Early Islamic Economics

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Early Islamic economics [edit ] Early reforms under Islam Main article: Early reforms under Islam Some argue early Islamic theory and practice formed a "coherent" economic system with "a blueprint for a new order in society, in which all participants would be treated more fairly". Michael Bonner, for example, has written that an "economy of poverty" prevailed in Islam until the 13th and 14th centuries. Under this system God's guidance made sure the flow of money and goods was "purified" by being channeled from those who had much of it to those who had little by encouraging zakat (charity) and discouraging riba (usury /interest ) on loans. Bonner maintains the prophet also helped poor traders by allowing only tents, not permanent buildings in the market of Medina, and not charging fees and rents there. [3] [edit ] Corporate social responsibility in commerce Social responsibility and corporate social responsibility in commerce was stressed in Islamic sociology . The development of Islamic banks and Islamic economics was a side effect of this sociology : usury was rather severely restrained, no interest rate was allowed, and investors were not permitted to escape the consequences of any failed venture—all financing was equity financing (Musharaka). In not letting borrowers bear all the risk/cost of a failure, an extreme disparity of outcomes between "partners" is thus avoided. Ultimately this serves a social harmony purpose. Muslims also could not and cannot (in shariah ) finance any dealings in forbidden goods or activities, such as wine , pork , gambling , etc. Thus ethical investing is the only acceptable investing, and moral purchasing is encouraged. [4] [edit ] Legal institutions See also: Sharia and Fiqh

Transcript of Early Islamic Economics

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Early Islamic economics

[edit] Early reforms under Islam

Main article: Early reforms under Islam

Some argue early Islamic theory and practice formed a "coherent" economic system with "a blueprint for a new order in society, in which all participants would be treated more fairly". Michael Bonner, for example, has written that an "economy of poverty" prevailed in Islam until the 13th and 14th centuries. Under this system God's guidance made sure the flow of money and goods was "purified" by being channeled from those who had much of it to those who had little by encouraging zakat (charity) and discouraging riba (usury/interest) on loans. Bonner maintains the prophet also helped poor traders by allowing only tents, not permanent buildings in the market of Medina, and not charging fees and rents there.[3]

[edit] Corporate social responsibility in commerce

Social responsibility and corporate social responsibility in commerce was stressed in Islamic sociology. The development of Islamic banks and Islamic economics was a side effect of this sociology: usury was rather severely restrained, no interest rate was allowed, and investors were not permitted to escape the consequences of any failed venture—all financing was equity financing (Musharaka). In not letting borrowers bear all the risk/cost of a failure, an extreme disparity of outcomes between "partners" is thus avoided. Ultimately this serves a social harmony purpose. Muslims also could not and cannot (in shariah) finance any dealings in forbidden goods or activities, such as wine, pork, gambling, etc. Thus ethical investing is the only acceptable investing, and moral purchasing is encouraged.[4]

[edit] Legal institutions

See also: Sharia and Fiqh

[edit] Hawala agency

Main article: Hawala

The Hawala, an early informal value transfer system, has its origins in classical Islamic law, and is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws such as the aval in French law and the avallo in Italian law. The words aval and avallo were themselves derived from Hawala. The transfer of debt, which was "not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions", was due to the large extent of the "trade conducted by the Italian cities with the Muslim world in the Middle Ages." The agency was also "an institution unknown to Roman law" as no "individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent." In Roman law, the "contractor himself was considered the party to the contract and it took a second contract between the person

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who acted on behalf of a principal and the latter in order to transfer the rights and the obligations deriving from the contract to him." On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law "had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and of obligations in general."[5]

[edit] Waqf trust

Main article: Waqf

The waqf in Islamic law, which developed in the medieval Islamic world from the 7th to 9th centuries, bears a notable resemblance to the English trust law.[6] Every waqf was required to have a waqif (founder), mutawillis (trustee), qadi (judge) and beneficiaries.[7] Under both a waqf and a trust, "property is reserved, and its usufruct appropriated, for the benefit of specific individuals, or for a general charitable purpose; the corpus becomes inalienable; estates for life in favor of successive beneficiaries can be created" and "without regard to the law of inheritance or the rights of the heirs; and continuity is secured by the successive appointment of trustees or mutawillis."[8]

The only significant distinction between the Islamic waqf and English trust was "the express or implied reversion of the waqf to charitable purposes when its specific object has ceased to exist",[9] though this difference only applied to the waqf ahli (Islamic family trust) rather than the waqf khairi (devoted to a charitable purpose from its inception). Another difference was the English vesting of "legal estate" over the trust property in the trustee, though the "trustee was still bound to administer that property for the benefit of the beneficiaries." In this sense, the "role of the English trustee therefore does not differ significantly from that of the mutawalli."[10]

The trust law developed in England at the time of the Crusades, during the 12th and 13th centuries, was introduced by Crusaders who may have been influenced by the waqf institutions they came across in the Middle East.[11][12]

After the Islamic waqf law and madrassah foundations were firmly established by the 10th century, the number of Bimaristan hospitals multiplied throughout throughout Islamic lands. In the 11th century, every Islamic city had at least several hospitals. The waqf trust institutions funded the hospitals for various expenses, including the wages of doctors, ophthalmologists, surgeons, chemists, pharmacists, domestics and all other staff, the purchase of foods and drugs; hospital equipment such as beds, mattresses, bowls and perfumes; and repairs to buildings. The waqf trusts also funded medical schools, and their revenues covered various expenses such as their maintenance and the payment of teachers and students.[13]

[edit] Classical Muslim commerce

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During the Islamic Golden Age, guilds were formed though officially unrecognized by the medieval Islamic city. However, trades were recognized and supervised by officials of the city. Each trade developed its own identity, whose members would attend the same mosque, and serve together in the militia.

Technology and industry in Islamic civilization were highly developed. Distillation techniques supported a flourishing perfume industry, while chemical ceramic glazes were developed to compete with ceramics imported from China. A scientific approach to metallurgy made it easier to adopt and improve steel technologies from India and China. Primary exports included manufactured luxuries, such as wood carving, metal and glass, textiles, and ceramics.[citation needed]

The systems of contract relied upon by merchants was very effective. Merchants would buy and sell on commission, with money loaned to them by wealthy investors, or a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Recently, a collection of documents was found in an Egyptian synagogue shedding a very detailed and human light on the life of medieval Middle Eastern merchants. Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. During the ninth century banks enabled the drawing of a check in by a bank in Baghdad that could be cashed in Morocco.[14] Each time items passed through one of the cities along this extraordinary network, the city imposed a tax, resulting in high prices once the items reached their final destinations. These innovations made by Muslims and Jews laid the foundations for the modern economic system.[citation needed]

Transport was simple, yet highly effective. Each city had an area outside its gates where pack animals were assembled; found in the cities' markets were large secure warehouses[citation needed]; while accommodations were provided for merchants in cities and along trade routes by a sort of medieval motel.

The concepts of welfare and pension were introduced in early Islamic law as forms of Zakat (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, since the time of the Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur in the 8th century. The taxes (including Zakat and Jizya) collected in the treasury of an Islamic government was used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to store up food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurs. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest welfare states, particularly the Abbasid Caliphate.[15]

[edit] Age of discovery

Main article: Islamic geographySee also: Inventions in the Islamic world, Pre-Columbian Andalusian-Americas contact theories, Ibn Battuta, Tabula Rogeriana, and Piri Reis map

During the Islamic Golden Age, isolated regions began integrating into a geographically far-reaching trade network. Muslim Traders and explorers travelled over most of the Old World,[16] covering significant areas of Asia and Africa and much of Europe, with their trade networks

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extending from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east.[17] This helped establish the Islamic Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid Caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power in the 7th-13th centuries.[16]

Arabic silver dirham coins were being circulated throughout the Afro-Eurasian landmass, as far as sub-Saharan Africa in the south and northern Europe in the north, often in exchange for goods and slaves.[18] In England, for example, the Anglo-Saxon king Offa of Mercia (r. 757-796) had coins minted with the Shahadah in Arabic.[19] These factors helped establish the Arab Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th–13th centuries.[16]

[edit] Agricultural Revolution

Further information: Arab Agricultural Revolution

During the Arab Agricultural Revolution, a fundamental transformation in agricultural practice tied in with significant economic change. This transformation involved diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. In addition to significant changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover,[20] agricultural production, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world were affected.[21]

The economic system in place in Muslim areas during this time incorporated reformed land ownership rules and labourers' rights, combining the recognition of private ownership and the rewarding of cultivators with a harvest share commensurate with their efforts also improved agricultural practices. The cities of the Near East, North Africa and Moorish Spain were supported by highly structured agricultural systems which required significant labor inputs. Such regional systems were often significantly more productive than the agricultural practices in most of Europe at the time which relied heavily on grazing animals and systems of fallowing.

The demographics of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant aspects from other agricultural societies, including a decline in birth rates as well as a change in life expectancy. Other traditional agrarian societies are estimated to have had an average life expectancy of 20 to 25 years,[22] while ancient Rome and medieval Europe are estimated at 20 to 30 years.[23] Conrad I. Lawrence estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population,[24] and several studies on the lifespans of Islamic scholars concluded that members of this occupational group enjoyed a life expectancy between 69 and 75 years,[25][26][27] though this longevity was not representative of the general population.[28]

The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of classical Athens in the 4th century BC,[29] and later, China after the introduction of printing from the 10th century.[30] One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent-driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidize educational services until the introduction of state funding under Nizam

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al-Mulk in the 11th century.[31] Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China,[32] which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society, thus papermaking technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of Afro-Eurasia) from an oral to scribal culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to typographic culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet.[33] Other factors include the widespread use of paper books in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study and memorization of the Qur'an, flourishing commercial activity, and the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah educational institutions.[34]

[edit] Islamic capitalism

Main article: Islamic capitalism

A number of concepts and techniques were applied in early Islamic commerce, including bills of exchange, forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[35] cheques, promissory notes,[36] trusts (see Waqf), transactional accounts, loaning, ledgers and assignments.[37] Organizational enterprises independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world, while the agency institution was also introduced.[38][39] Many of these early concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[35]

A market economy was established in the Islamic world on the basis of an economic system resembling merchant capitalism. Capital formation was promoted by labour in medieval Islamic society, and financial capital was developed by a considerable number of owners of monetary funds and precious metals. Riba (usury) was prohibited by the Qur'an, but this did not hamper the development of capital in any way. The capitalists (sahib al-mal) were at the height of their power between the 9th–12th centuries, but their influence declined after the arrival of the ikta (landowners) and after production was monopolized by the state, both of which hampered the development of industrial capitalism in the Islamic world.[40] Some state enterprises still had a capitalist mode of production, such as pearl diving in Iraq and the textile industry in Egypt.[41]

During the 11th–13th centuries, the "Karimis", an early enterprise and business group controlled by entrepreneurs, came to dominate much of the Islamic world's economy.[42] The group was controlled by about fifty Muslim merchants labelled as "Karimis" who were of Yemeni, Egyptian and sometimes Indian origins.[43] Each Karimi merchant had considerable wealth, ranging from at least 100,000 dinars to as much as 10 million dinars. The group had considerable influence in most important eastern markets and sometimes in politics through its financing activities and through a variety of customers, including Emirs, Sultans, Viziers, foreign merchants, and common consumers. The Karimis dominated many of the trade routes across the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean, and as far as Francia in the north, China in the east, and sub-Saharan Africa in the south, where they obtained gold from gold mines. Practices employed by the Karimis included the use of agents, the financing of projects as a method of acquiring capital, and a banking institution for loans and deposits.

[edit] Islamic socialism

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Main articles: Islamic socialism and Bayt al-mal

Though medieval Islamic economics appears to have somewhat resembled a form of capitalism, some arguing that it laid the foundations for the development of modern capitalism,[44][45] some Orientalists also believe that there exist a number of parallels between Islamic economics and communism, including the Islamic ideas of zakat and riba.[citation needed] Others see Islamic economics as neither completely capitalistic nor completely socialistic, but rather a balance between the two, emphasizing both "individual economic freedom and the need to serve the common good."[46]

Abū Dharr al-Ghifārī, a Companion of Prophet Muḥammad, is credited by many as the founder of Islamic socialism.[47][48][49][50][51] He protested against the accumulation of wealth by the ruling class during ‘Uthmān's caliphate and urged the equitable redistribution of wealth.

The concepts of welfare and pension were introduced in early Islamic law as forms of Zakat (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, during the time of the Rashidun caliph Umar in the 7th century. This practiced continued well into the era of the Abbasid Caliphate, as seen under Al-Ma'mun's rule in the 8th century, for example. The taxes (including Zakat and Jizya) collected in the treasury of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. The Caliphate is thus considered the world's first major welfare state.[15][46]

[edit] Industrial development

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative industrial uses of hydropower, early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power,and fossil fuels such as petroleum. A variety of industrial mills were used in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[52] Muslim engineers also invented water turbines, first employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[53] Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe.[52]

Many industries were generated due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, including the earliest industries for agribusiness, astronomical instruments, ceramics, chemicals, distillation technologies, clocks, glass, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, mosaics, pulp and paper, perfumery, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, rope-making, shipping, shipbuilding, silk, sugar, textiles, weapons, and the mining of minerals such as sulfur, ammonia, lead and iron]. The first large factory complexes (tiraz) were built for many of these industries.

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Knowledge of these industries were later transmitted to medieval Europe, especially during the Latin translations of the 12th century, as well as before and after. For example, the first glass factories in Europe were founded in the 11th century by Egyptian craftsmen in Greece.[54] The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.[17]

In Islamic governments such as the Fatimid Caliphate, the tax collection, rather than being wasted on temples or courts, was invested industrial development, such as the Fatimid government's investment in the textile industry. In addition to government-owned tiraz textile factories, there were also privately owned enterprises run largely by landlords who collected taxes and invested them in the textile industry.[55]

[edit] Labour force

The labor force in the Caliphate were employed from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds, while both men and women were involved in diverse occupations and economic activities.[56] Women were employed in a wide range of commercial activities and diverse occupations[57] in the primary sector (as farmers for example), secondary sector (as construction workers, dyers, spinners, etc.) and tertiary sector (as investors, doctors, nurses, presidents of guilds, brokers, peddlers, lenders, scholars, etc.).[58] Muslim women also held a monopoly over certain branches of the textile industry,[57] the largest and most specialized and market-oriented industry at the time, in occupations such as spinning, dying, and embroidery. In comparison, female property rights and wage labour were relatively uncommon in Europe until the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries.[59]

The division of labour was diverse and had been evolving over the centuries. During the 8th–11th centuries, there were on average 63 unique occupations in the primary sector of economic activity (extractive), 697 unique occupations in the secondary sector (manufacturing), and 736 unique occupations in the tertiary sector (service). By the 12th century, the number of unique occupations in the primary sector and secondary sector decreased to 35 and 679 respectively, while the number of unique occupations in the tertiary sector increased to 1,175. These changes in the division of labour reflect the increased mechanization and use of machinery to replace manual labour and the increased standard of living and quality of life of most citizens in the Caliphate.[60]

An economic transition occurred during this period, due to the diversity of the service sector being far greater than any other previous or contemporary society, and the high degree of economic integration between the labour force and the economy. Islamic society also experienced a change in attitude towards manual labour. In previous civilizations such as ancient Greece and in contemporary civilizations such as early medieval Europe, intellectuals saw manual labour in a negative light and looked down on them with contempt. This resulted in technological stagnation as they did not see the need for machinery to replace manual labour. In the Islamic world, however, manual labour was seen in a far more positive light, as intellectuals such as the Brethren of Purity likened them to a participant in the act of creation, while Ibn Khaldun alluded to the benefits of manual labour to the progress of society.[57]

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By the early 10th century, the idea of the academic degree was introduced and being granted at Maktab schools, Madrasah colleges and Bimaristan hospitals. In the medical field in particular, the Ijazah certificate was granted to those qualified to be practicing physicians, in order to differentiate them from unqualified quacks.[61]

[edit] Urbanization

There was a significant increase in urbanization during this period, due to numerous scientific advances in fields such as agriculture, hygiene, sanitation, astronomy, medicine and engineering.[citation needed] This also resulted in a rising middle class population.[62]

As urbanization increased, Muslim cities' growth was largely unregulated, resulting in narrow winding city streets and neighborhoods separated by different ethnic backgrounds and religious affiliations. These qualities proved efficient for transporting goods to and from major commercial centers[citation needed] while preserving the privacy valued by Islamic family life. Suburbs lay just outside the walled city, from wealthy residential communities, to working class semi-slums. City garbage dumps were located far from the city, as were clearly defined cemeteries which were often homes for criminals. A place of prayer was found just near one of the main gates, for religious festivals and public executions. Similarly, Military Training grounds were found near a main gate.

While varying in appearance due to climate and prior local traditions, Islamic cities were almost always dominated by a merchant middle class. Some peoples' loyalty towards their neighborhood was very strong, reflecting ethnicity and religion, while a sense of citizenship was at times uncommon (but not in every case). The extended family provided the foundation for social programs, business deals, and negotiations with authorities. Part of this economic and social unit were often the tenants of a wealthy landlord.

State power normally focused on Dar al Imara, the governor's office in the citadel. These fortresses towered high above the city built on thousands of years of human settlement. The primary function of the city governor was to provide for defence and to maintain legal order. This system would be responsible for a mixture of autocracy and autonomy within the city. Each neighborhood, and many of the large tenement blocks, elected a representative to deal with urban authorities. These neighborhoods were also expected to organize their young men into a militia providing for protection of their own neighborhoods, and as aid to the professional armies defending the city as a whole.

The head of the family was given the position of authority in his household, although a qadi, or judge was able to negotiate and resolve differences in issues of disagreements within families and between them. The two senior representatives of municipal authority were the qadi and the muhtasib, who held the responsibilities of many issues, including quality of water, maintenance of city streets, containing outbreaks of disease, supervising the markets, and a prompt burial of the dead.

Another aspect of Islamic urban life was waqf, a religious charity directly dealing with the qadi and religious leaders. Through donations, the waqf owned many of the public baths and

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factories, using the revenue to fund education, and to provide irrigation for orchards outside the city. Following expansion, this system was introduced into Eastern Europe by Ottoman Turks.

While religious foundations of all faiths were tax exempt in the Muslim world, civilians paid their taxes to the urban authorities, soldiers to the superior officer, and landowners to the state treasury. Taxes were also levied on an unmarried man until he was wed. Instead of zakat, the mandatory charity required of Muslims, non-Muslims were required to pay the jizya, a discriminatory religious tax, imposed on Christians and Jews. During the Muslim Conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries conquered populations were given the three choices of either converting to Islam, paying the jizya, or dying by the sword.

Animals brought to the city for slaughter were restricted to areas outside the city, as were any other industries seen as unclean. The more valuable a good was, the closer its market was to the center of town. Because of this, booksellers and goldsmiths clustered around the main mosque at the heart of the city.

By the 10th century, Cordoba had 700 mosques, 60,000 palaces, and 70 libraries, the largest of which had 600,000 books, while as many as 60,000 treatises, poems, polemics and compilations were published each year in al-Andalus.[63] The library of Cairo had more than 100,000 books, while the library of Tripoli is said to have had as many as three million books. The number of important and original Arabic works on science that have survived is much larger than the combined total of Greek and Latin works on science.[64]

[edit] Classical Islamic economic thought

To some degree, the early Muslims based their economic analyses on the Qur'an (such as opposition to riba, meaning usury or interest), and from sunnah, the sayings and doings of Muhammad.

[edit] Early Islamic economic thinkers

Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) classified economics as one of the sciences connected with religion, along with metaphysics, ethics, and psychology. Authors have noted, however, that this connection has not caused early Muslim economic thought to remain static.[65] Persian philosopher Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) presents an early definition of economics (what he calls hekmat-e-madani, the science of city life) in discourse three of his Ethics:

"the study of universal laws governing the public interest (welfare?) in so far as they are directed, through cooperation, toward the optimal (perfection)."[66]

Many scholars trace the history of economic thought through the Muslim world, which was in a Golden Age from the 8th to 13th century and whose philosophy continued the work of the Greek and Hellenistic thinkers and came to influence Aquinas when Europe "rediscovered" Greek philosophy through Arabic translation.[67] A common theme among these scholars was the praise of economic activity and even self-interested accumulation of wealth.[68] Persian leader Shams al-

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Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir (Qabus) (died 1012) advises his son in the work Qabus nama:

"My son, do not be indifferent to the acquisition of wealth. Assure yourself that everything you acquire shall be the best quality and is likely to give you pleasure."

Persian philosopher Ibn Miskawayh (b. 1030) notes:

"The creditor desires the well-being of the debtor in order to get his money back rather than because of his love for him. The debtor, on the other hand, does not take great interest in the creditor."[69]

This view is in conflict with an idea Joseph Schumpeter called the great gap. The great gap thesis comes out of Schumpeter's 1954 History of Economic Analysis which discusses a break in economic thought during the five hundred year period between the decline of the Greco-Roman civilizations and the work of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274).[70] However in 1964, Joseph Spengler's "Economic Thought of Islam: Ibn Khaldun" appeared in the journal Comparative Studies in Society and History and took a large step in bringing early Muslim scholars to the attention of the contemporary West.[71]

The influence of earlier Greek and Hellenistic thought on the Muslim world began largely with Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun, who sponsored the translation of Greek texts into Arabic in the 9th century by Syrian Christians in Baghdad. But already by that time numerous Muslim scholars had written on economic issues, and early Muslim leaders had shown sophisticated attempts to enforce fiscal and monetary financing, use deficit financing, use taxes to encourage production, the use of credit instruments for banking, including rudimentary savings and checking accounts, and contract law.[72]

Among the earliest Muslim economic thinkers was Abu Yusuf (731-798), a student of the founder of the Hanafi Sunni School of Islamic thought, Abu Hanifah. Abu Yusuf was chief jurist for Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, for whom he wrote the Book of Taxation (Kitab al-Kharaj). This book outlined Abu Yusuf's ideas on taxation, public finance, and agricultural production. He discussed proportional tax on produce instead of fixed taxes on property as being superior as an incentive to bring more land into cultivation. He also advocated forgiving tax policies which favor the producer and a centralized tax administration to reduce corruption. Abu Yusuf favored the use of tax revenues for socioeconomic infrastructure, and included discussion of various types of taxes, including sales tax, death taxes, and import tariffs.[73]

Early discussion of the benefits of division of labor are included in the writings of Qabus, al-Ghazali, al-Farabi (873–950), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037), Ibn Miskawayh, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–74), Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), and Asaad Davani (b. 1444). Among them, the discussions included division of labor within households, societies, factories, and among nations. Farabi notes that each society lacks at least some necessary resources, and thus an optimal society can only be achieved where domestic, regional, and international trade occur, and that such trade can be beneficial to all parties involved.[74] Ghazali was also noted for his subtle understanding of monetary theory and formulation of another version of Gresham's Law.

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The power of supply and demand was understood to some extent by various early Muslim scholars as well. Ibn Taymiyyah illustrates:

"If desire for goods increases while its availability decreases, its price rises. On the other hand, if availability of the good increases and the desire for it decreases, the price comes down."[75]

Ghazali suggests an early version of price inelasticity of demand for certain goods, and he and Ibn Miskawayh discuss equilibrium prices.[76] Other important Muslim scholars who wrote about economics include al-Mawardi (1075–1158), Ibn Taimiyah (1263–1328), and al-Maqrizi.

[edit] Riba

Main article: Riba

The common view of riba (usury) among classical jurists of Islamic law and economics during the Islamic Golden Age was that it is only riba and therefore unlawful to apply interest to money exnatura sua—exclusively gold and silver currencies—but that it is not riba and is therefore acceptable to apply interest to fiat money —currencies made up of other materials such as paper or base metals—to an extent.[77]

The definition of riba in classical Islamic jurisprudence was "surplus value without counterpart." When "currencies of base metal were first introduced in the Islamic world, no jurist ever thought that paying a debt in a higher number of units of this fiat money was riba" as they were concerned with the real value of money rather than the numerical value. For example, it was acceptable for a loan of 1000 gold dinars to be paid back as 1050 dinars of total equal mass. The rationale behind riba according to classical Islamic jurists was "to ensure equivalency in real value" and that the "numerical value was immaterial." Thus an interest rate that did not exceed the rate of inflation was not riba according to classical Islamic jurists.[78]

[edit] Ibn Khaldun

Awal Islam ekonomi[Sunting] Awal reformasi di bawah IslamArtikel utama: Awal reformasi di bawah Islam

Beberapa berpendapat teori dan praktek Islam awal membentuk "koheren" sistem ekonomi dengan "cetak biru untuk suatu tatanan baru dalam masyarakat, dimana semua peserta akan diperlakukan lebih adil". Michael Bonner, misalnya, telah menulis bahwa "ekonomi kemiskinan" berlaku dalam Islam sampai abad 13 dan 14. Di bawah sistem ini bimbingan Tuhan memastikan aliran uang dan barang yang "dimurnikan" dengan menjadi disalurkan dari mereka yang telah banyak kepada mereka yang sedikit demi mendorong zakat (amal) dan mengecilkan riba (riba / bunga) atas pinjaman. Bonner mempertahankan nabi juga membantu pedagang miskin dengan membiarkan tenda saja, bukan bangunan permanen di pasar Madinah, dan tidak mengenakan biaya dan sewa di sana. [3][Sunting] Tanggung jawab sosial perusahaan dalam perdagangan

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Tanggung jawab sosial dan tanggung jawab sosial perusahaan dalam perdagangan, ditekankan dalam sosiologi Islam. Perkembangan bank Islam dan ekonomi Islam adalah efek samping dari sosiologi ini: riba agak sangat terkendali, tidak ada suku bunga diizinkan, dan investor tidak diizinkan untuk melarikan diri dari konsekuensi dari setiap pembiayaan-venture gagal semua adalah ekuitas pembiayaan (Musyarakah) . In tidak membiarkan debitur menanggung semua risiko / biaya kegagalan, suatu kelainan ekstrim hasil antara "partner" dengan demikian dihindari. Pada akhirnya ini melayani tujuan harmoni sosial. Muslim juga tidak bisa dan bisa tidak (dalam syariah) membiayai transaksi barang terlarang atau aktivitas, seperti anggur, daging babi, perjudian, dll Jadi investasi etis adalah investasi hanya dapat diterima, dan pembelian moral dianjurkan. [4][Sunting] lembaga HukumLihat juga: Syariah dan Fiqh[Sunting] lembaga HawalaArtikel utama: Hawala

The Hawala, sebuah sistem nilai transfer awal informal, memiliki asal-usul dalam hukum Islam klasik, dan disebutkan dalam teks-teks hukum Islam pada awal abad ke-8. Hawala sendiri kemudian mempengaruhi perkembangan badan dalam hukum umum dan dalam hukum sipil seperti Aval dalam hukum Perancis dan Avallo di hukum Italia. Aval kata-kata dan Avallo itu sendiri berasal dari Hawala. Pengalihan utang, yang "tidak diperbolehkan menurut hukum Romawi namun menjadi luas dipraktekkan di Eropa abad pertengahan, terutama dalam transaksi komersial", adalah karena sebagian besar perdagangan "yang dilakukan oleh kota-kota Italia dengan dunia Muslim pada Abad Pertengahan . " Badan ini juga "sebuah lembaga tidak dikenal hukum Romawi" karena tidak ada "individu dapat menyimpulkan sebuah kontrak yang mengikat atas nama lain sebagai agen nya." Dalam hukum Romawi, kontraktor "sendiri dianggap partai untuk kontrak dan butuh kontrak kedua antara orang yang bertindak atas nama pokok dan yang terakhir dalam rangka untuk mengalihkan hak dan kewajiban yang berasal dari kontrak kepadanya. " Di sisi lain, hukum Islam dan hukum kemudian biasa "tidak memiliki kesulitan dalam badan menerima sebagai salah satu institusi di bidang kontrak dan kewajiban secara umum." [5][Sunting] kepercayaan WakafArtikel utama: Wakaf

The wakaf dalam hukum Islam, yang berkembang di dunia Islam abad pertengahan dari 7 sampai 9 abad, memiliki kemiripan penting dengan hukum kepercayaan Inggris [6] Setiap wakaf wajib memiliki Waqif (pendiri), mutawillis (wali amanat),. . kadi (hakim) dan penerima manfaat [7] Di bawah baik wakaf dan kepercayaan, "properti dicadangkan, dan hak pakai hasil yang disesuaikan, untuk kepentingan individu tertentu, atau untuk tujuan amal umum; corpus menjadi mutlak; perkebunan untuk hidup mendukung penerima manfaat yang berurutan dapat dibuat "dan" tanpa memperhatikan hukum warisan atau hak-hak ahli waris, dan kontinuitas dijamin dengan penunjukan wali berturut-turut atau mutawillis "[8].

Satu-satunya perbedaan yang signifikan antara wakaf Islam dan kepercayaan bahasa Inggris adalah "pengembalian yang tersurat maupun tersirat dari wakaf untuk tujuan amal ketika objek yang spesifik telah berakhir", [9] meskipun perbedaan ini hanya diterapkan pada kepercayaan Ahli wakaf (keluarga Islam ) daripada wakaf Khairi (dikhususkan untuk tujuan amal dari awal).

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Perbedaan lainnya adalah vesting Inggris "real legal" atas harta kepercayaan wali amanat, meskipun "wali masih terikat untuk mengelola properti yang untuk kepentingan penerima manfaat." Dalam pengertian ini, istilah "peran wali bahasa Inggris sehingga tidak berbeda secara signifikan dari mutawalli itu." [10]

Hukum kepercayaan yang dikembangkan di Inggris pada saat Perang Salib, selama abad 12 dan 13, diperkenalkan oleh Tentara Salib yang mungkin telah dipengaruhi oleh lembaga-lembaga wakaf mereka menemukan di Timur Tengah. [11] [12]

Setelah wakaf hukum dan madrasah yayasan Islam mapan pada abad ke-10, jumlah rumah sakit Bimaristan dikalikan seluruh seluruh negeri Islam. Pada abad ke-11, setiap kota Islam setidaknya memiliki beberapa rumah sakit. lembaga wakaf Kepercayaan didanai rumah sakit untuk berbagai biaya, termasuk upah dokter, dokter mata, ahli bedah, ahli kimia, apoteker, rumah tangga dan semua staf lainnya, pembelian makanan dan obat-obatan, peralatan rumah sakit seperti tempat tidur, kasur, mangkuk dan parfum; dan perbaikan bangunan. wakaf yang bertabiat juga mendanai sekolah kedokteran, dan pendapatan mereka ditutupi berbagai biaya seperti pemeliharaan dan pembayaran guru dan siswa. [13][Sunting] Klasik commerce MuslimBagian ini duplikasi, secara keseluruhan atau sebagian, ruang lingkup pasal lain (s) atau ayat (s).Silakan membahas masalah ini di halaman bicara dan sesuai dengan Wikipedia Manual of Style dengan mengganti bagian dengan link dan ringkasan dari bahan berulang, atau dengan memisahkan teks diulang menjadi sebuah artikel dalam dirinya sendiri.

Selama Islam Golden Age, serikat pekerja dibentuk meskipun secara resmi belum diakui oleh kota Islam abad pertengahan. Namun, perdagangan yang diakui dan diawasi oleh pejabat kota. Setiap usaha mengembangkan identitasnya sendiri, yang anggotanya akan menghadiri masjid yang sama, dan melayani bersama dalam milisi.

Teknologi dan industri dalam peradaban Islam yang sangat maju. teknik Destilasi mendukung industri parfum berkembang, sedangkan bahan keramik kimia tersebut dikembangkan untuk bersaing dengan keramik impor dari Cina. Pendekatan ilmiah untuk metalurgi membuat lebih mudah untuk mengadopsi dan meningkatkan teknologi baja dari India dan Cina. ekspor primer termasuk kemewahan diproduksi, seperti ukiran kayu, logam dan kaca, tekstil, dan keramik. [rujukan?]

Sistem kontrak yang dijadikan dasar oleh pedagang sangat efektif. Pedagang akan membeli dan menjual pada komisi, dengan dana yang dipinjamkan kepada mereka oleh investor kaya, atau investasi bersama beberapa pedagang, yang sering Muslim, Kristen dan Yahudi. Baru-baru ini, sebuah koleksi dokumen yang ditemukan di rumah ibadat Mesir mencurahkan cahaya yang sangat rinci dan manusia pada kehidupan abad pertengahan pedagang Timur Tengah. Bisnis kemitraan akan dibuat untuk usaha komersial banyak, dan obligasi kekerabatan memungkinkan untuk membentuk jaringan perdagangan jarak besar. Selama abad kesembilan bank memungkinkan gambar cek oleh sebuah bank di Baghdad yang dapat diuangkan di Maroko [14] Setiap item kali melewati salah satu kota di sepanjang jaringan ini luar biasa,. Kota dikenakan pajak, sehingga tinggi harga pada saat item mencapai tujuan akhir mereka. Inovasi ini dilakukan oleh umat Islam dan Yahudi meletakkan dasar bagi sistem ekonomi modern. [Rujukan?]

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Transportasi sederhana, namun sangat efektif. Setiap kota memiliki daerah di luar gerbang yang mana pak binatang berkumpul; ditemukan di pasar kota-kota 'itu gudang aman besar [rujukan?]; akomodasi sementara disediakan untuk pedagang di kota dan di sepanjang rute perdagangan dengan semacam motel abad pertengahan.

Konsep kesejahteraan dan pensiun diperkenalkan dalam hukum Islam awal sebagai bentuk Zakat (amal), salah satu dari Lima Rukun Islam, sejak zaman khalifah Abbasiyah Al-Mansur di abad ke-8. Pajak-pajak (termasuk zakat dan Jizya) dikumpulkan dalam kas suatu pemerintahan Islam digunakan untuk menyediakan pendapatan bagi yang membutuhkan, termasuk miskin, tua, yatim piatu, janda, dan orang cacat. Menurut ahli hukum Islam Al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058-1111), pemerintah juga diharapkan untuk menyimpan persediaan makanan di setiap daerah dalam kasus bencana atau kelaparan terjadi. Khilafah demikian salah satu negara paling awal kesejahteraan, khususnya Khilafah Abbasiyah. [15][Sunting] Umur penemuanArtikel utama: Geografi IslamLihat juga: Penemuan di dunia Islam, Pra-Columbus menghubungi teori Andalusia-Amerika, Ibn Battuta, Tabula Rogeriana, dan peta Piri Reis

Selama Islam Golden Age, wilayah-wilayah terpencil mulai mengintegrasikan ke dalam jaringan perdagangan secara geografis jauh jangkauannya. Pedagang Muslim dan penjelajah bepergian alih sebagian besar Dunia Lama, [16] meliputi area yang signifikan di Asia dan Afrika dan sebagian besar Eropa, dengan jaringan perdagangan mereka membentang dari Samudra Atlantik dan Laut Mediterania di sebelah barat ke Samudera Hindia dan Laut Cina timur [17]. Ini membantu mendirikan Imperium Islam (termasuk kekhalifahan Rasyidin, Umayyah, Abbasiyah dan Fatimiyah) sebagai pemimpin kekuatan ekonomi dunia yang luas pada abad ke-7-13. [16]

koin perak Dirham Arab sedang beredar di seluruh daratan Afro-Eurasia, sejauh sebagai sub-Sahara Afrika di Eropa selatan dan utara di utara, sering kali dalam pertukaran barang dan budak [18] Di Inggris, misalnya, Anglo. -Saxon Raja Offa dari Mercia (r. 757-796) telah koin dilebur dengan Syahadah dalam bahasa Arab [19]. Faktor-faktor ini membantu mendirikan Kekaisaran Arab (termasuk Rasyidin, Umayyah, Abbasiyyah dan kekhalifahan Fatimiyah) sebagai terkemuka di dunia yang luas ekonomi daya sepanjang abad ke-7-13. [16][Sunting] Revolusi PertanianInformasi lebih lanjut: Arab Revolusi Pertanian

Selama Revolusi Pertanian Arab, suatu transformasi yang mendasar dalam praktek pertanian yang diikat dengan perubahan ekonomi yang signifikan. Transformasi ini melibatkan difusi banyak tanaman dan tanaman sepanjang rute perdagangan Muslim, penyebaran teknik pertanian yang lebih maju, dan sistem pertanian-ekonomi yang dipromosikan panen meningkat dan efisiensi. Selain perubahan signifikan dalam perekonomian, distribusi penduduk, tutupan vegetasi, [20] produksi pertanian, tingkat populasi, pertumbuhan perkotaan, distribusi tenaga kerja, dan berbagai aspek-aspek lain dari kehidupan di dunia Islam yang terpengaruh. [21]

Sistem ekonomi di tempat di wilayah Muslim selama ini tergabung reformasi aturan kepemilikan tanah dan hak-hak buruh ', menggabungkan pengakuan kepemilikan swasta dan menguntungkan

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penggarap dengan pangsa panen sepadan dengan upaya mereka juga meningkatkan kegiatan pertanian. Kota-kota di Timur Dekat, Afrika Utara dan Moor Spanyol yang didukung oleh sistem pertanian yang sangat terstruktur yang membutuhkan input tenaga kerja yang signifikan. sistem regional seperti itu sering jauh lebih produktif daripada praktek-praktek pertanian di sebagian besar Eropa pada waktu yang sangat bergantung pada binatang pemakan rumput dan sistem fallowing.

Demografi masyarakat Islam abad pertengahan bervariasi dalam beberapa aspek penting dari masyarakat pertanian lainnya, termasuk penurunan tingkat kelahiran serta perubahan dalam harapan hidup. Lain masyarakat agraris tradisional diperkirakan telah memiliki harapan hidup rata-rata 20 sampai 25 tahun, [22] sementara Roma kuno dan abad pertengahan Eropa diperkirakan pada 20 hingga 30 tahun [23] Lawrence I. Conrad perkiraan. Jangka hidup rata-rata pada awal kekhalifahan Islam berada di atas 35 tahun untuk masyarakat umum, [24] dan beberapa studi pada rentang hidup ulama Islam menyimpulkan bahwa anggota dari kelompok kerja menikmati harapan hidup antara 69 dan 75 tahun, [25] [26] [27] meskipun umur panjang ini tidak mewakili populasi umum. [28]

Kekaisaran awal Islam juga memiliki tingkat melek huruf tertinggi di antara masyarakat pra-modern, di samping kota Athena klasik pada abad ke-4 SM, [29] dan kemudian, China setelah pengenalan mencetak dari abad ke-10. [30] Salah satu faktor untuk angka melek aksara relatif tinggi di Kerajaan Islam awal adalah orang tua yang digerakkan oleh pasar pendidikan, sebagai negara tidak sistematis mensubsidi layanan pendidikan sampai diperkenalkannya dana negara di bawah Nizam al-Mulk pada abad ke-11. [31] Faktor lain adalah difusi kertas dari Cina, [32] yang menyebabkan suatu kemekaran buku dan budaya yang ditulis dalam masyarakat Islam, sehingga pembuatan kertas teknologi mengubah masyarakat Islam (dan kemudian, sisa Afro-Eurasia) dari lisan dengan budaya juru tulis, sebanding dengan pergeseran kemudian dari juru tulis dengan budaya tipografi, dan dari budaya tipografi ke Internet [33] Faktor-faktor lain termasuk. meluasnya penggunaan buku kertas dalam masyarakat Islam (lebih dari setiap masyarakat yang sebelumnya sudah ada yang lain), studi dan menghafal dari Qur 'kegiatan, komersial berkembang, dan munculnya Maktab dan lembaga pendidikan Madrasah. [34][Sunting] kapitalisme IslamArtikel utama: kapitalisme Islam

Sejumlah konsep dan teknik yang diterapkan dalam perdagangan Islam awal, termasuk bill of exchange, bentuk kemitraan (mudharabah), dan bentuk-bentuk modal awal (al-mal), akumulasi modal (nama al (mufawada) seperti kemitraan terbatas-mal ), [35] cek, surat promes, [36] percaya (lihat Wakaf), rekening transaksional, meminjamkan, buku besar dan tugas [37] perusahaan Organisasi independen dari negara juga. ada di dunia Islam abad pertengahan, sementara lembaga lembaga itu juga memperkenalkan [38] [39] Banyak dari konsep-konsep ini diadopsi dan awal. lebih lanjut maju di Eropa abad pertengahan dari abad ke-13 dan seterusnya. [35]

Sebuah ekonomi pasar didirikan di dunia Islam atas dasar sistem ekonomi kapitalisme yang menyerupai pedagang. Pembentukan modal dipromosikan oleh tenaga kerja dalam masyarakat Islam abad pertengahan, dan modal keuangan dikembangkan oleh sejumlah besar pemilik dana moneter dan logam mulia. Riba (riba) adalah dilarang oleh Al Qur'an, tetapi hal ini tidak

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menghambat perkembangan modal dengan cara apapun. Kaum kapitalis (sahib al-mal) sedang berada di puncak kekuasaan mereka antara abad ke-9-12, namun pengaruh mereka menurun setelah kedatangan IKTA (pemilik tanah) dan setelah produksi dimonopoli oleh negara, baik yang terhambat pembangunan kapitalisme industri di dunia Islam. [40] Beberapa perusahaan negara masih memiliki cara produksi kapitalis, seperti menyelam mutiara di Irak dan industri tekstil di Mesir. [41]

Selama abad ke-11-13, "Karimis", suatu perusahaan awal dan kelompok usaha dikendalikan oleh pengusaha, mendominasi sebagian besar perekonomian dunia Islam [42] Kelompok ini dikendalikan oleh pedagang muslim sekitar lima puluh berlabel. Sebagai "Karimis" yang adalah dari Yaman, Mesir dan kadang-kadang asal India [43] Setiap pedagang Karimi memiliki kekayaan yang cukup besar, mulai dari setidaknya 100.000 dinar untuk sebanyak 10 juta dinar.. Kelompok ini memiliki pengaruh yang cukup besar di sebagian pasar timur penting dan kadang-kadang dalam politik melalui kegiatan pembiayaan dan melalui berbagai pelanggan, termasuk emir, konsumen sultan, wazir, pedagang asing, dan umum. The Karimis banyak didominasi rute perdagangan menyeberangi Laut Mediterania, Laut Merah, dan Samudera Hindia, dan sejauh Francia di utara, Cina di timur, dan sub-Sahara Afrika di selatan, di mana mereka memperoleh emas dari tambang emas . Praktek dipekerjakan oleh Karimis termasuk penggunaan agen, pembiayaan proyek sebagai metode memperoleh modal, dan lembaga perbankan untuk pinjaman dan deposito.[Sunting] sosialisme IslamArtikel utama: sosialisme dan Islam Baitul al-mal

Meskipun ekonomi Islam abad pertengahan tampaknya telah agak menyerupai bentuk kapitalisme, beberapa berpendapat bahwa meletakkan dasar bagi perkembangan kapitalisme modern, [44] [45] beberapa orientalis juga percaya bahwa terdapat sejumlah persamaan antara ekonomi Islam dan komunisme , termasuk ide-ide Islam zakat dan riba [rujukan?]. lain melihat ekonomi Islam sebagai tidak benar-benar kapitalistik atau sosialistik sepenuhnya, melainkan keseimbangan antara keduanya, keduanya menekankan "kebebasan ekonomi individu dan kebutuhan untuk melayani kepentingan umum." [46]

Abu Dzar Al-Ghifari, Sahabat Nabi Muhammad, dikreditkan oleh banyak orang sebagai pendiri sosialisme Islam. [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] Dia protes terhadap akumulasi kekayaan oleh kelas yang berkuasa selama 'kekhalifahan Usman dan mendesak redistribusi yang adil kekayaan.

Konsep kesejahteraan dan pensiun diperkenalkan dalam hukum Islam awal sebagai bentuk Zakat (amal), salah satu dari Lima Rukun Islam, pada masa khalifah Umar Rasyidin pada abad ke-7. Hal ini dipraktekkan terus berlanjut ke era kekhalifahan Abbasiyah, seperti yang terlihat di bawah pemerintahan Al-Ma'mun di abad ke-8, misalnya. Pajak-pajak (termasuk zakat dan Jizya) dikumpulkan dalam kas suatu pemerintahan Islam yang digunakan untuk menyediakan pendapatan bagi yang membutuhkan, termasuk miskin, tua, yatim piatu, janda, dan orang cacat. Menurut ahli hukum Islam Al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058-1111), pemerintah juga diharapkan untuk stockpile persediaan makanan di setiap wilayah dalam sebuah kasus bencana atau kelaparan terjadi. Khilafah merupakan hal yang dipandang negara kesejahteraan besar pertama di dunia. [15] [46][Sunting] Pembangunan industri

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insinyur Muslim di dunia Islam bertanggung jawab untuk berbagai penggunaan industri inovatif dari tenaga air, menggunakan industri awal listrik tenaga pasang surut, tenaga angin, dan bahan bakar fosil seperti minyak bumi. Berbagai pabrik industri yang digunakan di dunia Islam, termasuk pabrik fulling, gristmills, Huler, penggergajian, shipmills, pabrik cap, pabrik baja, pabrik gula, pabrik pasang surut, dan kincir angin. Pada abad ke-11, setiap provinsi di seluruh dunia Islam telah ini pabrik industri di operasi, dari al-Andalus dan Afrika Utara ke Timur Tengah dan Asia Tengah. [52] Muslim insinyur juga menemukan turbin air, roda gigi pertama bekerja di pabrik dan air -meningkatkan mesin, dan memelopori penggunaan bendungan sebagai sumber tenaga air, digunakan untuk memberikan daya tambahan untuk watermills dan mesin air penggalangan. [53] Uang muka tersebut memungkinkan untuk tugas-tugas banyak industri yang sebelumnya didorong oleh tenaga kerja manual dalam zaman kuno menjadi mekanis dan digerakkan oleh mesin, bukan di dunia Islam abad pertengahan. Pengalihan teknologi ini ke Eropa abad pertengahan kemudian meletakkan dasar bagi Revolusi Industri di Eropa abad ke-18. [52]

Banyak industri yang dihasilkan karena Revolusi Pertanian Muslim, termasuk industri yang paling awal untuk agribisnis, instrumen astronomi, keramik, bahan kimia, teknologi distilasi, jam, kaca, mekanis hydropowered dan angin mesin bertenaga, anyaman, mosaik, pulp dan kertas, wewangian, minyak bumi , obat-obatan, tali-pembuatan, pengiriman, galangan kapal, sutra, gula, tekstil, senjata, dan pertambangan mineral seperti belerang, timbal amonia, dan] besi. Kompleks pabrik pertama besar (tiraz) dibangun untuk banyak industri ini. Pengetahuan tentang industri-industri ini kemudian dikirim ke Eropa abad pertengahan, terutama pada terjemahan Latin dari abad ke-12, serta sebelum dan sesudah. Misalnya, pabrik kaca pertama di Eropa didirikan pada abad ke-11 oleh pengrajin Mesir di Yunani [54] Industri pertanian dan kerajinan juga mengalami tingkat pertumbuhan yang tinggi selama periode ini.. [17]

Dalam pemerintahan Islam seperti kekhalifahan Fatimiyah, pengumpulan pajak, bukannya terbuang di kuil atau pengadilan, telah diinvestasikan pengembangan industri, seperti investasi pemerintah Fatimiyah dalam industri tekstil. Selain tiraz pabrik-pabrik tekstil milik pemerintah, ada juga perusahaan milik swasta dikelola sebagian besar oleh tuan tanah yang mengumpulkan pajak dan investasi mereka dalam industri tekstil. [55][Sunting] angkatan kerja

Angkatan kerja di kekhalifahan yang bekerja dari berbagai latar belakang etnis dan agama yang beragam, sedangkan kedua pria dan wanita terlibat dalam pekerjaan yang beragam dan kegiatan ekonomi [56] Perempuan. Dipekerjakan dalam berbagai kegiatan komersial dan pekerjaan yang beragam [57] dalam sektor primer (sebagai petani misalnya), sektor sekunder (sebagai pekerja konstruksi, tanur pengering, pemintal, dll) dan sektor tersier (sebagai investor, dokter, perawat, presiden serikat, broker, pedagang, kreditur, ulama, dll). [58] muslim wanita juga diadakan monopoli atas cabang-cabang tertentu dari industri tekstil, bordir [57] industri terbesar dan paling khusus dan berorientasi pasar pada saat itu, dalam pekerjaan seperti berputar, sekarat, dan. Sebagai perbandingan, hak milik perempuan dan upah tenaga kerja relatif jarang terjadi di Eropa sampai Revolusi Industri di abad 18 dan 19 [59].

Pembagian kerja yang beragam dan telah berkembang selama berabad-abad. Selama abad ke-8-

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11, rata-rata ada 63 pekerjaan yang unik di sektor primer kegiatan ekonomi (ekstraktif), 697 pekerjaan yang unik di sektor sekunder (manufaktur), dan 736 pekerjaan yang unik di sektor tersier (jasa). Pada abad ke-12, jumlah pekerjaan yang unik di sektor primer dan sektor sekunder turun menjadi 35 dan 679, sedangkan jumlah pekerjaan yang unik di sektor tersier meningkat menjadi 1.175. Perubahan-perubahan dalam pembagian kerja mencerminkan peningkatan mekanisasi dan penggunaan mesin untuk menggantikan tenaga kerja manual dan standar hidup dan meningkatkan kualitas hidup sebagian besar warga di Khilafah. [60]

Sebuah transisi ekonomi yang terjadi selama periode ini, karena keragaman sektor jasa yang jauh lebih besar daripada masyarakat sebelumnya atau kontemporer lainnya, dan tingkat tinggi integrasi ekonomi antara angkatan kerja dan ekonomi. masyarakat Islam juga mengalami perubahan dalam sikap terhadap kerja manual. Dalam peradaban sebelumnya seperti Yunani kuno dan peradaban kontemporer seperti Eropa awal abad pertengahan, intelektual melihat tenaga kerja manual dalam cahaya negatif dan memandang rendah mereka dengan penghinaan. Hal ini mengakibatkan stagnasi teknologi karena mereka tidak melihat perlunya untuk mesin untuk menggantikan tenaga manual. Dalam dunia Islam, bagaimanapun, tenaga kerja manual terlihat dalam cahaya yang jauh lebih positif, sebagai intelektual seperti Ikhwan Kemurnian menyamakan mereka pada peserta dalam tindakan penciptaan, sedangkan Ibnu Khaldun menyinggung manfaat dari kerja manual untuk kemajuan masyarakat. [57]

Pada awal abad ke-10, gagasan dari tingkat akademis diperkenalkan dan dapat diberikan di sekolah Maktab, perguruan tinggi dan rumah sakit Bimaristan Madrasah. Di bidang medis pada khususnya, sertifikat Ijazah diberikan kepada mereka yang memenuhi syarat untuk berlatih dokter, untuk membedakan mereka dari wajar tanpa pengecualian dukun. [61][Sunting] Urbanisasi

Ada peningkatan yang signifikan dalam urbanisasi selama periode ini, karena berbagai kemajuan ilmiah di bidang-bidang seperti pertanian, kebersihan, sanitasi, astronomi, kedokteran dan rekayasa [rujukan?] Ini juga mengakibatkan meningkatnya populasi kelas menengah.. [62]

Sebagai urbanisasi meningkat, pertumbuhan Muslim kota 'sebagian besar tidak diatur, sehingga jalan-jalan kota yang sempit dan berliku, dan lingkungan dipisahkan dengan latar belakang etnis dan afiliasi keagamaan. Kualitas ini terbukti efisien untuk mengangkut barang dari dan ke pusat-pusat komersial utama [rujukan?] Sambil menjaga privasi kehidupan keluarga dihargai oleh Islam. Pinggiran kota terletak di luar kota bertembok, dari perumahan masyarakat kaya, untuk bekerja kelas semi-daerah kumuh. pembuangan sampah kota yang terletak jauh dari kota, seperti yang dijelaskan secara jelas kuburan yang sering rumah-rumah bagi para penjahat. Sebuah tempat doa ditemukan hanya dekat salah satu gerbang utama, untuk festival keagamaan dan eksekusi publik. Demikian pula, Pelatihan Militer alasan ditemukan dekat gerbang utama.

Sementara bervariasi dalam penampilan karena iklim dan tradisi lokal sebelumnya, kota-kota Islam yang hampir selalu didominasi oleh kelas menengah pedagang. loyalitas Beberapa orang 'terhadap lingkungan mereka sangat kuat, yang mencerminkan etnis dan agama, sedangkan rasa kewarganegaraan pada waktu itu biasa (tetapi tidak dalam setiap kasus). Keluarga besar menyediakan landasan bagi program-program sosial, transaksi bisnis, dan negosiasi dengan pihak berwenang. Bagian dari unit ekonomi dan sosial sering para penyewa pemiliknya kaya.

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kekuasaan Negara biasanya terfokus pada Imara Dar al, kantor gubernur di benteng. Benteng ini menjulang tinggi di atas kota yang dibangun pada ribuan tahun pemukiman manusia. Fungsi utama dari gubernur kota adalah untuk menyediakan untuk pertahanan dan untuk menjaga ketertiban hukum. Sistem ini akan bertanggung jawab untuk campuran otokrasi dan otonomi di dalam kota. Setiap lingkungan, dan banyak dari blok rumah petak besar, dipilih seorang wakil untuk berurusan dengan pemerintah kota. Lingkungan ini juga diharapkan untuk mengatur para pemuda mereka ke dalam milisi menyediakan perlindungan lingkungan mereka sendiri, dan sebagai bantuan kepada tentara profesional mempertahankan kota secara keseluruhan.

Kepala keluarga diberi posisi otoritas dalam rumah tangganya, walaupun sang kadi, atau hakim mampu bernegosiasi dan menyelesaikan perbedaan dalam masalah-masalah perbedaan pendapat dalam keluarga dan di antara mereka. Dua perwakilan senior dari otoritas kota adalah qadi dan muhtasib, yang memegang tanggung jawab banyak isu, termasuk kualitas air, pemeliharaan jalan kota, mengandung wabah penyakit, mengawasi pasar, dan segera pemakaman orang mati.

Aspek lain dari kehidupan perkotaan Islam wakaf, sebuah badan amal keagamaan secara langsung berhubungan dengan para pemimpin kadi dan agama. Melalui donasi, wakaf yang dimiliki banyak pemandian umum dan pabrik-pabrik, menggunakan pendapatan untuk mendanai pendidikan, dan untuk menyediakan irigasi kebun di luar kota. Setelah ekspansi, sistem ini diperkenalkan ke Eropa Timur oleh Turki Ottoman.

Sementara yayasan keagamaan dari semua agama adalah bebas pajak di dunia Muslim, warga sipil membayar pajak mereka kepada pihak berwenang kota, tentara kepada petugas atasan, dan pemilik tanah ke kas negara. Pajak juga dipungut pada seorang pria yang belum menikah sampai dia menikah. Alih-alih zakat, amal wajib yang dibutuhkan Muslim, non-Muslim diminta untuk membayar jizyah, pajak agama diskriminatif, dikenakan pada orang Kristen dan Yahudi. Selama penaklukan Muslim di abad ke 7 dan 8 menaklukkan penduduk diberi tiga pilihan baik masuk Islam, membayar jizyah, atau mati oleh pedang.

Hewan dibawa ke kota untuk pembantaian dibatasi untuk pelanggan di luar kota, seperti juga setiap industri lain dilihat sebagai najis. Yang baik lebih berharga sebuah, semakin dekat pasar adalah untuk pusat kota. Karena itu, penjual buku dan emas berkerumun di sekitar masjid utama di jantung kota.

Pada abad ke-10, Cordoba memiliki 700 masjid, 60.000 istana, dan 70 perpustakaan, yang terbesar yang 600.000 buku, sedangkan sebanyak 60.000 risalah, puisi, polemik dan kompilasi diterbitkan setiap tahun di al-Andalus [63]. The perpustakaan Kairo memiliki lebih dari 100.000 buku, sedangkan perpustakaan Tripoli dikatakan memiliki sebanyak tiga juta buku. Jumlah karya Arab penting dan asli pada ilmu pengetahuan yang telah bertahan jauh lebih besar daripada jumlah gabungan karya-karya Yunani dan Latin pada ilmu pengetahuan. [64][Sunting] Klasik pemikiran Islam ekonomi

Untuk tingkat tertentu, kaum Muslim awal berdasarkan analisis ekonomi mereka pada Al-Qur'an (seperti oposisi terhadap riba, riba makna atau bunga), dan dari sunnah, perkataan dan perbuatan Muhammad.

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[Sunting] Awal pemikir ekonomi Islam

Al-Ghazali (1058-1111) ekonomi diklasifikasikan sebagai salah satu ilmu berhubungan dengan agama, bersama dengan metafisika, etika, dan psikologi. Penulis telah dicatat, bagaimanapun, bahwa hubungan ini tidak menyebabkan awal pemikiran ekonomi Islam tetap statis [65] Persia filsuf Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274). Menyajikan definisi awal ekonomi (apa yang ia sebut hekmat-e -madani, ilmu tentang kehidupan kota) dalam wacana tiga-nya Etika:

    "Studi tentang hukum-hukum universal yang mengatur kepentingan publik (kesejahteraan?) Sejauh mereka diarahkan, melalui kerja sama, menuju yang optimal (sempurna)." [66]

Banyak sarjana menelusuri sejarah pemikiran ekonomi melalui dunia Muslim, yang berada dalam Golden Age dari abad ke-8 ke-13 dan filosofi yang melanjutkan karya pemikir Yunani dan Helenistik dan datang untuk mempengaruhi Aquinas ketika Eropa "ditemukan kembali" filsafat Yunani melalui terjemahan Bahasa Arab. [67] Sebuah tema umum di antara para ulama adalah memuji kegiatan ekonomi dan akumulasi bahkan diri tertarik kekayaan [68] Persia. pemimpin Syams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan ibn Ghaboos Wushmgir (Qabus) (meninggal 1012 ) menyarankan anaknya dalam kerja Qabus Nama:

    "Anakku, jangan acuh tak acuh dengan perolehan kekayaan. Yakinkan diri sendiri bahwa semua yang anda akan mendapatkan kualitas terbaik dan kemungkinan akan memberi Anda kesenangan."

Filsuf Persia Ibnu Miskawaih (b. 1030) mencatat:

    "Kreditor keinginan kesejahteraan debitur dalam rangka untuk mendapatkan uang kembali bukan karena cinta baginya. Debitur, di sisi lain, tidak mengambil minat besar pada kreditur." [69]

Pandangan ini bertentangan dengan ide Joseph Schumpeter disebut kesenjangan besar. Tesis kesenjangan besar datang dari tahun 1954 Sejarah Schumpeter Analisis Ekonomi yang membahas istirahat dalam pemikiran ekonomi selama periode lima ratus tahun antara kemunduran peradaban Yunani-Romawi dan karya Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). [70] Namun pada 1964, Yusuf Spengler's "Pemikiran Ekonomi Islam: Ibnu Khaldun" muncul dalam jurnal Studi Perbandingan dalam Masyarakat dan Sejarah dan mengambil langkah besar dalam membawa ulama Muslim awal perhatian kontemporer Barat [71].

Pengaruh awal pemikiran Yunani dan Helenistik di sebagian besar dunia Islam dimulai dengan khalifah Abbasiyah al-Ma'mun, yang mensponsori terjemahan teks-teks Yunani ke dalam bahasa Arab pada abad ke 9 oleh orang-orang Kristen Suriah di Baghdad. Tapi sudah pada saat itu banyak cendekiawan Muslim telah menulis tentang isu-isu ekonomi, dan awal pemimpin Muslim telah menunjukkan upaya canggih untuk menegakkan pembiayaan fiskal dan moneter, menggunakan pembiayaan defisit, pajak digunakan untuk mendorong produksi, penggunaan instrumen kredit perbankan, termasuk tabungan belum sempurna dan giro, dan hukum kontrak. [72]

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Di antara pemikir Muslim awal ekonomi adalah Abu Yusuf (731-798), seorang mahasiswa pendiri Sekolah Sunni Hanafi pemikiran Islam, Abu Hanifah. Abu Yusuf adalah ahli hukum utama untuk Khalifah Abbasiyah Harun Al-Rasyid, untuk siapa ia menulis Kitab Perpajakan (Kitab al-Kharaj). Buku ini diuraikan gagasan Abu Yusuf tentang perpajakan, keuangan publik, dan produksi pertanian. Dia dibahas pajak proporsional pada menghasilkan bukan pajak tetap pada properti sebagai unggul sebagai insentif untuk membawa lebih banyak lahan budidaya. Dia juga menganjurkan memaafkan kebijakan pajak yang mendukung produsen dan administrasi pajak terpusat untuk mengurangi korupsi. Abu Yusuf disukai penggunaan pendapatan pajak untuk infrastruktur sosial ekonomi, dan termasuk diskusi tentang berbagai jenis pajak, termasuk pajak penjualan, pajak mati, dan tarif impor. [73]

Awal diskusi tentang manfaat dari pembagian kerja termasuk dalam tulisan Qabus, al-Ghazali, al-Farabi (873-950), Ibnu Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037), Ibnu Miskawaih, Nasir al-Din al- Tusi (1201-1274), Ibnu Khaldun (1332-1406), dan Davani Asaad (b. 1444). Di antara mereka, termasuk diskusi pembagian kerja dalam rumah tangga, masyarakat, pabrik-pabrik, dan di antara bangsa-bangsa. Farabi mencatat bahwa setiap masyarakat tidak memiliki setidaknya beberapa sumber daya yang diperlukan, dan dengan demikian sebuah masyarakat yang optimal hanya dapat dicapai di mana perdagangan domestik, regional, dan internasional terjadi, dan bahwa perdagangan tersebut dapat bermanfaat bagi semua pihak yang terlibat. [74] Ghazali juga mencatat untuk memahami halus tentang teori moneter dan perumusan versi lain dari Hukum Gresham.

Kekuatan penawaran dan permintaan dipahami untuk beberapa hal oleh berbagai sarjana Muslim awal juga. Ibnu Taimiyah menggambarkan:

    "Jika keinginan untuk meningkatkan barang sementara ketersediaannya berkurang, harganya naik. Di sisi lain, jika ketersediaan meningkat baik dan keinginan untuk itu berkurang, harga turun." [75]

Ghazali menunjukkan versi awal sifat kaku harga permintaan untuk barang-barang tertentu, dan ia dan Ibnu Miskawaih mendiskusikan harga keseimbangan. [76] penting lainnya sarjana Muslim yang menulis tentang ekonomi meliputi al-Mawardi (1075-1158), Ibnu Taimiyah (1263-1328 ), dan al-Maqrizi.[Sunting] RibaArtikel utama: Riba

Pandangan umum dari riba (riba) di antara para ahli hukum klasik hukum Islam dan ekonomi selama zaman keemasan Islam adalah bahwa hanya riba dan karena itu melanggar hukum untuk menerapkan bunga uang exnatura sua-eksklusif emas dan perak mata uang-tapi bahwa itu tidak riba dan karena itu dapat diterima untuk menerapkan bunga untuk mata uang fiat-terbuat dari bahan-bahan lain seperti logam kertas atau base-ke batas [77].

Definisi riba dalam hukum Islam klasik adalah "nilai lebih tanpa pendamping." Ketika "mata uang dari logam tidak mulia pertama kali diperkenalkan di dunia Islam, ahli hukum tidak pernah berpikir bahwa membayar utang dalam jumlah yang lebih tinggi dari unit ini uang kertas adalah riba" karena mereka peduli dengan nilai riil uang bukan nilai numerik . Sebagai contoh, itu dapat

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diterima untuk pinjaman sebesar 1000 dinar emas yang harus dibayar kembali sebagai dinar 1050 massa total sama. Alasan di balik riba menurut ahli hukum Islam klasik adalah "untuk memastikan kesetaraan nilai nyata" dan bahwa "nilai numerik material." Dengan demikian tingkat bunga yang tidak melebihi tingkat inflasi tidak riba menurut ahli hukum Islam klasik. [78][Sunting] Ibn Khaldunhttp://translate.google.co.id/?sl=en&tl=id#