Eating from the wild: diversity of wild edible plants used by Tibetans ...

JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28RESEARCH Open AccessEating from the wild: diversity of wild edibleplants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region,Yunnan, ChinaYan Ju1, Jingxian Zhuo2, Bo Liu1 and Chunlin Long1,3*Abstract

Background: Locally harvested wild edible plants (WEPs) provide food as well as cash income for indigenouspeople and are of great importance in ensuring global food security. Some also play a significant role inmaintaining the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems. Shangri-la region of Yunnan Province, SWChina, is regarded as a biodiversity hotspot. People living there have accumulated traditional knowledge aboutplants. However, with economic development, WEPs are threatened and the associated traditional knowledge is indanger of being lost. Therefore, ethnobotanical surveys were conducted throughout this area to investigate anddocument the wild edible plants traditionally used by local Tibetan people.

Methods: Twenty-nine villages were selected to carry out the field investigations. Information was collected usingdirect observation, semi-structured interviews, individual discussions, key informant interviews, focus groupdiscussions, questionnaires and participatory rural appraisal (PRA).

Results: Information about 168 wild edible plant species in 116 genera of 62 families was recorded and specimenswere collected. Most species were edible greens (80 species) or fruits (78). These WEPs are sources for local people,especially those living in remote rural areas, to obtain mineral elements and vitamins. More than half of the species(70%) have multiple use(s) besides food value. Some are crop wild relatives that could be used for cropimprovement. Several also have potential values for further commercial exploitation. However, the utilization ofWEPs and related knowledge are eroding rapidly, especially in the areas with convenient transportation andbooming tourism.

Conclusion: Wild food plants species are abundant and diverse in Shangri-la region. They provide food andnutrients to local people and could also be a source of cash income. However, both WEPs and their associatedindigenous knowledge are facing various threats. Thus, conservation and sustainable utilization of these plants inthis area are of the utmost importance. Documentation of these species may provide basic information forconservation, possibly further exploitation, and will preserve local traditional knowledge.

Keywords: Wild edible plants, Traditional knowledge, Biodiversity, Ethnobotany, Shangri-la region* Correspondence: [email protected] of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China,Beijing 100081, PR China3Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming650201, PR ChinaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article

2013 Ju et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

mailto:[email protected]://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0

Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28 Page 2 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28BackgroundWild edible plants (WEPs) refer to species that areharvested or collected from their wild natural habitatsand used as food for human consumption [1-3]. Theyprovide staple food for indigenous people, serve as sup-plementary food for non-indigenous people and are oneof the primary sources of cash income for poor commu-nities [4-6]. WEPs play an important role in ensuringfood security and improve the nutrition in the diets ofmany people in developing countries [1,5]. They are po-tential sources of species for domestication and providevaluable genetic traits for developing new crops throughbreeding and selection [7,8].Although domesticated plants are the main source of

food and income for people in rural areas, they are notable to meet the annual food requirements [9-11]. Thus,the collection and consumption of wild edible plants hasbeen a way of life to supplement dietary requirementsfor many rural populations throughout the world [5,12].However, due to social change and acculturation pro-cesses, indigenous knowledge (or traditional knowledge)about the use of wild edible species is declining and evenvanishing with modernization and increasing contactswith western lifestyles [13]. Meanwhile, the loss of trad-itional knowledge has also been recognized as one of themajor factors that have negative effects on the conserva-tion of biological diversity [14]. Thus, it is becomingurgent to document and revitalize traditional knowledgeof WEPs to preserve genetic and cultural diversity[12,15,16]. China is renowned for its wide use of wildharvested resources in the human diet, and many studieshave focused on wild edible plants [17-28]. These ethno-botanical surveys not only play an important role in con-serving traditional knowledge associated with WEPs, butalso contribute to nutritional analysis of the most widelyused species [1,13]. Nutritional analyses may provide sig-nificant information for the utilization of those speciesthat have the best nutritional values, thus helping tomaintain dietary diversity and improve local food secur-ity [1,2,15].Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan

Province, commonly known as the Shangri-la region, be-longs to the world-famous area called Three Parallel Riv-ers (Nujiang River, Lancang River and Jinsha River). It isthe core of the eastern Himalayas and is regarded as abiodiversity hotspot [29]. Because of its complex topog-raphy and high diversity of climates, abundant plant andanimal species are distributed in this area [30,31]. Al-though Tibetans account for about 32.36% of the totalpopulation of the whole prefecture and have a relativelywell-preserved and distinct cultural identity, there arealso Lisu, Han, Naxi, Yi as well as Bai populations,among whom mutual cultural influences have existed fora long time [30,31]. Furthermore, the diet of localTibetan people differs somewhat from that of Tibetansin Xizang Autonomous Region. People living in theTibetan Plateau have a limited range of food choices.The staple traditional diet includes Tsampa (made fromhull-less barley), yak meat, mutton, buttered tea, sweettea, barley wine and yogurt [32]. They seldom eat ve-getables or fruits. On the other hand, because plantresources in Diqing Prefecture are more plentiful, andlocal Tibetans are influenced by other nationalities,they not only cultivate various crops, but also collectwild edible plants as supplementary food. These WEPsprovide various microelements, and are also an import-ant feature of local agrobiodiversity in which Tibetanshave traditionally lived. However, the ecology of DiqingTibetan Autonomous Prefecture is very fragile, andagrobiodiversity is being rapidly lost due to many naturaland human caused factors [33-35]. Many precious plantresources that may have potential for future sustainabledevelopment are vanishing before they have been discov-ered. The reduction of plant diversity also leads to theextinction of the associated indigenous knowledge [36].Thus, documentation and evaluation of edible plantsand relevant local knowledge is urgently needed. Thiswork may guide proper conservation and sustainableutilization of those wild food plants and related indigen-ous knowledge.Although there are several ethnobotanical studies

concerning wild food plants used by ethnic minorities,such as Mongolians [18,19], Miao in Hunan Province[21] and various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province[5,17,26-28], to our knowledge, information on WEPs ofthe Shangri-la region used by Tibetans has not previouslybeen documented. In order to fill this gap, ethnobotanicalsurveys were conducted throughout the prefecture. Scien-tific and local names, plant parts used, modes of prepar-ation, seasonality patterns in collection and use, andcommercialization possibilities of the WEPs are presentedin this paper.

MethodsStudy areaThe study was carried out in Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture, northwest Yunnan, situated in the south of theQinghai-Tibet Plateau of the eastern Himalayas, at thejunction of Yunnan, Tibet and Sichuan Provinces (be-tween 9835-10019 E and 2652-2916 N) (Figure 1).Three counties, Shangri-la, Deqin and Weixi are adminis-tered by the prefecture, with a total area of 23,870 squarekilometers and a population of about 400,000. The terrainis higher in the north and lower in the south. The lowestaltitude, 1,480 m is at the junction of the Biyu andLancang Rivers in Weixi County, and the highest altitude,6,740 m is Kawagebo Peak of the Meili Snow Mountains.The climate of Diqing is divided into five zones: 1)

Figure 1 Location of the area covered in an investigation into the wild edible plants used by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region,Yunnan, China.

Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28 Page 3 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28northern subtropical and warm temperate (below2500 m); 2) temperate (25003000 m); 3) cold tem-perate (30004000 m); 4) frigid (40005000 m); and5) glacier (above 5000 m). Abundant plant resources aredistributed in this area because of its unique geographicallocation and climate diversity [31].

Field survey and data collectionPrior to our field work, relevant literature was consultedto obtain information on the topography, climate, andlocal culture of Diqing Prefecture, this was helpful inchoosing the specific study sites [31]. Field studies werecarried out during three visits in March, July and Au-gust, 2012. After considering the terrain and climatecondition, 29 villages belonging to three counties (8 inShangri-la, 3 in Weixi and 18 in Deqin) and located inhigh mountains as well as lower river valleys were ran-domly selected to carry out ethnobotanical investigation(Table 1). Two-hundred and eighty-two randomly se-lected households (eight to ten people per village) weresurveyed. Ethnobotanical data were collected throughdifferent interview methods (participatory rural appraisal(PRA), direct observation, semi-structured interviews,key informant interviews, individual discussions, focusgroup discussions and questionnaires) [37-40].During our survey, the local Tibetan pronunciations,

parts used, collection period and preparation methodsplants were recorded. Because local Tibetan pronuncia-tions differ from the formal Tibetan pronunciation ofXizang Autonomous Region, and the names of somespecies were even pronounced the same as in MandarinChinese, we recorded the names phonetically exactly asthey were spoken to us. Most Tibetans in Diqing Prefec-ture, especially the official workers, students and traderscan speak basic Mandarin, therefore our interviews werein Mandarin and did not use interpreters.

Table 1 Villages surveyed in investigations of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region, YunnanProvince, China

No. Name of village Latitude (north) Longitude (east) Altitude(m)

1 Laza Village, Shangri-la County 274539.6 994022.8 3320

2 Jiefang Village, Shangri-la County 275146.8 994156.4 3280

3 Nishi Village, Shangri-la County 274721.8 994059.5 3290

4 Kaisong Village, Shangri-la County 275349.6 993821.5 3270

5 Dala Village, Shangri-la County 273112 995736 3370

6 Xiaozhongdian Village, Shangri-la County 273412 994759 3260

7 Xingfu Village, Shangri-la County 28827.6 992558.8 2230

8 Nixi Village, Shangri-la County 2841.2 992934.8 3170

9 Laohao Village, Weixi County 271054.1 991720.4 2260

10 Gongyuan Village, Weixi County 272150.35 99511.45 1690

11 Biluo Village, Weixi County 272522.8 99158.8 2630

12 Feilaisi Village, Deqin County 282631.2 985244.4 3390

13 Wunongding Village, Deqin County 282656.4 985446.8 3530

14 Mingyong Village, Deqin County 28288.4 984742 2270

15 Adunzi Village, Deqin County 282913.6 985438.9 3290

16 Gusong Village, Deqin County 282937.7 985410.1 3590

17 Adong Village, Deqin County 284546.8 983914.4 2690

18 Hongpo Village, Deqin County 28172.4 985418 2810

19 Guonian Village, Deqin County 281716.71 985149.61 2130

20 Jiulongding Village, Deqin County 282042 985313.2 2570

21 Sinong Village, Deqin County 28299.18 984733.42 2320

22 Badong Village, Deqin County 275739.6 98540 2240

23 Cizhong Village, Deqin County 280116.44 985416.14 1970

24 Gongka Village, Deqin County 283527.6 985212 3080

25 Jiunong Village, Deqin County 284328.77 98414.76 3160

26 Luwa Village, Deqin County 284030 984138.4 2290

27 Xiaruo Village, Deqin County 27483.77 99185.11 2040

28 Tuoding Village, Deqin County 274610.9 992537.2 1940

29 Benzilan Village, Deqin County 281436.83 99187.43 2150

Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28 Page 4 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28Specimens were examined and identified by the authorsand other taxonomists and will be deposited in theHerbarium of the Minzu University of China (Beijing).

Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently utilized speciesThe study area is floristically rich and has a large num-ber of useful WEP species. The 168 species documentedTable 2 Taxonomic distribution of wild edible plants used by

Plant group Number of species

Angiosperm 153

Gymnosperm 4

Pteridophyte 4

Algae 2

Lichen 5

Total 168include angiosperms (153 spp.), gymnosperms (4), pteri-dophytes (4), algae (2) and lichens (5) (Table 2), of which41.1% are endemic to China and 11.9% endemic tonorthwestern Yunnan Province. Details of utilization aregiven in Table 3 (plants mentioned only by one informantare not documented in this list). The average number ofspecies mentioned per informant is around ca. 8 species.Plants belonging to 62 families and 116 genera areTibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan Province, China

Number of genera Number of families

101 47

4 4

4 4

2 2

5 5

116 62

Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan Province, China

Latin name Local name Family name Distribution Parts used Local use (edible only) Collectionperiod Additional local use(s) Frequency

Actinidia arguta(Siebold et Zucc.)Planch. ex Miq.

Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh. Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants.

***

Actinidia pilosula(Finet et

Gagnep.) Stapfex Hand.-Mazz.



**

Actinidia venosaRehder



**

Adenophorakhasiana (Hook. f.et Thomson)

Collett et Hemsl.

Zheibamiedu CampanulaceaeWeixi andDeqin

Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic. Jul-Sept

Flowers and stems used forweisang. Aerial parts used asfodder. Roots used to treatcough and clearing heat.

***

Alectoria sulcataNyl.

Shuhua UsneaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sep *

Allium hookeriThwaites var.muliense Airy-

Shaw

Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug ***

Allium ovalifoliumHand.-Mazz.


Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug *****

Allium trifurcatum(F. T. Wang et T.Tang) J. M. Xu


Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug ****

Amaranthuscaudatus L.

Yani AmaranthaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Youngstems andleaves

stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder. ***

Amaranthushypochondriacus

L.Yani Amaranthaceae

Shangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder. ***

Amygdalus mira(Koehne) Ricker

Yemaotao;Kamu

RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh. Jul-AugSeeds used to relieve a coughand cure injuries.

***

Anemone rivularisBuch.-Ham. ex

DC.Huzhangcao Ranunculaceae Weixi Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-Sept

Roots used to treat bronchitis.Whole plant used asornamental.

*

Aralia caesiaHand.-Mazz.

Shutoucai Araliaceae Shangri-laYoungleaves andleaf buds

stir-fried or eaten fresh Apr-May ****

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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan Province, China (Continued)

Aralia chinensis L. Gege AraliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Youngleaves andleaf buds

stir-fried or eaten fresh Apr-May Bark used for weisang *****

Arctium lappa L. Baomujicigen AsteraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic. Jun-AugFruits, leaves and roots used torelieve fever, and treat measles,dysentery and gastropathy.

***

Arisaemaerubescens (Wall.)

SchottReduo Araceae


Youngleaves

stir-fried Jun-JulTubers used to relieve coughand treat hemoptysis andpneumonia.

**

Aristolochiadelavayi Franch.

Ricaoko Aristolochiaceae Shangri-laWholeplants

stir-fried and used as spice Aug-SeptWhole plants used asstomachic tonic.

***

Armeniaca mumeSiebold

Kangjue RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh. AugUsed as rootstock forArmeniaca vulgaris.

*

Arundinaria faberiRendle

Sunzi PoaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

New shoots boiled or stir-fried Jul-AugAerial parts used as fodder andto make bamboo wares.

*****

Berberis amoenaDunn

Qiesi BerberidaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Youngstems,leaves andfruits

eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants.

***

Berberisjamesiana Forrestet W. W. Sm.




***

Berberis pruinosaFranch.




***

Berberis weisiensisC. Y. Wu ex S. Y.

BaoQiesi Berberidaceae




**

Berchemia hirtellaTsai et K. M. Feng

Zhila Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sep **

Berchemia hirtellaTsai et K. M. Feng

Zhila Rhamnaceae DeqinYoungleaves

used for making tea Apr-Jun **

Berchemia sinicaC. K. Schneid.

Zhila Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sep **

Berchemia sinicaC. K. Schneid.

Zhila Rhamnaceae DeqinYoungleaves

used for making tea Apr-Jun **

Boehmeriapenduliflora

Wedd. ex LongSejia Urticaceae Deqin


boiled or stir-fried Jun-Jul *

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Boehmeriatricuspis (Hance)

MakinoSejia Urticaceae Deqin


stir-fried Jun-Jul *

Broussonetiapapyrifera (L.)L'Hr. ex Vent.

MoraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Sep-OctLeaves used as fodder. Barkused for papermaking.

*

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.)Medik.

Zijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **

CardamineyunnanensisFranch.

Lijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **

Cephalotaxusfortunei Hook.

var. alpina H. L. LiMiyou Cephalotaxaceae Weixi, Deqin Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct

Plants used as fuel-wood.Seeds used to expel parasite.

*

Cerasusconadenia

(Koehne) T. T. Yuet C. L. Li

Xumumiedu RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugFlowers and leaves used forweisang

***

Cerasustomentosa

(Thunb.) Wall.Nuosi Rosaceae


Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept **

Chaenomelesspeciosa (Sweet)

NakaiSuomugua Rosaceae


Fruitsstewed with meat as spice and used to prepare localwine

Sept-Oct ***

Chenopodiumalbum L.

Hui ChenopodiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


stir-fried Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder. ***

Cinnamomumglanduliferum(Wall.) Meisner

Xiangzhangzi LauraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits stir-fried and used as spices Aug-SeptFruits used to treatstomachache.

*

Cirsiumjaponicum

(Thunb.) Fisch. exDC.

Baimaci AsteraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-AugYoung stems and leaves usedas fodder.

***

Codonopsispilosula (Franch.)

Nannf. var.handeliana(Nannf.) L. T.

Shen

Dangshen CampanulaceaeDeqin andWeixi

Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-SeptAerial parts used as fodder.Roots used to invigorate thespleen.

***

Coriarianepalensis Wall.

Masen Coriariaceae Weixi Fruits eaten fresh May-Jun *

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Cornus capitataWall.

Jisuo; Jisuziguo CornaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptFruits, stems and leaves usedas veterinary medicine.

***

Cornusmacrophylla Wall.

Dengtaishu CornaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Seeds used for making vegetable oil. Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood. **

Cornus schindleriWangerin

Saisaizi CornaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

seeds used for making vegetable oil Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood. **

Cornus ulotrichaC. K. Schneid. et

WangerinDengtaishu Cornaceae


seeds used for making vegetable oil Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood. *

Corylus chinensisFranch.

Jilizi BetulaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits used for making pastries Sept-OctWood used for construction orfurniture.

**

Corylusyunnanensis

(Franch.) CamusShanbaiguo Betulaceae


Fruits used for making pastries Sept-OctWoods used for constructionor furniture.

*

Cotinus coggygriaScop. var.

glaucophylla C. Y.Wu

Jiade Anacardiaceae Shangri-laYoungleaves

boiled or stir-fried May-JunWhole plants used asornamental.

*

Crataeguschungtienensis W.

W. Sm.Lubu Rosaceae

Weixi andShangri-la

Fruits eaten fresh SeptWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants.

***

Crataegus oresbiaW. W. Sm.

Lubu RosaceaeWeixi andShangri-la

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants.

***

Cynanchumforrestii Schltr.

Babeda AsclepiadaceaeDeqin andWeixi

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-OctRoots stewed with meat andeaten to treat rheumatism.

*

Davidiainvolucrata Baill.var. vilmoriniana(Dode) Wangerin

Labizi Nyssaceae Weixi Fruits eaten fresh Sept-OctWhole plant used asornamental.

*

Debregeasiaorientalis C. J.

ChenJiaojia Urticaceae


Fruits eaten fresh and used to make local wine Jun-AugRoots used to treat rheumatoidarthritis and broken bones.

*

Decaisnea insignis(Griff.) Hook. f. et

ThomsonXianli Lardizabalaceae


Fruits eaten fresh and used to make local wine Jul-AugRoots and fruits used toclearing heat.

***

DioscoreamelanophymaPrain et Burkill

Huangshayue Dioscoreaceae Weixi Tubers boiled or stir-fried Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder. **

Diospyros lotus L. Tazhi EbenaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Sept-Oct ***

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Duchesnea indica(Andrews) Focke

Dihongpao RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Jul *

Elaeagnusmultiflora Thunb.

Cibie ElaeagnaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Jul **

Elaeagnusumbellata Thunb.

Yangnaiguo ElaeagnaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Aug **

EriobotryasalwinensisHand.-Mazz.

RosaceaeWeixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Aug Plants used as fuel-wood. *

Eutremadeltoideum(Hook. f. et

Thomson) O. E.Schulz

Limo BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **

Eutremaheterophyllum (W.W. Sm.) H. Hara




EutremahimalaicumHook. f. etThomson




Fagopyrumdibotrys (D. Don)

H. HaraWanao Polygonaceae Deqin


stir-fried Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder. *

Fargesiamelanostachys(Hand.-Mazz.) T.

P. Yi

Sunzi PoaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

New shoots boiled or stir-fried May-AugAerial parts used as fodder andto make bamboo wares.

*****

Ficus pumila L. Dongshili MoraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits used for making bean jelly Jul-Aug Leaves used as fodder. *

Ficus sarmentosaBuch.-Ham. ex

Sm.dongshili Moraceae


Fruits used for making bean jelly Jul-Aug Leaves used as fodder. *

Foeniculumvulgare Mill.

Asi ApiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jul **

Fragariamoupinensis

(Franch.) CardotGasuo Rosaceae


Fruits eaten fresh. Jun-Jul Whole plants used as fodder. **

Galinsogaparviflora Cav.

Nawabijia AsteraceaeDeqin andWeixi


boiled or stir-fried Jun-Aug Whole plants used as fodder. *

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Ginkgo biloba L. Baiguo Ginkgoaceae Deqin, Weixi Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct Seeds used to treat asthma. *

Gnaphaliumaffine D. Don

Qingmincai Asteraceae WeixiYoungleaves

grounded with sticky rice to make rice cake. Apr-MayLeaves used to treat cuts andgun shot wounds.

*

Herminiumlanceum (Thunb.ex Sw.) Vuijk

Lianxiongde Orchidaceae Shangri-la Whole plant stewed with meat and eaten as tonic. Aug-Sep Whole plant used as fodder. *

Hippophaerhamnoides L.

subsp.yunnanensis

Rousi

Xiju ElaeagnaceaeDeqin.Shangri-la

Fruits eaten fresh or used to make beverage and wine. Aug-OctFruits used to treat cough andinvigorate the circulation ofblood.

*****

Houttuyniacordata Thunb.

Zhergen SaururaceaeWeixi,Shangri-la

Leaves androots

eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-Jul ***

Juglans regia L. Daiga JuglandaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Seedseaten fresh or stir-fried, and used for making vegetableoil.

Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood. ***

Kalopanaxseptemlobus

(Thunb.) Koidz.Cilaobao Araliaceae



eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun **

Lethariellacladonioides (Nyl.)

KrogGangge Parmeliaceae Deqin Whole plant used for making tea, wine and beverage Aug-Oct

Used to tranquilize mind andclearing heat.

*

Leycesteriaformosa Wall.

Sezha Caprifoliaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh. Aug-Oct *

Ligusticumdaucoides

(Franch.) Franch.Riqincai Apiaceae Shangri-la

Wholeplants

stir-fried or added to soups Apr-May Aerial parts used as fodder. ****

Lindera kariensisW. W. Sm.

Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi, Deqin Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept **

Lindera nacusua(D. Don) Merr.

Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept **

Linderaobtusiloba Blumevar. heterophylla(Meisn.) H. P. Tsui

Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept *

Lindera reflexaHemsl.

Rihujiao Lauraceae Weixi Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept *

Lobaria sp. Qingwapi StictaceaeShangri-laand Weixi

Aerial part eaten fresh Jul-SeptWhole plant used to treatdyspepsia.

*

Lycopus lucidusTurcz. ex Benth.

Ganluo Lamiaceae Shangri-laYoungstems andleaves

eaten fresh or stir-fried or used for making pickle Jul-Aug **

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MahoniaduclouxianaGagnep.

Jisa Berberidaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh. Aug-SepWhole plants used as hedgeplants.

*

Maianthemumatropurpureum

(Franch.)LaFrankie

Zhuyecai;Nibai LiliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Youngshoots andleaves

stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. *****

Maianthemumforrestii (W. W.

Smith) LaFrankieZhuyecai;Nibai Liliaceae

Shangri-laand Weixi


stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. ****

Maianthemumhenryi (Baker)LaFrankie




Maianthemumoleraceum (Baker)

LaFrankieZhuyecai;Nibai Liliaceae

Weixi,Shangri-la


stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. ***

Maianthemumpurpureum(Wallich)LaFrankie



stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. *****

Maianthemumtatsienense(Franct.)LaFrankie

Zhuyecai;Nibai Liliaceae Shangri-laYoungshoots andleaves


Malus rockiiRehder

Tangli RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh SeptPlants used as fuel-wood, androotstock for Malus pumila.Whole plants used as fence.

***

Malus spectabilis(Ait.) Borkh.

Haitangguo RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptFruits decoction used to treatdark urine.

**

Malva verticillataL.

Jiangba Malvaceae DeqinYoungstems andleaves

stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves, stems and seeds usedas fodder. Whole plant used asornamental.

*

Matteucciastruthiopteris (L.)

TadaroHuangguaxiang Onocleaceae


Immaturefronds

eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun ****

Medicagolupulina L.

Mocuo FabaceaeDeqin,Shangri-la


eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-JulLeaves, stems, flowers andseeds used as fodder.

*

Megacarpaeadelavayi Franch.

Yuose BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin



Megacarpaeapolyandra Benth.

ex MaddenYuose Brassicaceae




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Menthacanadensis L.

Qiubi LamiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Youngleaves

eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-Aug **

NostocsphaerioidesKtzing

Shuimuer Nostocaceae Shangri-la Whole plant eaten fresh or added to soups Jun-JulWhole plant used to treatburns and scalds.

*

Metapanaxdelavayi (Franch.)J. Wen et Frodin

Araliaceae Deqin, WeixiYoungleaves

used for making tea Apr-MayWhole plants used as hedgeplants.

*

Ophioglossumreticulatum L.

Yimuyidun Ophioglossaceae Shangri-laImmaturefronds

stir-fried or added to soups Jul-AugWhole plants used to treatimpotence and lumbago.

*

Opuntiamonacantha(Willd.) Haw.

Xianrenguo CactaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SepTubers and fruits used asfodder. Whole plants used asfence and hedge plants.

***

Oreorchis indica(Lindl.) Hook. f.

Xiabaji OrchidaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Pseudobulbs boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugWhole plants used as fodder.Pseudobulbs used to stopbleeding and detumescence.

*

Osmundajaponica Thunb.

Shuijuecai Osmundaceae WeixiImmaturefronds

stir-fried May-Jun ***

Osteomelesschwerinae C. K.

Schneid.Sele Rosaceae


Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and fruits used asfodder.

**

Panax japonicus(T. Nees) C. A.

Meyer var. major(Burkill) C. Y. Wuet K. M. Feng

Gedeqi Araliaceae Shangri-laYoungstems andleaves

eaten fresh or stir-fried May-JunWhole plants used as fodder.Roots used to stop bleeding.

***

Panax japonicus(T. Nees) C. A.

Meyer var. major(Burkill) C. Y. Wuet K. M. Feng

Gedeqi Araliaceae Shangri-la Rhizomes stewed with meat and eaten as tonic. Jul-AugWhole plants used as fodder.Rhizomes used to stopbleeding.

***

Pentapanaxhenryi Harms

AraliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May **

Photiniaglomerata

Rehder et E. H.Wilson

Chongsi Rosaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Sept *

Phyllanthusemblica L.

Ganlan Euphorbiaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept Barks used to extract tannin. ***

Phytolaccaacinosa Roxb.

Tuoqiong Phytolaccaceae DeqinYoungstems andleaves

eaten fresh or stir-fried Jul-AugRoots used to promotediuresis.

*

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PinelliapedatisectaSchott

Luoa Araceae DeqinYoungleaves

stir-fried Jun-JulCorms used to treat vomit andreduce phlegm.

*

Pinus armandiiFranch.

Seitu; Songzi PinaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-Oct

Leaves and stems used forweisang. Needles used asfodder. Plants used as fuel-wood.

**

Pistaciaweinmanniifolia J.Poiss. ex Franch.

Li Anacardiaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and stems used forweisang. Leaves and fruits usedas fodder.

****

Plantago asiaticaL.

Hamaye PlantaginaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Wholeplants

boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves, stems, flowers andseeds used as fodder.

***

Plantago major L. Hamaye PlantaginaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Wholeplants

boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves, stems, flowers andseeds used as fodder.

***

Potentillaanserina L.

Chuomo RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Roots eaten fresh or boiled Jun-SeptLeaves, stems and fruits usedas fodder. Roots used tocontrol leukorrhea flow.

***

Potentillacoriandrifolia D.Don var. dumosa

Franch.

Zumuyasha RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Roots eaten after boiling Jun-Sept Whole plants used as fodder. *

Potentillaleuconota D. Don

Pagu RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Roots eaten after boiling Jun-Sept Whole plants used as fodder. *

Prasiolasubareolata Skuja.

Shihuacai Prasiolaceae Shangri-laWholeplants

eaten fresh or added to soups Jun-Jul *

Prinsepia utilisRoyle

Qingciguo RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug ***

Pteridiumaquilinum (L.)Kuhn var.

latiusclum (Desv.)Underw. ex A.

Heller

Zhila PteridaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Immaturefronds

eaten fresh or stir-fried May-JulWhole plant used to treatrheumatism or for clearingheat.

****

Pyracanthafortuneana

(Maxim.) H. L. LiSare Rosaceae


Fruits eaten fresh Sept-Oct *

Pyrus betulifoliaBunge

Reli RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct *

Pyrus calleryanaDecne.

Xialie RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct *

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http://app:ds:reducehttp://app:ds:phlegm


Pyrus pashiaBuch.-Ham. ex D.

DonSuilun Rosaceae


Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct **

Pyruspseudopashia T.

T. YuSuilun Rosaceae


Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept **

Ramalinafastigiata (Pers.)

Ach.Shuhua Ramalinaceae Whole plant Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sept *

Rheumlikiangense Sam.

Mojue PolygonaceaeShangri-laand Deqin

Youngleaves

eaten fresh Jun-AugRoots used to remove bloodstasis.

*

Ribes alpestreWall. ex Decne.

Suanmiguoguo SaxifragaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local wine Aug-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants.

***

Ribes moupinenseFranch.

Hiangshen SaxifragaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local wine Jul-OctLeaves, stems and fruits usedfor weisang. Whole plants usedas fence and hedge plants.

***

Ribes glacialeWall.

Niangxu SaxifragaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and stems used forweisang. Whole plants used asfence and hedge plants.

***

Rosa omeiensisRolfe

Xuwabala RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jul-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand ornamental.

***

Rosa praelucensByhouwer

Xielermiedu Rosaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Sept-OctFlowers used for weisang.Whole plant used asornamental.

***

Rosa soulieanaCrp.

Xuwabala RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand ornamental.

**

Rubus assamensisFocke

Hongpai;Yongde


Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. **

Rubus fockeanusKurz

Hongpai;Yongde


Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. *

Rubus niveusThunb.

Hongpai;Yongde



Rubus pectinellusMaxim.

Jiaoxumu RosaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and stems used forweisang. Whole plants used asfence.

***

Rubuspentagonus Wall.

ex Focke

Hongpai;Yongde



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RubuspolyodontusHand.-Mazz.

Hongpai;Yongde


Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence. *

Rubusrubrisetulosus

Cardot

Hongpai;Yongde



Rubus stansFocke

Hongpai;Yongde



Sageretia thea(Osbeck) M. C.

Johnst.Luozi Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Apr-May *

Sambucuschinensis Lindl.

Debangqiongjie CaprifoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder. ***

Schisandrarubriflora

(Franch.) Rehderet E. H. Wilson

Wuweizi SchisandraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local wine Aug-OctFruits used as antidiarrheic andfor invigorating kidney. Wholeplant used as ornamental.

***

Sinopodophyllumhexandrum

(Royle) T. S. YingAgabule Berberidaceae


Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept

Roots, stems and leaves usedto clear heat. Seeds used tocure antenatal pain and helpexpelling placenta. Whole plantused as ornamental.

**

Spiranthessinensis (Pers.)

AmesXiaobaiji Orchidaceae Shangri-la Whole plant stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fodder. *

Stachyskouyangensis(Vaniot) Dunnvar. franchetiana(H. Lv.) C. Y. Wu

Riganlu LamiaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Tubers boiled or stir-fried Jun-Sept Whole plants used as fodder. *

TaraxacummongolicumHand.-Mazz.

Yongma AsteraceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Wholeplants

boiled or stir-fried Jun-Aug Whole plants used as fodder. ***

Taxillus chinensis(DC.) Danser

Yawakeqi Loranthaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct **

Taxillus thibetensis(Lecomte) Danser

Yawakeqi Loranthaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct ***

Thamnoliavermicularis Ach.

Xiare ThamnoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Whole plant used for making tea, wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat.

*

Thlaspi arvense L. Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin


stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **

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Thlaspi arvense L. Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin

Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder. **

ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch.

Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


stir-fried or used for making pickle. May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder. **

ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch.

Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder. **

Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H. P. Tsui

FabaceaeDeqin,Shangri-la

Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder. *

Toona sinensis(Juss.) Roem.

MeliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun **

Torreya fargesiiFranch. var.

yunnanensis (C. Y.Cheng et L. K.Fu) N. Kang

Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixi,Shangri-la

seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang. Plants used as fuel-wood.

*

Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L.)

KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae

Weixi andDeqin

Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish.

*

Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F. A.

Barkley

Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin

Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish.

*

Triosteumhimalayanum

Wall.Sachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder. *

Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall.

ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la

Youngleaves

used for making pickle Jul-Aug **

Urtica fissa E.Pritz.

Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


stir-fried Jun-Jul **

Urtica mairei H.Lv.

Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


stir-fried Jun-Jul **

ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin

Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept *

Viburnumkansuense Batalin

Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept *

Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg

Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin

Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder. **

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ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim.

Yemu RutaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin


eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May ****

ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim.

Yemu RutaceaeShangri-la,Weixi andDeqin

Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept *****

Frequency: ***** > 75% of respondents; **** > 50% of respondents; *** > 1/4 of respondents; ** > 1/8 of respondents; * < 1/8 of respondents, but at least 2 respondents.

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Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28 Page 18 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28distributed into different life forms, with herbs (43.5%)and shrubs (26.8%) having the most species, similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21]. The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species), Liliaceae (9), Brassicaceae(9), Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6). The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species), followed by Maianthemum (6), Berberis (4),Cornus (4), Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4).The most frequently used parts are fruits, young leaves

and stems (Figure 2). This result is similar to otherinvestigations, such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24], studies inXishuangbanna, southern Yunnan (China) [26,28] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18]. Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea, and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24]. Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds). Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3). These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter. Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf, new shoot orripe fruit), although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses, e.g., seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil. More than one plant part isused for about 7% of the species. For example, youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var. major are usedas a vegetable, while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic. Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable, while vegetable oil is made from the seeds.Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China.Young leaves, stems and fruits of Berberis amoena, B.jamesiana, B. pruinosa and B. eisiensis are eaten fresh.Young stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried, and the fruits as a condiment. Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B. sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea. In total, vegetable (41.9%) is themost used category followed by fruit (40.8%) (Table 4).Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh, green leafy vegetativeparts (e.g., young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried, less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups. All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot, since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery much.These wild edible plants play an important role in

providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements, such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against disease.For example, butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish. Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina, a perennial herb, and wasreported to have low fat, high dietary fiber, all essentialamino acids, various mineral elements and vitamins [41].Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum, Alliumovalifolium, Aralia chinensis, Hippophae rhamnoides subsp.yunnanensis and Amygdalus mira, which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent.

Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use, 71.4% of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5).Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [12,42]. They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins, proteins and minerals), but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds. The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12]. Thirty-one species (18.5%) are also used as medicine, most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species). These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy, cough, fever, rheuma-tism, dysentery, fractures, dyspepsia, hemoptysis, andTable 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China

Specific use Number of plants

vegetable 80

fruit 78

wine 11

vegetable oil 9

spice 8

tea 5

Total 191

Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China

Kind of usage Number of species Percentage

Edible 168 100.0

Fodder 52 31.0

Medicinal 31 18.5

Fence 22 13.1

Ornamental 11 6.5

Weisanga 10 6.0

Fuel-wood 9 5.4

Construction 4 2.4aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke, which plays an importantrole in local Tibetans daily life.

Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28 Page 19 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28asthma. For a few species, the same part is not only usedas food, but is also used for medicinal purposes. Forexample, the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people, and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitis.WEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of

new health foods. As living standards improve, there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21].Compared to conventional, cultivated vegetables, wildfood plants require less care, are not affected by pesticidepollution, and are a rich source of micronutrients.However destructive harvesting is a significant con-

cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine, the under-ground parts (root, tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species. This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43]. The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into consideration.Fifty-two species (31%) were used as fodder. For ex-

ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var. dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (35004300 m).Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potential.Ten species have cultural significance in a religious rite

named weisang, during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke. These are Adenophora khasiana, Araliachinensis, Cerasus conadenia, Pinus armandii, Pistaciaweinmanniifolia, Ribes moupinense, Ribes glaciale, Rosapraelucens, Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii var.yunnanensis. This rite plays an important role in Tibetansdaily life, and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased, but also wash dirtythings away from people. Tibetans pray for good harvest,good fortune, happiness and prosperity in this manner.Most preferred species and their commercial potentialBesides food value, the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44]. In our survey,the most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50%of respondents) include Maianthemum, Allium, Aralia,Arundinaria faberi, Fargesia melanostachys, Pteridiumaquilinum var. latiusclum, Matteuccia struthiopteris,Zanthoxylum bungeanum, Ligusticum daucoides, Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp. yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia. All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets, which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash income.Maianthemum species (zhuyecai or bamboo-leaved

vegetable) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable. In Diqing Prefecture, the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M. atropurpureum, M. forrestii, M. henryi, M.oleraceum, M. purpureum and M. tatsienense). They areadded to soups, stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad. Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein, essential amino acids, vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47]. Although local people do not use them asmedicine, Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times. For instance, M. japonicaand M. henryi are employed to treat kidney diseases,activate blood circulation and alleviate pain [44,48]. M.atropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51]. Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM. japonica [52]. Zhuyecai also has commercial value. Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca. 1 USD= 6.5 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June, an important source of cashincome. And in restaurants, one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 1838 CNY during another season.Another renowned edible plant, shutoucai, includes

two species, Aralia caesia and A. chinensis. Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May. Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A. chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53]. One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commercially.Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. yunnanensis, endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, has both food and medicinalvalues. Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine, and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of blood.In the present study, we found that taste is the first

criterion for all types of food plants, in agreement withother surveys [54]. However, taste itself is not strong

Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28 Page 20 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation, domestication and exploitation. Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these most preferred plants, which couldprovide scientific and important information.It is generally believed that local people are more likely

to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55]. Ifmanaged sustainably, these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communities.Market surveys, value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [13,56].Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago. Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum, Aristolochiadelavayi, Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar. handeliana. Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting, the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught.

Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors. These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate change,which will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [4,57,58]. CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [59,60]. Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st

century food security [4,7,8]. The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [59,61,62]. It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions, with ex situ techniques as a backup [58]. Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63]. Some of the wild relatives offruit, vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia, Allium, Amaranthus, Amygdalus,Arctium, Armeniaca, Capsella, Cerasus, Crataegus,Dioscorea, Diospyros, Eriobotrya, Foeniculum, Fragaria,Hippophae, Juglans, Malus, Mentha, Pyrus, Toona, Vitisand Zanthoxylum. Take Amygdalus mira as an example.Due to its advantageous traits, such as high adaptabilityand longevity, resistance to disease and tolerance todrought and cold, it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement. Another case is Pyrus betulifolia, which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars. It isdrought resistant, cold tolerant and long living, making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears. Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables, and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives. Thus, it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives. Two otherspecies, Rosa omeiensis and R. praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance. They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops.Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [4,34]. Extreme weathercaused by global climate change, such as heavy snow andsevere droughts, has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations. Various human ac-tivities such as land use change, habitat destruction, over-harvesting and over-grazing, are major threats. In recentyears, with the construction of roads, airports, reservoirsand other infrastructure, wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted. Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plants.Threats are not only limited to wild food plants them-

selves, the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered. Therefore, systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [55,64]. Along with economic developmentand increasing income, only a few people want to collectwild edible plants. The younger generation is becomingless interested in them, thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge. In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money. With the conveni-ence of transportation, residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species. However, in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market, indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact. In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently, causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species, and even cultivation of the very importantspecies, hull-less barley, Hordeum vulgare, the staple foodof Tibetan communities [65,66] is threatened. During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income.

Ju et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:28 Page 21 of 22http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/28ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture. As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful, and under the influence ofother ethnic groups, local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops, but also collect wild edible plants asfood. Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this area.Different parts of plants are used by local people, and

the most frequently used parts were fruits, young leavesand stems. These plants have different specific food uses,with leafy vegetable uses being most frequent, followedby fruit uses. WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities, such as essential amino acids, various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infections.If properly harvested, WEPs could be the source of

cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets. Furthermore, with the increaseddemand for green, healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety, wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances. In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources, we have some suggestions: 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants; 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources; 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plants.In addition to food value, more than 50% of recorded

plants have medicinal, ornamental, and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan culture.Furthermore, some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement, which mayhave significant consequence on global food security.However, along with the development of economy, thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes, and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly. Therefore, sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importance.In a word, our ethnobotanical surveys provide data

and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants, and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture.

Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors contributionsCLL designed the study. YJ, BL and JXZ performed the field survey. YJdrafted the manuscript, BL revised the manuscript. CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge. Dr. Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria, BC, Canada, kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments. We are verygrateful to his assistances. Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China, and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, participated in the fieldwork and discussion. This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345), the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044, MUC98506-01000101 & MUC985-9), and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS/AP/109080).

Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Minzu University of China,Beijing 100081, PR China. 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology, YunnanAgricultural University, Kunming 650201, PR China. 3Kunming Institute ofBotany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China.

Received: 23 January 2013 Accepted: 5 April 2013Published: 19 April 2013

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doi:10.1186/1746-4269-9-28Cite this article as: Ju et al.: Eating from the wild: diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region, Yunnan, China.Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 9:28.

AbstractBackgroundMethodsResultsConclusion

BackgroundMethodsStudy areaField survey and data collection

Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently utilized speciesMultiple uses of wild edible plantsMost preferred species and their commercial potentialCrop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop productionIssues of conservation

ConclusionCompeting interestsAuthors contributionsAcknowledgementsAuthor detailsReferences

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