Stoichiometric Calculations: Mole to Mole Calculations  When we balance an equation it is important to think if it in terms of atoms of each element. For example, in a simple reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to make water, the equation we get is                           2 H2   +   O2   ------->  2 H2Owhich can mean

           2 molecules of H2   +  1 molecules of O2   -------->  2 molecules of H2O  However, when we use a balanced equaiton to plan how much of each reactant to use in an actual experiment, we have to shift our thinking to huge collections of molecules - to moles. The shift from molecules to moles is done by taking advantage of a simple rule from mathematics. Multiplying a set of numbers, such as the coefficients, by any constant number does not alter the ratios among the members of the set.  If we select Avogadro's number as the multiplier then we get lab-sized units of each chemical.  2  X (6.02 X 1023 molecules) of  H2  +   1 X (6.02 X 1023 molecules) of O2   -------->                                               2 X (6.02 X 1023 molecules) of H2OThe essential 2:1:2 ratio has not been changed by this multiplication. But the scale of the reaction has shifted to the mole level.

               2 moles of H2   + 1 moles of O2   --------> 2 moles of H2OThe ratio of moles of molecules is identical to the ratio of molecules - it has to be, since equal numbers of moles have equal numbers of molecules.The ratio of the coefficients for any given chemical reaction is set by nature. You cannot change this ratio.  It is set when you write the formulae correctly and then balance the equation properly.  Once this is done the coefficient numbers can be used as the basis for chemical calculations.  The decision that is left for us is the scale of the reaction - how much do we want to use or make?  The number of options is infinite.  We could have         0.02 moles of H2   +   0.01  moles of O2   -------->   0.02 moles of H2O or         1.36 moles of H2   +   0.68 moles of O2   -------->   1.36 moles of H2O or         88 moles of H2   +   44 moles of O2   -------->   88 moles of H2OIn every case, the relative mole quantities of H2 to O2 to H2O are 2:1:2.  We could say that 2 moles of H2, 1 mole of O2, and 2 moles of H2O are equivalent to each other in this reaction.  This does not mean that one chemical can actually substitute for any other chemical.  It does mean that a specific mole quantity of one substance requires the presence of a specific mole quantity of each of the other substance in accordance with the ratio of coefficients.Below shows five different scales for the reaction of iron with sulphur to make iron sulphide, FeS.  Notice that the mole ratios are the same regardless of the scale.                 1 atom  of Fe   +   1 atom  of S  ---->   1 molecule of FeS

                10 atoms of Fe  + 10 atoms of S ----> 10 molecules of FeS

                 55.8 mg of Fe  +      32.1 mg S  ---->   87.9 mg  FeS

                 5.58 g of Fe     +      3.21 g of S ----> 8.79 g of FeS

                 55.8 g of Fe     +      32.1 g of S  ----> 87.9 g of FeS    

Mole to mole calculations:This is an example of how to do mole to mole type problems: Two atoms of sulphur react with three molecules of oxygen to form two molecules of sulphur trioxide, which is an air pollutant.

                            2 S  +  3 O2   ------->  2 SO3

How many moles of sulphur react in this way with 9 moles of O2? Solution: From the balanced equation you can see that  2 S react with 3 O2 Set up your ratio like this:    2 S   =   3 O 2                                             x       9 moles

Cross multiply to get    2 * 9 moles = 3 * x

                                   x = (2 * 9 moles) / 3 = 6 moles  Therefore if 9 moles of oxygen are reacted then 6 moles of S must also be present. Note that the unit "moles" was carried through the calculation

Mole to Mole Stoichiometric Calculations1.  A chemist describes a particular experiment in this way: "0.0400 mol of H2O2

decomposed into 0.0400 mol of H2O and 0.0200 mol of O2." Express the chemistry of this reaction by a conventional equation.

2. The octane present in gasoline burns according to the following equation:                     2 C8H18 + 25 O2 ---------> 16 CO2 + 18 H2O

(a) How many moles of O2 are needed to react fully with 4 moles of octane?(b) How many moles of CO2 can form from 1 mole of octane?(c) How many moles of water are produced by the combustion of 6 moles of octane?(d) If this reaction is to be used to synthesize 8 mole of CO2, how many moles of oxygen are needed? How many moles of octane?

3. The alcohol in "gasohol" burns according to the following equation.

                    C2H6O + 3 O2 --------> 2 CO2 + 3 H2O(a) If 25 moles of ethyl alcohol burns this way, how many moles of oxygen are needed?(b) If 30 moles of oxygen is consumed by this reaction, how many moles of alcohol are used up? How many moles of carbon dioxide are formed?(c) In one test, 23 moles of carbon dioxide was produced by this reaction. How many moles of oxygen were consumed?(d) In another test, 41 moles of water is collected from this reaction. How many moles of alcohol had been consumed? How many moles of oxygen were used up? How many moles of CO2 also formed?

4.One way to change iron ore, Fe2O3, into metallic iron is to heat it together with hydrogen.              Fe2O3 + 3 H2 -----------> 2 Fe + 3 H2O(a) How many moles of iron are made from 25 moles of Fe2O3?(b) How many moles of hydrogen are needed to make 30 moles of Fe?

5. The Solvay process is used to make sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, a chemical that ranked 11th among all chemicals in annual production in 1986. The process begins with the passing of ammonia and carbon dioxide through a solution of sodium chloride. This makes sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride:             H2O + NaCl + NH3 + CO2 ---------> NH4Cl + NaHCO3

How many moles of sodium bicarbonate could, in theory, be made from 100 moles of NaCl?

6. How many moles of iron, Fe, can be made from Fe2O3 by the use of 18 moles of carbon monoxide, CO, in the following reaction?              Fe2O3 + 3 CO -----------> 2 Fe + 3 CO2

7. How many moles of H2O are produced when 6 moles of O2 is consumed in burning methyl alcohol, CH3OH, according to the following equation?                2 CH3OH + 3 O2 ----------> 2 CO2 + 4 H2O

8.  Solution of iron(III) chloride, FeCl3, are used in photoengraving and to make ink. This compound can be made by the following reaction.                  2 Fe + 3 Cl2 ---------> 2 FeCl3

(a) How many moles of FeCl3 form from 24 moles of Cl2?(b) How many moles of Fe are needed to combine with 24 moles of Cl2 by this reaction?(c) If 0.5000 mole of Fe is to be used by this reaction, how many moles of Cl2 are needed and how many moles of FeCl3 form?

9. How many moles of nitric acid, HNO3, are needed to react with 2.56 moles of Cu in the following reaction?           3 Cu + 8 HNO3 ----------> 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + H2O

10.How many moles of carbon dioxide are produced by burning 1.50 moles of C2H5OH?

11. The questions below refer to the equation:    3 Cu(s) + 8 HNO3(aq) ---------> 3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NO(g) + 4 H2O(l)

a) How many moles of NO are produced by the reaction of 4.0 moles of copper with excess HNO3?b) How many moles of HNO3 are required to react completely with 5.0 moles of copper?c) How many moles of NO are produced by the reaction of 6.35 grams of Cu with excess HNO3?

12.  Ammonia is produced synthetically by the reaction:              N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ---------> 2 NH3(g) + 92.05 kJAssume the reaction is complete and answer these questions:a) Is this an exothermic or endothermic process?b) How many moles of NH3 are formed when one mole of N2 reacts with excess hydrogen?c) If 18.0 x 1023 molecules of H2 react with sufficient nitrogen, how many moles of NH3 are produced?d) When 0.1 mole of N2 combines with 0.3 moles of H2, how many moles of NH3 are produced?

Chapter Three:Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations

Overview

Chemical Equations

Patterns/Reactions

Atomic/Molecular Weights

Moles/Molar Mass

Empirical/Molecular Formulas

Quantitative Relationships

Limiting Reactants/Theoretical Yields

Chemical Equations

chemical 'sentences'

reactants and products described by formulas or symbols combined with "punctuation"

2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l)

"atoms can be neither created nor destroyed"

all equations must be 'balanced' with the same number of atoms on both sides of the reaction arrow

H2O + O2     goes to          H2O2

unbalanced

2H2O + O2      goes to          2H2O2 balanced

Examples

CH3OH(l) + O2(g)      goes to         CO2(g) + H2O(l) Na(s) + H2O(l)            goes to              NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

HBr(aq)+ Ba(OH)2(aq)      goes to       H2O(l) + BaBr2(aq)

Patterns of Chemical Reactivity

Because elements are grouped by chemical properties, their reactions can also be grouped:

alkali metals and water

specific

2K(s) + 2H2O(l)      goes to         2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

general

2M(s) + 2H2O(l)      goes to        2MOH(aq) + H2(g)

Combustion in air

specific

C3H8(g) + O2(g)       goes to         CO2(g) + H2O(l)

general

CxHy + O2(g)         goes to           CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Combination Reactions

specific

2Mg(s) + O2(g)                    goes to                     2MgO(s)

general

X + Y            goes to               XY

Decomposition Reactions

specific

CaCO3(s)        goes to         CaO(s) + CO2(g)

general

XY        goes to              X + Y

Name the Reaction

PbCO3(s)        goes to           PbO(s) + CO2(g)             decomposition

C(s) + O2(g)       goes to             CO2(g)                                    combination

2NaN3(s)         goes to            2Na(s) + 3N2(g)                decomposition

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g)      goes to    4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)         combustion

Atomic and Molecular Masses

Amu scale o defined by assigning the mass of 12C as 12 amu exactly

o 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g o 1 g = 6.02214 x 1023 amu

Average Atomic Masses

12C 98.892% abundant 13C 1.1108% abundant

(0.98892)(12 amu) + (0.01108)(13.00335 amu) = 12.011 amu

Formula and Molecular Masses

sum of all atomic masses in the formula of an ionic or molecular compound

vitamin C C6H8O6

6 x 12.0 = 72.0 amu

8 x 1.0 =    8.0 amu

6 x 16.0 = 96.0 amu

               176.0 amu

[formula mass of vitamin C (often called molecular mass)]

Percentage Composition

Calculate the percent mass that each type of atom contributes to a molecule

o % X = (no. X atoms)(X amu) x 100             formula mass cmpd

C6H8O6

% C = (6)(12.01amu) x 100 = 40.94% C             176.0 amu

% H = (8)(1.01amu) x 100 = 4.59% H            176.0 amu

% O = (6)(16.00 amu) x 100 = 54.55% O            176.0 amu

The Mole

We can measure masses in amu but how do we relate that to mass in grams? We define a quantity of atoms - a mole - which has the same mass in grams as the mass of the element in amu.

So how many atoms does it take to make, say, 1.00 g of H?

1.0 g H x        1 atom H             6.0 x 1023 atoms of H                 1.7 x 10-24 g H12.0 g C x        1 atom C            6.0 x 1023 atoms of C                   2.0 x 10-23 g C

Avogadro's Number

6.02214 x 1023 units/moleo No. of atoms per mole of an element

No. of molecules per mole of molecular cmpd.

No. of formula units per mole of ionic cmpd.

No. of cows per mole of cows

Memorize this number & what it means!

1 C atom = 12 amu 1 mole C atoms = 12 g 1 Mg atom = 24 amu 1 mole Mg atoms = 24 g 1 CO molecule = 28 amu 1 mole CO molecules = 28

1 NaCl fm. unit = 58 amu 1 mole NaCl fm.units = 58g

Molar Mass

From this information we can define something called the molar mass (MM) of an atom (or molecule or formula):

o from the equality: 1 mole C = 12.0 g C o we define the molar mass of a substance

12.0 g C = MM            or             Molar Mass1 mole C                                     (Atomic Mass)                                                  (Molecular Mass)                                                  (Formula Mass)

Problems

Practice Ex. 3.9:

Given: MM = 84.02 g/mol NaHCO3 508 g NaHCO3? How many mole in 508 g of NaHCO3?

508 g NaHCO3 x         1 mole              =        6.05 mole NaHCO3                               84.02 g NaHCO3

How many formula units of NaHCO3?

Given: 6.02 x 1023   form. units/mole NaHCO3

6.05   mole NaHCO3    x     6.02 x 10 23 fm. units          =      3.64 x 1024 fm. Units NaHCO3

                                                1  mole

Molar Mass converts between moles and grams of a substance

Avogadro's number converts between moles of a substance and atoms (or molecules or formula units) of that substance

These are very important conversion factors, know & understand them!

Problems

How many moles of vitamin C are contained in 5.00 g of vitamin C? C6H8O6 176.0 g/mol

17.5 mg of cocaine (C17H21NO4) per kg of body weight is a lethal dose. How many moles is that? How many molecules?

In 25 g of C12H30O2 THC (tetrahydrocannibinol) how many moles are there? How many molecules are there? How many C atoms are there?

How many moles of O are contained in 1.50 moles of C6H5NO3? How many grams of nitrogen are contained in 70.0 g of

C6H5NO3? How many atoms?

Determination Empirical Formulas

simplest ratio of atoms o change g of each element to moles or o assume 100 grams of substance & change the % of each element to

moles o change the mole ratio of atoms to the simplest ratio by dividing by the

smallest number of moles

Practice Ex. 3.12:

5.325 g methyl benzoate contains 3.758 g C, 0.316 g H, 1.251 g O. Determine empirical formula.

3.758 g C x 1 mole = 0.313 mol C                   12.01 g

0.316 g H x 1 mole = 0.313 mol H                      1.01 g

1.251 g O x 1 mole = 0.0782 mol O                    16.00 g

C0.313H0.313O0.0782                        C4H4O

Determination of Molecular Formulas

actual ratio of atoms o determine the empirical formula o divide the actual molar mass by the empirical formula mass to get 'n' o multiply the mole ratio in the empirical formula by 'n'

Practice Ex. 3.13:

Ethylene glycol is composed of 38.7% C, 9.7% H & 51.6% O by mass. Its true molar mass is 62.1 g/mol. What are the empirical and molecular formulas?

38.7 g C x 1 mole = 3.23 mole C                   12.0 g

9.7 g H x 1 mole = 9.60 mole H                 1.01 g

51.6 g O x 1 mole = 3.22 mole O                    16.0 g

C3.23H9.60O3.22                                   CH3O                      C2H6O2                                                                              empirical fm. (n=2)                                                     molecular fm.

Formulas from Combustion Data

Formulas determined from products of combustion products

Menthol is composed of C, H, and O. A 0.1005 g sample of menthol is combusted, producing 0.2829 g of CO2 and 0.1159 g H2O. What is the empirical formula?

CxHyOz + O2        goes to           CO2 +    H2O0.1005 g                                       0.2829 g      0.1159 g

Calculate moles CO2 & C; moles H2O & H

0.2829g CO2 x 1 mol     x     1 mol C     =      0.00643 mol C                        44.0 g          1 mol CO2

0.1159g H2O x     1 mol     x      2 mol H      =    0.0129 mol H                             18.0 g            1 mol H2O

total mass of C + H = 0.0902 g

mass of O = 0.1005 g - 0.0902 g = 0.0103 g O x 1 mol =        6.44 x 10-4 mol O                                                                       16.0 g

C0.00643H0.0129O0.000644                                       C10H20O                                                                                          (empirical formula mass 156 g/mol)

If the MM is 156 g/mol, what is the molecular formula?

n=1 therefore molecular formula is C10H20O

Quantitative Stoichiometry

Determination of quantities from balanced chemical reaction equations

o mole ratios from balanced chemical equation convert between species o if quantities are given for more than one reactant, the limiting reactant must be

determined

Given the following balanced equation:

1Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl       goes to            1MgCl2 + 2H2O Calculate the number of moles of HCl required to react completely with 0.42

mol of Mg(OH)2        0.42 mol Mg(OH)2 x      2 mol HCl         =       0.84 mol HCl                                       1 mol Mg(OH)2

The mole ratio comes from the balanced chemical equation How many grams of MgCl2 can be produced?

0.42 mol Mg(OH)2    x    1 mol MgCl2      x        95.3 g MgCl2         =          40.0 g MgCl2

                                 1 mol Mg(OH)2                  1 mol                             Theoretical Yield

Conversion sequence:

g reactant molar mass moles reactant mole ratio moles product molar mass g prod.

Practice Ex. 3.14:

How many grams of O2 can be prepared from 4.50 g of  KClO3?

2KClO3      goes to            2KCl + 3O2       

                4.50 g KClO3      x         1 mol x         3 mol O2        x          32.0 g O2         =         1.76 g O2

                                                   122.6 g          2 mol KClO3           1 mol

Limiting Reactantgiven a non-stoichiometric amount of both

reactants, you will have to determine which is the limiting reagent or reactant

example: you have 10 bicycle frames and 16 bicycle wheels and you need to put them together to produce as many bicycles as possible, how many bicycles can be produced, what is the limiting "reagent", and how much excess "reagent" do you have left over?

Balanced 'Equation'

1 (mole) frame + 2 (moles) wheels         goes to            1 (mole) bicycles

   [10 (moles) frames]             [16 (moles) wheels]                                   [8(moles) bicycles]

Limiting Reactant -- will produce the least amount of product

10 mol frames       x         1 mol bicycles         =         10 bicycles                                       1 mol frames

16 mol wheels        x       1 mol bicycles          =          8 bicycles          Limiting                                        2 mol wheels

Practice Ex. 3.16:

A mixture of 1.5 mol of Al and 3.0 mol of Cl2 react. What is limiting & how many moles of AlCl3 are formed?

2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g)       goes to          2AlCl3(s) 1.5 mol        3.0 mol

1.5 mol Al      x       2 mol AlCl3       =          1.5 mol AlCl3            Limiting                              2 mol Al

3.0  mol Cl2      x      2 mol AlCl3        =         2.0 mol AlCl3                               3 mol Cl2

Chapter 4: Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry

Solution Composition o Molarity o Dilution

Properties of Solutes o Ionic Compounds o Molecular Compounds

Electrolytes--strong/weak

Acids/Bases/Salts/Neutralization Reactions

Ionic Equations

Metathesis Reactions o Precipitation Reactions o Solubility o Products & Prediction

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions o Activity Series

Solution Stoichiometry o Titration

Solution Composition Solutions are composed of a solute and a solvent

o solute--present in smallest quantity o solvent--present in largest quantity

Molarity o concentration gives ratio of solute : solvent/solution o molarity, M = moles solute

                     1 L solution

Practice Ex. 4.1:Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 5.00 g of glucose, C6H12O6, in sufficient

water to form 100 mL of solution.

5.00 g C6H12O6      x           1 mol         =          0.0278 mol        =         0.278 M                                              180 g                      0.100 L

Practice Ex. 4.2:How many grams of Na2SO4 are there in 15 mL of 0.50 M Na2SO4? How many mL of 0.50 M Na2SO4 solution are required to supply 0.038 mol of salt?

15 mL x     1 L       x       0.50 mol Na2SO4     x        142 g        =          1.1 g                103 mL                 1 L                                   mol                     Na2SO4

0.038 mol Na2SO4          x          1 L        x        103 mL        =          76 mL                                               0.50 mol                1 L                        Na2SO4

Dilution o Stock solutions are generally concentrated solutions that are diluted

before use

General format for diluting a concentrated solution:

Minitial Vinitial = Mfinal Vfinal

or

Mconc Vconc = Mdil Vdil

Practice Ex. 4.3:How many mL of 5.0 M K2Cr2O7 solution must be diluted in order to prepare 250 mL of 0.10 M solution?

Mconc = 5.0 M K2Cr2O7            Mdil = 0.10 M K2Cr2O7 Vconc = ?                                 Vdil = 250 mL

Mconc Vconc = Mdil Vdil

0.10 mol          x         0.250 L         x        1 L         =         0.0050 L or    L                                                      5.0 mol                     5.0 mLMdil                     x             Vdil                  x            1              =               Vconc                                                                              Mconc

Properties of Solutes Electrolytes

o conduct electricity o form ions in solution stoichiometrically

Nonelectrolytes o do not conduct electricity o do not form ions in solution

Weak Electrolytes o slightly conduct electricity o form less than stoichiometric amounts of ions

Ionic Compounds o dissociate into constituent ions when dissolved o hence, they are electrolytes if they are soluble

ions dissociate stoichiometrically

Na2SO4 2Na+(aq) + SO4(aq)

2-

(NH4)2SO4 2NH4(aq)+ + SO4(aq)

2-

Ca(NO3)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)

-

Practice Ex. 4.4How many moles of K+ ions are present in 0.25 L of 0.015 M K2CO3 solution?

K2CO3 2K(aq)+ + CO3(aq)

2-

0.25 L      x        0.015 mol       x       2 mol K+       =       0.0075

                             1 L 1                mol K2CO3            mol K+

Molecular Compounds o structure of the molecules remains intact

do not separate into ions ! o molecules themselves are separated on the molecular level o generally not electrolytes

Strong and Weak Electrolytes o All soluble ionic compounds are strong electrolytes

ions are produced stoichiometrically--exist completely or nearly completely as ions in solutions

o Some molecular compounds are weak electrolytes--produce small concentrations of ions when dissolved

Since molecular compounds do not "contain" ions, they must 'produce' ions through a reaction with water, eg.

NH3(aq) + H2O NH4(aq)+ + OH(aq)-

HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + C2H3O2(aq)- o Some molecular compounds are strong electrolytes

HCl(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + Cl(aq)-

o Note the difference in arrows used for chemical equations for weak vs strong electrolytes

Acids/Bases/Salts Acids

o have an ionizable hydrogen, H+ eg. HCl(aq) or HC2H3O2(aq) o can be strong or weak electrolytes

HCl(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + Cl(aq)-

HC2H3O2(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + C2H3O2(aq)- o strong acids are more reactive than weak acids o can be monoprotic

HCl(aq) + H2O H3O(aq)+ + Cl(aq)- o or diprotic

H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O 2H3O(aq)+ + SO4(aq)2-

Strong Acids--know these! o HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO4,

Bases o substances that react with acids o produce hydroxide ions, OH-, in solution o can be strong or weak electrolytes

NaOH(aq) Na(aq)+ + OH(aq)- NH3(aq) + H2O NH4(aq)+ + OH(aq)-

Strong Bases--know these! o Group IA metal hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH) o Heavy group IIA metal hydroxides [Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2]

Neutralization Reactions o occur between acids and metal hydroxide bases

o produce water and a salt (any ionic compound) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

Ionic Equations

Three ways to express ionic equations o molecular equation--all species expressed in molecular form

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

HCl(aq) is really H+(aq) and Cl-(aq)

o complete ionic equation--all species expressed in ionic form H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)  +  Na+(aq)   +   Cl-(aq)

note that spectator ions undergo no change o net ionic equation--incl. only species that change

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

o only soluble, strong electrolytes are written in ionic form

Examples o H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq) o 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

                                    2H2O(l) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) net ionic equation--incl. only species that change

o H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

only soluble, strong electrolytes are written in ionic form

Examples o H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq) o 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

                                2H2O(l) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) net ionic equation--incl. only species that change

o H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)

only soluble, strong electrolytes are written in ionic form

Examples o H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq) o 2H+(aq) + + 2OH-(aq) 2H2O(l)

Metathesis Reactions

General Form o ion partner exchange

AX + BY AY + BX Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Driving Forces o formation of an insoluble solid o formation of a weak or non-electrolyte o formation of a gas

Precipitation Reaction o formation of an insoluble solid o know the solubility guidelines!! o examples:

NaCl(aq) + KNO3(aq) NR

AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) AgCl(s)   + KNO3(aq)

Formation of a weak or non-electrolyte o common example is an acid/base reaction--H2O forms o know/recognize electrolyte vs non-electrolyte o examples:

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

NiO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ni(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

Formation of a gas o gases exit the reacting solution driving the reaction o examples:

2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

                                        (   H2CO3          H2O   +    CO3)

2HCl(aq) + Na2S(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2S(g)

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

the loss of electrons by a substance o Ca(s) Ca2+ + 2e-

the gain of electrons by a substance o Cl2(g) + 2e- 2Cl-

Oxidation and Reduction always occur together o Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s) o Ca(s) + O2(g) CaO(s) o 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Oxidation of Metals by Acids & Salts o metal + acid salt + hydrogen

Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g) Mg(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Zn(s)

Activity Series o metals arranged relative to the ease of their oxidation o most active metals are the easiest to oxidize o least active metals are the least easy to oxidize

Examples: o does a reaction occur between Co(s) and Cu(NO3)2(aq)?

which is the more active metal? the more active metal prefers the oxidized state Co(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) Co(NO3)2(aq)    +      Cu(s)

more        less active

o what about Ag(s) and Pb(NO3)2(aq)? 2Ag(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) NR

less            more active

Solution Stoichiometry Chemical Analysis of Solutions

o All discussions of stoichiometry apply to solutions as well as solid reactants and products

o use the same format for stoichiometric problems as in chapter 3 o determine the moles of reactant, convert to moles of product o a solution volume and concentration can give you solute moles

Practice Ex. 4.12:

What volume of 0.500 M HCl(aq) is required to react completely with 0.100 mol of Pb(NO3)2(aq), forming a precipitate of PbCl2(s)?

write a correct equation: 2HCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

determine amt. HCl to react w/ Pb(NO3)2: 0.100 mol Pb(NO3)2             x             2 mol HCl       =         0.200 mol HCl                                                          1mol Pb(NO3)2

convert mol HCl to vol. HCl solution:0.200 mol HCl        x          1 L sol'n         =            0.400 L or                                        0.500 mol HCl                   400 mL HCl

Practice Ex. 4.13: o What is the molarity of an NaOH solution if 48.0 mL is needed to

neutralize 35.0 mL of 0.144 M H2SO4?

write the equation for the reaction:H2SO4(aq)       +         2NaOH(aq)              H2O       +        Na2SO4(aq) 0.144 M                    ? M0.0350 L                0.0480 L

determine mol of H2SO4(aq) :0.0350 L H2SO4          x          0.144 mol H2SO4         =             0.00504 mol                                                        1 L sol'n                                    H2SO4

Practice Ex. 4.13: o What is the molarity of an NaOH solution if 48.0 mL is needed to

neutralize 35.0 mL of 0.144 M H2SO4? H write the equation for the reaction:

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) H2O + Na2SO4(aq)

            determine mol of NaOH: 0.00504 mol H2SO4       x             2 mol NaOH          =          0.0101 mol                                                          1 mol H2SO4                         NaOH

determine Molarity of NaOH:0.0101 mol NaOH            =               0.210 M NaOH0.0480 L sol'n

Titrations Used commonly, but not exclusively, in neutralization

reactions

o the first reactant is "titrated" with the second reactant until stoichiometric equivalence is reached

the first reactant is added slowly, in small aliquotso this is used to determine:

the concentration of the first reactant or the molarity of the second reactant

Practice Ex. 4.14: o What mass of chloride ion is present in a sample of water if 15.7 mL of

0.108 M AgNO3 is required to titrate the sample? AgNO3(aq) + Cl-

(aq) AgCl(s) + NO3-(aq)

0.0157 L      ? g0.108 M

0.0157 L     x         0.108 mol Ag+        =        0.00170 mol Ag+                                  1 L sol'n

0.00170 mol Ag+     x      1mol Cl-         =         0.00170 mol Cl-                                        1 mol Ag+

0.00170 mol Cl-       x      35.5 g Cl-       =          0.0602 g Cl-                                            1 mol

Unit 2.7 - Chemical equilibria

Reversible reactions

Some reactions are irreversible like… 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

There are many more, which are reversible, in other words they can easily go backwards or

forwards, like… H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

The ⇌ symbol indicates that the reaction is reversible

Dynamic equilibrium

If a reaction is reversible

then it does not go to

completion

Both the forward reaction

(reactants products) and

the backward reaction

(______________ _____________) can and do happen

If the forward and backward reactions are happening at the same rate then the concentrations of

the reactants and products will stay the _____________

Dynamic equilibrium

The rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. Therefore, there is no further change in the

concentrations of the reactants and products.

Graph of concentration vs. time Graph of rate vs. time

Example - Formation of HI

For the reaction… H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

To be at equilibrium, the rate of… H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g) [forward]

reactants products

Must be equal to the rate of… 2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g) [backward]

Case study - The Haber-Bosch process

Perhaps the best-known reversible reaction

Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen

The product, ammonia (NH3), is used in fertilizer and

explosive manufacture

Traditionally uses an iron catalyst

Temperature 350-500 C

High pressure 15-25 MPa

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)

H = -92.4 kJ/mol

High pressure is used to increase the ___________ of ammonia

High temperature is used to increase the __________ of reaction

Le Chetaliers’s principle

Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch

“If a chemical system at equilibrium experiences a change in concentration, temperature, volume, or partial pressure, then the equilibrium shifts to counteract the

In other words…

1. Effect of temperature

Remember…

o Exothermic (-ve H) reactions ___________ energy to the surroundings making them _________

o Endothermic (+ve H) reactions ___________ energy from the surroundings making them

___________

Exothermic reactions

Increase temperature Decrease temperature

Favour the backward reaction, which is endothermic, and move

the position of equilibrium towards the reactants

Favour the ______________ reaction, which is _____thermic and

move the position of equilibrium towards the ______________

Endothermic reactions

Increase temperature Decrease temperature

Favour the ____________ reaction, which is _____thermic, and

move the position of equilibrium towards the ______________

Favour the ______________ reaction, which is _____thermic,

and move the position of equilibrium towards the

______________

Case study - The Haber-Bosch process

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g) Forward reaction:

H = -92.4 kJ/mol (exothermic) Backward reaction:

The effect of increasing the temperature would be…

The effect of decreasing the temperature would be…

NB The reaction is done at a compromise temperature (350-500 C) and uses a catalyst to achieve a commercially viable rate of reaction. Lower temperatures would give a higher yield of ammonia but the reaction would take much longer.

2. Effect of pressure

Again using the Haber-Bosch process as an example:

reactants products

N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)

moles of gas moles of gas

As you can see there are __________ moles of gas on the left hand side of this equation

Therefore, the forward reaction has the effect of _____________ the pressure (producing more

gas would increase the pressure)

For the Haber-Bosch process high pressure favours the production of the _____________

ammonia as the equilibrium shifts in order to counteract the _____________ in pressure

Lowering the pressure would favour the ________________ reaction

More moles of gaseous reactants

Increase pressure Decrease pressure

Favour the forward reaction and move the position of

equilibrium towards the reactants thus counteracting the initial

increase

Favour the ______________ reaction, which is and move the

position of equilibrium towards the ______________

More moles of gaseous products

Increase pressure Decrease pressure

3. Effect of concentration

The effect of altering the concentration of one or both of the reactants applies to reactions that are

carried out in solution. As the Haber-Bosch process involves a gas-phase reaction we will have to find

another example:

2CrO42-

(aq) + 2H+(aq) ⇌ Cr2O7

2-(aq) + H2O(l)

Chromate(VI) Dichromate(VI)

Yellow Orange

NB This only applies to equilibrium reactions

involving gases.

Reducing the volume or adding more gas to the

same volume can increase pressure.

Addition of excess acid

Adding excess acid causes the equilibrium to shift to the __________ to oppose the change (increase in reactant

________________) and as more dichromate(VI) ions are produced, the solution turns ________________

Addition of excess alkali

Increasing the concentration of reactants favours the _________________ reaction

Reducing the concentration of reactants favours the _________________ reaction

Effect of catalyst

Catalysts are substances that

_______________ the rate of a chemical

reaction but remain unchanged themselves

They do this by providing an alternative route

with a lower activation energy

They have no effect on the position of

equilibrium

They speed up both the forward and

backward reactions so equilibrium is reached

faster

Nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide

2NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g) H = -57 kJ/mol

brown colourless

Forward reaction:

Backward reaction:

The forward reaction is _______thermic

Increasing the temperature favours the _____________ reaction

Decreasing the temperature favours the _____________ reaction

If we reduced the temperature we will observe…

If we increase the temperature we will observe…

Methane hydrate

Methane hydrate (also known as methane clathrate and ‘fire ice’) is a solid substance containing methane molecules surrounded by cage-like structures of water molecules. Huge deposits of methane hydrate exist on deep-sea beds around the world. Up to

ten times the current natural gas reserves may be trapped in hydrates. Methane is also a powerful greenhouse gas; any sudden release could be catastrophic.

The methane in hydrates is in equilibrium with gaseous methane:

methane hydrate(s) ⇌ methane(g) + water(l) H

= +ve

Effect of increasing pressure on this equilibrium…

Effect of increasing temperature on this equilibrium…

Notes on Acids and Bases

General Definitions Properties

Water Dissociation pH

Strength of Acids & Bases

Acid & Base Reactions Titrations

Models of Acids

1. General Definitions:

Acid: a substance which when added to water produces hydrogen ions [H+].

Base: a substance which when added to water produces hydroxide ions [OH-].

2. Properties:

Acids:

react with zinc, magnesium, or aluminum and form hydrogen (H2(g)) react with compounds containing CO3

2- and form carbon dioxide and water turn litmus red taste sour (lemons contain citric acid, for example) DO NOT TASTE ACIDS IN

THE LABORATORY!!

Bases:

feel soapy or slippery turn litmus blue they react with most cations to precipitate hydroxides taste bitter (ever get soap in your mouth?) DO NOT TASTE BASES IN THE

LABORATORY!!

3. Water dissociation: H2O(l)  →  H+(aq) + OH-

(aq)

equilibrium constant, KW = [H+][OH-] / [H2O]

Note:  water is not involved in the equilibrium expression because it is a pure liquid, also, the amount of water not dissociated is so large compared to that dissociated that we consider it a constant

Value for Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

Note: The reverse reaction, H+(aq) + OH-

(aq)  →   H2O(l) is not equal to 1 x 10-14

[H+] for pure water = 1 x 10-7

[OH-] for pure water = 1 x 10-7

Definitions of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on [H+]

acidic: if [H+] is greater than 1 x 10-7 M basic: if [H+] is less than1 x 10-7 M neutral: if [H+] if equal to 1 x 10-7 M

Example 1: What is the [H+] of a sample of lake water with [OH-] of 4.0 x 10-9 M? Is the lake acidic, basic, or neutral?

Solution: [H+] = 1 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-9 = 2.5 x 10-6 M

Therefore the lake is slightly acidic

Remember: the smaller the negative exponent, the larger the number is.

Therefore:

acid solutions should have exponents of [H+] from 0 to -6. basic solutions will have exponents of [H+] from -8 on.

Example 2: What is the [H+] of human saliva if its [OH-] is 4 x 10-8 M? Is human saliva acidic, basic, or neutral?

Solution: [H+] = 1.0 x 10-14 / 4 x 10-8 = 2.5 x 10-7 M

The saliva is pretty neutral.

4. pH

relationship between [H+] and pH pH = -log10[H+]

Definition of acidic, basic, and neutral solutions based on pH

acidic: if pH is less than 7 basic: if pH is greater than 7 neutral: if pH is equal to 7

The [H+] can be calculated from the pH by taking the antilog of the negative pH

Example 3:  calculate the [OH-] of a solution of baking soda with a pH of 8.5.

Solution:  First calculate the [H+]

if pH is 8.5, then the antilog of -8.5 is 3.2 x 10-9. Thus the [H+] is 3.2 x 10-9 M

Next calculate the [OH-]

1.0 x 10-14 / 3.2 x 10-9 = 3.1 x 10-6 M

Example 4:  Calculate the pH of a solution of household ammonia whose [OH-] is 7.93 x 10-3

M.

Solution:  This time you first calculate the [H+] from the [OH-]

7.93 x 10-3 M OH- = 1.26 x 10-12 M H+

Then find the pH

-log[1.26 x 10-12] = 11.9

Now you try a few by yourself. You can then check your answers using the Java applet that follows, but remember, you won't learn how to do them if you don't try by yourself first.

Practice #1. What is the pH of a solution of NaOH that has a [OH-] of 3.5 x 10-3 M?

Practice #2. The H+ of vinegar that has a pH of 3.2 is what?

Practice #3. What is the pH of a 0.001 M HCl solution?

How can pH be determined experimentally?

By using pH paper or a pH meter

5. Strength of Acids and Bases:

Acids

1. Strong Acids:

completely dissociate in water, forming H+ and an anion.

example: HN03 dissociates completely in water to form H+ and N031-.

The reaction is

HNO3(aq)  →   H+(aq) + N03

1-(aq)

A 0.01 M solution of nitric acid contains 0.01 M of H+ and 0.01 M N03- ions and

almost no HN03 molecules. The pH of the solution would be 2.0.

There are only 6 strong acids: You must learn them. The remainder of the acids therefore are considered weak acids.

1. HCl2. H2SO4

3. HNO3

4. HClO4

5. HBr6. HI

Note: when a strong acid dissociates only one H+ ion is removed. H2S04 dissociates giving H+ and HS04

- ions.

H2SO4  →   H+ + HSO41-

A 0.01 M solution of sulfuric acid would contain 0.01 M H+ and 0.01 M HSO41-

(bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate ion).

2. Weak acids:

a weak acid only partially dissociates in water to give H+ and the anion

for example, HF dissociates in water to give H+ and F-. It is a weak acid. with a dissociation equation that is

HF(aq)  ↔   H+(aq) + F-

(aq)

Note the use of the double arrow with the weak acid. That is because an equilibrium exists between the dissociated ions and the undissociated molecule. In the case of a strong acid dissociating, only one arrow (  →  ) is required since the reaction goes virtually to completion.

An equilibrium expression can be written for this system:

Ka = [ H+][F-] / [HF]

Which are the weak acids?   Anything that dissociates in water to produce H+ and is not one of the 6 strong acids.

1. Molecules containing an ionizable proton. (If the formula starts with H then it is a prime candidate for being an acid.) Also: organic acids have at least one carboxyl group, -COOH, with the H being ionizable.

2. Anions that contain an ionizable proton. ( HSO41-  →   H+ + SO4

2- ) 3. Cations:  (transition metal cations and heavy metal cations with high charge)

also NH4+ dissociates into NH3 + H+

Bases

1. Strong Bases:

They dissociate 100% into the cation and OH- (hydroxide ion).

example:  NaOH(aq)  →   Na+(aq) + OH-

(aq)

a. 0.010 M NaOH solution will contain 0.010 M OH- ions (as well as 0.010 M Na+ ions) and have a pH of 12.

Which are the strong bases?

The hydroxides of Groups I and II.

Note: the hydroxides of Group II metals produce 2 mol of OH- ions for every mole of base that dissociates. These hydroxides are not very soluble, but what amount that does dissolve completely dissociates into ions.

exampIe: Ba(OH)2(aq)  →   Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-

(aq)

a. 0.000100 M Ba(OH)2 solution will be 0.000200 M in OH- ions (as well as 0.00100 M in Ba2+ ions) and will have a pH of 10.3.

2. Weak Bases:

What compounds are considered to be weak bases?

1. Most weak bases are anions of weak acids. 2. Weak bases do not furnish OH- ions by dissociation. They react with water to

furnish the OH- ions.

Note that like weak acids, this reaction is shown to be at equilibrium, unlike the dissociation of a strong base which is shown to go to completion.

3. When a weak base reacts with water the OH- comes from the water and the remaining H+ attaches itsef to the weak base, giving a weak acid as one of the products. You may think of it as a two-step reaction similar to the hydrolysis of water by cations to give acid solutions.

examples:

NH3(aq) + H2O(aq)  →   NH4+

(aq) + OH-(aq)

methylamine: CH3NH2(aq) + H20(l)  →   CH3NH3+

(aq) + OH-(aq)

acetate ion: C2H3O2-(aq) + H2O(aq)  →  HC2H302(aq) + OH-

(aq)

General reaction: weak base(aq) + H2O(aq)  →   weak acid(aq) + OH-(aq)

Since the reaction does not go to completion relatively few OH- ions are formed.

Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions: definition of a salt:

an ionic compound made of a cation and an anion, other than hydroxide. the product besides water of a neutralization reaction

determining acidity or basicity of a salt solution:

1. split the salt into cation and anion 2. add OH- to the cation

a. if you obtain a strong base. the cation is neutral b. if you get a weak base, the cation is acidic

3. Add H+ to the anion

a. if you obtain a strong acid, the anion is neutral b. if you obtain a weak acid. the anion is basic

4. Salt solutions are neutral if both ions are neutral5. Salt solutions are acidic if one ion is neutral and the other is acidic6. Salt solutions are basic is one of the ions is basic and the other is neutral.7. The acidity or basicity of a salt made of one acidic ion and one basic ion cannot be

determined without further information.

Examples: determine if the following solutions are acidic, basic, or neutral Click on each one to find out the answer.

KC2H3O2 NaHPO4

Cu(NO3)2 LiHS

KClO4 NH4Cl

6. Acid-Base Reactions:

Strong acid + strong base:  HCl + NaOH  →   NaCl + H2O net ionic reaction:  H+ + OH-  →   H2O

Strong acid + weak base:

example:  write the net ionic equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid, HCl, and aqueous ammonia, NH3. What is the pH of the resulting solution?

Strong base + weak acid:

example:  write the net ionic equation for the reaction between citric acid (H3C6H507) and sodium hydroxide. What is the pH of the resulting solution?

7. Titrations

1. Nomenclature:  these are terms that are used when talking about titrating one substance with another. You need to learn these definitions well enough to explain them to someone else.

titration titrant indicator

equivalence point end point titration cuve

2. Strong acid-strong base titration

example:

titration curve

pH at equivalence pointspecies present

appropriate indicators

3. Strong acid-weak base titration

example

titration curve

pH at end pointspecies present

appropriate indicators

4. Weak acid-strong base titrations

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Dictionary of chemical formulasFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This is a list of chemical compounds with chemical formulas and CAS numbers, indexed by formula. This complements alternative listings to be found at list of organic compounds and inorganic compounds by element.

Note: There are elements where spellings differ, such as Aluminum/Aluminium, Sulphur/Sulfur, Cesium/Caesium.

Table of contents: A B C Ca-Cu D E F G H I K L M N O P R S T U V W X Y Z &

Tables to be mergedInorganic: A B Ca-Cu G H I L M N O P S

Organic: C C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9

C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 C18 C19

C20 C21 C22 C23 C24 C25-C29 C30-C39 C40-C49 C50-C100

AChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

Ac2O3 actinium(III) oxide

AgBF4 silver tetrafluoroborate 14104-20-2

AgBr silver bromide 7785-23-1

AgBrO3 silver bromate 7783-89-3

AgCl silver chloride 7783-90-6

AgClO4 silver perchlorate 7783-93-9

AgCN silver cyanide 506-64-9

AgF silver fluoride 7775-41-9

AgF2 silver difluoride 7775-41-9

AgI silver iodide 7783-96-2

AgIO3 silver iodate 7783-97-3

AgMnO4 silver permanganate 7783-98-4

AgN3 silver azide 13863-88-2

AgNO3 silver nitrate 7761-88-8

Ag2O silver oxide 1301-96-8

AgONC silver fulminate 5610-59-3

AgPF6 silver hexafluorophosphate 26042-63-7

AgSNC silver thiocyanate 1701-93-5

Ag2C2 silver acetylide 7659-31-6

Ag2CO3 silver(I) carbonate 534-16-7

Ag2C2O4 silver oxalate 533-51-7

Ag2Cl2 silver(II) dichloride 75763-82-5

Ag2CrO4 silver chromate 7784-01-2

Ag2Cr2O7 silver dichromate

Ag2F silver subfluoride 1302-01-8

Ag2MoO4 silver molybdate 13765-74-7

Ag2O silver(I) oxide 20667-12-3

Ag2S silver sulfide 21548-73-2

Ag2SO4 silver sulfate 10294-26-5

Ag2Se silver selenide 1302-09-6

Ag2SeO3 silver selenite 7784-05-6

Ag2SeO4 silver selenate 7784-07-8

Ag2Te silver(I) telluride 12002-99-2

Ag3Br2 silver dibromide 11078-32-3

Ag3Br3 silver tribromide 11078-33-4

Ag3Cl3 silver(III) trichloride 12444-96-1

Ag3I3 silver(III) triiodide 37375-12-5

Ag3PO4 silver phosphate 7784-09-0

AlBO aluminium boron oxide 12041-48-4

AlBO2 aluminium borate 61279-70-7

AlBr aluminium monobromide 22359-97-3

AlBr3 aluminium tribromide 7727-15-3

AlCl aluminium monochloride 13595-81-8

AlClF aluminium chloride fluoride 22395-91-1

AlClF2 aluminium chloride fluoride 13814-65-8

AlClO aluminium chloride oxide 13596-11-7

AlCl3 aluminium chloride 16603-84-2

AlCl2F aluminium chloride fluoride 13497-96-6

AlCl3 aluminium trichloride 7446-70-0

AlCl4Cs aluminium caesium tetrachloride 17992-03-9

AlCl4K potassium tetrachloroaluminate 13821-13-1

AlCl4Na sodium tetrachloroaluminate 7784-16-9

AlCl4Rb aluminium rubidium tetrachloride 17992-02-8

AlCl6K3 potassium hexachloroaluminate 13782-08-6

AlCl6Na3 sodium hexachloroaluminate 60172-46-5

AlF aluminium monofluoride 13595-82-9

AlFO aluminium monofluoride monoxide 13596-12-8

AlF2 aluminium difluoride 13569-23-8

AlF2O aluminium difluoride oxide 38344-66-0

AlF3 aluminium trifluoride 7784-18-1

AlF4K potassium tetrafluoroaluminate 14484-69-6

AlF4Li lithium tetrafluoroaluminate 15138-76-8

AlF6K3 potassium hexafluoraluminate 13775-52-5

AlF6Li3 lithium hexafluoroaluminate 13821-20-0

AlF6Na3 cryolite 15096-52-3

AlGaInP aluminium-gallium-indium phosphide

Al(OH)3 aluminium hydroxide 21645-51-2

AlI aluminium monoiodide 29977-41-1

AlI3 aluminium triiodide 7784-23-8

AlLiO2 lithium aluminate 12003-67-7

AlN aluminium nitride 24304-00-5

Al(NO3)3 aluminium nitrate 13473-90-0

AlNaO2 sodium aluminate 1302-42-7

AlO aluminium monoxide 14457-64-8

AlOSi aluminium silicon monoxide 37361-47-0

AlO2 Aluminium(IV) oxide 11092-32-3

AlP aluminium monophosphide 20859-73-8

AlPO4 aluminium phosphate 7784-30-7

AlTe aluminium monotelluride 23330-86-1

AlTe2 monoaluminium ditelluride 39297-18-2

Al2BeO4 beryllium aluminium oxide 12004-06-7

Al2Br6 dialuminium hexabromide 18898-34-5

Al2(CO3)3 aluminium carbonate 14455-29-9

Al2Cl9K3 potassium aluminium chloride 74978-20-4

Al2CoO4 cobalt blue 1333-88-6

Al2F6 aluminium fluoride 17949-86-9

Al2I6 aluminium iodide 18898-35-6

Al2MgO4 magnesium aluminium oxide 12068-51-8

Al2O dialuminium monoxide 12004-36-3

Al2O2 dialuminium dioxide 12252-63-0

Al2O3 aluminium oxide 1344-28-1

Al2O5Si aluminium silicate 1302-76-7

Al2O5Si aluminium silicate 12141-46-7

Al2O5Si andalusite 12183-80-1

Al2O7Si2 aluminium silicate 1332-58-7

Al2S dialuminium monosulfide 12004-45-4

Al2S3 aluminium sulfide 1302-81-4

Al2(SO4)3 aluminium sulfate 14455-29-9

Al2Se dialuminium selenide 12598-14-0

Al2Te dialuminium telluride 12598-16-2

Al3F14Na5 chiolite 1302-84-7

Al6BeO10 beryllium aluminium oxide 12253-74-6

Al6O13Si2 mullite 1302-93-8

ArClF argon chloride fluoride 53169-15-6

ArClH argon chloride hydride 163731-17-7

ArFH argon fluoride hydride 163731-16-6

AsBrO arsenic oxybromide 82868-10-8

AsBr3 arsenic tribromide 7784-33-0

AsClO arsenic monoxide monochloride 14525-25-8

AsCl3 arsenic trichloride 7784-34-1

AsCl3O arsenic oxychloride 60646-36-8

AsCl4F arsenic tetrachloride fluoride 87198-15-0

AsF3 arsenic trifluoride 7784-35-2

AsF5 arsenic pentafluoride 7784-36-3

AsH3 arsine 7784-42-1

AsI3 arsenic triiodide 7784-45-4

AsO arsenic monoxide 12005-99-1

AsO2 arsenic dioxide 12255-12-8

AsP arsenic monophosphide 12255-33-3

AsP3 arsenic triphosphide 12511-95-4

AsTl thallium arsenide 12006-09-6

As2I4 arsenic diiodide 13770-56-4

As2O3 arsenic trioxide 1327-53-3

As2P2 arsenic diphosphide 12512-03-7

As2O5 arsenic pentaoxide 1303-28-2

As2S4 arsenic tetrasulfide 1303-32-8

As2S5 arsenic pentasulfide 1303-34-0

As2Se arsenic hemiselenide 1303-35-1

As2Se3 arsenic triselenide 1303-36-2

As2Se5 arsenic pentaselenide 1303-37-3

As3O4 arsenic tetraoxide 83527-53-1

As3P arsenic(III) phosphide 12512-11-7

As4O3 tetraarsenic trioxide 83527-54-2

As4O5 tetraarsenic pentaoxide 83527-55-3

As4S3 tetraarsenic trisulfide 12512-13-9

As4S4 tetraarsenic tetrasulfide 12279-90-2

AuBO gold monoboride monoxide 12588-90-8

AuBr gold bromide 10294-27-6

AuBr3 gold tribromide 10294-28-7

AuCN gold cyanide 506-65-0

AuCl gold chloride 10294-29-8

AuCl3 gold trichloride 13453-07-1

AuF3 gold trifluoride 14720-21-9

AuI gold iodide 10294-31-2

AuI3 gold(III) iodide 31032-13-0

Au(OH)3 gold hydroxide 1303-52-2

AuTe gold telluride 37043-71-3

Au2O3 gold trioxide 1303-58-8

Au2S gold sulfide 1303-60-2

Au2S3 gold trisulfide 1303-61-3

Au2(SeO4)3 gold triselenate 10294-32-3

Au2Se3 gold triselenide 1303-62-4

BChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

BAs boron arsenide 12005-69-5

BAsO4 boron(III) arsenate

BBr3 boron tribromide 10294-33-4

BCl3 boron trichloride 10294-34-5

BF3 boron trifluoride 7637-07-2

BI3 boron iodide 13517-10-7

BN boron nitride 10043-11-5

B(OH)3 boric acid 10043-35-3

BP boron(III) phosphide 20205-91-8

BPO4 boron(III) orthophosphate 13308-51-5

B2Cl4 boron chloride 13701-67-2

B2F4 boron trifluoride 13965-73-6

B2H6 boron hydride 19287-45-7

B2O3 boron(III) oxide 1303-86-2

B2S3 boron sulfide 12007-33-9

B3N3H6 borazine 6569-51-3

B4C boron carbide 12069-32-8

Ba(AlO2)2 barium aluminate 12004-04-5

Ba(AsO3)2 barium arsenite 125687-68-5

Ba(AsO4)2 barium arsenate 56997-31-0

BaB6 barium hexaboride 12046-08-1

Ba(BrO3)2·H2O barium bromate monohydrate 10326-26-8

Ba(BrO3)2·2H2O barium bromate dihydrate

BaBr2 barium bromide 10553-31-8

Ba(CHO2)2 barium formate 541-43-5

Ba(C2H3O2)2 barium acetate 543-81-7

Ba(CN)2 barium cyanide 542-62-1

BaC2O4 barium oxalate 516-02-9

BaC2 barium carbide 50813-65-5

BaCO3barium carbonatewitherite

513-77-9

Ba(ClO4)2 barium perchlorate 13465-95-7

BaCl2 barium chloride 10361-37-2

BaCrO4barium chromatebarium chromate(VI)

10294-40-3

BaF2 barium fluoride 7787-32-8

BaFeSi4O10 gillespite

BaHgI4 barium tetraiodomercurate(II) 10048-99-4

BaI2 barium iodide 13718-50-8

BaK2(CrO4)2 barium potassium chromate 27133-66-0

BaMnO4 barium manganate 7787-35-1

Ba(MnO4)2 barium permanganate 7787-36-2

BaMoO4 barium molybdate 7787-37-3

BaN6 barium azide 18810-58-7

Ba(NO2)2 barium nitrite 13465-94-6

Ba(NO3)2 barium nitrate 10022-31-8

Ba(NbO3)2 barium niobate 12009-14-2

BaNb2O6 barium metaniobate 12009-14-2

BaO barium oxide 1304-28-5

Ba(OH)2barium hydroxidebaryta

17194-00-2

BaO2 barium dioxide 1304-29-6

Ba(PO3)2 barium metaphosphate 13466-20-1

BaS barium sulfide 21109-95-5

Ba(SCN)2 barium thiocyanate 2092-17-3

BaS2O3 barium thiosulfate 35112-53-9

BaSiF6 barium hexafluorosilicate 17125-80-3

BaSO3 barium sulfite 7787-39-5

BaSO4barium sulfatebarite

7787-43-7

BaSe barium selenide 1304-39-8

BaSeO3 barium selenite 13718-59-7

BaSeO4 barium selenate 7787-41-9

BaSiO3 barium metasilicate 13255-26-0

BaSi2 barium silicide 1304-40-1

BaSi2O5 barium disilicate 12650-28-1

BaSn3 barium stannate 12009-18-6

BaTeO3 barium tellurite 58440-17-8

BaTeO4·3H2O barium tellurate trihydrate 28557-54-2

BaTiO3barium titanatebarium metatitanate

12047-27-7

BaU2O7 barium uranium oxide 10380-31-1

BaWO4 barium tungstate 7787-42-0

BaZrO3 barium zirconate 12009-21-1

Ba2Na(NbO3)5 barium sodium niobate 12323-03-4

Ba2P2O7 barium pyrophosphate 13466-21-2

Ba2V2O7 barium pyrovanadate

Ba2XeO6 barium perxenate

Ba3(CrO4)2 barium chromate(V) 12345-14-1

Ba3N2 barium nitride 12047-79-9

Ba3(PO4)2 barium orthophosphate

Ba3(VO4)2 barium orthovandate 39416-30-3

BeB2 beryllium boride 12228-40-9

Be(BH4)2 beryllium borohydride 17440-85-6

BeBr2 beryllium bromide 7787-46-4

Be(CHO2)2 beryllium formate 1111-71-3

Be(C2H3O2)2 beryllium acetate 543-81-7

Be(C5H7O2)2 beryllium acetylacetonate 10210-64-7

BeCl2 beryllium chloride 7787-47-5

BeF2 beryllium fluoride 7787-49-7

BeI2 beryllium iodide 7787-53-3

BeOberyllium oxidebromellite

1304-56-9

Be(OH)2 beryllium hydroxide 13327-32-7

BeS beryllium sulfide 13598-22-6

BeSO4 beryllium sulfate 13510-49-1

Be2C beryllium carbide 506-66-1

Be3N2 beryllium nitride 1304-54-7

BiBO3 bismuth(III) orthoborate

BiBr3 bismuth(III) bromide 7787-58-8

Bi(C2H3O2)3 bismuth(III) acetate 22306-37-2

BiC6H5O7 bismuth(III) citrate 813-93-4

BiCl3 bismuth(III) chloride 7787-60-2

BiF3 bismuth(III) fluoride 7787-61-3

BiI3 bismuth(III) iodide 7787-64-6

Bi(NO3)3·5H2O bismuth(III) nitrate pentahydrate 10035-06-0

BiOCl bismuth(III) oxychloride 7787-59-9

BiOI bismuth(III) oxyiodide 7787-63-5

(BiO)2CO3 bismuth oxycarbonate 5892-10-4

BiPO4 bismuth(III) orthophosphate 10049-01-1

Bi(VO3)5 bismuth(III) metavanadate

Bi2Se3bismuth(III) selenidebismuth selenide

12068-69-8

Bi2(MoO4)3 bismuth(III) molybdate 13565-96-3

Bi2O3 bismuth(III) oxide 1304-76-3

Bi2S3bismuth(III) sulfidebismuthinite

1345-07-9

Bi2Se3 bismuth(III) selenide 12068-69-8

BrCl bromine chloride 13863-41-7

BrO3− bromate ion 15541-45-4

Br2 bromine 7726-95-6

CChemical compound Synonyms CAS number

CCl2F2dichlorodifluoromethanefreon-12

75-71-8

CCl4carbon tetrachloridetetrachloromethane

56-23-5

CFCl3 freon-11 75-69-4

CFCl2CF2Cl freon-13

CHCl3

chloroformtrichloromethanemethyl trichloride

67-66-3

CHO2− formate ion

CH2CHCHCH2 1,3-butadiene 106-99-0

CH2CO ketene

CH2ClCOOH chloroacetic acid

CH2Cl2 dichloromethane 75-09-2

CH2O formaldehyde 19710-56-6

CH2OHCH2OH ethylene glycol

CH3CCH propyne

CH3CHCHCH3 2-butene

CH3CHCH2 propene

CH3CHO acetaldehyde

CH3CH2Br bromoethane

CH3CH2CH2CH2OH butan-1-ol

CH3CH2CH2OH1-propanolpropan-1-ol

CH3CH2CONH2 propanamide

CH3CH2COOH propionic acid

CH3CH2OCH2CH3diethyl etherethoxyethane

CH3CH2OH ethanol

CH3(CH2)16COOH stearic acid

CH3COCH3 acetone

CH3COCl acetyl chloride

CH3CONH2acetamideethanamide

CH3COO− acetate ion

CH3COOCHCH2 vinyl acetate

CH3COOCH2C6H5 benzyl acetate

CH3COO(CH2)2CH(CH3)2 isoamyl acetate

CH3COOHacetic acidethanoic acid

CH3Clchloromethanemethyl chloride

74-87-3

CH3Iiodomethanemethyl iodide

74-88-4

CH3OCH3 dimethyl ether

CH3OH methanol

CH3SCH3dimethyl sulfideDMS

CH3SH methanethiol

(CH3)2CHOH

isopropyl alcohol2-propanolpropan-2-olisopropanol

(CH3)2CO acetone

(CH3)2C2O4 dimethyl oxalate

(CH3)2NNH2 dimethyl hydrazine

(CH3)2S+CH2CH2COO− dimethylsulfoniopropionateDMSP

(CH3)3CCl t -butyl chloride

(CH)3COH t -butyl alcohol

(CH3)3COOC(CH3)3di- t -butyl peroxide DTBP

CH4methanenatural gas

74-82-8

CN− cyanide ion

C(NH2)3NO3 guanidine nitrate

CNO− cyanate ion

CO carbon monoxide 630-08-0

COCl2 phosgene 75-44-5

CO2 carbon dioxide 124-38-9

CO3 carbon trioxide

CO32− carbonate ion

CS2 carbon disulfide 75-15-0

C2F4 tetrafluoroethylene 116-14-3

C2H2 acetylene 74-86-2

C2H3Cl vinyl chloride 75-01-4

C2H3O2− acetate ion

C2H4 ethylene 74-85-1

C2H4Cl2 ethylene dichloride 107-06-2

C2H4O2 acetic acid 64-19-7

C2H5Br bromoethane 74-96-4

C2H5NH2 ethylamine

C2H5NO2glycineGly

56-40-6

C2H5O− ethoxide ion

C2H5OHethanolethyl alcohol

(C2H5)2NH diethylamine

C2H6 ethane 74-84-0

C2H6OSdimethyl sulfoxideDMSO

67-68-5

C2O42− oxalate ion

C3H3O4− malonate ion

C3H5N3O9 nitroglycerine

C3H6

cyclopropane 75-19-4

propylene 115-07-1

C3H7NO2alanineAla

56-41-7

C3H7NO2ScysteineCys

52-90-4

C3H7NO3serineSer

56-45-1

C3H8 propane 74-98-6

C3H8O

propanol1-propanol

71-23-8

2-propanol 67-63-0

C3N3(OH)3 cyanuric acid

C3N12 cyanuric triazide 5637-83-2

C4H7BrO2

2-bromobutyric acid 80-58-0

4-bromobutyric acid 2623-87-2

α-bromoisobutyric acid 2052-01-9

ethyl bromoacetate 105-36-2

C4H7NO4aspartic acidAsp

56-84-8

C4H8 cyclobutane 287-23-0

C4H8N2O3asparagineAsn

70-47-3

C4H8OtetrahydrofuranTHF

109-99-9

C4H9NO3threonineThr

72-19-5

C4H9OH butyl alcohol

C4H10

butane 106-97-8

2-methylpropane 75-28-5

C4H10O diethyl ether 60-29-7

C5H4NCOOH niacin

C5H5− cyclopentadienyl anion

C5H5N pyridine 110-86-1

C5H9NO2 proline 147-85-3

Pro

C5H9NO4glutamic acidGlu

56-86-0

C5H10 cyclopentane 287-92-3

C5H10N2O3glutamineGln

56-85-9

C5H10O4 deoxyribose 533-67-5

C5H11NO2valineVal

660-88-8

C5H11NO2SmethionineMet

25343-91-3

C5H12 pentane 109-66-0

C6F5COOH pentafluorobenzoic acid

C6H4O2

orthobenzoquinone 583-63-1

parabenzoquinonequinone

106-51-4

C6H5CHO benzaldehyde

C6H5CH2OH benzyl alcohol

C6H5COCl benzoyl chloride

C6H5COO− benzoate ion

C6H5COOH benzoic acid 65-85-0

C6H5F fluorobenzene 462-06-6

C6H5OH phenol

C6H5O73− citrate ion

(C6H5)4Ge tetraphenylgermane

C6H6 benzene 71-43-2

C6H6O2

(benzenediols)

catechol 120-80-9

hydroquinone 123-31-9

resorcinol 108-46-3

C6H8O7 citric acid 77-92-9

C6H9N3O2histidineHis

71-00-1

C6H10O3

4-acetylbutyric acid 3128-06-1

butyl glyoxylate 6295-06-3

ethyl acetoacetate 141-97-9

2-hydroxypropyl acrylate 25584-83-2

pantolactone 599-04-2

propyl pyruvate

C6H12 cyclohexane 110-82-7

C6H12O6

fructose 7660-25-5

glucose 50-99-7

C6H13NO N -ethylmorpholine 1119-29-5

C6H13NO2

isoleucineIle

73-32-5

leucineLeu

61-90-5

C6H14 hexane 110-54-3

C6H14N2O2lysineLys

56-87-1

C6H14N4O2arginineArg

74-79-3

C7H8 toluene 108-88-3

C7H16 heptane 142-82-5

C8H8 cubane 277-10-1

C8H9NO2 acetaminophen 103-90-2

C8H18 octane 111-65-9

C9H8O4acetylsalicylic acidaspirin

50-78-2

C9H11NO2phenylalaninePhe

63-91-2

C9H11NO3tyrosineTyr

31330-59-3

C9H20 nonane 111-84-2

C10H8 naphthalene 91-20-3

C10H14O mentha spicata herb oil 8008-79-5

C10H15ON ephedrine 56370-30-0

C10H16O camphor 76-22-2

C10H22 decane 124-18-5

C11H12N2O2tryptophanTrp

73-22-3

C11H24 undecane 1120-21-4

C12H10 biphenyl 92-52-4

C12H22O11

maltose 69-79-4

sucrose 57-50-1

C12H26 dodecane 112-40-3

C13H10O benzophenone 119-61-9

C13H12O β-ionone 2484-16-4

C13H28 tridecane 629-50-5

C14H10 anthracene 120-12-7

C14H10O14 benzoyl peroxide 94-36-0

C14H18N2O5 aspartame 81-14-1

C14H30 tetradecane 629-59-4

C15H32 pentadecane 629-62-9

C16H34 hexadecane 544-76-3

C17H36 heptadecane 629-78-7

C18H32O2 linoleic acid 60-33-3

C18H36O2 stearic acid 57-11-4

C18H38 octadecane 593-45-3

C19H40 nonadecane 629-92-5

C20H24O2N2 quinine 130-95-0

C20H42 eicosane 112-95-8

C21H36N7O16P3S Coenzyme A 31416-98-5

C164H256Na2O68S2 maitotoxin 59392-53-9

Cl2O8 Chlorine octaoxide

Ca-CuChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

CaB6 calcium boride 12007-99-7

CaBr2 calcium bromide 7789-41-5

Ca(CN)2 calcium cyanide 592-01-8

CaCO3 calcium carbonatespent lime

471-34-1

calcitelimestonemarble

CaC2 calcium carbide 75-20-7

Ca(CHO2)2 calcium formate 544-17-2

Ca(C2H3O2)2 calcium acetate 62-54-4

CaC2O4 calcium oxalate 563-72-4

CaCl2 calcium chloride 10043-52-4

Ca(ClO3)2 calcium chlorate 10137-74-3

Ca(ClO4)2 calcium perchlorate 13477-36-6

CaF2calcium fluoridefluorite

7789-75-5

CaH2 calcium hydride 7789-78-8

Ca(H2PO2)2 calcium hypophosphite 7789-79-9

CaI2 calcium iodide 10102-68-8

Ca(IO3)2 calcium iodate 7789-80-2

CaMoO4 calcium molybdate 7789-82-4

Ca(NO2)2 calcium nitrite 13780-06-8

Ca(NO3)2 calcium nitrate 10124-37-5

Ca(NO3)2 · 4H2O Calcium nitrate tetrahydrate 13477-34-4

Ca(NbO3)2 calcium metaniobate

CaOquicklimecalcium oxideburnt lime

1305-78-8

Ca(ClO)2 calcium hypochlorite

Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide 1305-62-0

slaked lime

CaO2 calcium peroxide 1305-79-9

CaS

calcium sulfidehepar calciessulfurated limeoldhamite

20548-54-3

CaSO4calcium sulfatewhiskers crystal

7778-18-9

CaSO4 · 0.5H2Oplaster of pariscalcium sulfate hemihydrate

10034-76-1

CaSe calcium selenide 1305-84-6

CaSeO3 calcium selenite

CaSeO4 calcium selenate

CaSiO3calcium metasilicatewollastonite

1344-95-2

CaTe calcium telluride 12013-57-9

CaTeO3 calcium tellurite

CaTeO4 calcium tellurate

CaTiO3 calcium titanate 12049-50-2

Ca(VO3)2 calcium metavanadate

Ca(VO4)2 calcium orthovanadate

CaWO4 calcium tungstate 7790-75-2

Ca3N2 calcium nitride 12013-82-0

Ca3P2 calcium phosphide 1305-99-3

CdBr2 cadmium bromide 7789-42-6

Cd(CN)2 cadmium cyanide 542-83-6

CdCO3 cadmium carbonate 513-78-0

Cd(C2H3O2)2 cadmium acetate 543-90-8

CdC2O4 cadmium oxalate 814-88-0

CdCl2 cadmium chloride 10108-64-2

CdCrO4 cadmium chromate 14312-00-6

CdF2 cadmium fluoride 7790-79-6

CdI2 cadmium iodide 7790-80-9

Cd(IO3)2 cadmium iodate 7790-81-0

CdMoO4 cadmium molybdate 13972-68-4

Cd(NO3)2 cadmium nitrate 10325-94-7

Cd(N3)2 cadmium azide 14215-29-3

CdO cadmium oxide 1306-19-0

Cd(OH)2 cadmium hydroxide 21041-95-2

CdScadmium sulfidegreenockite

1306-23-6

CdSO3 cadmium sulfite

CdSO4 cadmium sulfate 10124-36-4

CdSb cadmium antimonide 12014-29-8

CdSecadmium selenidecadmoselite

1306-24-7

CdSeO3 cadmium selenite

CdSiO3 cadmium metasilicate 13477-19-5

Cd(TaO3)2 cadmium metatantalate

CdTe cadmium telluride 1306-25-8

CdTeO4 cadmium tellurate

CdTiO3 cadmium titanate 12014-14-1

CdWO4 cadmium tungstate 7790-85-4

CdZrO3 cadmium metazirconate

Cd2Nb2O7 cadmium niobate 12187-14-3

Cd3As2 cadmium arsenide 12006-15-4

Cd3P2 cadmium phosphide 12014-28-7

Cd3(PO4)2 cadmium phosphate

CeB6 cerium boride 12008-02-5

CeBr3 cerium(III) bromide 14457-87-5

CeC cerium carbide 12012-32-7

CeCl3 cerium(III) chloride 7790-86-5

CeF3 cerium(III) fluoride 7758-88-5

CeF4 cerium(IV) fluoride 7758-88-5

CeI2 cerium(II) iodide 19139-47-0

CeI3 cerium(III) iodide 7790-87-6

CeN cerium nitride 25764-08-3

CeO2cerium(IV) oxidecerianite

1306-38-3

CeS cerium(II) sulfide 12014-82-3

Ce(SO4)2 cerium(IV) sulfate

CeSi2 cerium silicide 12014-85-6

Ce2C3 cerium(III) carbide 12115-63-8

Ce2O3 cerium(III) oxide 1345-13-7

Ce2S3 cerium(III) sulfide 12014-93-6

ClF chlorine fluoride 7790-89-8

ClF3 chlorine trifluoride 7790-91-2

ClF5 chlorine pentafluoride 13637-63-3

ClOClO3 chlorine perchlorate 27218-16-2

ClO2 chlorine dioxide 10049-04-4

ClO3F chlorine trioxide fluoride 7616-94-6

Cl2 chlorine 7782-50-5

Cl2O3 chlorine trioxide 17496-59-2

Cl2O6 chlorine hexoxide 12442-63-6

Cl2O7 chlorine heptoxide 10294-48-1

CoAl2O4 cobalt(II) aluminate 13820-62-7

CoAs cobalt arsenide 27016-73-5

CoAs2 cobalt(II) arsenide 12044-42-7

CoB cobalt(II) boride 12006-77-8

CoBr2 cobalt(II) bromide 7789-43-7

Co(CN)2 cobalt(II) cyanide 542-84-7

Co(C2H3O2)2 cobalt(II) acetate 71-48-7

Co(C2H3O2)3 cobalt(III) acetate 917-69-1

CoC2O4 cobalt(II) oxalate 814-89-1

Co(ClO4)2 cobalt(II) perchlorate 13455-31-7

CoCl2 cobalt(II) chloride 7646-79-9

CoCrO4 cobalt(II) chromate 24613-38-5

CoCr2O4 cobalt(II) chromite 13455-25-9

CoF2 cobalt(II) fluoride 10026-17-2

CoF3 cobalt(III) fluoride 10026-18-3

Co(IO3)2 cobalt(II) iodate 13455-28-2

CoI2 cobalt(II) iodide 15238-00-3

CoMoO4 cobalt(II) molybdate 13762-14-6

Co(NO3)2 cobalt(II) nitrate 10141-05-6

Co(NO3)3 cobalt(III) nitrate 15520-84-0

CoO cobalt(II) oxide 1307-96-6

Co(OH)2 cobalt(II) hydroxide 21041-93-0

Co(OH)3 cobalt(III) hydroxide 1307-86-4

CoS cobalt(II) sulfide 1317-42-6

CoS2 cobalt disulfide 12013-10-4

CoSb cobalt antimonide 12052-42-5

CoSe cobalt(II) selenide 1307-99-9

CoSeO3 cobalt(II) selenite

CoTe cobalt(II) telluride 12017-13-9

CoTiO3 cobalt(II) titanate 12017-01-5

CoWO4 cobalt(II) tungstate 12640-47-0

Co2B cobalt boride 12045-01-1

Co2SO4 cobalt(II) sulfate 10124-43-3

Co2S3 cobalt(III) sulfide 1332-71-4

Co2SiO4 cobalt(II) orthosilicate 12017-08-2

Co2SnO4 cobalt(II) stannate 12139-93-4

Co2TiO4 cobalt(II) titanite 12017-38-8

Co3(Fe(CN)6)2 cobalt(II) ferricyanide 14049-81-1

CrBr2 chromium(II) bromide 10049-25-9

CrBr3 chromium(III) bromide 10031-25-1

CrCl2 chromium(II) chloride 10049-05-5

CrCl3 chromium(III) chloride 10025-73-7

CrCl4 chromium(IV) chloride 15597-88-3

CrF2 chromium(II) fluoride 10049-10-2

CrF3 chromium(III) fluoride 7788-97-8

CrF4 chromium(IV) fluoride 10049-11-3

CrF5 chromium(V) fluoride 13843-28-2

CrF6 chromium(VI) fluoride 13843-28-2

CrI2 chromium(II) iodide 13478-28-9

CrI3 chromium(III) iodide 13569-75-0

Cr(NO3)3 chromium(III) nitrate 13548-38-4

Cr(NO2)3 chromium(III) nitrite

CrO2 chromium(IV) oxide 12018-01-8

CrO3 chromium(VI) oxide 1333-82-0

CrO42− chromate ion

CrO2Cl2 chromium(VI) oxychloride 14977-61-8

CrPO4 chromium(III) phosphate 7789-04-0

CrSb chromium antimonide 12053-12-2

CrVO4 chromium(III) orthovanadate

Cr2O3chromium(III) oxideeskolaite

1308-38-9

Cr2(SO4)3 chromium(III) sulfate 10101-53-8

Cr2S3 chromium(III) sulfide 12018-22-3

Cr2Se3 chromium(III) selenide

Cr2(TeO4)3 chromium(III) tellurate

Cr2Te3 chromium(III) telluride 12053-39-3

Cr3As2 chromium(II) arsenide

Cr3C2 chromium(II) carbide 12012-35-0

Cr3Sb2 chromium(II) antimonide

Cr3Si2 chromium(II) silicide

CsBO2 caesium borate 92141-86-1

CsBr caesium bromide 7787-69-1

CsBrO3 caesium bromate 13454-75-6

CsBr3 caesium tribromide

CsCN caesium cyanide 21159-32-0

CsC2H3O2 caesium acetate 3396-11-0

CsCl caesium chloride 7647-17-8

CsClO3 caesium chlorate 13763-67-2

CsClO4 caesium perchlorate 13454-84-7

CsF caesium fluoride 13400-13-0

CsI caesium iodide 7789-17-5

CsI3 caesium triiodide

CsNH2 caesium amide 22205-57-8

CsNO3 caesium nitrate 7789-18-6

CsN3 caesium azide 22750-57-8

CsNbO3 caesium metaniobate

CsOH caesium hydroxide 21351-79-1

CsO2 caesium superoxide 12018-61-0

Cs2S caesium sulfide 12214-16-3

CsSCN caesium thiocyanate

CsSeO4 caesium selenate

CsTaO3 caesium metatantalate

Cs2CO3 caesium carbonate 29703-01-3

Cs2C2O4 caesium oxalate

Cs2CrO4 caesium chromate

Cs2Cr2O7 caesium dichromate

Cs2HPO4 caesium hydrogen orthophosphate

Cs2MoO4 caesium molybdate 13597-64-3

Cs2O caesium oxide 20281-00-9

Cs2SO3 caesium sulfite

Cs2SO4 caesium sulfate 10294-54-9

Cs2SiO3 caesium metasilicate

Cs2TeO4 caesium tellurate

Cs2TiO3caesium titanatecaesium metatitanate

Cs2WO4 caesium orthotungstate

Cs3PO4 caesium orthophosphate

Cs3VO4 caesium orthovanadate

CuBr copper(I) bromide 7787-70-4

Cu(BrO3)2 · 6H2O copper(II) bromate hexahydrate

CuBr2 copper(II) bromide

CuC2O4 copper oxalate

CuCl copper(I) chloride 7758-89-6

Cu(ClO3)2 · 6H2O copper(II) chlorate hexahydrate

CuCl2 copper(II) chloride 7447-39-4

CuFeS2copper iron sulfidechalcopyrite

CuFe2O4 copper(II) iron(II) oxide

CuFe2S3copper iron sulfidecubanite

[Cu(H2O)4]SO4 · H2O blue vitriol

CuI copper(I) iodide 7681-65-4

CuIO3 copper(I) iodate

Cu(IO3)2 copper(II) iodate

CuMoO4 copper(II) orthomolybdate

Cu(NO3)2 copper(II) nitrate

Cu(NO3)2 · 3H2O copper(II) nitrate trihydrate

Cu(NO3)2 · 6H2O copper(II) nitrate hexahydrate 10294-41-4

Cu(NbO3)2 copper(II) orthoniobate

CuO copper(II) oxide 1317-38-0

Cu(OH)2 copper(II) hydroxide

CuScopper(II) sulfidecovellite

1317-40-4

CuSCN copper(I) thiocyanate

CuSO4 copper(II) sulfate 7758-98-7

CuSO4 · 5H2O copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate

CuSe copper(II) selenide

CuSeO3 · 2H2O copper(II) selenite dihydrate

CuSeO4 · 5H2O copper(II) selenate pentahydride

CuSiO3 copper(II) metasilicate

CuTe copper(II) telluride

CuTeO3 copper(II) tellurite

CuTiO3 copper(II) metatitanate

Cu(VO3)2 copper(II) metavanadate

CuWO4 copper(II) orthotungstate

Cu2CO3(OH)2 malachite

Cu2Scopper(I) sulfidechalcocite

Cu2Se copper(I) selenide

Cu2Te copper(I) telluride

Cu3As copper(I) arsenide

Cu3P copper(I) phosphide

Cu3(PO4)2 copper(II) phosphate

Cu3Sb copper(III) antimonide

Cu9S5 copper sulfide

digenite

Cu3Zn2 copperzinc brass

Dictionary of chemical formulas/D Dictionary of chemical formulas/E Dictionary of chemical formulas/F

GChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

GaAs gallium(III) arsenide

GaAsO4 gallium(III) orthoarsenate

GaBr3 gallium(III) bromide 13450-88-9

Ga(C2H3O2)3 gallium(III) acetate

GaCl2 gallium(II) chloride 128579-09-9

GaCl3 gallium trichloride 13450-90-3

GaI2 gallium(II) iodide

GaI3 gallium(III) iodide 13450-91-4

GaN gallium(III) nitride

Ga(OH)3 gallium(III) hydroxide

GaPO4 gallium(III) orthophosphate

GaSb gallium(III) antimonide 12064-03-8

GaTe gallium(II) telluride 12024-14-5

Ga2O3 gallium(III) oxide 12024-21-4

Ga2(SO4)3·18H2O gallium(III) sulfate octadecahydrate

Ga2S3 gallium(III) sulfide

Ga2Te3 gallium(III) telluride

GeBr4 germanium(IV) bromide 13450-92-5

GeH3COOH 2-germaacetic acid

GeI2 germanium(II) iodide 13573-08-5

GeI4 germanium(IV) iodide 13450-95-8

GeO germanium(II) oxide 20619-16-3

HChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

HAt hydrogen astatide

HBrhydrogen bromidehydrobromic acid

10035-10-6

HCCHacetyleneethyne

HCNhydrocyanic acidhydrogen cyanide

6914-07-4

HCONH2formamidemethanamide

HCOO− formate ion

HCOOHformic acidmethanoic acid

HCOONH4 ammonium formate

HCO3− hydrogen carbonate ion

HC3H5O3 lactic acid

HC5H5N+ pyridinium ion

HC6H7O6 ascorbic acid

HC9H7O4 acetylsalicylic acid

HC12H17ON4SCl2thiamine hydrochloridevitamin B1 hydrochloride

HClhydrochloric acidhydrogen chloride

7647-01-0

HClO hypochlorous acid 7790-92-3

HClO2 chlorous acid 13898-47-0

HClO3 chloric acid 7790-93-4

HClO4 perchloric acid 7601-90-3

HDOsemiheavy waterwater-d1

14940-63-7

HF hydrofluoric acid 7664-39-3

HI hydroiodic acid 10034-85-2

HIO3 iodic acid

HNO2 nitrous acid 7782-77-6

HNO3nitric acidhydrogen nitrate

7697-37-2

HN3 hydrazoic acid 7782-79-8

HOCl hypochlorous acid 7790-92-3

HOF hypofluorous acid 14034-79-8

HOOCCOOH oxalic acid

HPO42− hydrogen phosphate ion

HSO3− hydrogen sulfite ion

HSO4− hydrogen sulfate

HTOpartially tritiated waterwater-t

13670-17-2

H2 hydrogen 1333-74-0

H2C(CH)CN acrylonitrile

H2CO formaldehyde 19710-56-6

H2CO3 carbonic acid 107-32-4

H2CSO sulfine 40100-16-1

H2C2O4 oxalic acid 144-62-7

H2C4H4O6 tartaric acid

H2C8H4O4phthalic acidH2Ph

H2CrO4 chromic acid

H2NCH2COOH glycine

H2NNH2 hydrazine

H2O water 7732-18-5

H2O2 hydrogen peroxide 7722-84-1

H2PO4− dihydrogen phosphate ion

H2Shydrogen sulfidehydrosulfuric acid

7783-06-4

H2SO3 sulfurous acid

H2SO4sulfuric acidhydrogen sulfate

7664-93-9

H2S2O7 disulfuric acid

H2S2O8 peroxydisulfuric acid

H2SeO3 selenous acid

H2SeO4 selenic acid

H2SiO3 silicic acid 7699-41-4

H2TeO3 tellurous acid

H2TiO3 titanic acid

H3AsO4 arsenic acid

H3CCH2CH3 propane

H3N+CH2COO− zwitterion

H3O+ hydronium ion

H3PO4 phosphoric acid 7664-38-2

H4XeO6 perxenic acid

H6TeO6 telluric acid

HfBr4 hafnium(IV) bromide 13777-22-5

HfF4 hafnium(IV) fluoride 13709-52-9

HfOCl2 · 8H2O hafnium(IV) oxychloride octahydrate

HfOH(C2H3O2)3 hafnium(IV) acetate, basic

Hf(SO4)2 hafnium(IV) sulfate

Hg(BrO3)2 · 2H2O mercury(II) bromate dihydrate

HgBr2 mercury(II) bromide 7789-47-1

Hg(C2H3O2)2 mercury(II) acetate

Hg(C7H5O2)2 · H2O mercury(II) benzoate monohydrate

HgClO4 · 4H2O mercury(I) perchlorate tetrahydrate

Hg(ClO4)2 · 3H2O mercury(II) perchlorate trihydrate

HgCl2 mercury(II) chloride 7487-94-7

Hg(IO3)2 mercury(II) iodate

HgI2 mercury(II) iodide 7774-29-0

Hg(NO3)2 · H2O mercury(II) nitrate monohydrate

Hg(CNO)2 mercury(II) fulminate 628-86-4

HgO mercury(II) oxide 21908-53-2

HgSmercury(II) sulfidecinnabar

Hg(SCN)2 mercury(II) thiocyanate

HgSe mercury(II) selenide

HgSeO3 mercury(II) selenite

HgTe mercury(II) telluride

HgTeO3 mercury(II) tellurite

HgWO4 mercury(II) tungstate

Hg2Br2 mercury(I) bromide 15385-58-7

Hg2Cl2 mercury(I) chloride 10112-91-1

Hg2I2 mercury(I) iodide 15385-57-6

Hg3(AsO4)2 mercury(II) orthoarsenate

IChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

IBr iodine(I) bromide 7789-33-5

IBr3 iodine(III) bromide

ICl iodine(I) chloride 7790-99-0

ICl3 iodine(III) chloride

IO3− iodate ion

I2 iodine 7553-56-2

I3− triiodide ion

InAs indium(III) arsenide

InBr indium(I) bromide 14280-53-6

InBrI2 indium(III) bromodiiodide

InBr2I indium(III) dibromoiodide

InBr3 indium(III) bromide 13465-09-3

InCl indium(I) chloride 13465-10-6

InCl2 indium(II) chloride

InCl3 indium(III) chloride 10025-82-8

InCl3·4H2O indium(III) chloride tetrahydrate

InI indium(I) iodide 13966-94-4

In(IO3)3 indium(III) iodate

InI2 indium(II) iodide

InI3 indium(III) iodide 13510-35-5

In(NO3)3·4.5H2O indium(III) nitrate tetrahemihydrate

In(OH)3 indium(III) hydroxide

InP indium(III) phosphide 22398-80-7

InPO4 indium(III) orthophosphate

InS indium(II) sulfide 12030-14-7

InSb indium(III) antimonide 1312-41-0

InTe indium(II) telluride 12030-19-2

In2O3 indium(III) oxide 1312-43-2

In2(SO4)3·H2O indium(III) sulfate monohydrate

In2S3 indium(III) sulfide

In2Se3 indium(III) selenide

In2Te3 indium(III) telluride

KChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

KrF2 krypton difluoride 13773-81-4

LChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

LaCl3 lanthanum(III) chloride 10099-58-8

LaPO4 lanthanum(III) phosphate 14913-14-5

LaPO4·0.5H2O lanthanum(III) phosphate crystal hemihydrate

Li(AlSi2O6) keatite

LiBr lithium bromide 7550-35-8

LiBr·2H2O lithium bromide dihydrate

LiBrO3 lithium bromate

LiCN lithium cyanide

LiC2H5O lithium ethoxide

LiHSO4 lithium hydrogen sulfate

LiIO3 lithium iodate

LiNa sodium lithium

LiNO3 lithium nitrate

LiNO3·H2O lithium nitrate monohydrate

LiTaO3lithium tantalatelithium metatantalate

LiVO3·2H2O lithium metavanadate dihydrate

Li2B4O7·5H2O lithium tetraborate pentahydrate

Li2CrO4 lithium chromate

Li2CrO4·2H2O lithium chromate dihydrate

Li2Cr2O7 lithium dichromate

Li2MoO4 lithium orthomolybdate 13568-40-6

Li2NbO3 lithium metaniobate

Li2SO4 lithium sulfate 10377-48-7

Li2SeO3 lithium selenite

Li2SeO4 lithium selenate

Li2SiO3

lithium metasilicate 10102-24-6

lithium orthosilicate

Li2TeO3 lithium tellurite

Li2TeO4 lithium tellurate

Li2TiO3 lithium metatitanate 12031-82-2

Li2WO4 lithium orthotungstate 13568-45-1

Li2ZrO3 lithium metazirconate

MChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

Mg(AlO2)2 magnesium aluminate

MgCO3magnesium carbonatemagnesite

546-93-0

MgC2O4 magnesium oxalate

Mg(ClO3)2·xH2O magnesium chlorate hydrate

MgCl2 magnesium chloride 7786-30-3

MgCrO4·5H2O magnesium chromate pentahydrate

MgF2 magnesium fluoride 7783-40-6

MgI2 magnesium iodide 10377-58-9

MgMoO4 magnesium molybdate

MgNH4PO4·6H2O magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate

Mg(NO3)2·6H2O magnesium nitrate hexahydrate

MgNaAl5(Si4O10)3(OH)6 montmorillonite (clay)

MgOmagnesium oxidemagnesiapericlase

1309-48-4

Mg(OH)2magnesium hydroxidemilk of magnesia

MgPo magnesium polonide

MgS magnesium sulfide 12032-36-9

MgSO4 magnesium sulfate 7487-88-9

MgSe magnesium selenide

MgSeO3 magnesium selenite

MgSeO4 magnesium selenate

MgSiO3magnesium metasilicateenstatite

13776-74-4

MgTiO3 magnesium metatitanate 12032-30-3

Mg(VO3)2 magnesium metavanadate

MgWO4 magnesium tungstate 13573-11-0

Mg2Al(AlSiO5)(OH)4 amesite

Mg2P2O7 magnesium pyrophosphate

Mg2SiO4 forsterite 10034-94-3

Mg3As2 magnesium arsenide

Mg3Bi2 magnesium bismuthide

Mg3P2 magnesium phosphide

Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4 chrysotile

Mg3(Si4O10)(OH)2 talc

Mg3(VO4)2 magnesium orthovanadate

MnAs manganese(III) arsenide

MnBi manganese(III) bismuthide

MnBr2 manganese(II) bromide 13446-03-2

MnBr2·4H2O manganese(II) bromide tetrahydrate

Mn(CHO2)2·2H2O manganese(II) formate dihydrate

MnCO3 manganese(II) carbonate

MnCl2 manganese(II) chloride 7773-01-5

MnF2 manganese(II) fluoride 7782-64-1

MnI2 manganese(II) iodide

MnMoO4 manganese(II) orthomolybdate

Mn(NO3)2·4H2O manganese(II) nitrate tetrahydrate

MnO manganese(II) oxide 1344-43-0

Mn(OH)2 manganese hydroxide

MnOOH manganite

MnO2manganese dioxidepyrolusite

1313-13-9

MnO4− permanganate ion

MnPb8(Si2O7)3 barysilate

MnS manganese sulfide 18820-29-6

MnTe manganese(II) telluride

MnZrO3 manganese(II) metazirconate

Mn2O3 manganese(III) oxide

Mn3As2 manganese(II) arsenide

Mn3O4

manganese(II,III) oxidetrimanganese tetroxidehausmannite

Mn3P2 manganese(II) phosphide

Mn3Sb2 manganese(II) antimonide

MoBr2 molybdenum(II) bromide 13446-56-5

MoBr3 molybdenum(III) bromide 13446-57-6

MoCl2 molybdenum(II) chloride

MoCl3 molybdenum(III) chloride

MoCl5 molybdenum(V) chloride 10241-05-1

MoO2 molybdenum(IV) oxide 18868-43-4

MoO42− molybdate ion

MoS2

molybdenum sulfidemolybdenum disulfidemolybdenite

1317-33-5

Hg2Br2 mercury(I) bromide

N

2Na3

Chemical formula Synonyms CAS number

NH2− amide ion

NH2CH2CH2NH2 ethylenediamine

NH2CONH2 urea

NH2C6H4SO3H sulfanilic Acid

NH2OH hydroxylamine

(NH2)2CO urea

NH3 ammonia 7664-41-7

NH4+ ammonium ion

(NH4)3N ammonium nitride

NH4Br ammonium bromide 12124-97-9

NH4CO2NH2 ammonium carbamate

(NH4)2CO3 ammonium carbonate

NH4Cl ammonium chloride 12125-02-9

NH4ClO4 Ammonium perchlorate 7790-98-9

NH4HS ammonium hydrosulfide

(NH4)H2AsO4 ammonium dihydrogen arsenate

NH4NO3 ammonium nitrate 6484-52-2

NH4OCONH2 ammonium carbamate

(NH4)2Ce(NO3)6

ammonium cerium(IV) nitrateceric ammonium nitrateCAN

(NH4)3PO4 ammonium phosphate

(NH4)2CrO4 ammonium chromate

(NH4)2Hg(SCN)4 mercury(II) ammonium thiocyanate

(NH4)2[PtCl6] ammonium hexachloroplatinate(IV)

(NH4)2[Pt(SCN)6] ammonium hexathiocyanoplatinate(IV)

(NH4)2SO4 ammonium sulfate

NI3 nitrogen triiodide

NOnitric oxidenitrogen oxidenitrogen(II) oxide

10102-43-9

NO2nitrogen dioxidenitrogen(IV) oxide

10102-44-0

NO2− nitrite ion

NO2Cl nytril chloride 13444-90-1

NO3− nitrate ion

N2 nitrogen 7727-37-9

N2H4 hydrazine 302-01-2

N2Onitrous oxidedinitrogen oxidenitrogen(I) oxide

10024-97-2

N2O3dinitrogen trioxidenitrogen(III) oxide

10544-73-7

N2O4dinitrogen tetroxidenitrogen(IV) oxide

10544-72-6

N2O5dinitrogen pentaoxidenitrogen(V) oxide

10102-03-1

N4H4 trans -tetrazene 54410-57-0

NaAlSi3O3 albite

NaAsO2 sodium metaarsenite

NaAu(CN)2 sodium dicyanoaurate(I)

Na2Cr2O7 · 2H2O Sodium dichromate dihydrate 10588-01-9

Na[B(NO3)4] sodium tetranitratoborate(III)

NaBr sodium bromide 7647-15-6

NaCN sodium cyanide 143-33-9

NaC6F5COO pentafluorobenzoate

NaC6H5COO sodium benzoate

NaCa2(Al5Si5O20) · 6H2O thomsonite

NaClsodium chloriderock-salthalite

7647-14-5

NaH sodium hydride 7646-69-7

NaHCOO sodium formate

NaHCO3sodium bicarbonatebaking soda

144-55-8

NaI sodium iodide 7681-82-5

NaNH2C6H4SO3 sodium sulfanilate

NaNO3 sodium nitrate

NaNbO3 sodium metaniobate

NaNbO3 · 7H2O sodium metaniobate heptahydrate

NaOH sodium hydroxide 1310-73-2

NaO2As(CH3)2 · 3H2O sodium salt of cacodylic acid

NaSeO3 sodium selenite

NaTaO3 sodium metatantalate

NaVO3 sodium metavanadate

Na2CO3sodium carbonatesoda ash

497-19-8

Na2C2O4 sodium oxalate 62-76-0

Na2MoS4 sodium thiomolybdate

Na2O2 sodium peroxide 1313-60-6

Na2O sodium oxide

Na2S sodium monosulfide 1313-82-2

Na2SO4sodium sulfatesalt cake

7757-82-6

Na2S2O3 sodium thiosulfate

Na2S2O5 sodium disulfite 7681-57-4

Na2S4 sodium tetrasulfide

Na2SeO4 sodium selenate

Na2TeO3 sodium tellurite

Na2TeO4 sodium tellurate

Na2TiO3 sodium metatitanate

Na2ZnO2 sodium zincate

Na2ZrO3 sodium metazirconate

Na3AlF6 cryolite 15096-52-3

Na3[Co(CO3)3] sodium tricarbonatocobaltate(III)

Na3VO4 sodium orthovanadate

Na4V2O7 sodium pyrovanadate

NbBr5 niobium(V) bromide 13478-45-0

NbCl3 niobium(III) chloride

NbCl5 niobium(V) chloride 10026-12-7

NbI5 niobium(V) iodide

Nb2O3 niobium(III) oxide

NdCl2neodymium(II) chlorideneodymium dichloride

25469-93-6

NdI2neodymium(III) iodideneodymium diiodide

Nd(OH)3 neodymium hydroxide

Nd2O3neodymium(III) oxidedineodymium trioxide

NiAs nickel(III) arsenide

NiAsSnickel arsenic sulfidegersdorffite

NiBr2 nickel(II) bromide 13462-88-9

NiBr2 · 3H2O nickel(II) bromide trihydrate

NiBr2 · 6H2O nickel(II) bromide hexahydrate

Ni(CO)4 nickel tetracarbonyl

NiC2O4 · 2H2O nickel(II) oxalate dihydrate

NiCl2 nickel(II) chloride 7718-54-9

NiFe2O4 nickel(II) iron(III) oxide

NiI2 nickel(II) iodide

Ni(H2PO)2 · 6H2O nickel(II) hypophosphite hexahydrate

NiMoO4 nickel(II) orthomolybdate

Ni(NO3)2 · 6H2O nickel(II) nitrate hexahydrate

NiOOH nickel oxo-hydroxide

NiO nickel(II) oxide 1313-99-1

Ni(OH)2 nickel(II) hydroxide

NiSnickel(II) sulfidemillerite

16812-54-7

NiSO4 nickel sulfate

NiS2 nickel sulfide 12035-51-7

NiSe nickel(II) selenide

NiTiO3 nickel(II) metatitanate

Ni(VO3)2 nickel(II) metavanadate

NiWO4 nickel(II) orthotungstate

Ni2SiO4 nickel(II) orthosilicate

Ni3(PO4)2 nickel(II) orthophosphate

Ni3Sb2 nickel(II) antimonide

OChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

O oxygen 7782-44-7

O2 dioxygen

O2− superoxide ion

O22− peroxide ion

OF2 oxygen difluoride 7783-41-7

O2F2 dioxygen difluoride 7783-44-0

OH− hydroxide ion

O3 ozone 10028-15-6

O3− ozonide ion

PChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

PoBr2 polonium dibromide 66794-54-5

PoCl2 polonium dichloride

PoCl4 polonium tetrachloride 10026-02-5

PoF6 polonium hexafluoride 35473-38-2

PoH2 polonium hydride 31060-73-8

PoO polonium monoxide

PoO2 polonium dioxide 7446-06-2

PoO3 polonium trioxide

RChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

RnF2 radon difluoride

RuCl3 ruthenium(III) chloride

RuF6 ruthenium hexafluoride 13693-08-8

RuO4 ruthenium tetroxide 20427-56-9

SChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

SCN− thiocyanate

SF4 sulfur tetrafluoride

SF6 sulfur hexafluoride 2551-62-4

SOF2 thionyl difluoride 7783-42-8

SO2 sulfur dioxide 7446-09-5

SO2Cl2 sulfuryl chloride 7791-25-5

SO2F2 sulfuryl difluoride 2699-79-8

SO2OOH− peroxymonosulfurous acid (aqueous)

SO3 sulfur trioxide 7446-11-9

SO32− sulfite ion

SO42− sulfate ion

S2Br2 sulfur(II) bromide 71677-14-0

S2O32− thiosulfate ion

S2O72− disulfate ion

SbBr3 antimony(III) bromide 7789-61-9

SbCl3 antimony(III) chloride 10025-91-9

SbCl5 antimony(V) chloride 7647-18-9

SbI3 antimony(III) iodide 7790-44-5

SbPO4 antimony(III) phosphate

Sb2OS2antimony oxysulfidekermesite

Sb2O3 antimony(III) oxide 1309-64-4

Sb2O5 antimony(V) oxide

Sb2S3 antimony(III) sulfide 1345-04-6

Sb2Se3 antimony(III) selenide 1315-05-5

Sb2Se5 antimony(V) selenide

Sb2Te3 antimony(III) telluride

Sc2O3scandium oxidescandia

SeBr4 selenium(IV) bromide

SeCl selenium(I) chloride

SeCl4 selenium(IV) chloride 10026-03-6

SeOCl2 selenium(IV) oxychloride 7791-23-3

SeOF2 selenyl difluoride

SeO2 selenium(IV) oxide 7446-08-4

SeO42− selenate ion

SeTe selenium(IV) telluride 12067-42-4

SiBr4 silicon(IV) bromide 7789-66-4

SiC silicon carbide 409-21-2

SiCl4 silicon(IV) chloride 10026-04-7

SiH4 silane 7803-62-5

SiI4 silicon(IV) iodide 13465-84-4

SiO2

silicon(IV) dioxidesilicaquartz

7631-86-9

SiO44− silicate ion

Si2O76− disilicate ion

Si3N4 silicon nitride 12033-89-5

Si6O1812− cyclosilicate ion

SnBrCl3 tin(IV) bromotrichloride

SnBr2 tin(II) bromide 10031-24-0

SnBr2Cl2 tin(IV) dibromodichloride

SnBr3Cl tin(IV) tribromochloride 14779-73-8

SnBr4 tin(IV) bromide 7789-67-5

SnCl2 tin(II) chloride 7772-99-8

SnCl2I2 tin(IV) dichlorodiiodide

SnCl4 tin(IV) chloride 7646-78-8

Sn(CrO4)2 tin(IV) chromate

SnI4 tin(IV) iodide 7790-47-8

SnO2 tin(IV) oxide 18282-10-5

SnO32− stannate ion

SnS tin(II) sulfide 1314-95-0

SnS2 tin(IV) sulfide

Sn(SO4)2·2H2O tin(IV) sulfate dihydrate

SnSe tin(II) selenide 1315-06-6

SnSe2 tin(IV) selenide

SnTe tin(II) telluride 12040-02-7

SnTe4 tin(IV) telluride

Sn(VO3)2 tin(II) metavanadate

Sn3Sb4 tin(IV) antimonide

SrBr2 strontium bromide 10476-81-0

SrBr2·6H2O strontium bromide hexahydrate

SrCO3 strontium carbonate

SrCl2 strontium chloride

SrC2O4 strontium oxalate

SrF2 strontium fluoride 7783-48-4

SrI2 strontium iodide 10476-86-5

SrI2·6H2O strontium iodide hexahydrate

Sr(MnO4)2 strontium permanganate

SrMoO4 strontium orthomolybdate 13470-04-7

Sr(NbO3)2 strontium metaniobate

SrO strontium oxide 1314-11-0

Sr2RuO4 strontium ruthenate

SrS strontium sulfide 1314-96-1

SrSeO3 strontium selenite

SrSeO4 strontium selenate

SrTeO3 strontium tellurite

SrTeO4 strontium tellurate

SrTiO3 strontium metatitanate

TChemical formula Name CAS number

T2Otritium oxidetritiated water

14940-65-9

TaBr3 tantalum(III) bromide

TaBr5 tantalum(V) bromide

TaCl5 tantalum(V) chloride 7721-01-9

TaI5 tantalum(V) iodide

TaO3− tantalate ion

TcO4− pertechnetate ion

TeBr2 tellurium(II) bromide

TeBr2 tellurium(II) bromide

TeBr4 tellurium(IV) bromide

TeCl2 tellurium(II) chloride

TeCl4 tellurium(IV) chloride 10026-07-0

TeI2 tellurium(II) iodide

TeI4 tellurium(IV) iodide

TeO2 tellurium(IV) oxide 7446-07-3

TeO4− tellurate ion

TeY yttrium telluride 12187-04-1

Th(CO3)2 thorium carbonate 19024-62-5

Th(NO3)4 thorium nitrate 13823-29-5

TiBr4 titanium(IV) bromide 7789-68-6

TiCl2I2 titanium(IV) dichlorodiiodide

TiCl3I titanium(IV) trichloroiodide

TiCl4 titanium tetrachloride 7550-45-0

TiO2titanium dioxiderutile

1317-70-0

TiO32− titanate ion

TlBr thallium(I) bromide 7789-40-4

TlBr3 thallium(III) bromide

Tl(CHO2) thallium(I) formate

TlC2H3O2 thallium(I) acetate 563-68-8

Tl(C3H3O4) thallium(I) malonate

TlCl thallium(I) chloride 7791-12-0

TlCl3 thallium(III) chloride

TlF thallium(I) fluoride 7789-27-7

TlI thallium(I) iodide 7790-30-9

TlIO3 thallium(I) iodate

TlI3 thallium(III) iodide

TiI4 titanium(IV) iodide 7720-83-4

TiO(NO3)2 · xH2O titanium(IV) oxynitrate hydrate

TlNO3 thallium(I) nitrate 10102-45-1

TlOH thallium(I) hydroxide

TlPF6 thallium(I) hexafluorophosphate 60969-19-9

TlSCN thallium thiocyanate

Tl2MoO4 thallium(I) orthomolybdate

Tl2SeO3 thallium(I) selenite

Tl2TeO3 thallium(I) tellurite

Tl2WO4 thallium(I) orthotungstate

Tl3As thallium(I) arsenide

UChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

UF4 uranium(IV) fluoride 10049-14-6

UF6 uranium(VI) fluoride 7783-81-5

VChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

VBr2 vanadium(II) bromide

VBr3 vanadium(III) bromide

VCl2 vanadium(II) chloride 10580-52-6

VCl3 vanadium(III) chloride 7718-98-1

VSO5 vanadium oxysulfate 27774-13-6

V2O3 vanadium(III) oxide 1314-34-7

V2O5 vanadium pentoxide 1314-62-1

V2O74− divanadate ion

pyrovanadate ion

WChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

WBr2 tungsten(II) bromide 13470-10-5

WBr3 tungsten(III) bromide 15163-24-3

WBr4 tungsten(IV) bromide 14055-81-3

WBr5 tungsten(V) bromide 13470-11-6

WBr6 tungsten(VI) bromide 13701-86-5

W(CO)6 tungsten(VI) carbonyl 14040-11-0

WCl2 tungsten(II) chloride 13470-12-7

WCl3 tungsten(III) chloride 20193-56-0

WCl4 tungsten(IV) chloride 13470-13-8

WCl5 tungsten(V) chloride 13470-14-9

WCl6 tungsten(VI) chloride 13283-01-7

WF4 tungsten(IV) fluoride 13766-47-7

WF5 tungsten(V) fluoride 19357-83-6

WF6 tungsten(VI) fluoride 7783-82-6

WI2 tungsten(II) iodide 13470-17-2

WI4 tungsten(IV) iodide 14055-84-6

WOBr3 tungsten(V) oxytribromide 20213-56-3

WOBr4 tungsten(VI) oxytetrabromide 13520-77-9

WOCl3 tungsten(V) oxytrichloride 14249-98-0

WOCl4 tungsten(VI) oxytetrachloride 13520-78-0

WOF2 tungsten(VI) oxytetrafluoride 13520-79-1

WO2 tungsten(IV) oxide 12036-22-5

WO2Br2 tungsten(VI) dioxydibromide 13520-75-7

WO2Cl2 tungsten(VI) dioxydichloride 13520-76-8

WO2I2 tungsten(VI) dioxydiiodide 14447-89-3

WO3 tungsten(VI) oxide 1314-35-8

WO42− tungstate ion

WS2 tungsten(IV) sulfide 12138-09-9

WS3 tungsten(VI) sulfide 12125-19-8

WSe2 tungsten(IV) selenide 12067-46-8

WTe2 tungsten(IV) telluride 12067-76-4

W2C tungsten carbide 12070-13-2

YChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

YAs ytrrium arsenide 12255-48-0

YB6 yttrium boride 12008-32-1

YBr3 yttrium bromide 13469-98-2

YC2 yttrium carbide 12071-35-1

YCl3 ytrrium chloride 10361-92-9

YF3 yttrium fluoride 13709-49-4

YP yttrium phosphide 12294-01-8

YSb yttrium antimonide 12186-97-9

YVO4 yttrium vanadate 13566-12-6

Y2O3yttriayttrium oxide

1314-36-9

Y2S3 yttrium sulfide 12039-19-9

YbBr2 ytterbium(II) bromide 25502-05-0

YbBr3 ytterbium(III) bromide 13759-89-2

YbCl2 ytterbium(II)chloride 13874-77-6

YbCl3 ytterbium(III) chloride 10361-91-8

YbCl3·6H2O ytterbium(III) chloride hexahydrate 19423-87-1

YbF2 ytterbium(II) fluoride 15192-18-4

YbF3 ytterbium(III) fluoride 13760-80-0

YbI2 ytterbium(II) iodide 19357-86-9

YbI3 ytterbium(III) iodide 13813-44-0

YbSe ytterbium(II) selenide 12039-54-2

YbSi2 ytterbium(II) silicide 12039-89-3

Yb2O3 ytterbium(III) oxide 1314-37-0

Yb2S3 ytterbium(III) sulfide 12039-20-2

Yb2Se3 ytterbium(III) selenide 12166-52-8

YbTe ytterbium(II) telluride 12125-58-5

ZChemical formula Synonyms CAS number

Zn(AlO2)2 zinc aluminate 68186-87-8

Zn(AsO2)2 zinc arsenite 10326-24-6

ZnBr2 zinc bromide 7699-45-8

Zn(CN)2 zinc cyanide 557-21-1

ZnCO3 zinc carbonate 3486-35-9

Zn(C8H15O2)2 zinc caprylate 557-09-5

Zn(ClO3)2 zinc chlorate 10361-95-2

ZnCl2 zinc chloride 7646-85-7

ZnCr2O4 zinc chromite 12018-19-8

ZnF2 zinc fluoride 7783-49-5

Zn(IO3)2 zinc iodate 7790-37-6

ZnI2 zinc iodide 10139-47-6

ZnMoO4 zinc orthomolybdate 7783-20-2

Zn(NO2)2 zinc nitrite 10102-02-0

Zn(NO3)2 zinc nitrate 7779-88-6

Zn(NbO3)2 zinc metaniobate

ZnOzinc(II) oxidezinc oxide

1314-13-2

ZnO2 zinc peroxide 1314-22-3

Zn(OH)2 zinc hydroxide 20427-58-1

Zn(OH)42− zincate ion

ZnSzinc sulfidesphalerite

1314-98-3

Zn(SCN)2 zinc thiocyanate 557-42-6

ZnSO4 zinc sulfate 7733-02-0

ZnSb zinc antimonide 12039-35-9

ZnSe zinc selenide 1315-09-9

ZnSeO3 zinc selenite

ZnSnO3 zinc stannate

Zn(TaO3)2 zinc metatantalate

ZnTe zinc telluride 1315-11-3

ZnTeO3 zinc tellurite

ZnTeO4 zinc tellurate

ZnTiO3 zinc metatitanate

Zn(VO3)2 zinc metavanadate

ZnWO4 zinc orthotungstate

ZnZrO3 zinc metazirconate

Zn2P2O7 zinc pyrophosphate 7446-26-6

Zn2SiO4 zinc orthosilicate 13597-65-4

Zn3(AsO4)2 zinc arsenate 13464-44-3

Zn3As2 zinc arsenide

Zn3N2 zinc nitride 1313-49-1

Zn3P2 zinc phosphide 1314-84-7

Zn3(PO4)2 zinc phosphate 7779-90-0

Zn3Sb2 zinc antimonide

ZrB2 zirconium boride 12045-64-6

ZrBr4 zirconium bromide 13777-25-8

ZrC zirconium carbide 12020-14-3

ZrCl4 zirconium tetrachloride 10026-11-6

ZrF4 zirconium fluoride 7783-64-4

ZrI4 zirconium iodide 13986-26-0

ZrN zirconium nitride 25658-42-8

Zr(OH)4 zirconium hydroxide 14475-63-9

ZrO2zirconium dioxidebaddeleyite

1314-23-4

ZrO32− zirconate ion

ZrP2 zirconium phosphide 12037-80-8

ZrS2 zirconium sulfide 12039-15-5

ZrSi2 zirconium silicide 12039-90-6

ZrSiO4 zirconium orthosilicate 10101-52-7

Zr3(PO4)4 zirconium phosphate 13765-95-2

External links

Webelements Great Western Inorganics Landolt Börnstein Organic Index 2004

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example: titration curve for the titration of vinegar with NaOH

pH at end point- approximately 8.5

species present- H2O and NaC2H3O2

appropiate indicator-phenolphthalein

Note: no matterwhat type of titration you do, at the equivalence (end) point the number of moles of H+ is equivalent to the number of moles of OH-. This applies whether you have weak or strong acids and/or bases.

Problems: l. Citric acid (C6H807) contains a mole of ionizable H+/mole of citric acid. A sample containing citric acid has a mass of 1.286 g. The sample is dissolved in 100.0 mL of water. The solution is titrated with 0.0150 M of NaOH. If 14.93 mL of the base are required to neutralize the acid. then what is the mass percent of citric acid in the sample?

2. A sample of solid calcium hydroxide is mixed with water at 30 oC and allowed to stand. A 100.0 mL sample of the solution is titrated with 59.4 mL of a 0.400 M solution of hydrobromic acid. a. What is the concentration of the calcium hydroxide solution?

b. What is the solubility of the calcium hydroxide in water at 30 oC? Express your answer in grams of Ca(OH)2 / 100 mL water?

8. Three models of acids:

l. Arrhenius Model

Basis for the model--action in water

acid definition: produces H<sup+< sup=""> in water solution

</sup+<>

base definition: produces OH1- in water solution

2. Bronsted-Lowry Model

Basis for the model-- proton transfer

acid definition: donates a proton ( H<sup+< sup=""> )

</sup+<>

base definition: accepts a proton conjugate acid definition: the acid becomes the conjugate base after it

donates the proton because it can now accept it back. conjugate base definition: the base becomes the conjugate acid after it

accepts the proton because it can now donate it back.

3. Lewis Model

Basis for model--electron pair transfer

acid definition: accepts a pair of electrons base definition: donates a pair of electrons

Send questions, comments or suggestions toGwen Sibert, at theRoanoke Valley Governor's Schoolgsibert@rvgs.k12.va.us

  Back to Notes Menu

Periodic Table v t e

Periodic table (standard form, large)

Group →

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIII VIII VIII IB IIB IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB 0

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIBVIIIB

VIIIB

VIIIB IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIAVIIIA

↓ Perio

d

1

Hydrogen

1H

1.00794(7)

Name of element

Atomic numberChemical symbol

Relative atomic mass 

Helium

2He4.002602

(2)

2

Lithium

3Li

6.941(2)

Beryllium

4Be9.012182

(3)

Boron

5B

10.811(7)

Carbon

6C

12.0107(

8)

Nitrogen

7N

14.0067(

2)

Oxygen

8O

15.9994(

3)

Fluorine

9F

18.9984032(5)

Neon

10Ne20.1797(

6)

3

Sodium

11Na

22.98976928(2)

Magnesiu

m

12Mg24.3050(

6)

Aluminium

13Al

26.9815386(8)

Silicon

14Si

28.0855(

3)

Phosphor

us

15P

30.973762(2)

Sulfur

16S

32.065(5

)

Chlorine

17Cl

35.453(2)

Argon

18Ar

39.948(1

)

4 Potassium

19K

39.0983(1)

Calcium

20Ca40.078(4)

Scandium

21Sc

44.95591

Titanium

22Ti

47.86

Vanadium

23V

50.94

Chromium

24Cr

51.9

Mangane

se

25Mn54.9

Iron

26Fe

55.845(2

Cobalt

27Co58.93319

Nickel

28Ni

58.6934(

Copper

29Cu

63.54

Zinc

30Zn65.38(2)

Gallium

31Ga

69.72

Germanium

32Ge72.6

Arsenic

33As74.92160

Selenium

34Se78.9

Bromine

35Br

79.90

Krypton

36Kr

83.798(2

2(6) 7(1) 15(1)961(

6)38045(5)

) 5(5) 4) 6(3) 3(1) 3(1) (2) 6(3) 4(1) )

5

Rubidium

37Rb

85.4678(3)

Strontium

38Sr

87.62(1)

Yttrium

39Y

88.90585

(2)

Zirconium

40Zr

91.224(2)

Niobium

41Nb

92.90638(2

)

Molybdenum

42Mo95.96(2)

Technetiu

m

43Tc[98]

Ruthenium

44Ru101.07(2

)

Rhodium

45Rh102.90550(2)

Palladium

46Pd106.42(1)

Silver

47Ag

107.8682(

2)

Cadmium

48Cd112.411(

8)

Indium

49In

114.818(3)

Tin

50Sn118.710(

7)

Antimon

y

51Sb121.760(

1)

Tellurium

52Te127.60(3

)

Iodine

53I

126.90447

(3)

Xenon

54Xe131.293(

6)

6

Caesium

55Cs

132.9054519(2)

Barium

56Ba137.327(

7)

Lanthanide

s

57-71*

Hafnium

72Hf

178.49(2)

Tantalum

73Ta

180.94788(

2)

Tungsten

74W

183.84(1)

Rhenium

75Re186.207(

1)

Osmium

76Os190.23(3

)

Iridium

77Ir

192.217(

3)

Platinum

78Pt

195.084(

9)

Gold

79Au

196.966569(4)

Mercury

80Hg200.59(2

)

Thallium

81Tl

204.3833(

2)

Lead

82Pb207.2(1)

Bismuth

83Bi

208.98040(1)

Polonium

84Po[210

]

Astatine

85At

[210]

Radon

86Rn[222

]

7

Francium

87Fr

[223]

Radium

88Ra

[226]

Actinides

89-103**

Rutherfordium

104Rf

[267]

Dubnium

105Db

[268]

Seaborgiu

m

106Sg

[269]

Bohrium

107Bh

[270]

Hassium

108

Hs[269

]

Meitneriu

m

109Mt

[278]

Darmstadtium

110Ds

[281]

Roentgenium

111Rg

[281]

Copernicium

112

Cn[285

]

Ununtrium

113Uut[286]

Fleroviu

m

114Fl

[289]

Ununpentium

115Uup

[288]

Livermorium

116Lv

[293]

Ununseptium

117Uus[294]

Ununoctium

118Uuo

[294]

* Lanthanides

Lanthanu

m

57La

138.90547(7)

Cerium

58Ce

140.116(1)

Praseodymium

59Pr

140.90765(

2)

Neodymium

60Nd144.242(

3)

Promethium

61Pm[145]

Samarium

62Sm150.36(2

)

Europium

63Eu151.964(

1)

Gadoliniu

m

64Gd157.25(3)

Terbium

65Tb

158.92535

(2)

Dysprosiu

m

66Dy162.500(

1)

Holmium

67Ho

164.93032

(2)

Erbium

68Er

167.259(

3)

Thulium

69Tm168.93421(2)

Ytterbium

70Yb173.054(

5)

Lutetium

71Lu

174.9668(

1)

** Actinides Actinium

89

Thorium

90

Protactiniu

m

Uranium

92

Neptuniu

m

Plutoniu

m

Americiu

m

Curium

96

Berkelium

97

Californium

Einsteiniu

m

Fermium

Mendelevium

Nobelium

Lawrenciu

m

Ac[227]

Th232.03806(

2)

91Pa

231.03588(

2)

U238.02891(3)

93Np

[237]

94Pu[244

]

95Am[243]

Cm[247]

Bk[247]

98Cf

[251]

99Es

[252]

100

Fm[257

]

101Md[258]

102No[259

]

103Lr

[262]

Legend

Some element categories in the periodic table

Metals

Metalloids

Nonmetals Unknownchemicalproperties

Alkalimetals

Alkalineearth metals

Inner transition metals Transitio

nmetals

Post-transitionmetals

Othernonmetals

Halogens

Noblegases

Lanthanides

Actinides

Color of the atomic number shows state of matter

(at standard conditions: 0 °C and 1 atm):

black=Solid green=Liquid red=Gas grey=Unknown

Border shows natural

occurrence:

Primordial From decay Synthetic

Atomic Mass Name chemical element SymbolAtomic number

1.0079 Hydrogen H 1

4.0026 Helium He 2

6.941 Lithium Li 3

9.0122 Beryllium Be 4

10.811 Boron B 5

12.0107 Carbon C 6

14.0067 Nitrogen N 7

15.9994 Oxygen O 8

18.9984 Fluorine F 9

20.1797 Neon Ne 10

22.9897 Sodium Na 11

24.305 Magnesium Mg 12

26.9815 Aluminum Al 13

28.0855 Silicon Si 14

30.9738 Phosphorus P 15

32.065 Sulfur S 16

35.453 Chlorine Cl 17

39.0983 Potassium K 19

39.948 Argon Ar 18

40.078 Calcium Ca 20

44.9559 Scandium Sc 21

47.867 Titanium Ti 22

50.9415 Vanadium V 23

51.9961 Chromium Cr 24

54.938 Manganese Mn 25

55.845 Iron Fe 26

58.6934 Nickel Ni 28

58.9332 Cobalt Co 27

63.546 Copper Cu 29

65.39 Zinc Zn 30

69.723 Gallium Ga 31

72.64 Germanium Ge 32

74.9216 Arsenic As 33

78.96 Selenium Se 34

79.904 Bromine Br 35

83.8 Krypton Kr 36

85.4678 Rubidium Rb 37

87.62 Strontium Sr 38

88.9059 Yttrium Y 39

91.224 Zirconium Zr 40

92.9064 Niobium Nb 41

95.94 Molybdenum Mo 42

98 Technetium Tc 43

101.07 Ruthenium Ru 44

102.9055 Rhodium Rh 45

106.42 Palladium Pd 46

107.8682 Silver Ag 47

112.411 Cadmium Cd 48

114.818 Indium In 49

118.71 Tin Sn 50

121.76 Antimony Sb 51

126.9045 Iodine I 53

127.6 Tellurium Te 52

131.293 Xenon Xe 54

132.9055 Cesium Cs 55

137.327 Barium Ba 56

138.9055 Lanthanum La 57

140.116 Cerium Ce 58

140.9077 Praseodymium Pr 59

144.24 Neodymium Nd 60

145 Promethium Pm 61

150.36 Samarium Sm 62

151.964 Europium Eu 63

157.25 Gadolinium Gd 64

158.9253 Terbium Tb 65

162.5 Dysprosium Dy 66

164.9303 Holmium Ho 67

167.259 Erbium Er 68

168.9342 Thulium Tm 69

173.04 Ytterbium Yb 70

174.967 Lutetium Lu 71

178.49 Hafnium Hf 72

180.9479 Tantalum Ta 73

183.84 Tungsten W 74

186.207 Rhenium Re 75

190.23 Osmium Os 76

192.217 Iridium Ir 77

195.078 Platinum Pt 78

196.9665 Gold Au 79

200.59 Mercury Hg 80

204.3833 Thallium Tl 81

207.2 Lead Pb 82

208.9804 Bismuth Bi 83

209 Polonium Po 84

210 Astatine At 85

222 Radon Rn 86

223 Francium Fr 87

226 Radium Ra 88

227 Actinium Ac 89

231.0359 Protactinium Pa 91

232.0381 Thorium Th 90

237 Neptunium Np 93

238.0289 Uranium U 92

243 Americium Am 95

244 Plutonium Pu 94

247 Curium Cm 96

247 Berkelium Bk 97

251 Californium Cf 98

252 Einsteinium Es 99

257 Fermium Fm 100

258 Mendelevium Md 101

259 Nobelium No 102

261 Rutherfordium Rf 104

262 Lawrencium Lr 103

262 Dubnium Db 105

264 Bohrium Bh 107

266 Seaborgium Sg 106

268 Meitnerium Mt 109

272 Roentgenium Rg 111

277 Hassium Hs 108

Darmstadtium Ds 110

Ununbium Uub 112

Ununtrium Uut 113

Ununquadium Uuq 114

Ununpentium Uup 115

Ununhexium Uuh 116

Ununseptium Uus 117

Ununoctium Uuo 118

Nomenclature

Naming Organic Compounds

The increasingly large number of organic compounds identified with each passing day, together with the fact that many of these compounds are isomers of other compounds, requires that a systematic nomenclature system be developed. Just as each distinct compound has a unique molecular structure which can be designated by a structural formula, each compound must be given a characteristic and unique name.As organic chemistry grew and developed, many compounds were given trivial names, which are now commonly used and recognized. Some examples are:

Name Methane Butane Acetone Toluene Acetylene Ethyl Alcohol

Formula CH4 C4H10 CH3COCH3 CH3C6H5 C2H2 C2H5OH

Such common names often have their origin in the history of the science and the natural sources of specific compounds, but the relationship of these names to each other is arbitrary, and no rational or systematic principles underly their assignments.

The IUPAC Systematic Approach to Nomenclature

A rational nomenclature system should do at least two things. First, it should indicate how the carbon atoms of a given compound are bonded together in a characteristic lattice of chains and rings. Second, it should identify and locate any functional groups present in the compound. Since hydrogen is such a common component of organic compounds, its amount and locations can be assumed from the tetravalency of carbon, and need not be specified in most cases. The IUPAC nomenclature system is a set of logical rules devised and used by organic chemists to circumvent problems caused by arbitrary nomenclature. Knowing these rules and given a structural formula, one should be able to write a unique name for every distinct compound. Likewise, given a IUPAC name, one should be able to write a structural formula. In general, an IUPAC name will have three essential features:

•  A root or base indicating a major chain or ring of carbon atoms found in the molecular structure.•  A suffix or other element(s) designating functional groups that may be present in the compound.

•  Names of substituent groups, other than hydrogen, that complete the molecular structure.

As an introduction to the IUPAC nomenclature system, we shall first consider compounds that have no specific functional groups. Such compounds are composed only of carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded together by sigma bonds (all carbons are sp3 hybridized).

An excellent presentation of organic nomenclature is provided on a Nomenclature Page. created by Dave Woodcock.A full presentation of the IUPAC Rules is also available.

Alkanes

Alkanes

Hydrocarbons having no double or triple bond functional groups are classified as alkanes or cycloalkanes, depending on whether the carbon atoms of the molecule are arranged only in chains or also in rings. Although these hydrocarbons have no functional groups, they constitute the framework on which functional groups are located in other classes of compounds, and provide an ideal starting point for studying and naming organic compounds. The alkanes and cycloalkanes are also members of a larger class of compounds referred to as aliphatic. Simply put, aliphatic compounds are compounds that do not incorporate any aromatic rings in their molecular structure.The following table lists the IUPAC names assigned to simple continuous-chain alkanes from C-1 to C-10. A common "ane" suffix identifies these compounds as alkanes. Longer chain alkanes are well known, and their names may be found in many reference and text books. The names methane through decane should be memorized, since they constitute the root of many IUPAC names. Fortunately, common numerical prefixes are used in naming chains of five or more carbon atoms.

Examples of Simple Unbranched Alkanes

NameMolecularFormula

StructuralFormula

Isomers NameMolecularFormula

StructuralFormula

Isomers

methane CH4 CH4 1 hexane C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3 5

ethane C2H6 CH3CH3 1 heptane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3 9

propane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 1 octane C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3 18

butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3 2 nonane C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3 35

pentane C5H12 CH3(CH2)3CH3 3 decane C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3 75

Some important behavior trends and terminologies:

  (i)   The formulas and structures of these alkanes increase uniformly by a CH2 increment. (ii)   A uniform variation of this kind in a series of compounds is called homologous. (iii)   These formulas all fit the CnH2n+2 rule. This is also the highest possible H/C ratio for a stable hydrocarbon. (iv)   Since the H/C ratio in these compounds is at a maximum, we call them saturated (with hydrogen).

Beginning with butane (C4H10), and becoming more numerous with larger alkanes, we note the existence of alkane isomers. For example, there are five C6H14 isomers, shown below as abbreviated line formulas (A through E):

Although these distinct compounds all have the same molecular formula, only one (A) can be called hexane. How then are we to name the others?

The IUPAC system requires first that we have names for simple unbranched chains, as noted above, and second that we have names for simple alkyl groups that may be attached to the chains. Examples of some common alkyl groups are given in the following table. Note that the "ane" suffix is replaced by "yl" in naming groups. The symbol R is used to designate a generic (unspecified) alkyl group.

Group

CH3– C2H5– C

H3CH2CH2

–

(CH3)2CH–

CH3CH2CH2CH2

–

(CH3)2CHCH2–

CH3CH2CH(CH3)

–

(CH3)3C–

R–

Name

Methyl

Ethyl Propyl Isopropy

l Butyl Isobutyl sec-Butyl

tert-Butyl

Alkyl

IUPAC Rules for Alkane Nomenclature

 1.   Find and name the longest continuous carbon chain. 2.   Identify and name groups attached to this chain. 3.   Number the chain consecutively, starting at the end nearest a substituent group.  4.   Designate the location of each substituent group by an appropriate number and name. 5.   Assemble the name, listing groups in alphabetical order using the full name (e.g. cyclopropyl before isobutyl).     The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc., used to designate several groups of the same kind, are not considered when alphabetizing.

For the above isomers of hexane the IUPAC names are:   B  2-methylpentane    C  3-methylpentane    D  2,2-dimethylbutane    E  2,3-dimethylbutane

Halogen substituents are easily accommodated, using the names: fluoro (F-), chloro (Cl-), bromo (Br-) and iodo (I-). For example, (CH3)2CHCH2CH2Br would be named 1-bromo-3-methylbutane. If the halogen is bonded to a simple alkyl group an alternative "alkyl halide" name may be used. Thus, C2H5Cl may be named chloroethane (no locator number is needed for a two carbon chain) or ethyl chloride. Halogenated alkyl substituents such as bromomethyl, BrCH2–, and trichloromethyl, CCl3–, may be listed and are alphabetized according to their full names.

For additional examples of how these rules are used in naming branched alkanes, and for some sub-rules of nomenclature   .

 

Cycloalkanes

Cycloalkanes

      Cycloalkanes have one or more rings of carbon atoms. The simplest examples of this class consist of a single, unsubstituted carbon ring, and these form a homologous series similar to the unbranched alkanes. The IUPAC names of the first five members of this series are given in the following table. The last (yellow shaded) column gives the general formula for a cycloalkane of any size. If a simple unbranched alkane is converted to a cycloalkane two hydrogen atoms, one from each end of the chain, must be lost. Hence the general formula for a cycloalkane composed of n carbons is CnH2n. Although a cycloalkane has two fewer hydrogens than the equivalent alkane, each carbon is bonded to four other atoms so such compounds are still considered to be saturated with hydrogen.

Examples of Simple Cycloalkanes

Name Cyclopropane Cyclobutane Cyclopentane Cyclohexane Cycloheptane Cycloalkane

MolecularFormula

C3H6 C4H8 C5H10 C6H12 C7H14 CnH2n

StructuralFormula

(CH2)n

LineFormula

Substituted cycloalkanes are named in a fashion very similar to that used for naming branched alkanes. The chief difference in the rules and procedures occurs in the numbering system. Since all the carbons of a ring are equivalent (a ring has no ends like a chain does), the numbering starts at a substituted ring atom.

IUPAC Rules for Cycloalkane Nomenclature

 1.   For a monosubstituted cycloalkane the ring supplies the root name (table above) and the substituent group is named as usual. A location number is unnecessary. 2.   If the alkyl substituent is large and/or complex, the ring may be named as a substituent group on an alkane. 3.   If two different substituents are present on the ring, they are listed in alphabetical order, and the first cited substituent is assigned to carbon #1. The numbering of ring carbons then continues in a direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) that affords the second substituent the lower possible location number. 4.   If several substituents are present on the ring, they are listed in alphabetical order. Location numbers are assigned to the substituents so that one of them is at carbon #1 and the other locations have the lowest possible numbers, counting in either a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction.  5.   The name is assembled, listing groups in alphabetical order and giving each group (if there are two or more) a location number. The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc., used to designate several groups of the same kind, are not considered when alphabetizing.

For examples of how these rules are used in naming substituted cycloalkanes   .

Small rings, such as three and four membered rings, have significant angle strain resulting from the distortion of the sp3 carbon bond angles from the ideal 109.5º to 60º and 90º respectively. This angle strain often enhances the chemical reactivity of such compounds, leading to ring cleavage products. It is also important to recognize that, with the exception of cyclopropane, cycloalkyl rings are not planar (flat). The three dimensional shapes assumed by the common

rings (especially cyclohexane and larger rings) are described and discussed in the Conformational Analysis Section.

Hydrocarbons having more than one ring are common, and are referred to as bicyclic (two rings), tricyclic (three rings) and in general, polycyclic compounds. The molecular formulas of such compounds have H/C ratios that decrease with the number of rings. In general, for a hydrocarbon composed of n carbon atoms associated with m rings the formula is: CnH(2n + 2 - 2m). The structural relationship of rings in a polycyclic compound can vary. They may be separate and independent, or they may share one or two common atoms. Some examples of these possible arrangements are shown in the following table.

Examples of Isomeric C8H14 Bicycloalkanes

Isolated Rings Spiro Rings Fused Rings Bridged Rings

No common atoms One common atom One common bond Two common atoms

Practice Problems

Alkenes & Alkynes

Alkenes and Alkynes

Alkenes and alkynes are hydrocarbons which respectively have carbon-carbon double bond and carbon-carbon triple bond functional groups. The molecular formulas of these unsaturated hydrocarbons reflect the multiple bonding of the functional groups:

Alkane

R–CH2–CH2–R

CnH2n+

2

This is the maximum H/C ratio for a given number of carbon atoms.

Alkene

R–CH=CH–R

CnH2n

Each double bond reduces the number of hydrogen atoms by 2.

Alkyne

R–C≡C–R CnH2n-

2

Each triple bond reduces the number of hydrogen atoms by 4.

As noted earlier in the Analysis of Molecular Formulas section, the molecular formula of a hydrocarbon provides information about the possible structural types it may represent. For example, consider compounds having the formula C5H8. The formula of the five-carbon alkane pentane is C5H12 so the difference in hydrogen content is 4. This difference suggests such compounds may have a triple bond, two double bonds, a ring plus a double bond, or two rings. Some examples are shown here, and there are at least fourteen others!

IUPAC Rules for Alkene and Cycloalkene Nomenclature

 1.   The ene suffix (ending) indicates an alkene or cycloalkene. 2.   The longest chain chosen for the root name must include both carbon atoms of the double bond.  3.   The root chain must be numbered from the end nearest a double bond carbon atom. If the double bond is in the center of the chain, the nearest substituent rule is used to determine the end where numbering starts. 4.   The smaller of the two numbers designating the carbon atoms of the double bond is used as the double bond locator. If more than one double bond is present the compound is named as a diene, triene or equivalent prefix indicating the number of double bonds, and each double bond is assigned a locator number. 5.   In cycloalkenes the double bond carbons are assigned ring locations #1 and #2. Which of the two is #1 may be determined by the nearest substituent rule. 6.   Substituent groups containing double bonds are:            H2C=CH–   Vinyl group            H2C=CH–CH2–   Allyl group

IUPAC Rules for Alkyne Nomenclature

 1.  The yne suffix (ending) indicates an alkyne or cycloalkyne. 2.   The longest chain chosen for the root name must include both carbon atoms of the triple bond.  3.   The root chain must be numbered from the end nearest a triple bond carbon atom. If the triple bond is in the center of the chain, the nearest substituent rule is used to determine the end where numbering starts. 4.   The smaller of the two numbers designating the carbon atoms of the triple bond is used as the triple bond locator. 5.   If several multiple bonds are present, each must be assigned a locator number. Double bonds precede triple bonds in the IUPAC name, but the chain is numbered from the end nearest a multiple bond, regardless of its nature. 6.   Because the triple bond is linear, it can only be accommodated in rings larger than ten carbons. In simple cycloalkynes the triple bond carbons are assigned ring locations #1 and #2. Which of the two is #1 may be determined by the nearest substituent rule. 7.   Substituent groups containing triple bonds are:            HC≡C–   Ethynyl group            HC≡CH–CH2–   Propargyl group

For examples of how these rules are used in naming alkenes, alkynes and cyclic analogs   .

 

Benzene Derivatives

Benzene Derivatives

The nomenclature of substituted benzene ring compounds is less systematic than that of the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. A few mono-substituted compounds are named by using a group name as a prefix to "benzene", as shown by the combined names listed below. A majority of these compounds, however, are referred to by singular names that are unique. There is no simple alternative to memorization in mastering these names.

Two commonly encountered substituent groups that incorporate a benzene ring are phenyl, abbreviated Ph-, and benzyl, abbreviated Bn-. These are shown here with examples of their use. Be careful not to confuse a phenyl (pronounced fenyl) group with the compound phenol (pronounced feenol). A general and useful generic notation that complements the use of R- for an alkyl group is Ar- for an aryl group (any aromatic ring).

When more than one substituent is present on a benzene ring, the relative locations of the substituents must be designated by numbering the ring carbons or by some other notation. In the case of disubstituted benzenes, the prefixes ortho, meta & para are commonly used to indicate a 1,2- or 1,3- or 1,4- relationship respectively. In the following examples, the first row of compounds show this usage in red. Some disubstituted toluenes have singular names (e.g. xylene, cresol & toluidine) and their isomers are normally designated by the ortho, meta or para prefix. A few disubstituted benzenes have singular names given to specific isomers (e.g. salicylic acid & resorcinol). Finally, if there are three or more substituent groups, the ring is numbered in such a way as to assign the substituents the lowest possible numbers, as illustrated by the last

row of examples. The substituents are listed alphabetically in the final name. If the substitution is symmetrical (third example from the left) the numbering corresponds to the alphabetical order.

Practice Problems

Seven questions concerning nomenclature are presented here.

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Solubility Product

The concentrations of ions in saturated solutions have a relationship to one another somewhat like the relationship between the concentration of H3O+ and OH- in water.

Sodium ChlorideConsider saturated sodium chloride solution. Quite a bit of sodium chloride can be dissolved in water, about 6 moles in one liter. That makes the concentration of both the sodium ion and the chloride ion about 6 M.

What happens if we increase the concentration of Cl- by adding some concentrated hydrochloric acid (12M HCl)?. The saturated NaCl is in the test tube and the concentrated HCl is in the dropper. To see the reaction move your mouse over the picture.

If nothing happened, we would still have 6M Na+ and a higher concentration, perhaps, 8M, of Cl-. But something does happen. Crystals of NaCl form from the reaction of some of the extra Cl- with some of the Na+ that was in the solution. The concentration of Na+ goes down to around 5 M as the conc of Cl- increases to somewhere around 7M.

 Approximate

Concentrations

  [Na+] [Cl-]

Start 6M 6M

Potential 6M 8M

Actual 5M 7M

 

As the concentration of one ion increases, the concentration of the other ion decreases. Just as there was an equation that related the concentrations of the dissociated ions of water, there is an equation that relates the concentrations of the dissociated ions of sodium chloride.

Let me draw the parallel.

Water ionizes to form H3O+ and OH-. 2 H2O H3O+ + OH-

The reaction is reversible. 2 H2O H3O+ + OH-

The concentrations of H3O+ and OH- are related by this equation: Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]

When multiplied together, the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- give a fairly constant value called the ionization constant of water, or Kw.

 

Now sodium chloride.

Sodium chloride dissolves and dissociates in water to Na+ and Cl-. NaCl(s) Na+ + Cl-

The reaction is reversible: NaCl(s) Na+ + Cl-

The concentrations of Na+ and Cl- are realated by this equation: Ksp = [Na+][Cl-]

When multiplied together, the concentrations of Na+ and Cl- give a fairly constant value called the solubility product constant, or Ksp. For sodium chloride, the value of Ksp is about 36.

Practice

See if you can figure out what the concentration of Na+ would be if we were able to increase the concentration of Cl- up to 10 M. Take a moment to figure that out.

AnswerYou should have calculated about 3.6 M for the sodium ion concentration. I got that value by saying that the concentration of Na+ times the concentration of Cl- is equal to 36 (the Ksp value for sodium chloride). If the concentration of Cl- is going to be 10 M, then the concentration of of Na+ has to be 36 divided by 10. That comes at to 3.6 M.

Ksp = [Na+]x[Cl-]

[Na+] = Ksp ÷ [Cl-]

[Na+] = 36 ÷ 10

[Na+] = 3.6M

 

Silver Chloride

The same line of reasoning can be used with any salt that dissolves in water, even if it dissolves only a very small amount.

Silver chloride will dissolve somewhat in water. However, it reaches saturation very quickly--that is, when the concentrations of silver and chloride ions are about 1.3 x 10-5M.

AgCl(s) Ag+ + Cl-

Still we can write a solubility product equation for it. Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]

The value for the Ksp of silver chloride, however, is about 1.8 x 10-10, a very

Ksp = 1.8 x 10-10

small number.

Practice

Try using that information to calculate the Ag+ concentration if the chloride ion concentration were 3.0 M.

Answer

In this case the answer turns out to be a very small number, which can be calculated using the process shown here.

Ksp = [Ag+]x[Cl-]

[Ag+] = Ksp ÷ [Cl-]

[Ag+] = (1.8 x 10-10) ÷ 3.0

[Ag+] = 6.0 x 10-11M

 

Lead(II) Chloride

When the formula for a salt contains more than just one of each ion, the solubility product equation gets a little more complicated.

Let's use PbCl2 as an example. When PbCl2 cissolved in water, two ions of Cl- are released for every one ion of Pb2+.

PbCl2(s) Pb2+ + Cl-

When saturation is reached we show that the reaction is reversible. PbCl2(s) Pb2+ + 2 Cl-

The equation for the solubility product is: Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl-]2

The concentration of Cl- is squared because the balanced equation for the reaction shows a 2 as the coefficient in front of Cl-.

Looking at the reaction in this way might help you to remember that:

PbCl2(s) Pb2+ + Cl- + Cl- then: Ksp = [Pb2+][Cl-][Cl-]

thus: Ksp = [Pb2+] [Cl-]2

Example - Determining concentrations at equilibrium 

 

Here is an example of how to calculate the equilibrium concentration of

one substance given the Ksp and the equilibrium concentrations of the other substance. (Also shown in example 23 in your workbook.)

For the reaction PbCl2(s) Pb+2(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq), what is [Pb+2] at equilibrium if [Cl-] = 2.0 x 10-3 M given that the Ksp = 2.0 x 10-5?

Ksp = [Pb+2] x [Cl]2

2.0 x 10-5 = [Pb+2] x (2.0 x 10-3)2

2.0 x 10-5 = [Pb+2] x 4.0 x 10-6

2.0 x 10-5

4.0 x 10-6= [Pb+2]

5.0 M = [Pb+2]

Practice Problems: Equilibrium Concentrations

Try your hand at answering the following questions (also shown in exercise 24 in your workbook.) Check your answers below and then move on to the Wrap-Up.

The Ksp for AgCl is 1.8 x 10-10. If Ag+ and Cl- are both in solution and in equilibrium with AgCl. What is [Ag+] if [Cl-] = .020 M?

If Ag+ and Cl- were both present at 0.0001 M, would a precipitate occur?

What concentration of Ag+ would be necessary to bring the concentration of Cl-

to 1.0 x 10-6 M or lower?

Answers: Equilibrium Concentrations

Here are the answers to the questions above.

The Ksp for AgCl is 1.8 x 10-10. If Ag+ and Cl- are both in solution and in equilibrium with AgCl. What is [Ag+] if [Cl-] = .020 M?

[Ag+] = 9.0 x 10-9M

If Ag+ and Cl- were both present at 0.0001 M, would a precipitate occur?

Yes, a precipitate would occur because these concentrations together are higher than what the Ksp allows.

What concentration of Ag+ would be necessary to bring the concentration of Cl-

to 1.0 x 10-6 M or lower?

[Ag+] = 9.0 x 10-9M or higher

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E-mail instructor: Eden Francis

Clackamas Community College©1998, 2002 Clackamas Community College, Hal Bender

Solubility Product

Nahkleh Group Robinson Group Weaver Group Bodner Group

Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria

Solubility

Solubility Product

Common Ions and Complex Ions

Combined Equilibria

Solubility Product

The Solubility Product Expression The Relationship Between Ksp And

the Solubility of a Salt

Common Misconceptions About Solubility Product Calculations

Using Ksp As A Measure Of the Solubility of a Salt

The Role of the Ion Product (Qsp) In Solubility Calculations

The Solubility Product Expression

Silver chloride is so insoluble in water (.0.002 g/L) that a saturated solution contains only about 1.3 x 10-5 moles of AgCl per liter of water.

  H2O      

AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Strict adherence to the rules for writing equilibrium constant expressions for this reaction gives the following result.

(Water isn't included in the equilibrium constant expression because it is neither consumed nor produced in this reaction, even though it is a vital component of the system.)

The [Ag+] and [Cl-] terms represent the concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions in moles per liter when this solution is at equilibrium. The third term [AgCl] is more ambiguous. It doesn't represent the concentration of AgCl dissolved in water because we assume that AgCl dissociates into Ag+ ions and Cl- ions when it dissolves in water. It can't represent the amount of solid AgCl in the system because the equilibrium is not affected by the amount of excess solid added to the system. The [AgCl] term has to be translated quite literally as the number of moles of AgCl in a liter of solid AgCl.

The concentration of solid AgCl can be calculated from its density and the molar mass of AgCl.

This quantity is a constant, however. The number of moles per liter in solid AgCl is the same at the start of the reaction as it is when the reaction reaches equilibrium.

Since the [AgCl] term is a constant, which has no effect on the equilibrium, it is built into the equilibrium constant for the reaction.

[Ag+][Cl-] = Kc x [AgCl]

This equation suggests that the product of the equilibrium concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions in this solution is equal to a constant. Since this constant is proportional to the solubility of the salt, it is called the solubility product equilibrium constant for the reaction, or Ksp.

Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]

The Ksp expression for a salt is the product of the concentrations of the ions, with each concentration raised to a power equal to the coefficient of that ion in the balanced equation for the solubility equilibrium.

Practice Problem 1:

Write the Ksp expression for a saturated solution of CaF2 in water.

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 1

The Relationship Between Ksp And the Solubility of a Salt

Ksp is called the solubility product because it is literally the product of the solubilities of the ions in moles per liter. The solubility product of a salt can therefore be calculated from its solubility, or vice versa.

Photographic films are based on the sensitivity of AgBr to light. When light hits a crystal of AgBr, a small fraction of the Ag+ ions are reduced to silver metal. The rest of the Ag+ ions in these crystals are reduced to silver metal when the film is developed. AgBr crystals that do not absorb light are then removed from the film to "fix" the image.

Example: Let's calculate the solubility of AgBr in water in grams per liter, to see whether AgBr can be removed by simply washing the film.

We start with the balanced equation for the equilibrium.

  H2O      

AgBr(s) Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq)

We then write the solubility product expression for this reaction.

Ksp = [Ag+][Br-] = 5.0 x 10-13

One equation can't be solved for two unknowns the Ag+ and Br- ion concentrations. We can generate a second equation, however, by noting that one Ag+ ion is released for every Br- ion. Because there is no other source of either ion in this solution, the concentrations of these ions at equilibrium must be the same.

[Ag+] = [Br-]

Substituting this equation into the Ksp expression gives the following result.

[Ag+]2 = 5.0 x 10-13

Taking the square root of both sides of this equation gives the equilibrium concentrations of the Ag+ and Br- ions.

[Ag+] = [Br-] = 7.1 x 10-7M

Once we know how many moles of AgBr dissolve in a liter of water, we can calculate the solubility in grams per liter.

The solubility of AgBr in water is only 0.00013 gram per liter. It therefore isn't practical to try to wash the unexposed AgBr off photographic film with water.

Solubility product calculations with 1:1 salts such as AgBr are relatively easy to perform. In order to extend such calculations to compounds with more complex formulas we need to understand the relationship between the solubility of a salt and the concentrations of its ions at equilibrium. We will use the symbol Cs to describe the amount of a salt that dissolves in water.

Practice Problem 2:

Several compounds were studied as possible sources of the fluoride ion for use in toothpaste. Write equations that describe the relationship between the solubility of CaF2 and the equilibrium concentrations of the Ca2+ and F- ions in a saturated solution as a first step toward evaluating its use as a fluoridating agent.

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 2

 

Practice Problem 3:

Use the Ksp for calcium fluoride to calculate its solubility in grams per liter. Comment on the potential of CaF2 to act as a fluoridating agent. (CaF2: Ksp = 4.0 x 10-11)

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 3

Click here to see a solution to Practice Problem 3

The techniques used in the preceding practice problems are also valid for salts that contain more positive ions than negative ions.

Practice Problem 4:

Calculate the solubility in grams per liter of silver sulfide in order to decide whether it is accurately labeled when described as an insoluble salt. (Ag2S: Ksp = 6.3 x 10-50)

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 4

Click here to see a solution to Practice Problem 4

Common Misconceptions About Solubility Product Calculations

Let's focus on one step in Practice Problem 4. We started with the solubility product expression for Ag2S.

Ksp = [Ag+]2[S2-]

We then substituted the relationship between the concentrations of these ions and the solubility of the salt into this equation.

[2 Cs]2[Cs] = 6.3 x 10-50

When they see this for the first time, students often ask: "Why did you double the Ag+ ion concentration and then square it? Aren't you counting this term twice?"

This question results from confusion about the symbols used in the calculation. Remember that the symbol Cs in this equation stands for the solubility of Ag2S in moles per liter. Since we get two Ag+ ions for each Ag2S formula unit that dissolves in water, the Ag+ ion concentration at equilibrium is twice the solubility of the salt, or 2 Cs. We square the Ag+ ion concentration term because the equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the three products of the reaction.

Ksp = [Ag+][Ag+][S2-]

It is just more convenient to write this equation in the condensed form.

Ksp = [Ag+]2[S2-]

Another common mistake in solubility product calculations occurs when students are asked to write an equation that describes the relationship between the concentrations of the Ag+ and S2- ions in a saturated Ag2S solution. It is all too easy to look at the formula for this compoundAg2S and then write the following equation.

[S2-] = 2 [Ag+]

This seems reasonable to some, who argue that there are twice as many Ag+ ions as S2- ions in the compound. But the equation is wrong. Because two Ag+ ions are produced for each S2- ion, there are twice as many silver ions as sulfide ions in this solution. This solution is correctly described by the following equation.

[Ag+] = 2 [S2-]

How can you avoid making this mistake? After you write the equation that you think describes the relationship between the concentrations of the ions, try it to see if it works. Suppose just enough Ag2S dissolved in water to give two S2- ions. How many Ag+ ions would you get? Four. If you get the right answer when you substitute this concrete example into your equation, it must be written correctly.

Using Ksp As A Measure Of the Solubility of a Salt

The value of Ka for an acid is proportional to the strength of the acid.

If we find the following Ka values in a table, we can immediately conclude that formic acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid.

Formic acid (HCO2H):   Ka = 1.8 x 10-4

Acetic acid (CH3CO2H):   Ka = 1.8 x 10-5

The same can be said about values of Kb.

The following base-ionization equilibrium constants imply that methylamine is a stronger base than ammonia.

Methylamine (CH3NH2):   Kb = 4.8 x 10-4

Ammonia (NH3):   Kb = 1.8 x 10-5

Unfortunately, there is no simple way to predict the relative solubilities of salts from their Ksp's if the salts produce different numbers of positive and negative ions when they dissolve in water.

Practice Problem 5:

Determine which salt CaCO3 or Ag2CO3 is more soluble in water in units of moles per liter?

CaCO3:   Ksp = 2.8 x 10-9

Ag2CO3:   Ksp = 8.1 x 10-12

Click here to check your answer to Practice Problem 5

The Role of the Ion Product (Qsp) In Solubility Calculations

Consider a saturated solution of AgCl in water.

  H2O      

AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Because AgCl is a 1:1 salt, the concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions in this solution are equal.

Saturated solution of AgCl in water:

[Ag+] = [Cl-]

Imagine what happens when a few crystals of solid AgNO3 are added to this saturated solution of AgCl in water. According to the solubility rules, silver nitrate is a soluble salt. It therefore dissolves and dissociates into Ag+ and NO3

- ions. As a result, there are two sources of the Ag+ ion in this solution.

AgNO3(s) Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

         

  H2O      

AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Adding AgNO3 to a saturated AgCl solution therefore increases the Ag+ ion concentrations. When this happens, the solution is no longer at equilibrium because the product of the

concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl- ions is too large. In more formal terms, we can argue that the ion product (Qsp) for the solution is larger than the solubility product (Ksp) for AgCl.

Qsp = (Ag+)(Cl-) > Ksp

The ion product is literally the product of the concentrations of the ions at any moment in time. When it is equal to the solubility product for the salt, the system is at equilibrium.

The reaction eventually comes back to equilibrium after the excess ions precipitate from solution as solid AgCl. When equilibrium is reestablished, however, the concentrations of the Ag+ and Cl-

ions won't be the same. Because there are two sources of the Ag+ ion in this solution, there will be more Ag+ ion at equilibrium than Cl- ions:

Saturated solution of AgCl to which AgNO3 has been added:

[Ag+] > [Cl-]

Now imagine what happens when a few crystals of NaCl are added to a saturated solution of AgCl in water. There are two sources of the chloride ion in this solution.

  H2O      

NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

         

  H2O      

AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Once again, the ion product is larger than the solubility product.

Qsp = (Ag+)(Cl-) > Ksp

This time, when the reaction comes back to equilibrium, there will be more Cl- ion in the solution than Ag+ ion.

Saturated solution of AgCl to which NaCl has been added:

[Ag+] < [Cl-]

The figure below shows a small portion of the possible combinations of the Ag+ and Cl- ion concentrations in an aqueous solution. Any point along the curved line in this graph corresponds to a system at equilibrium, because the product of the Ag+ and Cl- ion concentrations for these solutions is equal to Ksp for AgCl.

Point A represents a solution at equilibrium that could be produced by dissolving two sources of the Ag+ ion such as AgNO3 and AgCl in water. Point B represents a saturated solution of AgCl in pure water, in which the [Ag+] and [Cl-] terms are equal. Point C describes a solution at equilibrium that was prepared by dissolving two sources of the Cl- ion in water, such as NaCl and AgCl.

Any point that is not along the solid line in the above figure represents a solution that is not at equilibrium. Any point below the solid line (such as Point D) represents a solution for which the ion product is smaller than the solubility product.

Point D:   Qsp < Ksp

If more AgCl were added to the solution at Point D, it would dissolve.

If Qsp < Ksp:   AgCl(s) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Points above the solid line (such as Point E) represent solutions for which the ion product is larger than the solubility product.

Point E:   Qsp > Ksp

The solution described by Point E will eventually come to equilibrium after enough solid AgCl has precipitated.

If Qsp > Ksp:   Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOLUBILITY PRODUCTS

This page looks at how solubility products are defined, together with their units. It also explores the relationship between the solubility product of an ionic compound and its solubility.

What are solubility products, Ksp?

Solubility products are equilibrium constants

Barium sulphate is almost insoluble in water. It isn't totally insoluble - very, very small amounts do dissolve. That's true of any so-called "insoluble" ionic compound.

if you shook some solid barium sulphate with water, a tiny proportion of the barium ions and sulphate ions would break away from the surface of the solid and go into solution. Over time, some of these will return from solution to stick onto the solid again.

You get an equilibrium set up when the rate at which some ions are breaking away is exactly matched by the rate at which others are returning.

The position of this equilibrium lies very far to the left. The great majority of the barium sulphate is present as solid. In fact, if you shook solid barium sulphate with water you wouldn't be aware just by looking at it that any had dissolved at all.

But it is an equilibrium, and so you can write an equilibrium constant for it which will be constant at a given temperature - like all equilibrium constants.

The equilibrium constant is called the solubility product, and is given the symbol Ksp.

To avoid confusing clutter, solubility product expressions are often written without the state symbols. Even if you don't write them, you must be aware that the symbols for the ions that you write are for those in solution in water.

Why doesn't the solid barium sulphate appear in the equilibrium expression?

For many simple equilibria, the equilibrium constant expression has terms for the right-hand side of the equation divided by terms for the left-hand side. But in this case, there is no term for the concentration of the solid barium sulphate. Why not?

This is a heterogeneous equilibrium - one which contains substances in more than one state. In a heterogeneous equilibrium, concentration terms for solids are left out of the expression.

Note:  The simplest explanation for this is that the concentration of a solid can be thought of as a constant. Rather than have an expression with two constants in it (the equilibrium constant and the concentration of the solid), the constants are merged to give a single value - the solubility product.

Solubility products for more complicated solids

Here is the corresponding equilibrium for calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2:

And this is the solubility product expression:

Just as with any other equilibrium constant, you raise the

concentrations to the power of the number in front of them in the equilibrium equation. There's nothing new here.

Solubility products only apply to sparingly soluble ionic compounds

You can't use solubility products for normally soluble compounds like sodium chloride, for example. Interactions between the ions in the solution interfere with the simple equilibrium we are talking about.

The units for solubility products

The units for solubility products differ depending on the solubility product expression, and you need to be able to work them out each time.

Working out the units in the barium sulphate case

Here is the solubility product expression for barium sulphate again:

Each concentration has the unit mol dm-3. So the units for the solubility product in this case will be:

(mol dm-3) x (mol dm-3)

= mol2 dm-6

Working out the units in the calcium phosphate case

Here is the solubility product expression for calcium phosphate again:

The units this time will be:

(mol dm-3)3 x (mol dm-3)2

= (mol dm-3)5

= mol5 dm-15

If you are asked to calculate a solubility product in an exam, there will almost certainly be a mark for the correct units. It isn't very hard - just take care!

Solubility products apply only to saturated solutions

Let's look again at the barium sulphate case. Here is the equilibrium expression again:

. . . and here is the solubility product expression:

Ksp for barium sulphate at 298 K is 1.1 x 10-10 mol2 dm-6.

In order for this equilibrium constant (the solubility product) to apply, you have to have solid barium sulphate present in a saturated solution of barium sulphate. That's what the equilibrium equation is telling you.

If you have barium ions and sulphate ions in solution in the presence of some solid barium sulphate at 298 K, and multiply the concentrations of the ions together, your answer will be 1.1 x 10-10 mol2 dm-6.

What if you mixed incredibly dilute solutions containing barium ions and sulphate ions so that the product of the ionic concentrations was less than the solubility product?

All this means is that you haven't got an equilibrium. The reason for that is that there won't be any solid present. If you lower the concentrations of the ions enough, you won't get a precipitate - just

a very, very dilute solution of barium sulphate.

So it is possible to get an answer less than the solubility product when you multiply the ionic concentrations together if the solution isn't saturated.

Can you get an answer greater than the solubility product if you multiply the ionic concentrations together (allowing for any powers in the solubility product expression, of course)? No!

The solubility product is a value which you get when the solution is saturated. If there is any solid present, you can't dissolve any more solid than there is in a saturated solution.

Note:  In the absence of any solid, a few substances produce unstable supersaturated solutions. As soon as you add any solid, or perhaps just scratch the glass to give a rough bit that crystals can form on, all the excess solid precipitates out to leave a normal saturated solution.

If you mix together two solutions containing barium ions and sulphate ions and the product of the concentrations would exceed the solubility product, you get a precipitate formed. Enough solid is produced to reduce the concentrations of the barium and sulphate ions down to a value which the solubility product allows.

Summary

The value of a solubility product relates to a saturated solution.

If the ionic concentrations give a value less than the solubility product, the solution isn't saturated. No precipitate would be formed.

If the ionic concentrations give a value more than the solubility product, enough precipitate would be formed to reduce the concentrations to give an answer equal to the solubility product.

Solubility:Definition:Solubility of a solute in a solvent is the number of grams of solute necessary to saturate 100

grams of solvent at a particular temperature.Solubility product:                                       www.citycollegiate.comSolubility product is defined as the product of ionic concentration when dissolved ions and undissolved ions are in equilibrium.In other words,When a saturated solution of sparingly or slightly soluble salt is in contact with undissolved salt, an equilibrium is established between the dissolved ions and the ions in the solid phase of the undissolved salt. Ionic product at this stage is called solubility product.Symbol:It is denoted by KspDetermination of solubility product:Consider a slightly soluble salt such as silver chloride (AgCl).

AgCl(aq) Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)Applying equilibrium law:Kc=[Ag+][Cl-]/[AgCl]Kc[AgCl] = [Ag+][Cl-]Since there is no change in the concentration of salt (AgCl) at equilibrium. Therefore,[AgCl] = constant (K')                                       www.citycollegiate.comKc = [Ag+][Cl-]/ K'Kc x K'= [Ag+][Cl-]Let Kc x K' = solubility product or Ksp , Therefore,Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]Ionic product:Product of ionic concentration other than equilibrium is called ionic product.Applications of solubility product:                                       www.citycollegiate.comKnowledge of solubility product is very useful to determine whether precipitates will be obtained or not by the addition of more amount of solute to the solution. There are three conditions:

When Ksp > ionic product:If solubility product is greater than the ionic product then, the solution is unsaturated and no precipitate will form by the addition of more solute.

When Ksp< ionic product:If solubility product is less than the ionic product then the solution is super saturated and the excess of solute will precipitate immediately.

When Ksp= ionic product: In this condition solution is saturated and further addition of solute will cause precipitates.