantiti,jenis dan tahap kemahiran yang diperlukan untuk sebarang perubahanpada ciri, saiz atau teknologi pengeluaran.

* Rancangan mewujudkan kerjaya dan kemajuan perseorangan bagi semuakakitangan termasuk golongan profesional, pentadbiran dan kakitanganpengurusan.

57 Willsmore A.W., Managing Modern Man, Pitman Paperbacks, London, 1973, hat 56.58 Ibid hal 57.59 Donald B. Miller, Working With People, Human Resources Management in Action, CIB

Publishing Company Inc, Boston Massachusetts, ha! 10.

68

* Gambaran mengenai tujuan segala jenis program latihan dan pendidikan yangperlu bagi kemajuan perseorangan, teknikal, profesional dan pengurusan.

* Petancangan bagi perubahan organisasi (seperti wujudnya bahagian-bahagianbaru, jenis-jenis keluaran baru) dan menyediakan perubahan pengurusan,tindakan dan strategi latihan yang perlu.

* Mengendali dan menganalisa kajian pendapat (sikap dan moral) dan langkah-langkah perlaksanaan bagi mendapatkan bukti yang mungkin menunjukkanperlunya latihan baru dan perubahan amalan pengurusan.

* Mewujudkan dasar-dasar, strategi, matlamat serta tujuan bagi sumber tenagamanusia dan mengesyorkan program-program baru di mana perlu. Contoh-contoh termasuklah matlamat pengambilan pekerja baru dan perolehan-nya, kenaikan pangkat dan matlamat gaji, serta perubahan pada dasar-dasarfaedah.

* Menggabungkan strategi dan rancangan sumber tenaga manusia dengansemua program dan kegiatan lainnya, termasuk perancangan kewangan danbelanjawan.60

Pelaksanaan

* Membentuk sebuah lembaga pengambilan pekerja, memilih dan mengupahbilangan yang perlu dengan kelayakan yang betul dari sumber-sumber tem-patan seperti tenaga mahir dan yang berijazah.

* Memadankan kakitangan yang baru diambil berdasarkan kekosongan jawat-an yang sewajarnya dengan penggunaan tenaga mahir yang ada bagi men-capai matlamat organisasi yang produktif.

* Memberikan indoktrinasi dan pendidikan awal yang perlu sebelum mem-beri latihan dan kursus bagi semua kakitangan.

* Penilaian ke atas prestasi pekerja hams dilakukan dengan rundingcara se-wajarnya untuk tujuan pembesaran dan kemajuan atau mengelakkan pem-baziran kos serta mengesan para pekerja yang gagal menjalankan tugas didalam organisasi.

* Rundingcara kerjaya bagi kemajuan keupayaan perseorangan dalam jangka-panjang mempunyai potensi maju ke tahap yang lebih tinggi atau diberitugas pengkhususan lain sebagai memenuhi keperluan organisasi.

* Menaikkan pangkat untuk mengisi kekosongan jawatan dan menyediakankemajuan bagi mereka yang mempunyai potensi luar biasa. Di dalam sese-buah organisasi teknikal-profesional, kenaikan pangkat juga berlaku se-bagai sambutan kepada bertambahnya kecekapan profesional bukan se-kadar memenuhi kekosongan jawatan di peringkat yang lebih tinggi.

* Mengelakkan pergeseran yang bersifat dalaman dan luaran, bagi meng-hadapi cabaran yang mendatang, di samping mengekalkan mereka yangmempunyai potensi luar biasa untuk diberikan kedudukan yang sepatut-nya bagi menjamin ketahanan dan keutuhan organisasi.

60 Ibid hal 11.

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Menguruskan program gaji dengan member! saguhati kepada pekeija ataumember! gaji lebih baik daripada yang diberi oleh organisasi lain demi un-tuk mengekalkan kakitangan bermutu.

Merangka dasar-dasar dan program-program yang perlu untuk membantudan mendorong para pengurus dan pekerja-pekerja profesional supayamereka tidak merasa bosan dengan tugasnya serta meningkatkan daya ke-tahanan dan kekesanannya di dalam organisasi.Mengendalikan pembangunan organisasi dengan mengatur sistem kerjayang dapat mempastikan kemajuan perseorangan itu dirangsang dan di-tingkatkan oleh tugas-tugas yang mencabar serta bermakna. Ini mungkinmelibatkan penghapusan kerja-kerja mutu rendah, pengwujudan pasukanpetugas sementara, dan jenis-jenis tugas baru selain daripada tugas yangasasi. Ini menghendaki daya cipta yang tinggi dalam rekabentuk organisasikerja.Merangka dan mengemukakan kepada pihak pengurusan hasil-hasil kajianmengenai sumber tenaga manusia yang baru bagi mengekalkan pimpinandan kesejahteraan organisasi.Berunding dan membentuk hubungan seberapa positif dan terbuka dengankesatuan sekerja di mana ianya wujud.61

Kesimpulan

Di dalam merencanakan penggunaan tenaga manusia di masa depan, dimana kaum pekerja sering terdedah dengan himpitan ekonomi dan eksploitasipolitik yang boleh mempengaruhi tindakbalas mereka, para pengurus haruslahmempunyai pemikiran yang strategik di samping memahami budaya niaga yangwujud pada waktu itu. Pemikiran strategik bererti seseorang itu mestilah dapatmerancang kemungkinan yang terjadi dan berlaku di waktu-waktu tertentu, dandia bukan saja sudah bersedia bagi mengatasi masalah itu, malah sudah menye-diakan alternatifnya sebagai jalan keluar dari ancaman masalah tersebut.

Dan di dalam usaha-usaha membudayakan segala aspek yang boleh diper-niagakan pula, aspek-aspek sosio-budaya juga hams dipertimbangkan supayakelak tidak menimbulkan krisis budaya yang meruncing. Di sinilah pentingnyapenyatuan pemikiran yang strategik dan kefahaman terhadap budaya niaga yangdengannya dapat membina pemimpin yang bukan saja mempunyai pandanganluas, tetapi berupaya menguasai kemahiran untuk melaksanakan pandangan-pandangannya. "Pemimpin yang sedemikian akan melihat setiap krisis bukan-nya sebagai ancaman, malahan ia melihatnya sebagai suatu peluang yang bolehmembentuk tindakbalas yang sekata di antara pihak bawahan dan juga pihak -pihak yang terlibat di dalam organisasi."62

Pandangan sepintas lalu mengenai pengurusan tenaga manusia sebenarnya

61 Ibidhal 12.Hickman Craig R. & Silve Michael A., Creating Excellence, Managing Corporate CultureStrategy and Change in the New Age, George Alien & Unwin, Great Britain, 1985 ha! 25.

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merupakan suatu pengalaman yang paling mencabar, yang penuh dengan pela-jaran, pembelajaran, pembetulan dan koreksi diri. Setengahnya gagal di dalammenjalankan tugasnya, tetapi para pengurus yang mempunyai pemikiran yangstrategik sentiasa mempunyai alternatif lain sekiranya menghadapi kegagalandan kebuntuan. Sesungguhnya, kepuasan seorang pengurus ialah apabila diadapat menolong orang lain mencapai tahap kejayaan dan kepuasan yang lebihtinggi. Sesungguhnya juga, amat menyeronokkan mempunyai suatu perananyang memerlukan tindakbalas dan komunikasi dengan orang-orang yang seringberubah-ubah serta mempunyai berbagai sifat dan ragam — seperti pasif, statis,jumud; agresif, aktif, kreatif, progresif dan produktif!

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

ON

MANAGEMENT*

Compiled by:

Annie Thomas,Librarian,National Productivity Centre,Petaling Jaya.

BIODATA1974 memperoleh ijazah B.A. (hons) dari Universiti

Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang.1975 menjawat Pegawai Tadbir (perpustakaan) di

Universiti Pertanian, Serdang,1977 cuti belajar selama setahun di R.M.I.T., Mel-

bourne, Australia.1978 kembali bertugas sebagai Pegawai Tadbir (per-

pustakaan) di UPM cawangan Sarawak.1985 memasuki Pusat Daya Pengeluaran Negara se-

bagai pustakawan.Minat khasnya di dalam pengkatalogan.

1. Budgeting Pi 03 7Walker, Michael C.The continuing increase in the use of sophisticated capital budgetingtechniques/Michael C. Walker, Thomas P. Klammer, California manage-ment review XVIII (I), Fall 1984: 137-148.

This article reports on several surveys which examine the changes inindustry capital budgeting techniques which have occurred between1960 and 1980. It reveals that the increased use of sophisticatedcapital budgeting techniques has been accompanied by a substantialincrease in respondent satisfaction with their capital budgeting pro-cedures.

2. Conglomerate Corporations P i 050

Blake, Robert R.How to achieve integration on the human side of the merger/Robert R.Blake, Jone Srygley Mouton, Organizational dynamics 13 (3) Winter 1985:41-56.

The model discussed here is designed to maximize success in mergingtwo independent organizations. Taking into account each company's

•Articles available in NPC Library

72

motivation, it uses open communication, participative problem-solving, and collaborative reorganization.

3. Corporations P1035Mintzberg, Henry.Who should control the corporation. California management review XVII(1), Fall 1984: 90-115.

Who should control the large widely held corporation? How? Andfor the pursuit of what goals? This article seeks to bring some clarityto what has been a century of confusing debate. Eight major posi-tions have been examined, from government rationalization at oneextreme to attempts to restore direct shareholder control at theother. Each position is analyzed from an organizational rather than apolitical or ideological perspective. Together, these positions repre-sent a portfolio from which society can draw to reconcile social andcorporate needs and objectives.

4. Entrepreneurs P1054Scherschel, Patricia M.The comeback of risk takers. Economic impact (50) 1985/2: 27-32.

Pointing out that a record 600,000 new firms were launched byentrepreneurs in 1983, the author examines a number of the reasonswhy Americans increasingly are opting to go into business for them-selves, importantly including a societal and educational environmentthat serves as an incubator for entrepreneurial ventures.

5. Job production P 1053Gilder,George.Creating jobs: the entrepreneur's role — the real economy. Economic im-pact (50) 1985/2: 18-26.

In recent years, millions of new jobs have been created in the UnitedStates by small businesses and start-up firms, many of them foundedby entrepreneurs — people with vision and a willingness to workhard and risk failure and backed by small amounts of savings or ven-ture capital. The author argues against what he describes as a mis-taken view that the U.S. economy is dominated by giant bureau-cratized corporations. He contends that in recent years, the U.S. hasevolved into a country of small firms and new inventions and womenwho are leading the world economy into a new age of growth andprosperity.

6. Labour P1040Anon.Women in the labour force. Supervision XLVII (3), March 1985: 5-6.

Non-traditional jobs have become a way of life for some femaleemployees — a life with which they are comfortable.

73

7. Leadership P1049Bass, Bernard M.Leadership: good, better, best. Organizational dynamics 13 (3) Winter1985:26^0.

The transformational leader uses charisma, individualized considera-tion, and intellectual stimulation to inspire employees to make extra-ordinary efforts,

8. Management P1036Gimpl, Martin L.Management and magic/Martin L. Gimpl, Stephen R. Dakin. Californiamanagement review XVIII (I), Fall 1984: 125-136.

Modern managers still believe in magic. Some of the superstitionsthey practice include forecasting, budgeting, and long-range strategicplanning. Under conditions of uncertainty, there is little evidencethat use of these techniques makes for more effective decisionmaking. However, like all superstitions, they do relieve anxiety andpermit us to cope with ambiguous situations. The danger is that theymay build biases into our decisions, and that these biases may be lessefficient than simple random behaviour. Better decision makingunder uncertainty requires a greater tolerance for ambiquity.

9. Shapiro, Irving S. P1039Managerial communication: the view from inside. California managementreviewXVIII (1), Fall 1984: 157-172.

In this excerpt from his recent book, America's Third Revolution,former chief executive at Du Pont, Irving Shapiro insists that themain task of the CEO is communication. Too often managers relystrictly on systems and techniques at the sacrifice of personal con-tact with employees. If management does not communicate itsvalues and concern for employees, it loses the cooperation neces-sary to sum an effective organization. The author cites examplesfrom successful American companies (including Du Pont) to demon-strate how the internal climate of the corporation can benefit froma more open relationship between managers and employees.

10. Weiss,W.H. P1041Does your company have an abilities and skills record system? SupervisionXLVII (3), March 1985: 7-8.

The author stresses the need for companies to know who among theiremployees qualify and have the pertinent skills for job positionswhich must be filled.

1 1 . Management, Japanese P 1038Logan, George M.Loyalty and a sense of purpose. California management review XVIII (1),

74

Fall 1984: 149-156.

Many reasons have been offered to explain why leading Japanesecompanies have been so successful, but the single most importantreason is the loyalty and sense of purpose which is so deeply em-bedded in successful Japanese organizations. This is not a culturalor inherited trait. It is a result of a practical commitment on the partof Japanese Managers. They have demonstrated that business goals,sales quotas, profit objectives and any other measurable criteria havelittle meaning, if they must stand by themselves. To realise the enor-mous creative potential and productive strength of an organizationrequires that managers practice and demonstrate loyalty and a senseof purpose, which can inspire and motivate employees to dedicatethemselves to the long-range success of their company.

12. Management Consultants P 1052Nees, Danielle'B.Seeing behind the look-alike management consultants/Danielle B. Nees,Larry E. Greiner. Organizational dynamics 13 (3)'Winter 1985: 68-79.

Competition in the consulting market place has dramatically in-creased in the 1980's, and firms have responded with sophisticatedmarketing efforts. Claiming that the alike facades produced by suchefforts do not really reflect differences in the array of services, theauthors offer a guide to the management consulting industry. Theyset up fine categories of management consultants and discuss theirviews on the advantages and disadvantages of each.

13. Management Planning P 1048Kanter, Rosabeth Moss.Reorganizing part of Honey well: from strategy to structure/RosabethMoss Kanter, John D. Buck. Organizational dynamics 13 (3) Winter 1985:4-25.

The authors report on a study that used tactical response planningand participatory decision-making to reorganize a large humanresources department during a time of change.

14. Participatory Management P 1051Hinckley, Stonley R.A closer look at participation. Organizational dynamics 13 (3) Winter1985:57-67.

The author delineates the key principles for effective participation.He then combines them with his model for kinds of participationin a set of guidelines that organizations can use to reach optimumlevels of participation which will result in improved productivity,quality and employee morale.

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15. Productivity P1047Anon.Team involvement increases employee satisfaction and productivity.Supervision XLVII (3) March 1985: 23.

16. Arora,B.K. P1067Productivity in rice milling industry. Productivity, XXV (4), 1985:441-446.

The rice milling industry in India has a long history of development.It should not be looked upon only as an industry but also as a socio-economic module with which several social and cultural sentimentsare associated. Although the economic value of the activity cannotbe completely over-looked, any productivity improvement measureshave to necessarily take into account all the aspects of the problemsrather than a phase in isolation.

17. Burggraf, Shirley P. P 1059

Demographic shifts and productivity. Economic impact (50) 1985/2:74-78.

19. Giriappa.S. P1064Tractorization and productivity. Productivity, XXV (4) 1985: 423-426.

Increases in output in the agricultural sector in India depend pri-marily on enhancing the productivity of labour and land. However,the levels of labour and land productivity, which in turn influencethe rates of growth, vary substantially from region to region andeven in the same region at different periods. Therefore, the study ofextent and factors of regional variations in agricultural productivityneeds no emphasis.

In a novel analysis of recent productivity trends, the author suggeststhat the massive influx of new workers — particularly women, youth,and minorities — into the U.S. economy in recent years has createda need for a new concept of measuring productivity that deemphasizeslinking wages to labour input and takes more into consideration thevalue of non-market workers who form a "support network" forhigher-level jobholders.

18. Dadibhavi, R.V. P 1060Variations in agricultural productivity. Productivity, XXV (4), 1985:397_403.

The objective of the paper is to evaluate the performance of tractorfarms compared to bullock farms for paddy and commercial crops.Bullock farms seem to perform slightly better in paddy and sugar-cane but other commercial crops show, a higher productivity levelunder mechanization. Where capital is available (e.g. larger holdings)tractors perform better.

76

20. Maurya,N.L. P1066Field efficiency of power-operated farm machinery/N.L. Maurya, D.S.K.Devadattam. Productivity, XXV (4), 1985: 433-440.

Different parameters affecting field efficiency were analysed andfield tested. The results revealed that the field efficiency increaseswith increase in the length-width ratio and size of plots for differenttillage operations. The rate of increase in the efficiency was higher inthe beginning and reduced considerably beyond the length-widthratio of 3:1. It was also observed that method of operation affectsthe field efficiency. For general ploughing operation land methodwith varying idle run and for other tillage operations land methodwith constant idle run were found to be most efficient. The pre-dicted field efficiency with the help of theoretical equations deve-loped were found to be in good agreement with the observed fieldefficiency.

21. Miller, David M. PI 029Profitability = Productivity + Price Recovery. The Harvest 9 (2), Nov./Dec.1984: 1-8.

22. PatU,A.S. P1062Farm mechanization and productivity. Productivity, XXV (4), 1985:411-417.

Segregation of impact of tractorization from other inputs on cropproductivity is important in the present context of controversy overthe role of mechanization in increasing productivity of land. Anattempt has been made to separate out the effect of tractorization,manures, fertilizers, other capital inputs and human labour use onyields of major crops with the help of decomposition analysis.

23. Raman, M.V.V. P 1069Quality - productivity interface. Productivity, XXV (4), 1985: 475-479.

In this article the author discusses with various examples the rela-tionship between quality and productivity. Productivity and qualityhave a major role to play in the economic development of the coun-try. It is necessary, he says, for every nation to evolve its own qua-lity strategy appropriate to its local conditions.

24. Rigop.Jim. P I 033Progress through productivity. The Harvest 9 (2) Nov./Dec. 1984: 5—6.

25. Roe, Bill. P I 034

Productivity: a human equation. The Harvest 9 (2) Nov./Dec. 1984: 7.

77

26. Sager,R.L. P i 063Factors influencing agricultural productivity/R.L. Sager, G.L. Ray. Pro-ductivity, XXV (4), 1985: 419-421.

Agricultural productivity of an area or a region may be referred to asthe outcome of soil productivity, climatic conditions, level of tech-nology, etc. However, other factors like farm size, tenancy, inputavailability, price of inputs and produce, etc. also greatly influenceproductivity.

27. Sharma.K.D. P i 065Technology for rice farming. Productivity XXV (4), 1985: 427-432.

Improved rice farming technology has been worked out by differenthill states, with their local practices and situations. Because of thesocio-economic constraints of the hill farmers, greater emphasis needsto be kid on the low input or zero input technology. This paper dis-cusses the availability and transfer of technology for increasing pro-duction and productivity of rice in the hilly regions of India.

28. Sharma, L.R. P1061Effective use of resources in farming/L.R. Sharma, S.C. Tewari. Producti-vity, XXV (4), 1985: 405-409.

In this study an attempt has been made to evaluate the economicrationale of resource use on different categories of farms and tosuggest ways and means for their efficient utilization. The economicefficiency of fertilizers and manures is more than unity and signifi-cant in both big and small farms. This indicates that the use of ferti-lizer and manure on the mid-hill farms has been below the optimumlevel. Hence the productivity of agriculture could be substantially in-creased by using more manure and fertilizer.

29. Tripathi, V.P. P 1068Rural co-operative financing agencies/V.P, Tripathi, Madhu Mathur. Pro-ductivity, XXV (4), 1985: 461-466.

A cooperative society is not merely to supply finance, but also togive confidence, courage, spirit of thrift and feeling of self-help toenfeebled peasantry. The cooperative sector has been greatly criti-cised but not sufficiently analysed. This paper attempts to givesuggestions as to how to improve the functioning of rural cooperativefinancing agencies.

30. Weidenbaum, Murray L. P 1057Revival of the "Rust Belf'/Murray L. Weidenbaum and Michael J. Athey.Economic impact (50), 1985/2: 59-67.

In the authors' view, much of the recent decline in heavy manufac-turing industries in the U.S. represented a short-term cyclical con-

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traction, not a permanent one. They explain how a vast amount ofproductivity — enhancing new technology is now being employed bytraditional industries to help make them more competitive.

31. QCC P1070Murthy, P. Radha Krishna.A select bibliography: quality circles. Productivity, XXL (4), 1985:483-492.

32. Supervisors P1044Lippert, Fred G.Responsibilities of a supervisor. Supervision XLVII (3) March 1985:16-17.

33. Ussy, William E. P1045Labor law for supervisors.Supervision; XLVII (3) March 1985: 18-19,22.

34. Mintcknid, Buckley. P 1046Treasure chest: Money-saving ideas for the profit-minded supervisor.Supervision XLVII (3) March 1985: 20-22.

35. Polczynski, James J. P 1043Concern for status symbols: luxury or necessity at the front line. Super-vision XLVII (3) March 1985: 14-15.

One hears a lot concerning company cars as a fringe benefit to topexecutives, but little attention is directed at supervisors need forstatus symbols. The author lists hints on how to acquire appropriatestatus symbols and how to use them.

36. Supervision PI 042Farrant, Allan.Proper handling of subordinate problems. Supervision XLVII (3) March1985:9-10,26.

The writer suggests catching on-the-job problems promptly beforethe whole department is upset. They will not solve themselves.

37. Unemployment P1058Bluestone, Barry.Is deindustrialization a myth? Economic impact (50) 1985/2: 68-73.

While aggregate manufacturing employment in the U.S. has remainedconstant over the past decade, permanent job losses have occurredin certain industries and regions, according to the author. He arguesthat these employment losses pose serious problems because somedisplaced workers are unable to find jobs with comparable pay andconditions in the areas where they have traditionally lived.

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38. Tannenwald, Robert. P 1055Why the jobless rate has fallen. Economic impact (50) 1985/2: 38-41.

One of the pleasant surprises of the current economic recovery inthe U.S., says the author, is the dramatic reduction in the unem-ployment rate. He ascribes this to an unusually robust rate of newjob creation, coupled with a slowing in the growth of the total labourforce.

39. Women in business P1056Chansky, Dorothy.The rise of women entrepreneurs. Economic impact (50) 1985/2: 42-45.

As women have moved more deeply into all areas of the U.S. workforce, they have also begun forming their own businesses at an in-creasingly rapid rate. These businesses are not only in the "tradi-tional" female occupations of fashion, cosmetics, and home services,but include high technology and other challenging areas of economiclife as well.

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