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    Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentVol 32.1 (2007): 113-131

    g 2007 SAGE Publications (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore)

    DOI: 10.1177/0309089207083768

    http://JSOT.sagepub.com

    Messengers ofHopein Haggai-Malachi

    MARK J. BODA

    McMaster Divinity College, McMaster University, Divinity Room 233,1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada

    Abstract

    Recent work on the Book of the Twelve has consistently identified various sections ofHaggai-Malachi as a corpus that existed prior to its incorporation into the Book of theTwelve. Many see Haggai/Zechariah 1-8 as an initial collection to which Malachi andZechariah 9-14 were later added (prior to and/or after inclusion in the Book of theTwelve). This study investigates this corpus by interacting with past research and the text

    of these prophetic sections to argue that although each section in the corpus (Haggai,Zech. 1-8, Zech. 9-14, Malachi) displays an integrity of its own, the corpus as a whole iswitness to a developing tradition, the resulting literature of which has been unified througha 'messenger'leitmotif.Thisleitmotif,however, rather than signalling the end of prophecy(as argued by some), identifies the importance of prophetic, priestly and royal streams tothe emerging hope for a heavenly visitation.

    Keywords: Messengers, angels, Haggai, Zechariah. Malachi, Book of the Twelve,redaction criticism, messianism.

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    114 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    assumedthatat least Haggai andZechariah18 comprised a preexistent

    collectionthatthenentered into the Book oftheTwelve.This position is

    oftenbased on the work ofEricand Carol Meyers in their AnchorBibleCommentary,in which they argued that Haggai andZechariah 18 were

    composed prior to andpossiblyfor the dedication of thetemple.1Their

    argumentis baseduponstriking similarities on literary (especially super-

    scriptions) andthematic(especially temple rebuilding) grounds between

    Haggai and Zechariah 18 along with the absence of any mention ofthe

    completion ofthetemple in these books.

    Positions havedivergedover theissueof whatfollowedZechariah 8,

    either inthepreBook oftheTwelvephase or in later redactional activity

    onthe Book of theTwelve.For many, some form ofMalachi followed

    immediately after Zechariah 8, evidence for which is provided in, for

    example, Nogalski's list of catch words {Stichwortverkettung) linking

    Zechariah8 and Malachi 1 aswellas Bosshard and Kratz's listofcon-

    nections between the Haggai/Zechariah 18 corpus and Malachi.2In a

    later phase, Zechariah 914 was inserted between Zechariah 8 and

    Malachi 1 and, according to Redditi, with its ubiquitous intertextualallusions to earlier prophetic literature, Zechariah 914 represented a

    reflection on the Book of the Twelve as a whole and was intended to

    shape one's reading ofthebook ofMalachi.3Onepossiblereason it was

    1. C.L. Meyers andE.M.Meyers,Haggai,Zechariah 18: A New Translationwith

    Introduction and Commentary(AB, 25B;GardenCity:Doubleday. 1987).pp.xlivxlv.

    2. Forcatchwords(e.g.'loveV'hate*in Zech.8.17and Mai.1.23;'entreat theface of

    YHWH' inZech. 8.22 andMai.1.9), see especially J.D.Nogalski,LiteraryPrecursorsto the Book of the Twelve (BZAW, 217; Berlin: W. de Gruyter. 1993), pp. 5356;

    J.D.Nogalski.Redactional Processes in the Book of the Twelve(BZAW, 218; Berlin:

    W. deGruyter,1993),p. 187.21,where he lists 12 wordsorphrasescommon to Zech.

    8.923andMai.1.114.ForNogalski,Haggai/Zech.18enteredtheBookfirst,thencame

    Malachiand finallyZech.914. For the connectionsbetween Malachi and the larger

    corpus of HaggaiZech. 18, see E. Bosshard andR.G.Kratz, 'Maleachi imZwlf-prophetenbuch\BN 52(1990),pp.27-46. who see Malachi as originally the continuationof Zech. 7-8, although later expanded in two phases. See the criticism of using the

    catchword phenomenon for redaction theory in B.A. Jones.TheFormation oftheBook ofthe Twelve- A Study in Text and Canon(SBLDS, 149: Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995),

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    BODA Messengers of Hope in Haggai-Malachi 117

    temple rebuilding ceremonies and texts.9Its abrupt endingisrelatedtothefact that it represents a copy of a text that was created not for the dedi

    cation of the temple, but rather for its foundation laying. On the otherhand, the superscriptions in Haggai/Zechariah 1-8 are not as common incharacter as one would expect in a unified corpus (such as Ezekiel).10

    More importantly, Zechariah 1-8 represents an expansion of the vision ofrestoration far beyond the rebuilding of the temple. Even if Halpern'sevidence for the temple restoration character of every pericope in thenight visions sequence can be accepted (and at times it seems to be astretch),11 the vision of restoration clearly exceeds the temple focus to

    include the restoration of the entire city and province on a physical andeconomic level (Zech. 1-2), the punishment of the nations who haveabused the people{passini),11the return oftheexilic community (Zech.2),the renewal of the leadership of the community (Zech. 3-4), and thecleansing of the community from impure religious practices (Zech. 5).Moving beyond the night visions and investigating the prose-sermonsections that now bracket the entire collection (Zech. 1.1-6; 7.1-8.23),

    one finds emphasis on penitential renewal rather than temple reconstruction.13The influential role that this penitential inclus ioplays in thefinal shape of Zechariah 1-8 leads one to conclude, in contrast to theMeyers, that those responsible were suggesting thatthecompletion of thetemple was not the sign of the much-anticipated restoration. The reasonfor this is linked explicitly to the way in which the early Persian periodcommunity was replicating the behavioral patterns that had brought about

    9. M.J. Boda, 'From Dystopia to Myopia: Utopian (Re)Visions in Haggai andZechariah 1-8', in E. Ben Zvi and M. Floyd (eds.),Utopia and Dystopia in PropheticTexts (Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society; Helsinki: Finnish ExegeticalSociety/University of Helsinki; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2006).

    10. M.J. Boda, 'Zechariah: Master Mason or Penitential Prophet?', inB.Becking andR. Albertz (eds.), Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion in thePersian Era(Studies in Theology and Religion; Assen: Van Gorcum, 2003), pp. 49-69;contra, for instance, Schart, 'Eschatological Visions', p. 334 n. 2, who claims that the

    'narrative framework' (a term he prefers to 'superscription') in Haggai and Zech. 1-8'seamlessly combines the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah'.

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    118 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    theexilein thefirstplace. Ratherthanbeing evidence for the setting for

    which Haggai/Zechariah 18 was compiled, themissingreference to the

    temple's completion is evidence ofasober evaluation ofthe significanceof this project for the community. Thus, the theory of a preexisting

    Haggai/Zechariah 18 collection is difficult to sustain.

    Zechariah914 itselfis clearly comprised of disparate oracularmateri-

    als, but these have been drawn together into a whole, unified by redac-

    tional pieces containing the leitmotif of sheep and shepherd.14

    At the

    center of this sequence is the prophetic signact of Zech. 11.416,the

    content of which helps transition the reader from the positive Judah

    Ephraimvision oftheoracles in Zechariah 910 to the negative Judah

    Jerusalem vision of the oracles in Zechariah 1214. The redactional

    shepherd pieces represent a subtle trajectory thatresults ultimately in the

    destructionoftheshepherd in ch. 13 and its attendant ramifications for

    theirflock.The two references toKCCat the beginning ofchs.9 and 12

    appear at the beginning of these two disparate oracular sections (chs. 9

    10 vs. chs.1214)andmay indeed have functionedtomarkthebeginning

    of two originally separate collections.Zechariah914 in its present form,

    however, represents a unified literary complex.

    With Malachi one enters a different literary world. Indeed, its super-

    scriptioncontainsvocabulary encounteredinZechariah914, that is, the

    phrase~"KCE, followedby a preposition(Mai.1.1). However, to

    this is added the phrase 'through(TU)Malachi',a featuremissingin the

    previous two superscriptions. Beyond this is a radically different literary

    style (with its questionanswer) and gone are the carefully designed

    redactionalshepherd pieces.This evidence suggests that the Book of theTwelve ends with four

    collections, each of which displays its own integrity: Haggai 12,

    Zechariah18,Zechariah914 andMalachi13.1 have argued elsewhere

    thatZechariah 78 appears to prepare the reader for the more negative

    14. M.J. Boda, 'Reading BetweentheLines:Zechariah11.416 in its LiteraryCon-texts',in BodaandFloyd(eds.),BringingOut the Treasure,pp.27791; M.J.Boda and

    S E P *Li h Thi d D P h i Z h i h 9 14 d h P i

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    120 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    Theweakness of his argument, however, is thediversecharacter of

    eachofthesupposed strategies of linkage, highlightingmorethedisunity

    than the unity. In addition, the arguments for commonality betweenZechariah 18 and 914 are too general (prophetic material often does

    speak of salvationandwarning),and thedifferences in thesuperscriptions

    are ignored infavor of thesimilarities. While it is true that there is an

    increased use of interrogatives in HaggaiMalachi, Pierce's presentation

    focuses on thelowestcommondenominatorwith littlesensitivityto the

    uniqueness ofeachcorpus in their respective use of interrogatives.19

    It is

    difficult enoughtocompare the rhetorical and priestly torahquestions of

    Haggai withthequestionanswer format inMalachi,letalonetrytocom-

    pare these with the visionary dialogues ofthenightvisionsofZechariah

    18. Ofcourse,interrogativesdonotappearinZechariah914, but Pierce

    usesthis as evidence that Zechariah 11 is the focal point of thecorpus.

    Othersmay explaintheanomaly differently, arguingthatZechariah 914

    was never related to this collection apart from the Book oftheTwelve.

    Finally, Pierce's examples of narrative can be affirmed in comparing

    Haggai and Zechariah 18, but beyond that there is little similarity innarrative use. Pierce mustreducehis definition of narrativeto'thirdparty

    objectivity',20

    in order toclassify Hag.1.1215withMai.3.1.

    A second attempt to establish rhetorical unity in HaggaiMalachi is

    displayed in Bauer'sapproach,which highlightsakeytheme and rhetori-

    cal structure.21

    Bauer concluded that Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi

    weredrawn togetherin thePtolemaicperiod in acollectionwith a chiastic

    design emanating from the central pericope in Zechariah 78, pairing

    Zechariah 16 and 914 and then Haggai andMalachi.The themes thatunified these books are all socioeconomic, identifying obedience to

    social justice as key to prosperity for the Jewish community. However,

    his rhetorical designrunsroughshod overthesuperscriptions ofZechariah

    18 and the bracketing character oftheprose sermoninclusio(Zech1.-

    ;7.18.23), and the theme of social justice is present but certainly not

    dominantin these books.

    House's reading oftheBook oftheTwelverepresents a third attempt

    at unity for HaggaiMalachi. He offers synchronic reflection on the

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    BODA Messengers of Hope in Haggai-Malachi 121

    character of Haggai-Malachi within the book of the Twelve, withHaggai-Malachi developing the theme of'restoration' asthe resolution to

    a plot that began in Hosea-Micah as 'sin' and developed into 'punishment' in Nahum-Zephaniah.22 The difficulty with this approach hasalready become obvious in my reading of the various sections of Haggai-Malachi. Although the collection begins with great hope, such hope issoon dashed in light of the realities of the Persian-period Yehudite community.

    A fourth proposal for unity was provided by Lescow who used thetheme of Torah as the unifying principle of his leaner Haggai, Zechariah1-8, Malachi corpus.23This has been challenged as being too simplistic,especially in view of the light treatment of this theme in Haggai andZechariah1-8.24

    Finally, although certainly not concerned with redactional history andlevels,25 Conrad capitalizes on the use of 'messenger' terminology inHaggai-Malachi and argues forthekey role that Haggai-Malachi play inthe Book of the Twelve and possibly also the Latter Prophets as a whole.26

    The use of messenger terminology is evidence ofaclear break betweenan earlier age of prophetic witness when there was confusion over theidentification of prophets and the later age of Haggai-Malachi whichclarifies this issue. Statements in Zech. 1.1-6 and Zechariah 7 about the'former prophets' who are now quoted, coupled with Conrad's appro-

    22. P.R. House,The Unity of the Twelve(Bible and Literature Series, 27; Sheffield:Almond Press, 1990).

    23. T. Lescow,Das Buch Malchi: Texttheorie-Auslegung-Kanontheorie (Arbeitenzur Theologie, 75; Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag, 1993), pp. 186-87; cf. T. Lescow, 'Sacharja1-8: Verkndigung und Komposition', V68 (1993), pp. 75-99; cf. Redditi, 'Twelve',pp.247-48.

    24. Cf. Redditi, 'Twelve', pp. 247-48.25. As seen in Conrad's works:Reading Isaiah(OBT,27;Minneapolis: Fortress Press,

    1991),pp. 12-20; 'Prophet, Redactor and Audience: Reforming the Notion of Isaiah'sFormation', in M.A. Sweeney andR.F.Melugin(eds.),NewVisionsof Isaiah(JSOTSup,214; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996), pp. 306-25; Zechariah (Readings;Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999), pp. 16-18. See my review, 'Review ofConrad:Reading the Latter Prophets (2003)',RBL (2005), available online at

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    122 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    priationof thetraditional critical interpretation ofZech.13.26, that is,

    that all prophecy had ceased, leads him to argue that the 'prophets are

    portrayed as being from formertimes'.2TConradclaimsthatintheirplacenow are found messengers, displayed bythereference to Haggai in Hag.

    1.13.ForConrad, the"[K^E,who appears, forinstance,inZechariah

    3,is Haggai, not some heavenly figure, and the figure"ZDK C ('my mes-

    senger') in the book traditionally calledMalachi,is Zechariah.28

    Conrad

    closely associates this focusonIITK^C with the emphasis on the rebuild-

    ing of the temple, that sacred space which blurs the distinction between

    earth and heaven.29

    The problem with this approach is that it does not comport with the

    evidence in the book. First, both Haggai and Zechariah are explicitly

    referred to as 8*2: in the superscriptions and are portrayed in roles

    where they deliver propheticlike speech ().30 Secondly,

    Zechariahis never calleda"[K^E,discountingthetheorythatHaggai was

    atransition figure from prophet to messenger. Thirdly, Conrad's inter-

    pretationofZech.8.913, that it is a reference to the reading ofprophetic

    scrolls on the day offoundation laying, is astretch,especially in light ofthe fact that we have extant witnesses to the speeches of both Haggai

    (Hag. 2.1023) and Zechariah (Zech. 4.6b10a) on that day. Fourthly,

    Zech.13.26 does not claimthatprophecy has ceased, but rather focuses

    onthe eradication offalseprophecy linked to idolatry. Finally, Conrad

    assumes that HaggaiMalachi is consumed by the theme of temple

    rebuilding, a point that cannot be sustained for Zechariah 914 and

    Malachi and the majority of Zechariah 18. In light of this,Conrad's

    theoryonthemessengerthemein HaggaiMalachi is insufficient. Never-theless, even though Conrad'sargumentationhas been found lacking, the

    evidence he has culled from the corpus provides a way forward for our

    discussion.

    27. Conrad,LatterProphets,p.260; as Conradsaysin 'End of Prophecy',p.67: 'The

    Twelveas a collage pictures theriseandfallof a prophetic past and the reinstitution ofan

    angelic/messenger presence. Prophecy in theTwelveis valued as a past institution that is

    coming to an end.'

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    BODA Messengers of Hope in Haggai-Malachi 123

    miTl^b in Haggai-Zechariah-Malachi

    The greatest concentration of the term "[N^C in Haggai-Malachi is theZechariah 1-8 corpus where, in the night vision sequence, the prophet istaken on a journey to be given insight. There three individuals are callediphto: ylZ (Zech. 1.9,13,14;2.2,7; 4.1,4,5; 5.5,10; 6.4,5),^ (2.7),andT.IVipbtl (1.11,12; 3.1,3,6). These passages offerus insights into the heavenly realm and the workings of the heavenly hostwhom God sends out to patrol the earth (vision 1, see Job 1, 2) andamong whom God holds court (vision4).31Outside this section, however,

    the term"[K C is rarely used. As noted by Conrad, it does appear in Hag.1.13 in the phrase miT "[K^Q in reference to the prophet Haggai. The nextappearance is in Zech. 12.8 where, in a comparison between TITandC^CIT2CT, the house ofDavidis comparedto both deity (^) and

    ""Jfcbc andthe inhabitantsofJerusalemtoDavid.32

    Thefinalappear-

    anceis inMai. 2.7 in which the"is identified as "[K^C.

    This final reference in Mai. 2.7 has drawn much attention from

    scholarship,often identified as evidencethatthe priests had taken overpropheticprerogatives. Thistransition,itisclaimed,was foreshadowed in

    thereferenceinZech.3.7btoJoshuathehighpriest being given 'a way of

    access' tothedivine council and atransitionnecessitated by thecrisis in

    prophecydepicted inZech. 13.26.33

    However, besides the fact thatthe

    traditionaltranslation ofZech.3.7b and the traditional interpretationof

    Zech.13.26can nolonger be sustained(inmyopinion),34

    what has been

    31. W.M.Schniedewind,The Word of God in Transition:FromProphettoExegetein

    the Second TemplePeriod(JSOTSup, 197; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1995), p. 62,notes:

    'The use of angels to mediate the prophetic word thenis characteristic of postexilic

    prophecy'.

    32. For theroyal figuretobe identified orcomparedtoa"fc^C of God is not surprising and can be found at three places in the Former Prophets (1 Sam. 29.9; 2 Sam. 14.17;19.27). The comparison to 'God' is also not odd, in light of the fact that the king isdescribed in Ps. 2.7 as the adopted son of deity; cf. D.L. Petersen,Zechariah 9-14 and

    Malachi: A Commentary (OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1995),

    p. 119. Petersen's view, however, on Zech. 12.8 is rather odd, in that he says the versegives David divine status and then democratizes David as the people (cf. Isa. 55.3), which

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    124 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    missed is that the term"[K^Cis used to refer to prophets in a book as late

    as Chronicles, and that mrV'fK^Q is used in Hag. 1.13 to refer to a

    prophetand inZech.12.8 to refer to a royal figure.As 7T~r"[K^C,the prophetic figure Haggai is seen as one who brings

    the message of God, which is recognized as authoritative by the com-

    munity. In similar fashion, the priestly figure in Mai. 2.7 is seen as one

    who is to preserve knowledge as he instructs the people. In contrast,

    however, the royal figure inZech.12.8 is linked to the7 "[K^Cin the

    role of leadership ofthepeople going into battle.35

    Focusingattention, then,on the phrase"[S^C,one discovers out-

    side ofZechariah 18 one reference to a*"[fc^C in each of thethree

    corpora and each reference links this identity with one of thethree key

    sociofunctionaries in ancient Israel: prophet (Hag. 1.13), king (Zech.

    12.8)andpriest(Mai.2.7).InZechariah 18, where miT"[K^Cappears to

    be limited to a heavenly rather than human figure, these three socio

    functionaries all enter into the scene at one point oranother.Of course, a

    propheticfigure is evident throughout the night vision sequence and the

    enduring importance of prophecy is clear fromthefactthattheprophet isconsistently given messages to declare to the people. At two points,

    however, the night visions emphasizetherole oftheprophet,bothtohave

    access into God's presence (Zech. 3, in thegift to the priestly caste of

    prophets whowill have access to the divine council) and toserve as a

    conduitfor God's presence into the community (Zech. 4). Not only the

    prophet,but also the priest is emphasized in the night vision sequence,

    first inthereinstatement and reclothing of Joshua in Zechariah 3, but also

    Thrones: Prophet, Priest and King in Zechariah 1:76:15', in Ehud Ben Zvi (ed.),

    PerspectivesonHebrew Scriptures(Piscataway,NJ:Gorgias Press, 2006),pp. 379404.

    35. K.J. Larkin,TheEschatologyof Second Zechariah: A Study of theFormationof a

    MantologicalWisdomAnthology(CBET,6:Kampen:Kok. 1994),p.159, linkstheimage

    hereto that oftheangelic presence leadingthepeople intheExodus (Exod. 14.19) and to

    the angel who defended Jerusalem against Sennacherib (2 Kgs 19.35): cf. G. Gaide,

    Jrusalem, voici ton roi: Commentaire du Zacharie 9-14 (LD. 49; Paris: Les Editions du

    Cerf,1968), pp. 126-27. She also, however, does note that in 2 Sam. 14.20 the comparisonof David with a ^ " " ^ ^ is related to his wisdom and omniscience, citing then

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    BODA Messengers of Hope in HaggaiMalachi 125

    in the provision of a crown and throne to the priest in Zech. 6.915.

    Althoughthepriest istorespecttherole ofthecomingroyal figure(*),

    he and his associates are to serve a significant function within therestorationcommunity.Finally,theroyal figure isnotonlyprophesiedin

    thenightvisionsequenceasthedivinecourtlooks fortheexpected figure

    calledUt2 (Zech.3,6), but a royal figure is addressed directlyandgiven

    thepromisethathewillbe responsible for the completionofthetemple

    (Zech.4).Thus,the night vision sequence portraysprophetic,royal and

    priestly figures inintimatecontactwith the realm whereCDK^Cdwell,

    thatspace between earth and heaven(Zech.5).

    What is interesting,however, isthatthethreereferences to"[N^E

    outsidethe night vision series all appear inverseswhose 'authenticity'

    hasbeen debatedontextcriticaland literary grounds.36

    Elsewhere inthe

    bookofHaggai,Haggai is called *rz:rr (1.1,3, 12; 2.1, 10), but in Hag.

    1.13, eventhoughreferencehasjust beenmadeto Haggai astheprophet

    (1.12),he is givenanothertitleinthisverynextverse,namely,m""K^C.There are challenges within 1.13 itself with what appears to be a dittogra-

    phy in the phrases:*HID^C::mir "fate";n. Notonly isthelead wordin the second phrase ^ a hapax legomena in the HebrewBible, it is not represented in some of theSeptuagint textual traditions

    whereonefinds only: ayyeos .3"Isitpossiblethattheconfusiononthe textcritical level can be traced to the intrusive character ofthis

    phrasein this text, onethatwas glossed at somepointby aphrasewhich

    soughttoplay downtheexplicit reference to Haggai as a"[fc^C?

    Thereferenceto""]*7inZech.12.8 reads as intrusivetothetext.

    Thisverse claimsthateventhe feeblest amongtheinhabitantsofJerusa-lemwillbe 'likeDavid',andDavidwillbe 'likeGod,liketheTi IT ipbnbefore them'. While the inhabitants of Jerusalem are compared to only

    36. See W. Bhme, 'Zu Malchi und Haggai',ZAW1 (1887), pp. 210-17; H.G.T.Mitchell, J.M.P. Smith and J.A. Brewer, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on

    Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi and Jonah(ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1912). pp. 55,57.Verhoef notes Keil's observation that this interpolation emphasizes Haggai's position

    as extraordinary messenger, and cites the argument of T. Chary, Agge-Zacharie,Malachie(Paris: J. Gabalda, 1969), p. 22, who sees 'il conviendrait mieux comme con

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    126 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    oneindividual ('David'), it is oddthatDavid iscomparedto both 'God'

    and 'the "]&*?:'. This extra text has often been attributed to the

    uncomfortabilityoflaterJewish scribestogrant Davidevenindirectattri-butionofdeity(whatMitchellcalled 'aglossby some one "very jealous

    for Yahweh'");38

    thus,immediately the word 'God' is glossed as "jK^C

    to lessen the comparison.39

    However, it is interestingthatwhen a

    similarcomparativestructure is usedtoexplaintherelationshipbetween

    Moses and Aaron in Exod. 4.16 (:^'~".^:^"[^"^:^, ,

    1

    C'M^K1?),noglossisintroducedinto thetext.

    40Again,couldtheintrusive

    characterofthisphrase be traced at least in part to aredactionalagenda

    relatedto the status oftheroyal house?

    Finally,the reference to"171**~\$hll inMai.2.7 also has beennotedas

    secondary to its context, as Bhme observed nearly 120 years ago.41

    Malachi 2.1-4 addresses the priests directly ('you'), warning them aboutthe seriousness of action that YHWH will take against them if they do notheed his word. At the end ofthat section,YHWHreveals his desire that thecovenant with Levi continue. Malachi 2.5-6 then unpacks the character of

    this covenant, continuing God's speech still in the first person, speakingabout God's relationship with Levi, and expressing it in a way thatpersonalizes the covenant as if with an individual. In 2.8-9, the speechthen returns to address the priests directly with the 'you', while God isstill speaking in the first person. However, 2.7 stands out in this flow as it

    38. Mitchell, Smith and Brewer,Haggai,p. 326; see the list of earlier scholars inR.A. Mason, 'The Use of Earlier Biblical Material in Zechariah 9-14: A Study in InnerBiblical Exegesis', in Boda and Floyd (eds.),Bringing Out the Treasure,p. 156 n. 22;

    R.C. Dentan, 'Zechariah 9-14\ in G.A. Buttrick(ed.).The Interpreter'sBible(New York:Abingdon. 1956), p. 1107; P.R. Ackroyd, 'Haggai/Zechariah\ in M. Black and H.H.Rowley (eds.).The New Peake's Bible Commentary (London: Thomas Nelson, 1962),p.654.

    39. There is no question that there is great discomfort with this phrase as attested inthe ancient versions. The Targum translates 'the house of David shall be like princes(~~) and shall flourish like kings'; theLXXreads 'the weakest amongtheminthat

    dayasthehouseofDavid,andthehouseofDavidasthehouseofGod.astheangel ofthe

    Lordbeforethem'(^cosKOS,

    OKOSeosteos.cos$ ).SeeMitchell, Smith andBrewer.Haggai.p.329;Mason,'Use',p.156:C.L.Meyersand E.M.Meyers,Zechariah

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    BODA Messengers of Hope in HaggaiMalachi 127

    speaks ofthepriesthoodinabstracttermsandnotdirectly ('apriest', 'his

    mouth') and refers to God in the third person ('the Lord Almighty').

    Malachi 2.7 also repeats the same theme already found in 2.6, usingsimilar vocabulary, but recasting it in a style thatstands out in the pas-

    sage. Here again is evidence in a versecontainingthe phrase7l'~*"[K^C

    ofintrusioninto the text.

    Conclusionand Implications

    Thisarticle has arguedthatalthough each section intheHaggaiZecha-

    riahMalachicorpus displays an integrity of its ownandthuspossesses auniqueredactionhistory,thecorpus asawhole is witnesstoa developing

    tradition, the resulting literature of which has been unified around the

    nightvision series inZechariah 18 through the insertion ofthephrase

    Who, then,was responsible for this redaction? Who has taken these

    corpora anddrawnthemtogetherintoaunified whole?IfMai.1.1and3.1

    were original to the corpus we now find inMalachi,thenit is very likely

    itwas the one(s) responsible for theMalachi section who accomplished

    thiswork, aconclusionthatwouldmeanthatZechariah914 was part of

    thecorpus fromtheoutset.However, it is also possiblethatthoserespon-

    sibleshapedthefinalsection(thebook ofMalachi)inawaythatmatched

    theiragendatoemphasizetheir"[K^Cideals,aviewthatwould leaveopen

    the possibility for a later inclusion of Zechariah 914.42

    Nevertheless,

    there are indications in Malachithat those responsible are seeking to

    create links not only with Zechariah 914 (KCC)but also with Haggaiand Zechariah 18. The selfidentification as 'my messenger' ("DK^C),

    'through' () whom YHWH has communicated this KC to Israel,creates a nice link with the opening section of the Haggai section of theHaggai-Malachi collection where the word of YHWH comes 'through'

    42. As I neared the completion of this study I was delighted to find support for thislink between "S'TE and redaction from the Meyers who suggested that the phraseP"! K E in Zech. 12.8 'could well be the mark of a redactor or compiler of the Book ofZechariah. Such a person might also be the one who redacted or influenced the redactor ofthe Book of Malachi [who ] in the reference to "Angel" places these prophetic words

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    128 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    (TI )Haggai,who iscalled"ipft. Additionally, the opening (1.2-3)and closing (8.14) sections of Zechariah 1-8 contain the call 'return to me

    and I will return to you', a phrase that is echoed in Mai. 3.7. Throughthese echoes the ones responsible for this final section in Malachi identify themselves with the earlier Haggai-Zecharian tradition and furtherstrengthen the integrity of the corpus.

    What, then, is the significance of this redaction? The first half of theHaggai-Malachi complex (the sections using the historical superscriptions) offers a positive view of the future of reinstated socio-functionariesin the restored Yehudite community. These figures are identified as real

    human figures who are linked to pre-exilictraditions.The second half ofthe Haggai-Malachi complex (the sections using the ACQ superscriptions)offers a more sober vision of the future, expressing concern over thepresent crisis inroyal,priestly and prophetic streams in the early Persianperiod. This collection which represents the collation of four verydifferent bodies ofliterature,but which could come from a common streamof prophetic tradition, has been drawn together through the use of theleitmotifof PuPP"[8^0,which elevates roles originally associated with theearthly society of Yehud into the realm described in the night visionswhich is between 'earth and heaven' (Zech. 5.9). As the crisis darkens inthe later period possibly associated with the texts now found in Zechariah9-14 and Malachi, hope shifts increasingly to an inbreaking of CDK^Cassociated with traditional Israelite socio-functionary roles, yet withheavenly contact if not origins.43

    43. See the work of N.G. Cohen, 'FromNabitoMaPakto "Ancient Figure" \ JJS26(1985), pp. 12-24. The association of these figures with the heavenly realm is not soshocking. The prophet was always associated with the heavenly realms, especially as theone who had access to the divine council, appearing in the divine realm in such passagesas Isa. 6, Ezek. 1-3 and2Kgs 20 (cf. Jeremiah's comments about prophets in the council).The priest's association with the heavenly realms comes through his role in entering thesanctuary and the presence of God, the holy of holies being depicted as an entrance to ifnot the divine council. On Yom Kippur the high priest entered once a year. To find thehigh priest in the divine council in Zech. 3 is not surprising (for the high priest was

    allowed to enter God's presence once a year), but in Zech. 3 it does not appear to be onthe same level as membership, since he is the one accused. Although the king is never

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    BODA Messengers of Hope in Haggai-Malachi 129

    The two roles associated with these CDK^Q, messenger figure andmilitary leader, are interestingly the two roles associated with the being

    called ^DK^C in Exod. 23.20-33, a passage which Berry has argued liesbehind the reference to "[K^E in Mal.3.I.44Exodus 23.20-21 describes afigure closely associated with deity ('my name is in him') who will notonly guard and guide them in the conquest of the land, but whose voicemust be carefully heeded.45This intertextual link draws in the only otherreferences to CDK^C outside the night vision corpus, and suggests thatthese figures originally associated with the earthly roles of prophet, kingand priest are possibly being likened to (or even assuming) the ancientrole of theipbu who led Israel into the conquest oftheland, now withthe purpose of cleansing the people (Mai. 3.1).

    Although the majority of recent scholars have linked Mai.3.22-24toredactional processes related to the development of the Book of theTwelve or even theNevPim as a whole, it is possible that the presentredactional theory may explain why Malachi ends with a vision of thereturn of Elijah.46 It was Elijah whose earthly ministry ended with his

    direct transmission to heaven on a fiery chariot pulled by horses; theexpected return of a prophetic figure thus is that of one who literally hadhovered between earth and heaven.47Additionally, in recent years there

    44. Berry, 'Dual Design', pp. 269-302 (281-82).45. As 'Dual Design',p.282, says: 'This messenger mysteriously combines the roles

    of prophet and angel'.

    46. The view that dominates scholarship is that Mai.3.22-24is a conclusion to largercanonical units, such as the Book of the Twelve or even theNevPim as a whole; cf.Nogalski,Redactional Processes,p.185; Schart,Entstehung,pp. 302-303;Curtis, *Zion-Daughter Oracles', pp. 166-84; Redditi, 'Capstone', p. 323. However, see Glazier-McDonald,Malachi,pp. 244-70, who argued that '3.22-24 comprises the climax of theprophecy. In them Malachi brings together elements from his preaching into a sharperfocus. Indeed, all the major themes of the prophecy are found in these final verses...'(p.267). Similarly, J.M. O'Brien,Priest and Lvite in Malachi (SBLDS, 121;Atlanta:Scholars Press, 1990), p.145.Jones,Formation,pp. 236-37, sees3.23-24as a later addi

    tion to explain Mai.3.1;thus

    k

    the original literary horizon of Mai.3.22-24was limited tothe Book of Malachi'. However, he then notes that the shift of this pericope from its orderin the LXX (which was Mai 3 24 22 23 which he considers earlier) to its order in MT

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    130 Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)

    has been much debate over the use of angelic motifs or theology for

    understanding Christology in the New Testament.48

    It may be that the

    whoacts in more ofadivinethanhumanrole'. Suchchariotsand horses also appear in

    Zech.16, as theyenterthisspacebetweenearth andheaventofulfil God'swillonearth.

    48. See especiallyJ.H.Charlesworth,"ThePortrayaloftheRighteousasanAngel',

    inJ.J.CollinsandG.W.E.Nickelsburg(eds.),IdealFiguresin Ancient Judaism:Profiles

    and Paradigms (SeptuagintandCognate Studies;Chico,CA:Scholars Press.1980),pp.

    13551 (145). who, speaking of documentsin Judaism andChristianityin the first few

    centuriesCE.saysthatthey'pointtoaconceptthatseemstohavebeendevelopingwithin

    Judaismprior to the second centuryCE.Figures in Israel's past, especially Adam andJacob,couldbeportrayedasangels;others,notablytheRechabites. couldbethoughtof as

    having been transformedintoangels. Some Jews conceived of thepossibility7 for the

    faithfulprobably onlya\ery select fewtotranscendhumanity andbecomeangels...*:

    seeC.C.Rowland,'The Vision oftheRisen Christ in Rev.i.l3ff:TheDebtofanEarly

    Christologyto an Aspect of Jewish Angelology\ JTS(1980),pp. 111;idem, TheOpen

    Heaven(London:SPCK,1982):idem. ManClothedinLinen:Daniel10.6ffandJewish

    angelology',JSNT24 (1985), pp. 99110. L.T. Stuckenbruck,Angel Veneration and

    Christology:A StudyinEarly Judaism andintheChristologyoftheApocalypseof John

    (WUNT,70;Tbingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1995), pp. 271-72, speaking of the book of Revelation, notes: 'That there isan analogy between Christology and angelology is apparent

    from 1.12-20,from attributes shared with some of the angels (e.g.. 10.1 and 15.6). andespecially from 14.14-20. At the same time, this association seems to be severed emphatically in the \ision of the Lamb in chapter 5\ See now idem, "'Angels'' and "God":Exploring the Limits of Early Jewish Monotheism', in L.T. Stuckenbruck and W.E.Sproston North (eds.).EarlyJew ishand Christian Monotheism(JSNTSup, 263;London:T&T Clark International. 2004).pp.45-70. P.R. Carroll,Jesus and the Angels: Angelologyand the Christology of the Apocalypse of John(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1997), p. 226, draws Zech. 1-6 and even 12.8 into the discussion, concluding: 'Angelol

    ogy has influenced the christology of the Apocalypse in such a way that one of itsimportant strands is an angelomorphic Christology which upholds monotheism whileproviding a means for Jesus to be presented in \isible. glorious form to his church*. Alsosee N.R. Petersen. 'Elijah, the Son of God, and Jesus: Some Issues in the Anthropology ofCharacterization in Mark*, in R.A. Argali,. BowandR.A. Werline(eds.).For a LaterGeneration: The Transformation of Tradition in Israel, Early Judaism, and Early

    Christianity (Harrisburg,PA:TrinityPressInternational,2000),pp.23240, who argues

    for angelicpossession ofJohnandJesus.Finally,seeC.H.T.FletcherLouis.AlltheGloiy

    ofAdam:LiturgicalAnthropologyinthe DeadSeaScrolls(STDJ,42:Leiden:Brill. 2002)

    p. 32. who, highlighting the three figures of king. Moses and priest, writes: 'Thecharacterizationofhumansin such angelictermshas itsrootsin thebiblicaltext,but it is

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    genesis of this development can be traced to the redactor responsible for

    the HaggaiMalachi corpus or even to the Book of the Twelve as a

    whole.49

    Inthewake oftheexileand thefailed restoration,those responsible for

    the redaction of the HaggaiMalachi corpus do not lose hope in the

    promised renewal ofprophet,priest and king, but now look for these as

    'messengers ofhope'with heavenly origins. If this 'messenger' redaction

    canbe linked to the final redaction of thebook of the Twelve, it would

    suggest that greater attention needs to be given to the theme of future

    leadership hope in our reading oftheBook ofthe Twelve.

    50

    49. See further M.J. Boda, 'Figuring theFuture:The Prophets and the Messiah', in

    S.E.Porter(ed.),Messiah (McMasterNew Testament Studies;GrandRapids:Eerdmans,

    2006), pp. 3574.

    50. See now P.L. Redditi, 'The King in HaggaiZechariah 18 and the Book ofthe

    Twelve', inM.J.BodaandM.H.Floyd(eds.),Tradition in Transition(LHBOTS;London:

    T&T ClarkInternational, forthcoming). Those responsible for this messenger redaction

    andits inclusioninto theBook oftheTwelvemay be playing off oforeven be responsiblefor the inclusion of sections ofHos. 12, with its reference to the struggle between Jacob

    and the 'messenger' who is closely associated with 'God' ('the Lord God Almighty the

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    ^ s

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