Earth’s Layers 6.E.2 Notes. Anatomy of Earth Crust Mantle Outer Core Inner Core.
Earth’s inner core is solid and made of Iron & Nickelmichal76/classstudyguides/Physical... ·...
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(Earth’s inner core is solid and made of Iron & Nickel)
GRANITIC – rock that hardens, flows to the surface, light, takes a long time to cool.
(Continental crust generally)
BASALTIC- Dense (heavy), dark rock (Ocean floor generally)
(Lighter plate always breaks on top)
SUBDUCTION- when one plate plunges below the other into the asthenosphere to be recycled.
ASTHENOSPHERE- partially molten rock that helps move the tectonic plates.
CATASTROPHISM- rejected theory of mountains occurring over night, and canyons suddenly
breaking and making continents.
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DIVERGENCE IN TECTONIC PLATES:
(Molten rock fills in the gap with lava)
(‘Subduction Zone’ creates pressure and lava pushes upward to create volcanoes)
TRENCH- deepest part of earths crust…….
3 TECTONIC PLATE MOVEMENTS
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PANGEAEA
Laurasia-(North) North America, Europe, Asia
Gondwana-(South) South America, Africa, India, Australia, Antarctica
‘Alfred Wegener’ a German climatologist proposed the theory of continental drift.
NORMAL FAULTS
1.) Dip-Slip Faults (Tension)
2.) Reverse Fault (Compression)
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3.) ‘over’Thust Fault (Compression)
4.) Graben Fault
5.) Horst Fault
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
OBLIQUE FAULT
FAULT- a line of fracture in the earths surface where movement of rock has taken place.
SEISMOGRAPH- a sensitive instrument that can record seismic waves.
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FAULT SCARP- (Fault Escarpment) topographic escarpment of an uplifted block where
vertical displacement of bedrock offsets the land surface.
PALEOMAGNETISM- the origentation of magnetism locked into rocks as they solidify,
recording the direction to magnetic North at the time of cooling.
ISLAND ARCS- Where two ocean plates meet, the older denser plate will subduct and the
less dense oceanic plate will override it, sometimes creating volcanoes between continents &
oceanic trenches. (Aleutian Islands, Alaska)
CONTINENTAL COLLISION-when two continents or land masses fuse or join together,
creating a new larger landmass. (India – Asia)
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TRANSFORM FAULTS-fracture zones, common alongside mid-ocean ridges. Cross-hatched
plate boundaries along which lateral movement takes places.
HOT SPOTS-stationary molten masses that do not move with the lithospheric plate.
(Hawaiian Islands)
(‘Loihi’- now developing under-sea, the next Hawaiian island)
GREAT RIFT VALLEY- (Eastern AFRICA)
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CONTINENTAL SHIELDS-ancient crystalline rock areas, core areas worn down by
hundreds of million years of erosions, far from active plate boundaries, and historically
stable. (Canadian, Scandinavian, and Siberian Shields)
ACCRETION-adding numerous chunks of crust to the main continent by collision.
MICROPLATE TERRANES-adding segments of crust, two plates merging into one.
(Alaskan Plate & North American Plate, 200 million years ago)
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PALEOGEOGRAPHY-the study of past geographic environments.
-‘PALEOMAP’ – simplified models of the regions & times they represent.
- Today we are in the;
‘Holocene Epoch’ (Last 10,000 years)
‘Quaternary Period’ (Last 1.6 million years)
‘Cenozoic Era’ (Last 64 million years)
VOLCANOES: mountains or hills formed by an expulsion of molten material.
CAN HAPPEN: 1.)Divergence Zone (Iceland, Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
2.)Convergence Zone (Cascades, Paricutin)
3.)Hot Spots (Hawaiian Islands)
CALDERA-a volcano that expels so much eruptive material that its summit collapses
into its emptied magma chamber, forming a large crater.(Crater Lake & Yellowstone NP)
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CINDER CONE (Example: Paricutin)
-Tipped Cone
-Formed by pieces of solidified lava
-EXPLOSIVE
COMPOSIT (STRATO) VOLCANO (Example: Mount Fuji)
-Alternating Layers
-May develop secondary cones
-EXPLOSIVE
LAVA DOME (Example: Krakatoa)
-Lava sets up quickly producing explosions
-Somewhat EFFUSIVE
-Highly EXPLOSIVE
SHIELD VOLCANO (Example: Hawaiian Islands)
-Wide/Spreads before set-up
-EFFUSIVE
LAVA PLATEAU (Example: ‘Columbia-Snake Plateau’,WA,OR,ID)
-Lava flows from ‘fissures’ (cracks)
-Forms horizontal or flows down slope
-EFFUSIVE
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VOLCANISM-the rise of magma & its cooling at the earth’s surface.
GEOMORPHOLOGY-a major subfield of physical geography, seeks explanations for shape,
origin, spatial distribution, and development of terrain features.
+ Mechanism that uplift portions of earths surface gain their energy from ‘Igneous Processes’ or
‘Tectonic Processes’.
GRADATION PROCESSES-the many surfacial processes that act to wear away high places &
fill in low places.
AGGRADATION- the filling in of low places that have been eroded from higher landforms.
RELIEF- the difference in elevation between the highest & lowest points in a specified area.
DEGRADATION-weathering & erosional removal.
MAGMA-molten rock ‘WITHIN’ the lithosphere.
- SILICA-RICH – cool while molten, thick/resistant to flowing.
- MAFIC-RICH – high melting point (hot), iron-rich minerals, less viscous, flow readily.
LAVA-molten rock that has reached the ‘surface’.
- BASALTIC LAVA – hot, more flow, less viscous, tends to vent gases readily.
FISSURE FLOWS-orginate from deep cracks in the crust. (lavas of the sea floor)
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PYROCLASTIC MATERIALS-(tephra) molten material that solidifies in flight from an
eruption.
+ CAN CAUSE
1.) Volcanic ‘BOMBS’
2.) Cinders
3.) Volcanic Ash – can be the size of sand to fine dust.
LAVA FLOWS- layers of molten rock that flow over the land surface, cooling and solidifying.
Basalt lava is the most common.
- Pahoehoe – liquid lava that flows and cools with a ropy surface.
- aa – slow moving, piled-up, sharp edged, and jagged blocks.
FLOOD BASALTS-some continental areas covered with enormous accumulations of hundreds
of overlapping lava flows.
(form areas of ‘BASALT PLATEAUS’ topographically high areas of low relief.
PLUG DOME- volcanoes extruding taffy-like lava (rhyolite), that fills the cone, generally
without flowing beyond it.
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INTRUSIONS- bodies of magma beneath igneous rock that cooled and solidified beneath the
surface.
PLUTONS- intrusive igneous bodies that eventually cool and solidify at great depth.
STOCK- (small) irregularly shaped intrusion. ( >100 km.,40 mi. )
BATHOLITH-(large) intrusions, complex mases of solidified magma, usually granite, core of
many mountain ranges. ( <100 km.,40 mi. ) (U.S. West & Great Smokey Mountains)
LACCOLITH- develops when magma flows horizontally between rock layers, bulging layers at
the surface up-ward, MUSHROOM-SHAPED. ( La Salle Mountains, Utah )
SILL-horizontal structure, parallel to and interbedded in pre-existing rock.
DIKE- lava ‘wall’, which originally filled a fracture.
NECK- remnant of solidified magma in the vent of an extinct volcano. (Devils Tower, WY)
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DIP- the inclination of rock layers or other rock surfaces.
STRIKE- the compass direction of the outcrop rocks. (EAST – WEST STRIKE)
COMPRESSION-tends to shorten or thicken crust.
TENSION-tends to fracture or stretch crust.
COMMON ELEMENTS OF EARTH’s CRUST
OXYGEN = 46%
SILICON = 27%
ALUMINUM = 8%
IRON = 5%
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TYPES OF ROCKS
1.) Igneous Rock – formed from the cooling of molten rock.
2.) Sedimentary Rock – rocks & other material that undergo weathering.
(CALCIUM CARBINATE & PRESSURE turn sediment into Sedimentary Rocks)
- Detrital – derived from the remains of pre-existing rocks that have been eroded. All
are ‘Clastic’ (made up of fragments)
- Chemical – result of precipitation & material dissolved in water.
3.) Metamorphis Rock – igneous or sedimentary rocks that change appearance or composition.
‘4.’)FELSENMEER- “sea rock” , a boulder field.
LAVA = EXTRUSIVE -------------> VOLCANIC ROCK
MAGMA = INTRUSIVE -------------> PLUTONIC ROCK
COLUMNAR JOINTING- cooled over a very long time, hexagonal fractures caused by lava
shrinking as it cools. (Devils Tower, WY)
HOW ICELAND WAS FORMED: a meteor of good size crashed into the Mid-Atlantic Rift
breaking the thin seal and exposing the asthenosphere, magma then poured out creating the
island Iceland. Volcanic activity still happens on a daily basis.
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FOLDING: irreversible deformation which rock undergoes due to tectonic stress.
SYNCLINAL VALLEY & ANTICLINEAL VALLEY
(Oil is commonly found at the center of Anticline Valleys trapped under fine material)
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TYPES OF MASS WASTING
Fall-includes rock fall and debris fall
FORMS TALUS SLOPE – (Big)
SCREE SLOPE – (Small)
Slump-shearing of material along an arced line
of slippage, the ‘slump block’ has a rotation
movement, and often remains intact.
(Trees would tip in a backward fashion)
Slide-often caused by water entering the rock/soil
structure, resulting in a loss of surface tension
and added weight.
(Trees would point straight outward)
Flow-the matter in a slope becomes saturated
and results in ‘slope failure’
DEBRIS FLOW – ‘solid’ material behaves like a liquid.
MUD FLOW – following a heavy downpour there is increased runoff.
Runoff can pick up so much small (clay & silt) particles that flow becomes mud.
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Creep-due to freeze-thaw activity in the soil.
(causes trees to bend in a ‘J’ form)
SOLIFLUCTION-(soil-flushing) land shape being moved by freeze-thaw, low vegetation.
PERMAFROST-any rock or soil material that has remained below 32° F continuously for two
or more years. The two-year minimum stipulation is meant to exclude from the definition the
overlying ground surface layer which freezes every winter and thaws every summer (called the
"active layer" or "seasonal frost").
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ICE WEDGING-When water infiltrates fractures in rock and freezes, the force of expansion is
great enough to break the rock into smaller pieces.
WEATHERING-combined action of all processes where rock is decomposed and disintegrated
at or near the earth’s surface. (the processes of rock break-up)
-MECHANICAL WEATHERING – (disintegration of rock)
-Freeze-Thaw/Heaving -Unloading -Salt Crystals
-CHEMICAL WEATHERING – (decomposition of rock)
-Hydration -Carbonation -Karst Topography -Oxidation
-BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING – (plants) roots ect., (lichens) chemical/physical, (animals)
grazing, burrowing, agriculture, forestry, ect.
MASS WASTING-combined effect of gravity and forces of weathering.
GEOMETRY OF ROCK BREAK-UP
-GRANULAR DISINTEGRATION – rock (usually course texture) falls apart grain by grain.
( when you pick up a rock & it crumbles in your hand)
-EXFOLIATION – surface peeling of rock layers, effect or mechanical or chemical weathering
or uploading.
-JOINT-BLOCK SEPERATION – breakage along fractures and bedding joints already there
from (cooling, magma, crustal movement, and sedimentary processes)
-SHATTERING – disintegration along new fractures of breakage in otherwise massive, strong
rock. Forms very angular pieces with sharp corners & edges.
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