Early Muslim Conquests

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Early Muslim conquests

The early Muslim conquests (Arabic: ةيمسإ احوتفل,al-Futūḥāt al-Islāmiyya) also referred to as the Arabconquests[2] and early Islamic conquests[3] began withthe Islamic Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. Heestablished a new unified polity in the Arabian Penin-sula which under the subsequent Rashidun and UmayyadCaliphates saw a century of rapid expansion.

The resulting empire stretched from the borders of Chinaand India, across Central Asia, the Middle East, NorthAfrica, Sicily, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.

Edward Gibbon writes in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:

Under the last of the Umayyads, the Ara-bian empire extended two hundred days jour-ney from east to west, from the confines ofTartary and India to the shores of the AtlanticOcean. [...] We should vainly seek the in-dissoluble union and easy obedience that per-vaded the government of Augustus and theAntonines; but the progress of Islam diffusedover this ample space a general resemblance of

manners and opinions. The language and lawsof the Quran were studied with equal devotionat Samarcand and Seville: the Moor andtheIn-dian embraced as countrymen and brothers inthe pilgrimage of Mecca; and the Arabian lan-guage was adopted as the popular idiom in allthe provinces to the westward of the Tigris.

The Muslim conquests brought about the collapse ofthe Sassanid Empire and a great territorial loss for theByzantine Empire. The reasons for the Muslim suc-cess are hard to reconstruct in hindsight, primarily be-

cause only fragmentary sources from the period have sur-vived. Mosthistorians agree that the SassanidPersian andByzantine Roman empires were militarily and economi-cally exhausted from decades of fighting one another.

Some Jews and Christians in the Sassanid Empire andJews and Monophysites in Syria were dissatisfiedand wel-comed the Muslim forces, largely because of religiousconflict in both empires,[4] while at other times, such as inthe Battleof Firaz, ArabChristians allied themselveswiththe Persians and Byzantines against the invaders.[5][6] Inthe case of Byzantine Egypt, Palestine and Syria, theselands had only a few years before being reclaimed from

the Persians.Fred McGraw Donner, however, suggests that formationof a state in the Arabian peninsula and ideological (i.e.

religious) coherence and mobilization was a primary rea-son why the Muslim armies in the space of a hundredyears were able to establish the largest pre-modern em-pire until that time. The estimates for the size of the Is-lamic Caliphate suggest it was more than thirteen millionsquare kilometers (five million square miles), making itlarger than all current states except the Russian Federa-tion.[7]

1 Background

See also: Roman–Persian Wars, Byzantine–SassanidWars, Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628, and Siegeof Constantinople (626)

The prolonged and escalating Byzantine–Sassanid warsof the 6th and 7th centuries and the recurring outbreaksof bubonic plague (Plague of Justinian) left both em-pires exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sud-den emergence and expansion of the Arabs. The last ofthese wars ended with victory for the Byzantines: Em-peror Heraclius regained all lost territories, and restoredthe True Cross to Jerusalem in 629.[8]

Nevertheless, neither empire was given any chance torecover, as within a few years they were struck by theonslaught of the Arabs (newly united by Islam), which,according to Howard-Johnston, “can only be likened toa human tsunami”.[9][10] According to George Liska,the “unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflictopened the way for Islam”.[11]

In late 620s Muhammad had already managed to con-quer and unify much of Arabia under Muslim rule, and it

was under his leadership that the first Muslim-Byzantineskirmishes took place. Just a few months after Heracliusand the Persian general Shahrbaraz agreed on terms forthe withdrawal of Persian troops from occupied Byzan-tine eastern provinces in 629, Arab and Byzantine troopsconfronted each other at the Mu'tah.[12] Muhammad diedin 632 and was succeeded by Abu Bakr, the first Caliphwith undisputed control of the entire Arab peninsula af-ter the successful Ridda Wars, which resulted in the con-solidation of a powerful Muslim state throughout thepeninsula.[13]

2 Military campaigns

1

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2 2 MILITARY CAMPAIGNS

2.1 Conquest of Syria: 634–641

Main article: Muslim conquest of the Levant

The province of Syria was the first to be wrested fromByzantine control. Arab-Muslim raids that followed theRidda wars prompted the Byzantines to send a major ex-pedition into southern Palestine, which was defeated bythe Arab forces under command of Khalid ibn al-Walidat the Battle of Ajnadayn (634).[14] On the heels of theirvictory, the Arab armies took Damascus in 636, withBaalbek, Homs, and Hama to follow soon afterwards.[14]

However, other fortified towns continued to resist despitethe rout of the imperial army and had to be conqueredindividually.[14] Jerusalem fell in 638, Caesarea in 640,while others held out until 641.[14]

2.2 Conquest of Egypt: 639–642

Main article: Muslim conquest of Egypt

The Byzantine province of Egypt held strategic impor-tance for its grain production, naval yards, and as abase for further conquests in Africa.[14] The Muslim gen-eral 'Amr ibn al-'As began the conquest of the provinceon his own initiative in 639.[15] The Arab forces wona major victory at the Battle of Heliopolis (640), butthey found it difficult to advance further because ma-jor cities in the Nile Delta were protected by water and

because they lacked the machinery to break down cityfortifications.[16] Nevertheless, the province was scarcelyurbanized and the defenders lost hope of receiving re-inforcements from Constantinople when the emperorHeraclius died in 641.[17] The last majorcenter to fall intoArab hands was Alexandria, which capitulated in 642.[18]

According to Hugh Kennedy, “Of all the early Muslimconquests, that of Egypt was the swiftest and most com-plete. [...] Seldom in history can so massive a politi-cal change have happened so swiftly and been so longlasting.”[19]

2.3 Conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia:633–651

Main article: Muslim conquest of PersiaAfter an Arab incursion into Sasanian territories, the

energetic king Yazdgerd III, who had just ascended thePersian throne, raised an army to resist the invasion.[20]

However, the Persians suffered a devastating defeat at theBattle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636.[20] As a result, the Arab-Muslims gained control over the whole of Iraq, includ-ing Ctesiphon, the capital city of the Sassanids.[20] ThePersian forces withdrew over the Zagros mountains and

the Arab army pursued them across the Iranian plateau,where the fate of the Sasanian empire was sealed at theBattle of Nahavand (642).[20] As the conquerors slowly

Sasanian weaponry, 7th century

covered the vast distances of Iran punctuated by hostile

towns and fortresses, Yazdgerd III retreated, finally tak-ing refuge in Khorasan, where he was assassinated by alocal satrap in 651.[20] In the aftermath of their victoryover the imperial army, the invaders still had to contendwith a collection of militarily weak but geographically in-accessible principalities of Persia.[14] It took decades tobring them all under control of the caliphate.[14]

2.4 Explanations of success of the early

conquests

The rapidity of the early conquests has received variousinterpretations. [21] Contemporary Christian writers con-ceived them as God’s punishment visited on their fel-low Christians for their sins.[22] Early Muslim historiansviewed them as a reflection of religious zeal of the con-querors and evidence of divine favor.[23] The theory thatthe conquests are explainable as an Arab migration trig-gered by economic pressures enjoyed popularity early inthe20th century, but has largely fallen out of favor amonghistorians, especially those who distinguish the migrationfrom the conquests that preceded and enabled it.[24]

There are indications that the conquests started as ini-

tially disorganized pillaging raids launched partly by non-Muslim Arab tribes in the aftermath of the Ridda wars,and were soon extended into a war of conquest by the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridda_warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satraphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Khorasanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nah%C4%81vandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagros_mountainshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesiphonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_al-Q%C4%81disiyyahhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazdgerd_IIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracliushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Heliopolishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2527Amr_ibn_al-%2527Ashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesareahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baalbekhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ajnadaynhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(region)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridda_warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant


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2.6 Conquest of the Maghreb: 670–742 3

Rashidun caliphs,[25] although other scholars argue thatthe conquests were a planned military venture alreadyunderway during Muhammad’s lifetime.[26] Fred Donnerwrites that the advent of Islam “revolutionized both theideological bases and the political structures of the Ara-bian society, giving rise for the first time to a state capable

of an expansionist movement.”[27] According to ChaseF. Robinson, it is likely that Muslim forces were oftenoutnumbered, but, unlike their opponents, they were fast,well coordinated and highly motivated.[28]

Another key reason was the weakness of the ByzantineandSasanian empires, caused by thewars they hadwagedagainst each other in the preceding decades with alter-nating success.[29] It was aggravated by a plague thathad struck densely populated areas and impeded con-scription of new imperial troops, while the Arab armiescould draw recruits from nomadic populations.[22] TheSasanian empire, which had lost the latest round of hos-

tilites with the Byzantines was also affected by a crisisof confidence, and its elites suspected that the ruling dy-nasty had forfeited favor of the gods.[22] The Arab mil-itary advantage was increased when Christianized Arabtribes who had served imperial armies as regular or aux-iliary troops switched sides and joined the west-Arabiancoalition.[22] Arab commanders also made liberal use ofagreements to spare lives and property of inhabitants incase of surrender and extended exemptions from payingtribute to groups who provided military services to theconquerors.[30] Additionally, the Byzantine persecutionof Christians opposed to the Chalcedonian creed in Syria

and Egypt alienated elements of those communities andmade them more open to accommodation with the Arabsonce it became clear that the latter would let them prac-tice their faith undisturbed as long as they paid tribute.[31]

The conquests were further secured by the large-scalemigration of Arabian peoples into the conquered landswhich followed the conquests.[32] Robert Hoyland arguesthat the failure of the Sasanian empire to recover was duein large part to the geographically and politically discon-nected nature of Persia, which made coordinated actiondifficult once the established Sasanian rule collapsed.[33]

Similarly, the difficult terrain of Anatolia made it difficult

for theByzantines to mount a large-scale attack to recoverthe lost lands, and their offensive action was largely lim-ited to organizing guerrilla operations against the Arabsin the Levant.[33]

2.5 Conquest of Sindh: 711–714

Main articles: Muslim conquest in the Indian subconti-nent and Battle of Rajasthan

Although there were sporadic incursions by Arab gener-

als in the direction of India in the 660s and a small Arabgarrison was established in the arid region of Makran inthe 670s,[34] the first large-scale Arab campaign in the

Indus valley occurred when the general Muhammad binQasim invaded Sindh in 711aftera coastal march throughMakran.[35] Three years later the Arabs controlled all ofthe lower Indus valley.[35] Most of the towns seem to havesubmitted to Arab rule under peace treaties, althoughthere was fierce resistance in other areas, including by the

forces of Raja Dahir at the capital city Debal.[35][36] Arabincursions southward from Sindh were repulsed byarmiesof Gurjara and Chalukya kingdoms, and further Islamicexpansion was checked by the Rashtrakuta empire, whichgained control of the region shortly after.[36]

2.6 Conquest of the Maghreb: 670–742

Main article: Muslim conquest of the Maghreb

Arab forces began launching sporadic raiding expedi-

tions into Cyrenaica (modern northeast Libya) and be-yond soon after their conquest of Egypt.[37] Byzantinerule in northwest Africa at the time was largely confinedto the coastal plains, while autonomous Berber politiescontrolled the rest.[38] In 670 Arabs founded the settle-ment of Qayrawan, which gave them a forward base forfurther expansion.[38] Muslim historians credit the gen-eral Uqba ibn Nafi with subsequent conquest of landsextending to the Atlantic coast, although it appears tohave been a temporary incursion.[38][39] The Berber chiefKusayla and an enigmatic leader referred to as Kahina(prophetess or priestess) seem to have mounted effec-

tive, if short-lived resistance to Muslim rule at the endof the 7th century, but the sources do not give a clear pic-ture of these events.[40] Arab forces were able to captureCarthage in 698 and Tangiers by 708.[40] After the fallof Tangiers, many Berbers joined the Muslim army. [39]

In 740 Umayyad rule in the region was shaken by a ma-jor Berber revolt, which also involved Berber KharijiteMuslims.[41] After a series of defeats, the caliphate wasfinally able to crush the rebellion in 742, although localBerber dynasties continued to drift away from imperialcontrol from that time on.[41]

2.7 Conquest of Hispania and Septimania:711–721

Main articles: Umayyad conquest of Hispania andIslamic invasion of GaulThe Muslim conquest of Iberia is notable for the brevity

and unreliability of the available sources.[42][43] After theVisigothic king of Spain Wittiza died in 710, the king-dom experienced a period of political division.[43] Tak-ing advantage of the situation, the Muslim Berber com-mander Tariq ibn Ziyad, who was stationed in Tangiersat the time, crossed the straits with an army of Arabs and

Berbers.[43] After defeating the forces of king Roderic,Muslim forces advanced capturing cities of the Gothickingdom one after another.[42] Some of them surren-

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4 2 MILITARY CAMPAIGNS

Bilingual Latin-Arabic dinar minted in Iberia AH 98 (716/7

AD).

dered with agreements to pay tribute and local aristoc-racy retained a measure of former influence.[43] By 713Iberia was almost entirely under Muslim control.[42] Theevents of the subsequent ten years, whose details are ob-scure, included capture of Barcelona and Narbonne, anda raid against Toulouse, followed by an expedition into

Burgundy in 725.[42] The last large-scale raid to the northended with a Muslim defeat at the Battle of Tours at thehands of the Franks in 732.[42]

2.8 Conquest of Transoxiana: 673–751

Main article: Muslim conquest of Transoxiana

Initial incursions across the Oxus river were aimed atBukhara (673) and Samarqand (675) and their resultswere limited to promises of tribute payments.[44] Further

advances were hindered for a quarter century by politi-cal upheavals of the Umayyad caliphate.[44] This was fol-lowed by a decade of rapid military progress under theleadership of the new governor of Khurasan, Qutaybaibn Muslim, which included conquest of Bukhara andSamarqand in 706-712.[45] The expansion lost its mo-mentum when Qutayba was killed during an army mutinyand the Arabs were placed on the defensive by an allianceof Sogdian and Türgesh forces with support from TangChina.[45] However, reinforcements from Syria helpedturn the tide and most of the lost lands were reconqueredby 741.[45] Muslim rule over Transoxania was consoli-

dated a decade later when a Chinese-led army was de-feated at the Battle of Talas (751).[46]

2.9 Other campaigns and end of early con-

quests

Main articles: Arab–Byzantine wars, Arab–KhazarWars, Arab conquest of Armenia and Arab rule inGeorgia

In 646 a Byzantine naval expedition was able to briefly

recapture Alexandria.[47] The same year Mu‘awiya, thegovernor of Syria and future founder of the Umayyad dy-nasty, ordered construction of a fleet.[47] Three years later

it was put to use in a pillaging raid of Cyprus, soon fol-lowed bya second raid in 650 that concluded with a treatyunder which Cypriots surrendered many of their richesand slaves.[47] In 688 the island was made into a joint do-minion of the caliphate and the Byzantine empire undera pact which was to last for almost 300 years.[48]

In 639-640 Arab forces began to make incursions intoArmenia, which had been partitioned into a Byzantineprovince and a Sasanian province.[49] There is consider-able disagreement among ancient and modern historiansabout events of the following years, and nominal con-trol of the region may have passed several times betweenArabs and Byzantines.[49] Although Muslim dominionwas finally established by the time the Umayyads accededto power in 661, it was not able to implant itself solidlyin the country, and Armenia experienced a national andliterary efflorescence over the next century.[49] As withArmenia, Arab advances into other lands of the Caucasus

region, including Georgia, had as their end assurances oftribute payment and these principalities retained a largedegree of autonomy.[50] This period also saw a series ofclashes with the Khazar kingdom whose center of powerwas in the lower Volga steppes, and which vied with thecaliphate over control of the Caucasus.[50]

Byzantine manuscript illustration showing Greek fire in action.

Other Muslim military ventures met with outright failure.Despite a naval victory over the Byzantines in 654 at theBattle of the Masts, the subsequent attempt to besiegeConstantinople was frustrated by a storm which dam-aged the Arab fleet.[51] Later sieges of Constantinople in668-669 (674–78 according to other estimates) and 717-

718 were thwarted with the help of the recently inventedGreek fire.[52] In the east, although Arabs were able toestablish control over most Sasanian-controlled areas ofmodern Afghanistan after the fall of Persia, the Kabulregion resisted repeated attempts of invasion and wouldcontinue to do so until it was conquered by the Saffaridsthree centuries later.[53]

Bythetimeofthe Abbasid revolution in the middleof the8th century, Muslim armies had come against a combina-tion of natural barriers and powerful states that impededfurther military progress.[54] The wars produced dimin-ishing returns in personal gains and fighters increasingly

left the army for civilian occupations.[54] The priorities ofthe rulers have also shifted from conquest of new lands toadministration of the acquired empire.[54] Although the

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saffaridshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_firehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%9378)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinoplehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mastshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_firehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volgahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Armeniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Armeniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Armeniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muawiyah_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_rule_in_Georgiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_conquest_of_Armeniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Khazar_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Talashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Chinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_Chinahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrgeshhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sogdiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutayba_ibn_Muslimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khurasanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_caliphatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samarqandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukharahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amu_Daryahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Transoxianahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tourshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burgundyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulousehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narbonnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona


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3.1 Socio-political developments 5

Abbasid era witnessed some new territorial gains, such asthe conquest of Sicily and the conquest of Crete, the pe-riod of rapid centralized expansion would now give wayto an era when further spread of Islam would be slow andaccomplished through the efforts of local dynasties, mis-sionaries, and traders.[54]

3 Aftermath

Main articles: Rashidun Caliphate and UmayyadCaliphate

3.1 Socio-political developments

The conquests were followed by a large-scale migrationof families and whole tribes from Arabia into the landsof the Middle East.[55] The conquering Arabs had al-ready possessed a complex and sophisticated society.[55]

Emigrants from Yemen brought with them agricultural,urban, and monarchical traditions; members of theGhassanid and Lakhmid tribal confederations had expe-rience of collaboration with the empires.[55] The rankand file of the armies was drawn from both nomadic andsedentary tribes, while the leadership came mainly fromthe merchant class of the Hejaz.[55]

Two fundamental policies were implemented during the

reign of the second caliph Umar (634–44): the bedouinswould not be allowed to damage agricultural productionof the conquered lands and the leadership would cooper-ate with the local elites.[56] To that end, the Arab-Muslimarmies were settled in segregatedquarters or new garrisontowns such as Basra, Kufa and Fustat.[56] The latter twobecame thenew administrative centers of Iraq andEgypt,respectively.[56] Soldiers were paid a stipend and prohib-ited from seizing lands.[56] Arab governors supervisedcollection and distribution of taxes, but otherwise leftthe old religious and social order intact.[56] At first, manyprovinces retained a large degree of autonomy under theterms of agreementsmade with Arab commanders.[56] Asthe time passed, the conquerors sought to increase theircontrol over local affairs and make existing administra-tive machinerywork for thenew regime.[57] This involvedseveral types of reorganization. In the Mediterranean re-gion, city-states which traditionally governed themselvesand their surrounding areas were replaced by a territorialbureaucracy separating town and rural administration.[58]

In Egypt, fiscally independent estates and municipalitieswere abolished in favor of a simplified administrativesystem.[59] In the early eighth century, Syrian Arabs be-gan to replace Coptic functionaries and communal leviesgave way to individual taxation.[60] In Iran, the adminis-

trative reorganization and constructionof protective wallsprompted agglomeration of quarters and villages intolarge cities such as Isfahan, Qazvin, and Qum.[61] Local

notables of Iran, who at first had almost complete auton-omy, were incorporated into the central bureaucracy bythe ʿAbbasid period.[61] The similarity of Egyptian andKhurasanian official paperwork at the time of the caliphal-Mansur (754–75) suggests a highlycentralized empire-wide administration.[61]

Mosaic from Hisham’s Palace , an Umayyad residence near

Jericho (c. 724-743).

The society of new Arab settlements gradually becamestratified into classes based on wealth and power. [62] Itwas also reorganized into new communal units that pre-served clan and tribal names but were in fact only looselybased around old kinship bonds.[62] Arab settlers turnedto civilian occupations and in eastern regions establishedthemselves as a landed aristocracy.[62] At the same time,distinctions between the conquerorsand local populationsbegan to blur.[62] In Iran, the Arabs largely assimilatedinto local culture, adopting the Persian language, customsand marrying Persian women.[62] In Iraq, non-Arab set-tlers flocked to garrison towns.[62] Soldiers and admin-istrators of the old regime came to seek their fortuneswith the new masters, while slaves, laborers and peas-ants fled there seeking to escape the harsh conditionsof life in the countryside.[62] Non-Arab converts to Is-lam were absorbed into theArab-Muslim society throughan adaptation of the tribal Arabian institution of client-age, in which protection of the powerful was exchanged

for loyalty of the subordinates.[62] The clients (mawali )and their heirs were regarded as virtual members of theclan.[62] The clans became increasingly economically andsocially stratified.[62] For example, while the noble clansof the Tamim tribe acquired Persian cavalry units as theirmawali, other clans of the same tribe had slave laborersas theirs.[62] Slaves often became mawali of their formermasters when they were freed.[62]

Contrary to belief of earlier historians, there is no ev-idence of mass conversions to Islam in the immediateaftermath of the conquests.[63] The first groups to con-vert were Christian Arab tribes, although some of them

retained their religion into the Abbasid era even whileserving as troops of the caliphate.[63] They were fol-lowed by former elites of the Sasanian empire, whose

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banu_Tamimhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawalihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerichohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisham%2527s_Palacehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Mansurhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qazvinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fustathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kufahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basrahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejazhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhmidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghassanidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Crete#Conquest_of_Cretehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Sicily


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6 3 AFTERMATH

conversion ratified their old privileges.[63] With time, theweakening of non-Muslim elites facilitated the break-down of old communal ties and reinforced the incen-tives of conversion which promised economic advan-tages and social mobility.[63] By the beginning of theeighth century, conversions became a policy issue for

the caliphate.[64] They were favored by religious activists,and many Arabs accepted equality of Arabs and non-Arabs.[64] However, Islam was initially associated withhigh social status and Arab elites were resistant to con-version of the masses.[64] Public policy towards convertsvaried depending on the region and was changed by suc-cessive Umayyad caliphs.[64] These circumstances pro-voked opposition from non-Arab converts, whose ranksincluded many active soldiers, andhelped set the stage forthe civil war which ended with the fall of the Umayyaddynasty.[65]

3.2 Conversions and tax reform

Main article: Jizya

TheArab-Muslim conquests followeda general pattern ofnomadic conquests of settled regions, whereby conquer-ing peoples became the new military elite and reached acompromise with the old elites by allowing them to re-tain local political, religious, and financial authority.[57]

Peasants, workers, and merchants paid taxes, while mem-bers of the old and new elites collected them.[57] Paymentof taxes, which for peasants often reached half of thevalue of their produce, was not only an economic bur-den, but also a mark of social inferiority.[57] Scholars dif-fer in their assessment of relative tax burdens before andafter the conquests. John Esposito states that in effectthis meant lower taxes.[66] According to Bernard Lewis,available evidence suggests that the change from Byzan-tine to Arab rule was “welcomed bymanyamong the sub-ject peoples, who found the new yoke far lighter than theold, both in taxation and in other matters”.[67] In contrast,Norman Stillman writes that although the tax burden ofthe Jews under early Islamic rule was comparable to thatunder previous rulers, Christians of the Byzantine Em-

pire (though not Christians of the Persian empire, whosestatus was similar to that of the Jews) and Zoroastriansof Iran shouldered a considerably heavier burden in theimmediate aftermath of the conquests.[68]

In the wake of the early conquests taxes could be leviedon individuals, on the land, or as collective tribute.[69]

During the first century of Islamic expansion, the words jizya and kharaj were used in all three senses, with con-text distinguishing between individual and land taxes.[70]

Regional variations in taxation at first reflected the diver-sity of previous systems.[71] The Sasanian Empire had ageneral tax on land and a poll tax having several rates

based on wealth, with an exemption for aristocracy.[71]This poll tax was adapted by Arab rulers, so that the aris-tocracyexemption was assumedby the newArab-Muslim

Egyptian papyrus PERF 558 containing a bilingual Greek-Arabic

tax receipt dated from 643 A.D.

elite and shared by local aristocracy who converted toIslam.[72] The natureof Byzantine taxation remains partlyunclear, but it appears to have been levied as a collec-tive tribute on population centers and this practice wasgenerally followed under the Arab rule in former Byzan-tine provinces.[71] Collection of taxes was delegated toautonomous local communities on the condition that theburden be divided among its members in the most equi-table manner.[71] In most of Iran and Central Asia localrulers paid a fixed tribute and maintained their autonomyin tax collection.[71]

Difficulties in tax collection soon appeared.[71] EgyptianCopts, who had been skilled in tax evasion since Ro-man times, were able to avoid paying the taxes by en-tering monasteries, which were initially exempt fromtaxation, or simply by leaving the district where theywere registered.[71] This prompted imposition of taxeson monks and introduction of movement controls.[71] InIraq, many peasants who had fallen behind with their taxpayments, converted to Islam and abandoned their landfor Arab garrison towns in hope of escaping taxation. [73]

Faced with a decline in agriculture and a treasury short-fall, thegovernor of Iraq al-Hajjaj forced peasant convertsto return to their lands and subjected them to the taxesagain, effectively forbidding them to convert to Islam.[74]

In Khorasan, a similar phenomenon forced the native

aristocracy to compensate for the shortfall in tax collec-tion out of their own pockets, and they responded by per-secuting peasant converts and imposing heavier taxes onpoor Muslims.[74]

The situation where conversion to Islam was penalized inan Islamic state could not last, and the devout Umayyadcaliph Umar II (717–720) has been credited with chang-ing the taxation system.[74] Modern historians doubt thisaccount, although details of the transition to the sys-tem of taxation elaborated by Abbasid-era jurists are stillunclear.[74] Umar II ordered governors to cease collec-tion of taxes from Muslim converts, but his successors

obstructed this policy and some governors sought to stemthe tide of conversions by introducing additional require-ments such as circumcision and the ability to recite pas-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umar_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hajjaj_ibn_Yusufhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PERF_558https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharajhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizyahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Stillmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Lewishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Espositohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizyahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Revolutionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution


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7

sages from the Quran.[75] Taxation-related grievances ofnon-Arab Muslims contributed to the opposition move-ments which resulted in the Abbasid revolution.[76] Un-der the newsystem that was eventuallyestablished, kharajcame to be regarded as a tax levied on the land, regardlessof the taxpayer’s religion.[74] The poll-tax was no longer

levied on Muslims, but the treasury did not necessarilysuffer and converts did not gain as a result, since they hadto pay zakat, which was probably instituted as a compul-sory tax on Muslims around 730.[77] The terminology be-came specialized during the Abbasid era, so that kharaj no longer meant anything more than land tax, while theterm jizya was restricted to the poll-tax on dhimmis.[74]

The influence of jizya on conversion hasbeen a subject ofscholarly debate.[78] Julius Wellhausen held that the polltax amounted to so little that exemption from it did notconstitute sufficient economic motive for conversion.[79]

Similarly, Thomas Arnold states that jizya was “too mod-

erate” to constitute a burden, “seeing that it released themfrom the compulsory military service that was incumbenton their Muslim fellow subjects.” He further adds thatconverts escaping taxation would have to pay the legalalms, zakat, that is annually levied on most kinds of mov-able and immovable property.[80] Other early 20th cen-tury scholars suggested that non-Muslims converted toIslam en masse in order to escape the poll tax, but thistheory has been challenged by more recent research.[78]

Daniel Dennett has shown that other factors, such as de-sire to retain social status, had greater influence on thischoice in the early Islamic period.[78]

3.3 Policy toward non-Muslims

Main article: Dhimmi

The Arab conquerors did not repeat the mistake madeby the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, who had triedand failed to impose an official religion on subject pop-ulations, which had caused resentments that made theMuslim conquests more acceptable to them.[81] Instead,the rulers of the new empire generally respected the tra-

ditional middle-Eastern pattern of religious pluralism,which was not one of equality but rather of dominanceby one group over the others.[81] After the end of mili-tary operations, which involved sacking of some monas-teries and confiscationof Zoroastrian fire temples in Syriaand Iraq, the early caliphate was characterized by reli-gious tolerance and peoples of all ethnicities andreligionsblended in public life.[82] Before Muslims were ready tobuild mosques in Syria, they accepted Christian churchesas holy places and shared them with local Christians.[63]

In Iraq and Egypt, Muslim authorities cooperated withChristian religious leaders.[63] Numerous churches wererepaired and new ones built during the Umayyad era.[83]

The first Umayyad caliph Muawiyah sought to reassurethe conquered peoples that he was not hostile to their re-

ligions and made an effort to enlist support from Chris-tian Arab elites.[84] There is no evidence for public dis-play of Islam by the state before the reign of Abd al-Malik (685–705), when Quranic verses and referencesto Muhammad suddenly became prominent on coins andofficial documents.[85] This change was motivated by a

desire to unify the Muslim community after the secondcivil war and rally them against their chief common en-emy, the Byzantine empire.[85]

A further change of policy occurred during the reignof Umar II (717–720).[86] The disastrous failure of thesiege of Constantinople in 718 which was accompaniedby massive Arab casualties led to a spike of popular an-imosity among Muslims toward Byzantium and Chris-tians in general.[86] At the same time, many Arab soldiersleft the army for civilian occupations and they wished toemphasize their high social status among the conqueredpeoples.[86] These events prompted introduction of re-

strictions on non-Muslims, which were modeled both onByzantine curbs on Jews, such as prohibitions againstbuilding new synagogues and giving testimony againstChristians, and on Sasanian regulations that prescribeddistinctive attire for different social classes.[86]

In the following decades Islamic jurists elaborated a le-gal framework in which other religions would have a pro-tected but subordinate status.[85] Islamic law followed theByzantine precedent of classifying subjects of the stateaccording to their religion, in contrast to the Sasanianmodel which put more weight on social than on religiousdistinctions.[86] In theory, like the Byzantine empire, the

caliphate placed severe restrictions on paganism, but inpractice most non-Abrahamic communities of the for-mer Sasanian territories were classified as possessors ofa scripture (ahl al-kitab) and granted protected (dhimmi )status.[86]

Mark R. Cohen writes that the jizya paid by Jews un-der Islamic rule provided a “surer guarantee of protectionfrom non-Jewish hostility” than that possessed by Jews intheLatin West, whereJews “paid numerous andoften un-reasonably high and arbitrary taxes” in return for officialprotection, and where treatment of Jews was governed bycharters which new rulers could alter at will upon acces-

sion or refuse to renew altogether.[87] The Pact of Umar,which stipulated that Muslims must “do battle to guard”the dhimmis and “put no burden on them greater thanthey can bear”, was not always upheld, but it remained “asteadfast cornerstoneof Islamicpolicy” into early moderntimes.[87]

4 See also

• Ghazw

• History of Islam

• Spread of Islam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazwhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pact_of_Umarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_R._Cohenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhimmihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Fitnahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Fitnahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muawiyah_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_templehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhimmihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnoldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhimmihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zakathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution


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8 5 REFERENCES

5 References

5.1 Citations

[1] Göktürk Empire

[2] Hoyland (2014), Kennedy (2007)

[3] Kaegi (1995), Donner (2014)

[4] Rosenwein, Barbara H. (2004). A Short History of theMiddle Ages . Ontario. pp. 71–72. ISBN 1-55111-290-6.

[5] Jandora, John W. (1985). “The battle of the Yarmūk: Areconstruction”. Journal of Asian History 19 (1): 8–21.JSTOR 41930557.

[6] “Yarmuk”. 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-7893-2233-3.

[7] Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Ji-

had State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and thecollapse of the Umayyads . State University of New YorkPress. p. 37. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8.

[8] Theophanes, Chronicle, 317–327* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227; Haldon (1997), 46;Baynes (1912), passim; Speck (1984), 178

[9] Foss, Clive (1975). “The Persians in Asia Minor and theend of antiquity”. The English Historical Review 90 (357):721–747. doi:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721. JSTOR567292.

[10] Howard-Johnston, James (2006). East Rome, Sasanian

Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies . Ashgate Publishing. p. xv. ISBN 0-86078-992-6.

[11] Liska, George (1998). “Projection contra prediction: Al-ternative futures and options”. Expanding Realism: TheHistorical Dimension of World Politics . Rowman & Lit-tlefield. p. 170. ISBN 0-8476-8680-9.

[12] Kaegi (1995, p. 66)

[13] Nicolle (1994, p. 14)

[14] Lapidus (2014, p. 49)

[15] Hoyland (2014, p. 70); in 641 according to Lapidus(2014, p. 49)

[16] Hoyland (2014, pp. 70–72)

[17] Hoyland (2014, pp. 73–75), Lapidus (2014, p. 49)

[18] Hoyland (2014, pp. 73–75); in 643 according to Lapidus(2014, p. 49)

[19] Kennedy 2007, p. 165

[20] Vaglieri (1977, pp. 60–61)

[21] Donner (2014, pp. 3–7)

[22] Hoyland (2014, pp. 93–95)

[23] Donner (2014, p. 3), Hoyland (2014, p. 93)

[24] Donner (2014, p. 5), Hoyland (2014, p. 62)

[25] “The immediate outcome of the Muslim victories [in theRidda wars] was turmoil. Medina’s victories led alliedtribes to attack the non-aligned to compensate for theirown losses. The pressure drove tribes [...] across the im-perial frontiers. The Bakr tribe, which had defeated a Per-sian detachment in 606, joined forces with the Muslimsand led them on a raid in southern Iraq [...] A similarspilling over of tribal raiding occurred on the Syrian fron-tiers. Abu Bakr encouraged these movements [...] Whatbegan as inter-tribal skirmishing to consolidate a politicalconfederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war againstthe two empires.”Lapidus (2014, p. 48) See also Donner(2014, pp. 5–7)

[26] Lapidus (2014, p. 48), Hoyland (2014, p. 38)

[27] Donner (2014, p. 8)

[28] Robinson, Chase F. (2010). “The rise of Islam, 600 705”.

In Robinson, Chase F. The New Cambridge History of Is-lam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth

to Eleventh Centuries . Cambridge University Press. p.197. ISBN 9780521838238. it is probably safe to as-sume that Muslims were often outnumbered. Unlike theiradversaries, however, Muslim armies were fast, agile, wellcoordinated and highly motivated.


[30] Hoyland (2014, p. 97)


[32] Lapidus (2014, p. 50)

[33] Hoyland (2014, p. 127)

[34] Hoyland (2014, p. 190)

[35] T.W. Haig, C.E. Bosworth. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nded, Brill. “Sind”, Vol. 9, p. 632

[36] Hoyland (2014, pp. 192–194)

[37] Hoyland (2014, p. 78)

[38] Hoyland (2014, pp. 124–126)

[39] G. Yver. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. “Maghreb”,Vol. 5. p. 1189.

[40] Hoyland (2014, pp. 142–145)

[41] Hoyland (2014, p. 180)

[42] Évariste Lévi-Provençal. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed,Brill. “Al-Andalus”, vol. 1. p. 492

[43] Hoyland (2014, pp. 146–147)

[44] Daniel (2010, p. 456)

[45] Daniel (2010, p. 457)

[46] Daniel (2010, p. 458)

[47] Hoyland (2014, pp. 90–93)

[48] Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Cyprus”

http://www.britannica.com/place/Cyprus/Government-and-society#toc214648https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDaniel2010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDaniel2010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDaniel2010https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89variste_L%C3%A9vi-Proven%C3%A7alhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.E._Bosworthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521838238https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDonner2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDonner2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDonner2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDonner2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDonner2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDonner2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFVaglieri1977https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFKennedy2007https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFNicolle1994https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFKaegi1995https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-8680-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/?id=oaPlJgAACAAJ&dq=Liska,+Expanding+Realismhttps://books.google.com/?id=oaPlJgAACAAJ&dq=Liska,+Expanding+Realismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-992-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-992-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&dq=Howard-Johnston,+East+Rome,+Sasanian+Persia+and+the+End+of+Antiquityhttps://books.google.com/?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&dq=Howard-Johnston,+East+Rome,+Sasanian+Persia+and+the+End+of+Antiquityhttps://books.google.com/?id=1U4rUaLdYnQC&dq=Howard-Johnston,+East+Rome,+Sasanian+Persia+and+the+End+of+Antiquityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Howard-Johnstonhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/567292https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTORhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1093%252Fehr%252FXC.CCCLVII.721https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1827-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_University_of_New_York_Presshttps://books.google.com/?id=Jz0Yy053WS4C&pg=PA37&dq=umayyad+caliphate+square+mileshttps://books.google.com/?id=Jz0Yy053WS4C&pg=PA37&dq=umayyad+caliphate+square+mileshttps://books.google.com/?id=Jz0Yy053WS4C&pg=PA37&dq=umayyad+caliphate+square+mileshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7893-2233-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=s4njwZGrZg4C&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=battle+of+firaz&source=bl&ots=aPZe1tbOQI&sig=6I0-c19kNJxh5CVPOW9nDRQ9Ua8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=B_-pU46XKdSlqAaBjYH4CA&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCg#v=onepage&q=battle%2520of%2520firaz&f=falsehttps://books.google.com/books?id=s4njwZGrZg4C&pg=PA108&lpg=PA108&dq=battle+of+firaz&source=bl&ots=aPZe1tbOQI&sig=6I0-c19kNJxh5CVPOW9nDRQ9Ua8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=B_-pU46XKdSlqAaBjYH4CA&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCg#v=onepage&q=battle%2520of%2520firaz&f=falsehttps://www.jstor.org/stable/41930557https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTORhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55111-290-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDonner2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFKaegi1995https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFKennedy2007https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/centralasia/gokturk.htm


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5.1 Citations 9

[49] M. Canard. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill.“Arminiya”, Vol. 1, pp. 636–637

[50] C.E. Bosworth. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed, Brill. “Al-Qabq”, Vol. 4. pp. 343–344

[51] Hoyland (2014, pp. 106–108)

[52] Hoyland (2014, pp. 108–109, 175–177)

[53] M. Longworth Dames. Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd ed,Brill. “Afghanistan”, Vol. 1 p. 226.

[54] Hoyland (2014, p. 207)

[55] Lapidus (2014, p. 50)

[56] Lapidus (2014, p. 52)

[57] Lapidus (2014, p. 53)

[58] Lapidus (2014, p. 56)[59] Lapidus (2014, p. 57)

[60] Lapidus (2014, p. 79)

[61] Lapidus (2014, p. 58)

[62] Lapidus (2014, pp. 58–60)

[63] Lapidus (2014, pp. 60–61)

[64] Lapidus (2014, pp. 61–62)

[65] Lapidus (2014, p. 71)

[66] Esposito 1998, p. 34. “They replaced the conqueredcountries, indigenous rulers and armies, but preservedmuch of their government, bureaucracy, and culture. Formany in the conquered territories, it was no more than anexchange of masters, one that brought peace to peoplesdemoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavytaxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persianwarfare. Local communities were free to continue to fol-low their own way of life in internal, domestic affairs.In many ways, local populations found Muslim rule moreflexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia.Religious communities were free to practice their faithto worship and be governed by their religious leaders and

laws in such areas as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.In exchange, they were required to pay tribute, a poll tax( jizya) that entitled them to Muslim protection from out-side aggression and exempted them from military service.Thus, they were called the “protected ones” (dhimmi ).In effect, this often meant lower taxes, greater local au-tonomy, rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic andcultural ties than the hellenized, Greco-Roman élites ofByzantium, and greater religious freedom for Jews and in-digenous Christians.”

[67] Lewis, Bernard (2002). Arabs in History. p. 57. ISBN978-0-19280-31-08.

[68] Stillman (1979, p. 28)

[69] Cahen (1991, p. 559)

[70] Cahen (1991, p. 560); Anver M. Emon, Religious Plu-ralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Em-

pire of Law, p.98, note 3. Oxford University Press, ISBN978-0199661633. Quote: “Some studies question thenearly synonymous useof thetermskharaj andjizya in thehistorical sources. The general view suggests that while

the terms kharaj and jizya seem to have been used inter-changeably in early historical sources, what they referredto in any given case depended on the linguistic context. Ifone finds references to “a kharaj on their heads,” the ref-erence was to a poll tax, despite theuseof the term kharaj,which later became the term of art for land tax. Likewise,if one fins the phrase “jizya on their land,” this referredto a land tax, despite the use of jizya which later cometo refer to the poll tax. Early history therefore shows thatalthough each term did not have a determinate technicalmeaning at first, the concepts of poll tax and land tax ex-istedearly in Islamichistory.” Denner, Conversion and thePoll Tax, 3–10; AjiazHassan Qureshi, “TheTerms Kharajand Jizya and Their Implication,” Journal of the Punjab

University Historical Society 12 (1961): 27–38; HosseinModarressi Rabatab'i, Kharaj in Islamic Law (London:Anchor Press Ltd, 1983).

[71] Cahen (1991, p. 560)

[72] Cahen (1991, p. 560); Hoyland (2014, p. 99)

[73] Cahen (1991, p. 560); Hoyland (2014, p. 199)

[74] Cahen (1991, p. 561)

[75] Hoyland (2014, p. 199)

[76] Hoyland (2014, pp. 201–202)

[77] Cahen (1991, p. 561); Hoyland (2014, p. 200)

[78] Tramontana, Felicita (2013). “The Poll Tax and the De-cline of the Christian Presence in the Palestinian Coun-tryside in the 17th Century”. Journal of the Economic and Social History ofthe Orient (BrillAcademic Publishers) 56(4-5): 631–652. doi:10.1163/15685209-12341337. Re-trieved 2016-02-03. The (cor)relation between the pay-ment of the poll-tax and conversion to Islam, has longbeen the subject of scholarly debate. At the beginningof the twentieth century scholars suggested that after theMuslim conquest the local populations converted en masseto evade the payment of the poll tax. This assumption has

beenchallenged by subsequent research. Indeed Dennett’sstudy clearly showed that the payment of the poll tax wasnot a sufficient reason to convert after the Muslim con-quest and that other factors—such as the wish to retainsocial status—had greater influence. According to Inalcikthe wish to evade payment of the jizya was an importantincentive for conversion to Islam in the Balkans, but An-ton Minkov has recently argued that taxation was only oneof a number of motivations.

[79] Dennett 1950, p. 10. “Wellhausen makes the assumptionthat the poll tax amounted to so little that exemption fromit did not constitute sufficient economic motive for con-version.”

[80] Walker Arnold, Thomas (1913). Preaching of Islam: AHistory of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Constable

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constable_&_Robinsonhttps://archive.org/details/preachingofislam00arnohttps://archive.org/details/preachingofislam00arnohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Walker_Arnoldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFDennett1950https://dx.doi.org/10.1163%252F15685209-12341337https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685209-12341337http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685209-12341337http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685209-12341337https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCahen1991https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCahen1991https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCahen1991https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCahen1991https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCahen1991https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199661633https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199661633https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCahen1991https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCahen1991https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFStillman1979https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19280-31-08https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFEsposito1998https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansel_Longworth_Dameshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.E._Bosworthhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius_Canard


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10 5 REFERENCES

& Robinson Ltd. p. 59. ... but this jizyah was too mod-erate to constitute a burden, seeing that it released themfrom the compulsory military service that was incumbenton their Muslim fellow-subjects. Conversion to Islam wascertainly attended by a certain pecuniary advantage, buthis former religion could have had but little hold on a con-

vert who abandoned it merely to gain exemption from thejizyah; and now, instead of jizyah, the convert had to paythe legal alms, zakāt, annually levied on most kinds ofmovable and immovable property. (online)

[81] Lewis, Bernard (2014). The Jews of Islam. PrincetonUniversity Press. p. 19.

[82] Lapidus (2014, p. 61,153)

[83] Lapidus (2014, p. 156)

[84] Hoyland (2014, p. 130)

[85] Hoyland (2014, p. 195)

[86] Hoyland (2014, p. 196-198)

[87] Cohen (2008, pp. 72-73)

5.2 Sources

• Cahen, Claude (1991). "Ḏj i̲zzya”. Encyclopaediaof Islam 2 (2nd ed.). Brill.

• Cohen, Mark (2008). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages . Princeton: Princeton

University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13931-9.

• Daniel, Elton L. (2010). “The Islamic East”. InRobinson, Chase F. The New Cambridge Historyof Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic

World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries . Cambridge Uni-versity Press. ISBN 9780521838238.

• Dennett, Daniel Clement (1950). Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam. Harvard UniversityPress. ISBN 9780674331594.

• Donner, Fred M. (2014). The Early Islamic Con-quests . Princeton University Press.

• Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 51

• Hoyland, Robert G. (2014). In God’s Path: TheArab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Em-

pire. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991636-8.

• Kaegi, Walter E. (1995). Byzantium and the EarlyIslamic Conquests . Cambridge University Press.

• Kennedy, Hugh (2007). The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live

in. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81740-3.

• Lapidus, Ira M. (2014). A History of Islamic So-cieties . Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51430-9.

• Esposito, John L. (1998). Islam: The Straight Path.Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511233-4.

• Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk AD 636: The Mus-lim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-414-8.

• Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands : A History and Source Book . Philadelphia: Jew-ish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0.

• Vaglieri, Laura Veccia (1977). “The Patriar-chal and Umayyad caliphates”. In Holt, P. M.;Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard. The Cam-bridge History of Islam Volume 1A: The Cen-

tral Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the

First World War . Cambridge University Press.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521219464.005. ISBN9780521219464.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521219464https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1017%252FCHOL9780521219464.005https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Veccia_Vaglierihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8276-0198-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8276-0198-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Stillmanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-414-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-414-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=IR9rNAai2koChttps://books.google.com/books?id=IR9rNAai2koChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Nicollehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511233-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam:_The_Straight_Pathhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Espositohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51430-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJhttps://books.google.com/books?id=kFJNBAAAQBAJhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81740-3https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=cq6m-Q_9uhMChttps://books.google.com/books?id=cq6m-Q_9uhMChttps://books.google.com/books?id=cq6m-Q_9uhMChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedyhttps://books.google.com/books?id=IvPVEb17uzkChttps://books.google.com/books?id=IvPVEb17uzkChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Kaegihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-991636-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-991636-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=zvmKBAAAQBAJhttps://books.google.com/books?id=zvmKBAAAQBAJhttps://books.google.com/books?id=zvmKBAAAQBAJhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_G._Hoylandhttp://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_the_Decline_and_Fall_of_the_Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Gibbonhttps://books.google.com/books?isbn=1400847877https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1400847877https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Donnerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674331594https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521838238https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elton_L._Danielhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13931-9https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_R._Cohenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brillhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Cahenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFCohen2008https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFHoyland2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests#CITEREFLapidus2014https://books.google.com/books?id=c0S4lOyfKSYC&pg=PA19https://archive.org/stream/preachingofislam00arno#page/58/mode/2uphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constable_&_Robinson


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6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1 Text

• Early Muslim conquests Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests?oldid=717913671 Contributors: Enchanter,Michael Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, GCarty, Mrand, Robbot, Al-Andalus, Neutrality, Rich Farmbrough, Freestylefrappe, Florian Blaschke,EliasAlucard, Smyth, YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Palm dogg, Boris Živ, Unquietwiki, Irishpunktom, Alan-

sohn, Eleland, Miranche, Hydriotaphia, Grenavitar, SteinbDJ, Ron Ritzman, Unixer, Brendanconway, Cuchullain, BD2412, Zoz, Dpv,Rjwilmsi, Erebus555, Ian Pitchford, Nihiltres, Gurch, Le Anh-Huy, Gwernol, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Oldwindybear, RussBot, Eu-pator, Hydrargyrum, CambridgeBayWeather, The Ogre, Rjensen, Ragesoss, CaliforniaAliBaba, Rmky87, Skbhat, 4shizzal, Che829, StreetScholar, Attilios, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jacek Kendysz, Jagged 85, Bradtcordeiro, Delldot, Srnec, Gilliam, Brianski, Hmains,Kitrus, TimBentley, Emmetfahy, Roscelese, Diyako, Cplakidas, Sephiroth BCR, Calbaer, Funky Monkey, Ctreddy, Bbcrackmonkey,Holocron, Vgy7ujm, Fig wright, IronGargoyle, MaximvsDecimvs, Alim777, Iridescent, Alessandro57, Spartian, Afghana~enwiki, Anub-havklal, Richard Keatinge, FilipeS, Shanoman, Cydebot, Sa.vakilian, Nawambo, Doug Weller, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88,Biruitorul, Garcilaso, Al Lemos, Astynax, CharlotteWebb, Matthew Proctor, Escarbot, JoeFriday, Tigeroo, ChrisLamb, JAnDbot, Do-gru144, Scythian1, Buzzaz, Hno3, Magioladitis, Dekimasu, TARBOT, Rich257, Lenin13, Prester John, Atulsnischal, Grandia01, Keith D,J.delanoy, ClarkSui, Arrow740, Mohammad adil, Skumarlabot, Century0, Gabr-el, Wiki1609, Plasticup, Arechis2, AA, Kansas Bear,Lanternix, Remember the dot, Alex:D, Signalhead, Deor, VolkovBot, AlastairIrvine, Miguelzinho, Arabist~enwiki, TXiKiBoT, Osh-wah, Hqb, Emmo827, Steven J. Anderson, Cerebellum, JhsBot, Broadbot, LeaveSleaves, Commuood, Noor Aalam, Faulhaber, Mi-narchist, Mallerd, AlleborgoBot, Al Ameer son, SieBot, Nebulousity, Javierfv1212, Belligero, Bcckid, Anchor Link Bot, Denisarona,Eyusuf, Angelo De La Paz, Ultrabias, ClueBot, Dvl007, The Thing That Should Not Be, Dance21c, XPTO, Gugax451, TheOldJaco-bite, Pete unseth, Lebanowski, Sun Creator, Redthoreau, Warrior4321, Takabeg, SchreiberBike, Thehelpfulone, SoxBot III, Laurips,

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6.2 Images

• File:Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Arabischer_Mosaizist_um_735_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Arabischer Mosaizist um 735

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Original publication: 25 April 643 CEImmediate source: http://aleph.onb.ac.at/F/IECRP8MQG31C7RJALS39FNJV9V625XEB4GMFFIQBB41Y4J5TD9-00721?func=full-set-set&set_number=095863&set_entry=000002&format=999 Original artist: Ancient receipt(Life time: c. 643)

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Early Muslim Conquests

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Transcript of Early Muslim Conquests