Dynamic Assessment

(Overview and Tools)                  

Dynamic Assessment Model for Academic and Language Contexts

• Overview: Dynamic Assessment (DA) is a fluid evaluation process that changes with

development and learning versus a static model that identifies knowledge previously learned.

• Purpose: DA an assist in describing a student’s ability to learn, retain, and transfer

learned information or concepts. DA can reflect the gap between the student’s actual development and the their developmental potential. This is referred to as the “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD).

§ The size of the “zone” can be determined by using a “test-teach-retest” format.

The number of prompts given in the teaching phase and the transfer effect helps determine the Zone of Proximal Development.

§ DA can assist clinicians/educational staff in determining when and how to

intervene. For example, children who show limited change during the assessment may require extensive assistance in order to facilitate changes in language or academic behavior. In contrast, children who show significant changes during the assessment, and who can maintain those changes, may not need specialized academic or language services.

• One type of a DA approach: Test – Teach – Retest

Within this paradigm, the examiner first identifies deficient or emerging skills that may or may not be related to a lack of experiences with that skill. The examiner then provides an intervention or lesson designed to modify the child’s level of functioning in the targeted areas. By teaching the principles of the task, the test situation changes from an evaluative interaction (typical of traditional test situations) to a teaching interaction where the examiner maximizes the child’s feelings of competence. The performance on the posttest (retest phase) serves as an indicator of the child’s modifiability following multiple teaching experiences. It should be noted that even though this approach is of non-standardized research from Pena reflects that both the specificity and sensivity are within accepable parameters. However, it should be noted that the fideltiy of implementation may impact the validity of the results, the reliabiliy is grounded by the included criteria rubric for both the learning strategies checklist and modofiability scale.

§ Clinicians/educational staff should also use qualitative data to describe changes in the pertaining to the student’s responses. This may include the types of scaffolding and supports required during the teaching activity.

§ A rating scales checklist can help staff identify differences that relate to limited educational opportunity (rather than disorder). The scales are also helpful to determine what it takes to effect change, such as the amount of effort/intensity, time, type of cue, and type of modification that may be needed for the student to complete the task. This scale can be developed using a Likert-type of rating scales (e.g., none of the time, some of the time, etc…) for a variety of variables. The data can also be noted anecdotally.

• Validity and Reliability: It should be noted that Dynamic Assessment is a non-standardized approach to identify how a student learns, retains, and transfers information. However, according to Pena’s research, the specificity rate (e.g, the classification of a traditional learner) was 95.3% (good – Plante & Vance, 1994) and the sensitivity rate (the classification of low langauge ability) was 77.8% (fair – Plante &Vance, 1994). In addition, the reliability was noted at .82 and higher. Pena also noted that gains were not due to the “practice effect” but due to the MLE treatment. However, it should be noted that fidelity of instruction can impact the validity and reliability of results.

• When an appropriate teaching experience is provided, children who are different, but typical language learners, are capable of demonstrating efficient response to intervention (i.e., ability to learn, retain, and transfer new information). On the other hand, students with language-learning disabilities may benefit from a targeted teaching session, but will demonstrate little quantitative change or need significant accommodations and modifications to complete the task. Students with language-learning disabilities have a difficult time learning, retaining, and transferring new information in an efficient manner.

• Conclusion: The measure of learning change, such as MLE score changes, ratings of modifiability, and qualitative changes, may be useful in differentiating language differences from disorder, identifying targeted learning strategies for a specific student, and assist in the decision-making process to address a student’s individualized needs.

This document is made up of excerpts from the following sources

Gutierrez-Clellen, V.F., & Pena, L (2001). Dynamic Assessment of Diverse Children: A tutorial.

Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32, 212-224. Lewis, J (1991). Innovative Approaches in Assessment. In R. Samuda, S. Konk, J. Cummins, J. Pascual-

Leone, & L. Lewis (Eds.), Assessment and Placement of Minority Students (pp. 123-142). Toronto, Ontario: C.J. Hogrefe and ISSP

Pena, E. (2000). Measurement of modifiability in children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 21 (2), 87-97.

Recommended Steps in a Dynamic Assessment (Test – Teach – Retest Format)

I. Pretest • Identify skill area deficits (this can be obtained from one or more of the following)

o Observation o ESL test data o Second Language Acquisition checklist results o Teacher report o Work samples o Standardized or criterion-based measures o Curriculum-based measures o Language sample

• Set up mechanism to establish baseline data

o Develop a criterion-based assessment tool o Use raw or standardized scores from language or academic instrument

II. Teaching Phase (i.e., Mediated Learning Experience) • Ideally a minimum of 3 – 5 sessions

o Can start after the pre-test o Minimum of 30-minute sessions o Sessions should be at least 1-2 days apart and not more than 1 week. o Session should be individual or in small group (note: when in small group,

comparison to other students may assist in data collection) • Pre-test items used during the teaching phase

o It’s OK to use some of the items o The teach phase should include targeted concepts not listed in pre-test

• The focus of the teaching phase is to teach a targeted concept (e.g., labeling, verb

tense, sound-symbol relationships, etc…) not to be content specific for the 3 sessions (e.g., only teach animal names).

• Be able to scaffold a concept to assist the student at their learning level and within their

“Zone of Proximal Development” o Move from an expressive task to a receptive task o Use visuals or manipulatives o Break task down into discrete hierarchical parts

Over • Lesson should include the main components of “mediation”

o Intentionality: Statement of goal and purpose of interaction) o Meaning: Why concept is important and how it relates to student) o Transcendence: Develop metacognitive skills – asking “what if questions”) o Panning/Competence: Children think about what they have learned and how they

will use that skill the next time they are asked to complete a similar task) o Transfer: Summarize a lesson and help children think about how they will

generalize the skill they have been learning to other situations) • Dynamic assessment focuses on the cognitive functions and processes (e.g., attention,

maintenance, impulse regulation, and strategy application). • Following each teaching session, the clinician/educator rates the child on the Learning

Strategies Checklist (LSC) and Modifiability Scale (MS). o On the LSC, the clinician notes the child’s responsivity and ability to apply

learned strategies o Note accommodations, modifications, and scaffold techniques used in order for

student to be successful o The MS is used to summarize the clinician’s judgment of overall student change

(i.e., examiner effort, student response, transfer). • Use the Dynamic Assessment Observational Checklist if needed for additional data • Dynamic assessment can be used to target a communication concept (i.e., content, form,

and use), a reading concept (i.e., phonemic awareness, word attack skills, comprehension skills, etc.), math skills (i.e., calculation & reasoning), and writing skills (i.e., orthographic, organization, etc.).

III. Post-Test • No more than 2 days from the final teaching session • Use same tool and items from pre-test to determine student growth Remember: Transfer of knowledge from pre to post-test provides only one dimension of information. The multidimensional utility of Dynamic Assessment is to identify “how a student learns information, how they retain information, and how they transfer information.”

Concepts of the Dynamic Assessment Teaching Session (i.e., Mediated Learning Experience)

During the teaching session, the clinician/educator carefully supports the child’s learning at a level that is somewhat above what they are able to do without support (ie. ZPD). Examiners do this by pointing out: • The learning goal • Explaining why that goal is important • Helping children develop and follow a plan for learning • Helping children think about possible relationships between the learning goal and everyday situations and

events. During a teaching session, the examiners observe the strategies children use to meet the demands of the learning goal. Examiners ask four main questions: • Are children able to form a more complete or more coherent answers with examiner support? • Do children pay attention to and include more elements of the targeted concept when the examiner uses

interactive teaching? • How hard does the examiner have to work in order for children to make positive changes? • Is learning quick and efficient of is it slow and labored?

The answers to these questions become the basis for determining whether initial low performance is likely due to a language-learning disorder, lack of experience, or a language difference.

5 Basic Components of the Teaching (i.e., Mediation) Phase Intentionality: Strategies are used to explain the goal of the activity to the student. It is important for the student to understand the goal(s) of each teaching session. Understanding the goal helps the student maintain focus on the target task and ignore irrelevant stimuli. The examiner should periodically remind the student of the goal or ask if the student remembers the goal.

Example: Today we are going to talk about different parts of a story. Meaning: Strategies are used to explain to the student why the task or goal is important. This helps the student attend to the important features of the task and understand task relevance.

Example: (When teaching sequencing and use of temporal prepositions within the context of a story): When we tell or write a story, it’s helpful to use words that describe the order of when things happened. This helps the listener or the reader to understand and remember what and when things happened. We use words like first, next, then, last, before, and after.

Transcendence: Teaching strategies are used to help a student develop metacognitive and metalingusitic skills related to a task. The examiner may engage the student with concepts pertaining to who, what, when, where, and why related questions. In addition, the examiner should introduce “what if” questions to facilitate thinking about alternative strategies and answers. Students may also discuss with the examiner the relative benefits of alternative scenarios or strategies. This type of teaching encourages independent, hypothetical thinking and learning.

Example: Lets talk about who was in the beginning of the story. When we talk about “who” is in the story, we call that person or animal a character in the story. Where did the story take place? We call the place where the story took place the setting.

Planning: The student verbalizes or uses strategies to engage or complete a targeted task. Example: We can use our fingers to remember the 5 “Ws”: Who, What, When, Where, Why Transfer: A summary of the session is discussed to help the student think about using their new skills in related settings or situations (i.e., story time, creative writing, answering teacher questions, etc…).

Example: Tell me the important parts of a story again. Tell me a word that we learned that describes when things happened in the story?

Over

Example Supports and Scaffolding Techniques the Examiner Can Use during the Teaching Session (or Mediated Learning Experience)

• Provide a model or example of the concept, idea, or linguistic structure the student needs to learn. • Shorten the directions given to the student. • Require the student to restate the directions. • Give the student extra time to organize their thoughts. • Give the student cues to assist in word retrieval. • Provide a more elaborate explanation of questions and instructions. • Use expansions of the student’s statements. • Encourage elaboration by asking questions. • Use simple terms when explaining concepts. • Respond positively to the student’s verbal attempts. • Teach the student some strategies for asking for assistance and/or clarification. • Give instructions and examples on using descriptive language. • Use questions to help the student make connections between old and new information. • Use semantic maps of stories and expository texts. • Pair pictures and objects with directions or explanations of concepts. • Simplify the questions posed to the student.

Dynamic Assessment Scoring Sheet Content Target:

Student Name: Teaching Session #: Examiner’s Name: Date:

Learning Strategy Checklist Scoring Criteria (Circle One) Comments Attention • Student exhibits an

orienting response and focus to task-relevant stimuli

1 2 3 4 5

Task Specific Performance • Student performs features

of the target task (e.g., answer questions, describing, sequencing, use comparative relationships, summarizing, etc.)

1 2 3 4 5

Planning • Student verbalizes or uses

systematic strategy to task 1 2 3 4 5

Self Regulation / Awareness • Student waits for

instructions, seeks help when needed, corrects self, or rewards self

1 2 3 4 5

Motivation • Student shows enthusiasm

for task & persists in the face of frustration

1 2 3 4 5

Interaction with Adults • Seeks help when needed &

changes responses according to adult cues

1 2 3 4 5

Total Learning Strategy Score__________ (Use score for Analysis on Reverse Side) Modifiability Scale (Note: overall performance after each teaching session) Examiner Effort Extreme (1) High – Moderate (2) Moderate-Slight (3) Slight-None (4) Student Responsivity None (1) Slight (2) Moderate (3) High (4) Transfer None (1) Low (2) Moderate (3) High (4) Total Modifiability Score___________ (Use Score for Analysis on Reverse Side) Note: See Attached Scoring Criteria Description for Assistance

Over

Differentiation Criteria

Learning Strategies Checklist: 6 Points Profound Learning Challenges 7-12 Points Severe Learning Challenges 13-18 Points Moderate Learning Challenges 19-24 Points Mild Learning Challenges 25-30 Points Typical Learning Characteristics (i.e., Efficiently Learns, Retains, & Transfers Information)

Modifiability Scale: 3 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Atypical & Severe 4-6 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Atypical & Moderate 7-9 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Atypical & Mild 10-12 Points Observed Learning Patterns - Typical

Note: To maximize the validity of the Dynamic Assessment results, the teaching lessons need to be within the student’s “zone of proximal development” (i.e., within their developmental range). If a targeted lesson is too easy or challenging, the results of the Dynamic Assessment can be compromised.

Adapted from: Gutierrez-Clellen, V., Brown, S., Conboy, B., and Robinson-Zanartu, C. (1998). Modifiability: A dynamic approach to

assessing immediate language change. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 19 (2), 31-43. Pena, E. (2000). Measurement of modifiability in children from culturally and linguistically diverse

backgrounds. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 21 (2), 87-97.

Additional Comments: (Also note changes between pre- and post-testing data)

Dyn

amic

Ass

essm

ent S

cori

ng C

rite

ria

L

earn

ing

Stra

tegi

es C

heck

list

Att

entio

n: T

he st

uden

t exh

ibits

an

orie

ntin

g re

spon

se a

nd fo

cus t

o ta

sk-r

elev

ant s

timul

i (i.e

., ig

norin

g irr

elev

ant s

timul

i), th

roug

hout

leng

th o

f tas

k.

Stud

ent w

ho is

dis

tract

ible

may

nee

d gr

eate

r rep

etiti

on o

f ins

truct

ion

and

may

requ

ire m

ore

med

iatio

n (i.

e. d

irect

inst

ruct

ion)

to le

arn.

5.

Orie

ntin

g re

spon

se a

nd o

n-ta

sk b

ehav

ior w

ithou

t pro

mpt

s. 4.

A

ttent

iona

l pro

mpt

s nee

ded

only

at t

he b

egin

ning

of m

edia

tion

sess

ion.

3.

Pr

ompt

ing

/ rep

etiti

on n

eede

d be

twee

n 10

– 3

0% o

f the

tim

e.

2.

Prom

ptin

g / r

epet

ition

nee

ded

mor

e th

an 4

0-70

% o

f the

tim

e 1.

H

igh

dist

ract

ibili

ty a

nd m

inim

al a

ttent

ion

75-1

00%

of t

he ti

me.

T

ask

Spec

ific

Perf

orm

ance

: Th

is a

ctiv

ity ta

rget

s the

spec

ific

teac

hing

and

stud

ent r

espo

nse

of a

targ

eted

lear

ning

task

. Thi

s may

incl

ude

basi

c re

cept

ive

and

expr

essi

ve ta

sks.

How

ever

, it c

an a

lso

incl

ude

teac

hing

mor

e ad

vanc

ed la

ngau

ge a

nd a

cade

mic

task

s tha

t req

uire

bot

h m

etac

ogni

tive

and

met

alin

gusi

tic sk

ills r

elat

ed to

a ta

sk.

The

exam

iner

/teac

her m

ay e

ngag

e th

e st

uden

t with

con

cept

s per

tain

ing

to w

ho, w

hat,

whe

n, w

here

, and

why

re

late

d qu

estio

ns.

In a

dditi

on, t

he e

xam

iner

cou

ld a

lso

intro

duce

“w

hat i

f” q

uest

ions

to fa

cilit

ate

thin

king

abo

ut a

ltern

ativ

e st

rate

gies

and

ans

wer

s.

Stud

ents

may

als

o di

scus

s with

the

exam

iner

the

rela

tive

bene

fits o

f alte

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ive

scen

ario

s or s

trate

gies

. Th

is ty

pe o

f tea

chin

g en

cour

ages

inde

pend

ent,

hypo

thet

ical

thin

king

and

lear

ning

.

Lev

el

Lea

rner

A

war

enes

s L

earn

er In

depe

ndan

ce

Perf

orm

ance

Des

crip

tors

Pe

rfor

man

c A

ccur

acy

5. E

xper

t •

Ref

lect

s on

the

task

pe

rfor

man

ce

• Sp

onta

neou

sly

uses

ta

rget

beh

avio

rs

• Pe

rfor

ms a

t a m

atur

e ag

e/gr

ade

leve

l •

Alw

ays a

ppro

pria

te

• A

lway

s con

sist

ent

• A

lway

s pre

cise

•

Alw

ays c

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• A

lway

s spo

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•

Alw

ays i

ndep

ende

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• H

as 0

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rror

s or m

inor

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viat

ions

(whi

ch a

re a

ge

appr

opria

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• C

lear

ly c

onve

ys m

eani

ng

4. C

ompe

tent

•

Is c

onsc

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of

the

task

pe

rfor

man

ce

• R

egul

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use

s tar

get

beha

vior

s •

Perf

orm

s at a

n es

tabl

ishe

d le

vel

• U

sual

ly a

ppro

pria

te

• U

sual

ly p

reci

se

• U

sual

ly c

ompl

ete

• U

sual

ly sp

onta

neou

s •

Usu

ally

inde

pend

ent

• H

as 2

-3 e

rror

s or s

ever

al

min

or d

evia

tions

(whi

ch

whi

ch a

re a

ge a

ppro

pria

te)

•

Erro

rs ra

rley

inte

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e w

ith

mea

ning

3. A

dvan

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B

igin

ner

• Is

an

activ

e le

arne

r •

Act

ivel

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rtici

apte

s in

the

targ

eted

task

• So

met

imes

use

s tar

get

beha

vior

s, or

use

s ta

rget

beh

avio

rs w

ith

supp

ort

• U

ses r

ules

and

pat

tern

s at a

n em

ergi

ng le

vel,

not f

irmly

es

tabl

ishe

d •

Som

etim

es a

ppro

pria

te

• So

met

imes

inco

nsis

tant

•

Som

etim

es im

prec

ise

• So

mes

times

inco

mpl

ete

• So

met

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nee

ds p

rom

pts

• So

met

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nee

ds su

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t

• H

as 2

-3 m

ajor

err

ors,

seve

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min

or d

evia

tions

(whi

ch a

re

not a

ge a

ppro

pria

te)

• Er

rors

hav

e so

me

effe

ct o

n m

eani

ng b

ut m

ain

idea

s are

co

nvey

ed.

2. B

egin

ner

• Is

not

self-

dire

cted

•

May

requ

ire

dela

yed

mod

els

• R

arel

y us

es ta

rget

be

havi

ors

• U

ses p

atte

rns a

nd ru

les r

ando

mly

, if

at a

t all

• U

sual

ly in

appr

iate

•

Usu

ally

inco

nsis

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•

Usu

ally

impr

ecis

e

• U

sual

ly in

com

plet

e •

Usu

ally

nee

ds p

rom

pts

• U

sual

ly n

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supp

ort

• H

as 4

-6 m

ajor

err

ors a

nd

man

y m

inor

dev

iatio

ns

(whi

ch a

re n

ot a

ge

appr

opria

te)

• Er

rors

pre

vent

the

cohe

rent

tra

nsm

issi

on o

f mea

ning

1.

Lim

ited

Lang

uage

and

/or

Aca

dem

ic S

kills

• R

equi

res

repe

ated

di

rect

m

odel

ing

• D

oes n

ot u

se ta

gete

d be

havi

or in

an

expr

essi

ve m

anne

r.

•

Prim

ary

mod

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co

mm

uniti

on m

ay b

e at

a

rece

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vel.

• R

arel

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es p

atte

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les

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rent

ly in

appr

iate

•

Rec

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tant

•

Rec

uren

tly im

prec

ise

•

Rec

urre

ntly

inco

mpl

ete

• R

ecur

ently

nee

ds p

rom

pts

• R

ecur

ently

nee

ds su

ppor

t

• H

as 7

or m

ore

maj

or a

nd

min

or e

rror

s (w

hich

are

not

ag

e ap

prop

riate

) •

Erro

rs p

reve

nt th

e tra

nsm

issi

on m

eani

ng o

r re

cept

ive

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

co

nten

t bei

ng ta

rgte

d Pl

anni

ng:

The

stud

ent v

erba

lizes

or u

ses a

syst

emat

ic st

rate

gy to

eng

age

or c

ompl

ete

targ

eted

task

.

5.

Use

or v

erba

lizat

ion

of sy

stem

atic

stra

tegy

to ta

sk w

ith m

inim

al d

iffic

ulty

or p

rom

ptin

g.

4.

Use

or v

erba

lizat

ion

of sy

stem

atic

stra

tegy

to ta

sk b

etw

een

50-9

0% o

f the

tim

e w

ith p

rom

ptin

g.

3.

Use

or v

erba

lizat

ion

of sy

stem

atic

stra

tegy

to ta

sk b

etw

een

25-5

0% o

f the

tim

e w

ith p

rom

ptin

g.

2.

Use

or v

erba

lizat

ion

of sy

stem

atic

stra

tegy

to ta

sk le

ss th

an 2

5% o

f the

tim

e w

ith p

rom

ptin

g.

1.

No

syst

emat

ic st

rate

gy u

sed

for t

he ta

sk.

Self-

Reg

ulat

ion:

The

stud

ent d

emon

stra

tes s

elf-

awar

enes

s and

self-

regu

latio

n sk

ills.

For

exa

mpl

e, th

e st

uden

t wai

ts fo

r ins

truct

ions

, ask

s for

ass

ista

nce

whe

n ta

sk b

ecom

es d

iffic

ult,

resp

onds

to in

stru

ctio

n w

ith m

inim

al p

rom

pts,

is a

war

e of

cor

rect

ness

of o

wn

resp

onse

s, an

d m

ay u

se se

lf-re

war

ding

be

havi

or.

5.

C

onsi

stan

t use

of s

elf-

corr

ectio

ns a

nd se

lf-re

war

ds fo

r acc

urat

e re

spon

se a

fter i

nitia

l fee

dbac

k.

Wai

ts fo

r ins

truct

ion

thro

ugho

ut se

ssio

n.

4.

Use

of s

elf-

corr

ectio

n an

d se

lf-re

war

d be

twee

n 50

-90%

of t

he ti

me.

Wai

ts fo

r ins

truct

ion

thro

ugho

ut

the

sess

ion.

3.

M

inim

al u

se o

f sel

f-co

rrec

tion

or se

lf-re

war

d. O

ccas

iona

l im

puls

ive

resp

onse

. 2.

Im

puls

ivity

and

fidg

ety

50%

of t

he ti

me

with

repe

ated

impu

lsiv

e re

spon

ses

1.

Impu

lsiv

ity a

nd fi

dget

y th

roug

hout

the

sess

ion

with

rand

om im

puls

ive

resp

onse

s. M

otiv

atio

n: T

he st

uden

t sho

ws e

nthu

sias

m fo

r the

task

and

per

sist

s in

the

face

of f

rust

ratio

n.

5.

Hig

h en

thus

iasm

abo

ut ta

sk a

s not

ed b

y ve

rbal

izat

ion,

bod

y la

ngua

ge, a

nd/o

r fac

ial e

xpre

ssio

ns.

4.

Will

ingn

ess t

o try

mos

t tas

ks th

roug

hout

the

sess

ion,

des

pite

diff

icul

ty.

3.

Occ

asio

nal a

ttem

pts t

o en

d th

e te

achi

ng a

ctiv

ity a

ctiv

ity.

2.

Freq

uent

atte

mpt

s to

end

the

teac

hing

act

ivity

. 1.

R

efus

al to

par

ticip

ate

in th

e te

achi

ng a

ctiv

ity.

Inte

ract

ion

with

Adu

lts: T

he st

uden

t see

ks h

elp

whe

n th

e ta

sk b

ecom

es d

iffic

ult.

The

stud

ent c

hang

es re

spon

ses a

ccor

ding

to a

dult

cues

and

feed

back

.

5.

Con

sist

ent u

se o

f ver

bal /

non

verb

al re

ques

ts fo

r hel

p w

hen

task

bec

omes

diff

icul

t. R

espo

nse

co

nsis

tent

ly c

hang

es b

ased

upo

n ad

ult i

nput

. 4.

U

se o

f req

uest

s for

hel

p m

ost o

f the

tim

e. O

ccas

iona

l rep

etiti

on o

f old

err

ors i

n sp

ite o

f adu

lt in

put (

betw

een

10-2

0% o

f the

tim

e).

3.

Inco

nsis

tent

cha

nge

in re

spon

ses d

espi

te a

dult

feed

back

(bet

wee

n 20

-50%

of t

he ti

me)

. 2.

Fr

eque

nt re

petit

ion

of o

ld e

rror

s des

pite

adu

lt fe

edba

ck (b

etw

een

50-8

0% o

f the

tim

e).

1.

Min

imal

cha

nge

in re

spon

se e

ven

afte

r adu

lt fe

edba

ck (b

etw

een

80-1

00%

of t

he ti

me)

.

Mod

ifiab

ility

Sca

le

Exa

min

er E

ffor

t: U

sing

the

data

from

the

lear

ning

stra

tegi

es c

heck

list,

iden

tify

the

amou

nt a

nd in

tens

ity o

r eff

ort r

equi

red

to in

duce

cha

nge

durin

g th

e te

achi

ng se

ssio

n.

1.

Sl

ight

– N

one

(0-2

5% o

f the

tim

e)

3.

Mod

erat

e –

Slig

ht (2

5-50

% o

f the

tim

e)

2.

Hig

h –

Mod

erat

e (5

0-75

% o

f the

tim

e)

1.

Extre

me

(> 7

5% o

f the

tim

e)

Stud

ent’

s Res

pons

e to

Tea

chin

g: U

sing

the

data

from

the

lear

ning

stra

tegi

es c

heck

list,

rate

the

stud

ent’s

ove

rall

resp

onsi

vene

ss to

the

exam

iner

’s

teac

hing

dur

ing

the

less

on.

4.

H

igh

(0-1

err

ors w

ith n

o or

min

al re

peat

ed su

ppor

ts)

5.

Mod

erat

e (2

-3 e

rror

s with

serv

al m

inor

dev

iatio

ns w

ith p

erio

dic

need

ed sc

affo

ldin

g)

2.

Slig

ht (4

-6 m

jor e

rror

s with

seve

ral m

inor

dev

iatio

ns w

ith re

peat

ed sc

affo

ldin

g an

d de

laye

d m

odel

ing)

1.

N

one

(7 o

r mor

e m

ajor

err

ors,

with

seve

ral m

inor

err

ors,

that

requ

ire re

peat

ed sc

affo

ldin

g an

d di

rect

mod

elin

g)

Abi

lity

to T

rans

fer:

Usi

ng th

e da

ta fr

om th

e le

arni

ng st

rate

gies

che

cklis

t, ra

te h

ow th

e st

uden

t app

lies t

he le

arne

d st

rate

gies

to a

new

task

.

4.

H

igh

(0-1

err

ors w

ith n

o or

min

al re

peat

ed su

ppor

ts)

2.

Mod

erat

e (2

-3 e

rror

s with

serv

al m

inor

dev

iatio

ns w

ith p

erio

dic

need

ed sc

affo

ldin

g)

2

Low

(4 -6

mjo

r err

ors w

ith se

vera

l min

or d

evia

tions

with

repe

ated

scaf

fold

ing

and

dela

yed

mod

elin

g)

1.

Non

e (7

or m

ore

maj

or e

rror

s, w

ith se

vera

l min

or e

rror

s, th

at re

quire

repe

ated

scaf

fold

ing

and

dire

ct m

odel

ing)

A

dapt

ed fr

om:

Gut

ierr

ez-C

lelle

n, V

., B

row

n, S

., C

onbo

y, B

., a

nd R

obin

son-

Zana

rtu, C

. (19

98).

Mod

ifiab

ility

: A d

ynam

ic a

ppro

ach

to

asse

ssin

g im

med

iate

lang

uage

cha

nge.

Jou

rnal

of C

hild

ren’

s Com

mun

icat

ion

Dev

elop

men

t, 19

(2),

31-4

3.

Pena

, E. (

2000

). M

easu

rem

ent o

f mod

ifiab

ility

in c

hild

ren

from

cul

tura

lly a

nd li

ngui

stic

ally

div

erse

ba

ckgr

ound

s. C

omm

unic

atio

n D

isor

ders

Qua

rter

ly, 2

1 (2

), 87

-97.

W

iig, E

. H.,

Lars

on, V

., an

d O

lson

, J. (

2004

). S-

Map

s: R

ubri

cs fo

r cur

ricu

lum

-bas

ed a

sses

smen

ts a

nd in

terv

entio

ns fo

r gra

des k

-12.

Wis

cons

in: T

hink

ing

Publ

icat

ions

.

Questions to Help Determine How a Student Processes or Learns Information

Use a Frame of Reference in Assessing Students

• Does the student attempt to paraphrase information when having difficulty understanding information? Yes / No

• Does the student use rehearsal of the information as a method of remembering

information? Yes / No • Is the student frequently unaware of errors in understanding (processing)

information? Yes / No • Does the student frequently ask questions when unsure? Yes / No

• Does the student try to understand information when he/she is having difficulty

processing it, or does he/she give up? Yes / No • Does the student ask for help when struggling? Yes / No

• Is the student confused by long, complex, and/or embedded information? Yes / No

• Does the student require frequent repetitions in order to understand the material?

Yes / No • Does the student have difficulty following multi-stage instructions? Yes / No

• Does the student need additional cues (visual, manipulative, auditory, etc.) to

understand the information? Yes / No • Does the student show irritability towards others when having difficulty? Yes / No

• Does the student show frustration when learning new information?

Yes / No

Possible Indicators of a Language-Learning Disability Culturally and linguistically diverse student with language-learning disabilities demonstrate problems in both their primary language and English. These problems may be observed in the following areas:

• Difficulty in learning language at a normal rate, even with special assistance in both languages

• Deficits in vocabulary • Short mean length of utterance • Communication difficulties at home • Communication difficulties when interacting with peers from a similar

background • Auditory processing problems (e.g., poor memory, poor comprehension) • Lack of organization, structure, and sequence in spoken and written language;

difficulty conveying thoughts • Slow academic achievement despite adequate academic English proficiency • Family history of special education/learning difficulties • Slower development of siblings (as per parent report) • Reliance on gestures rather than speech to communicate • Inordinate slowness in responding to questions • General disorganization and confusion • Difficulty paying attention • Need for frequent repetition and prompts during instruction • Need for a program of instruction that is more structured than that used with most

other students • Need for a program of instruction that is more structured than that used with most

other students • Difficulties impacting grammar and sentence structure • Difficulties in the use of precise vocabulary and overuse of words such as stuff,

things, you know, etc… • Inappropriate social use of language (e.g., interrupts frequently, digresses from

topic, is insensitive to the needs or communication goals of conversational partners, cannot stay on the topic of discussion, cannot take turns in conversation)

• Poor sequencing skills. Communication is disorganized, incoherent, and leaves listener confused

• Overall communication skills that are substantially poorer than those of peers * Excerpt taken from Rosberry-McKibbin, C (2002). Multicultural Students with Special

Language Needs (2nd Ed.). Oceanside, CA: Academic Communication Associates.

The Warning Signs of Learning Disabilities

Susan Bergert, December 2000 ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education

(References included with original publication)

(Below are excerpts from Ms. Bergert’s Article)

I. Warning Signs in Preschool Children: Although growth patterns vary among individuals, uneven development or significant delays in development can suggest characteristics of a specific learning disability. It is important to keep in mind that the behaviors listed below must persist over time to be considered warning signs. Any child may occasionally exhibit one or two of these behaviors during the course of normal development. Language • Slow development in speaking words or sentences • Pronunciation problems • Difficulty learning new words • Difficulty following simple directions • Difficulty understanding questions • Difficulty expressing wants and desires • Difficulty rhyming words • Lack of interest in story telling

Motor Skills • Clumsiness • Poor balance • Difficulty manipulating small objects • Awkwardness with running, jumping, or climbing • Trouble learning to tie shoes, button shirts, or perform other self-help activities • Avoidance of drawing or tracing

Cognition • Trouble memorizing the alphabet or days of the week • Poor memory for what should be routine (everyday) procedures • Difficulty with cause and effect, sequencing, and counting • Difficulty with basic concepts such as size, shape, color

Attention • High distractibility • Impulsive behavior • Unusual restlessness (hyperactivity) • Difficulty staying on task • Difficulty changing activities • Constant repetition of an idea, inability to move on to a new idea (perseveration)

Social Behavior • Trouble interacting with others, playing alone • Prone to sudden and extreme mood changes • Easily frustrated • Hard to manage, has temper tantrums

II. Warning Signs in Elementary School Children: It is during the elementary school years that learning problems frequently become apparent as disabilities interfere with increasingly demanding and complex learning tasks. Difficulties in learning academic subjects and emotional and/or social skills may become a problem. Warning signs for this age group may include any of those listed above for the preschool children in addition to the following. Language / Mathematics • Slow learning of the correspondence of sound to letter • Consistent errors in reading or spelling • Difficulty remembering basic sight words • Inability to retell a story in sequence • Trouble learning to tell time or count money • Confusion of math signs ( +, -, x, / , = ) • Transposition of number sequences • Trouble memorizing math facts • Trouble with place value • Difficulty remembering the steps of mathematic operations such as long division Motor Skills • Poor coordination, or awkwardness • Difficulty copying from the chalkboard • Difficulty aligning columns (math) • Poor handwriting

Attention / Organization • Difficulty concentrating or focusing on a task • Difficulty finishing work on time • Inability to follow multiple directions • Unusual sloppiness, carelessness • Poor concept of direction (left, right) • Rejection of new concepts, or changes in routine

Social Behavior • Difficulty understanding facial expressions or gestures • Difficulty understanding social situations • Tendency to misinterpret behavior of peers and/or adults • Apparent lack of “common sense”

III. Warning Signs in Secondary School Children: Some learning disabilities go undetected until secondary school. Physical changes occurring during adolescence and the increased demands of middle and senior high school may bring the disabilities to light. Previously satisfactory performance declines. Inappropriate social skills may lead to changes in peer relationships and discipline problems. Increased frustration and poor self-concepts can lead to depression and/or angry outbursts. Warning signs of learning disabilities in secondary students include the following, which again, should occur as a pattern of behaviors, to a significant degree, and over time. Language / Mathematics / Social Studies • Avoidance of reading and writing • Tendency to misread information • Difficulty summarizing • Poor reading comprehension • Difficulty understanding subject area textbooks • Trouble with open-ended questions • Continued poor spelling • Poor grasp of abstract concepts • Poor skills in writing essays • Difficulty learning a foreign language • Poor ability to apply math skills

Attention / Organization • Difficulty staying organized • Trouble with test formats such as multiple choice • Slow work pace in class and in testing situations • Poor note taking skills • Poor ability to proofread or double check work

Social Behavior • Difficulty accepting criticism • Difficulty seeking or giving feedback • Problems negotiating or advancing for oneself • Difficulty resisting peer pressure • Difficulty understanding another person’s perspectives