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CHAPTER.1
1.1. Introduction to Wavelet Transforms
1.1.1 Wavelet Transforms
Wavelets are functions generated from one single function (basis
function) called the prototype or mother wavelet by dilations (scaling) and
translations (shifts) in time (frequency) domain. If the mother wavelet is
denoted by , the other wavelets can be represented as
------------------------------------- (1)
Where a and b are two arbitrary real numbers [1] [3]. The variables a and b
represent the parameters for dilations and translations respectively in the
time axis. From Eq.1, it is obvious that the mother wavelet can be essentially
represented as
--------------------------------------------------------- (2)
For any arbitrary a ≠ 1 and b = 0, it is possible to derive that
------------------------------------------------- (3)
As shown in Eq.3, is nothing but a time-scaled (by a) and amplitude-
scaled (by ) version of the mother wavelet function ψ t in Eq. 2. The
parameter a causes contraction of in the time axis when a < 1 and
expression or stretching when a > 1. That’s why the parameter a is called
the dilation (scaling) parameter. For a < 0, the function results in time
reversal with dilation. Mathematically, substituting t in Eq. 3 by t-b to cause a
translation or shift in the time axis resulting in the wavelet function as
shown in Eq.1. The function is a shift of in right along the time
axis by an amount b when b > 0 whereas it is a shift in left along the time
axis by an amount b when b < 0. That’s why the variable b represents the
translation in time (shift in frequency) domain.
Figure 1.1 (a) A mother wavelet, (b) , and (c) .
Figure 1 shows an illustration of a mother wavelet and its dilations in
the time domain with the dilation parameter . For the mother wavelet
shown in Figure 1(a), a contraction of the signal in the time axis when
is shown in Figure 1(b) and expansion of the signal in the time axis when
is shown in Figure 1(c). Based on this definition of wavelets, the wavelet
transform (WT) of a function (signal) f (t) is mathematically represented by
[1]
----------------------------------------------------- (4)
1.1.2. Continuous wavelet transform
A continuous wavelet transform is used to divide a continuous-time
function into wavelets. Unlike Fourier transform, the continuous wavelet
transform possesses the ability to construct a time-frequency representation
of a signal that offers very good time and frequency localization.
The continuous wavelet transform is defined as [2]
----------------------------------------------- (5)
The transformed signal is a function of the dilation parameter ‘a’
and the translation parameter ‘b’. The mother wavelet is denoted by , the *
indicates that the complex conjugate is used in case of a complex wavelet.
The signal energy is normalized at every scale by dividing the wavelet
coefficients by (16). This ensures that the wavelets have the same
energy at every scale.
The inverse transform to reconstruct f(t) from W(a, b) is mathematically
represented by
------------------------------------------------ (6)
Where
And is the Fourier transform of the mother wavelet .
1.1.3. Discrete wavelet transform
One drawback of the CWT is that the representation of the signal is
often redundant, since a and b are continuous over R (the real number). The
original signal can be completely reconstructed by a sample version of W (a,
b). Typically, we sample W (a, b) in dyadic grid, i.e.[3]
And
m, n ∈Z , and Z is the set of positive integers.
--------------------------------------------- (7)
Where Is the dilated and translated version of the
mother wavelet
The transform shown in Eq. 7 is called the wavelet series, which is
analogous to the Fourier series because the input function f(t) is still a
continuous function whereas the transform coefficients are discrete. This is
often called the discrete time wavelet transform (DTWT). For digital signal or
image processing applications executed by a digital computer, the input
signal f(t) needs to be discrete in nature because of the digital sampling of
the original data, which is represented by a finite number bits. When the
input function f (t) as well as the wavelet parameters a and b are
represented in discrete form, the transformation is commonly referred to as
the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) of the signal f (t). The discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) became a very versatile signal processing tool after Mallat
[3] proposed the multiresolution representation of signals based on wavelet
decomposition. The method of multiresolution is to represent a function
(signal) with a collection of coefficients, each of which provides information
about the position as well as the frequency of the signal (function). The
advantage of DWT over Fourier transformation is that it performs
multiresolution analysis of signals with localization. As a result, the DWT
decomposes a digital signal into different subbands so that the lower
frequency subbands will have finer frequency resolution and coarser time
resolution compared to the higher frequency subbands. The DWT is being
increasingly used for image compression due to the fact that the DWT
supports features like progressive image transmission (by quality, by
resolution), ease of compressed image manipulation, region of interest
coding, etc. Because of these characteristics, the DWT is the basis of the new
JPEG2000 image compression standard.
1.1.4. Multiresolution Analysis
Two-dimensional extension of DWT is essential for transformation of
two-dimensional signals, such as a digital image [4]. A two-dimensional
digital signal can be represented by a two-dimensional array X[M, N] with M
rows and N columns, where M and N are nonnegative integers. The simple
approach for two-dimensional implementation of the DWT is to perform the
one-dimensional DWT row-wise to produce an intermediate result and then
perform the same one-dimensional DWT column-wise on this intermediate
result to produce the final result. This is shown in Figure 6(a). This is possible
because the two-dimensional scaling functions can be expressed as
separable functions which is the product of two-dimensional scaling function
such as . The same is true for the wavelet function
as well. Applying the one-dimensional transform in each row, two subbands
are produced in each row. When the low-frequency subbands of all the rows
(L) are put together, it looks like a thin version (of size ) of the input
signal as shown in Figure 6(a). Similarly put together the high-frequency
subbands of all the rows to produce the H subband of size , which
contains mainly the high-frequency information around discontinuities
(edges in an image) in the input signal. Then applying a one-dimensional
DWT column-wise on these L and H subbands (intermediate result), four
subbands LL, LH, HL, and HH of size are generated as shown in Figure
2(a). LL is a coarser version of the original input signal. LH, HL, and HH are
the high frequency subband containing the detail information. It is also
possible to apply one-dimensional DWT column-wise first and then row-wise
to achieve the same result.
The multiresolution decomposition approach in the two-dimensional signal is
demonstrated in Figures 2(b) and (c). After the first level of decomposition, it
generates four subbands LL1, HL1, LH1, and HH1 as shown in Figure 2(a).
Considering the input signal is an image, the LL1 subband can be considered
as a 2:1 sub sampled (both horizontally and vertically) version of image. The
other three subbands HL1, LH1, and HH1 contain higher frequency detail
information. These spatially oriented (horizontal, vertical or diagonal)
subbands mostly contain information of local discontinuities in the image and
the bulk of the energy in each of these three subbands is concentrated in the
vicinity of areas corresponding to edge activities in the original image. Since
LL1 is a coarser approximation of the input, it has similar spatial and
statistical characteristics to the original image. As a result, it can be further
decomposed into four subbands LL2, LH2, HL2 and HH2 as shown in Figure
2(b) based on the principle of multiresolution analysis. Accordingly the image
is decomposed into 10 subbands LL3, LH3, HL3, HH3, HL2, LH2, HH2, LH1,
HL1 and HH1 after three levels of pyramidal multiresolution subband
decomposition, as shown in Figure 2(c). The same computation can continue
to further decompose LL3 into higher levels [4].
Row wise DWT
Column wise DWT
Image L HLL1 HL1
LH1 HH1
(a)First level of decomposition
(b) Second level decomposition (c) Third level decomposition
Figure1.2.Row - Column computation of two-dimensional DWT
1.1.5. Multiresolution filter banks
The wavelet decomposition [5] results in levels of approximated and
detailed coefficients. The algorithm of wavelet signal decomposition is
illustrated in Fig 3. Reconstruction of the signal from the wavelet transform
and post processing, the algorithm is shown in Fig 4. This multi-resolution
analysis enables us to analyze the signal in different frequency bands;
therefore, we could observe any transient in time domain as well as in
frequency domain.
HL1
LH1 HH1
LL2 HL2
LH2 HH2 HL1
LH1 HH1
HL2
LH2 HH2
Figure1.3 .Two-level Multi-resolution wavelet decomposition filter
structure
Figure1.4. Multi-resolution wavelet reconstruction
The relation between the low-pass and high-pass filter and the scalar
function ψ (t) and the wavelet φ (t) can be states as following:
---------------------------------------------- (8)
---------------------------------------------- (9)
Where h = low-pass decomposition filter; g = high-pass decomposition filter.
The relation between the low-pass filter and high-pass filter is not
independent to each other, they are related by:
Where g(n) is the high-pass, h(n) is the low-pass filter, L is the filter length
(total number of points). Filters satisfying this condition are commonly used
Original Signal
Level 1Level 2
)(2 tAh
g
2
2)(2 tD
)(1 tAh
g
2
2)(1 tD
Original Signal
2
2
h’
g’
)(1 tA
)(1 tD
2
2
h’
g’
)(2 tA
)(2 tD
Level 2 Level 1
Reconstructed signal
in signal processing, and they are known as the Quadrature Mirror Filters
(QMF). The two filtering and down sampling operation can be expressed by:
----------------------------------------------- (10)
----------------------------------------------- (11)
The reconstruction in this case is very easy since the half band filters form
the orthonormal bases. The above procedure is followed in reverse order for
the reconstruction. The signals at every level are up sampled by two, passed
through the synthesis filters g’[n], and h’[n] (high pass and low pass,
respectively), and then added.
---------------------------------- (12)
1.1.6. Applications
There is a wide range of applications for Wavelet Transforms. They are
applied in different fields ranging from signal processing to biometrics, and
the list is still growing. One of the prominent applications is in the FBI
fingerprint compression standard. Wavelet Transforms are used to compress
the fingerprint pictures for storage in their data bank. The previously chosen
Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) did not perform well at high compression
ratios. It produced severe blocking effects which made it impossible to follow
the ridge lines in the fingerprints after reconstruction. This did not happen
with Wavelet Transform due to its property of retaining the details present in
the data.
In DWT, the most prominent information in the signal appears in high
amplitudes and the less prominent information appears in very low
amplitudes. Data compression can be achieved by discarding these low
amplitudes. The wavelet transforms enables high compression ratios with
good quality of reconstruction. At present, the application of wavelets for
image compression is one the hottest areas of research. Recently, the
Wavelet Transforms have been chosen for the JPEG 2000 compression
standard.
Wavelets also find application in speech compression, which reduces
transmission time in mobile applications. They are used in denoising, edge
detection, feature extraction, speech recognition, echo cancellation and
others. They are very promising for real time audio and video compression
applications. Wavelets also have numerous applications in digital
communications. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is one
of them. Wavelets are used in biomedical imaging. For example, the ECG
signals, measured from the heart, are analyzed using wavelets or
compressed for storage. The popularity of Wavelet Transform is growing
because of its ability to reduce distortion in the reconstructed signal while
retaining all the significant features present in the signal.
1.2. Introduction to Compression
After DWT was introduced, several codec algorithms were proposed to
compress the transform coefficients as much as possible. Among them,
Embedded Zerotree Wavelet (EZW) [7], Set Partitioning In Hierarchical Trees
(SPIHT) [8] and Embedded Bock Coding with Optimized Truncation (EBCOT)
[2] are the most famous ones.
1.2.1. Embedded zero tree wavelet algorithm
The embedded zero tree wavelet algorithm (EZW) is a simple, yet
remarkably effective, image compression algorithm, having the property that
the bits in the bit stream are generated in order of importance, yielding a
fully embedded code. The embedded code represents a sequence of binary
decisions that distinguish an image from the “null” image. Using an
embedded coding algorithm, an encoder can terminate the encoding at any
point thereby allowing a target rate or target distortion metric to be met
exactly. Also, given a bit stream, the decoder can cease decoding at any
point in the bit stream and still produce exactly the same image that would
have been encoded at the bit rate corresponding to the truncated bit stream.
In addition to producing a fully embedded bit stream, EZW consistently
produces compression results that are competitive with virtually all known
compression algorithms on standard test images. Yet this performance is
achieved with a technique that requires absolutely no training, no pre-stored
tables or codebooks, and requires no prior knowledge of the image source.
The EZW algorithm is based on four key concepts: 1) a discrete wavelet
transform or hierarchical subband decomposition, 2) prediction of the
absence of significant information across scales by exploiting the self-
similarity inherent in images, 3) entropy-coded successive-approximation
quantization, and 4) universal lossless data compression which is achieved
via adaptive arithmetic coding.
1.2.2. Set Partitioning In Hierarchical Trees Algorithm (SPIHT)
SPIHT is a new coding technique, developed by Said and Pearlman,
which order the transform coefficients using a set partitioning algorithm
based on the sub-band pyramid. By sending the most important information
first of the ordered coefficients, the information required to reconstruct the
image is extremely compact.
SPIHT is also one of the fastest codecs available and provide user selectable
file size or image quality and progressive image resolution and transmission.
SPIHT is based on three concepts: 1) Partial ordering of the image
coefficients by magnitude and transmission of order by a subset partitioning
algorithm that is duplicated at the decoder. 2) Ordered bit plane
transmission of refinement bits, and 3) Exploitation of the self-similarities of
the image wavelet transform across different scales. Let W is an array of
wavelet coefficients that is achieved after wavelet transform. A wavelet
coefficient is said to be significant for bit depth m, if , otherwise it is
said to be insignificant.
Moreover, a wavelet tree is said to be significant for bit depth m if some of
its coefficients have absolute value larger than . The SPIHT repeatedly
employs a set partitioning algorithm for identifying and refining significant
wavelet coefficients until the rate budget is exhausted and after each set
partitioning operation m decreases by one. For each m, the set partitioning
operation consists of two passes: the sorting pass where the significance of
each wavelet coefficient is determined respect to m, and the refining pass
where the refinement of significant coefficients is performed.
To effectively realize these two passes, three lists of information, termed: list
of significant pixels (LSP), list of insignificant pixels (LIP) and list of
insignificant sets (LIS) are maintained at any point of coding. The lists LSP
and LIP contain the locations of significant and insignificant wavelet
coefficients, respectively. The list LIS contains the root node of the
insignificant wavelet tree.
1.3. Motivation
There is a wide range of applications for Wavelet Transforms. They are
applied in different fields ranging from signal processing to biometrics. One
of the prominent applications is in the FBI fingerprint compression standard.
Wavelets also find application in speech compression, which reduces
transmission time in mobile applications. They are used in denoising, edge
detection, feature extraction, speech recognition, echo cancellation and
others. They are very promising for real time audio and video compression
applications. Wavelets also have numerous applications in digital
communications.
There exist two main approaches to compute the m-D DWT: separable
approach and non-separable approach. The separable approach performs m-
D DWT by 1-D DWT dimension by dimension, which requires extra huge
memory to save the intermediate data that should be transposed for the
next dimensional DWT, and has long output latency and system latency (SL).
The non-separable approach does not require any transposition but requires
more multipliers and accumulators (MACs) than the separable approach. In
order to tradeoff the speed and area, some line based architectures for 2-D
DWT by exploiting parallel and pipeline have been proposed. However, those
architectures were all developed based on convolution hence they had
higher hardware complexity. The lifting scheme can reduce efficiently the
computational complexity of DWT. The lifting scheme is an efficient tool for
constructing second generation wavelets, and has advantages such as faster
implementation, fully in-place calculation, reversible integer-to-integer
transforms, and so on. It is a structure that allows design and
implementation of discrete wavelet transform.
1.4. Objective
The project consists of an efficient VLSI implementation of Piecewise Lifting
Scheme algorithm. A novel and efficient VLSI architecture is proposed and
implemented for the Piecewise Lifting Scheme DWT and Inverse Lifting
Scheme. The VLSI architecture has been authored in VHDL code for
Piecewise Lifting Scheme and its synthesis was done with Xilinx XST. Xilinx
ISE Foundation 9.1i has been used for performing mapping, placing and
routing. For behavioral simulation and place and route simulation
Modelsim6.0 has been used. The Synthesis tool was configured to optimize
for area and high effort considerations. The interest of the project work is an
attempt to obtain a real time signal processing VLSI architecture for
Lifting Scheme DWT. Piecewise Lifting Scheme used in numerous Image
processing applications like denoising, edge detection, feature extraction,
speech recognition, and echo cancellation etc.
Thesis Organization
The thesis is organized as follows:
In Chapter 1 Introduction to Wavelets, compression algorithms and its
applications and limitations are discussed.
Chapter2 Deals with the overview of the mathematical definitions and their
modules of Piecewise Lifting Scheme.
Chapter 3 Discusses the hardware implementation of Piecewise Lifting
Scheme DWT and Inverse Lifting Scheme DWT.
Chapter 4 Deals with the detailed explanation of FPGA.
Chapter 5 Simulation and synthesis results of Piecewise Lifting Scheme
DWT were presented.
Chapter 6 Provides summary and future work.
CHAPTER.2
PRAPOSED ALGORITHM
2.1. Lifting Scheme
The lifting scheme is an efficient tool for constructing second generation
wavelets, and has advantages such as faster implementation, fully in-place
calculation, reversible integer-to-integer transforms, and so on. It is a
structure that allows design and implementation of discrete wavelet
transform. The lifting scheme has a few advantages over the classical
implementation of the wavelet transforms: it offers faster implementation,
and it easily implements reversible integer-to-integer wavelet transforms.
Integer wavelet transforms when implemented via lifting scheme have better
computational efficiency and lower memory requirements. Constructed
entirely in spatial domain and based on the theory of biorthogonal wavelet
filter banks with perfect reconstruction, lifting scheme can easily build up a
gradually improved multi-resolution analysis through iterative primal lifting
and dual lifting. It turns out that lifting scheme outperforms the classical
especially in effective implementation, such as convenient construction, in-
place calculation, lower computational complexity and simple inverse
transform, etc. With lifting, we can also build wavelets with more vanishing
moments and/or more smoothness, contributing to its flexible adaptivity and
non-linearity.
The lifting scheme consists of the following three steps to decompose the
samples, namely, splitting, predicting, and updating [27], [28], [29].
(1) Split step: The input samples split into even samples and odd samples.
(2) Predict step (P): The even samples are multiplied by the predict factor
and then the results are added to the odd samples to generate the detailed
coefficients.
(3) Update step (U): The detailed coefficients computed by the predict step
are multiplied by the update factors and then the results are added to the
even samples to get the coarse coefficients.
Figure2.1. Forward Lifting Wavelet Transform
SPLIT: In this step, the data is divided into ODD and EVEN elements.
----------------------------------------- (1)
Where is the input sequence.
Represents even samples
Represents odd samples.
Represents the level of decomposition.
SPLIT PREDICT
UPDATE
EVEN SAMPLES
ODD SAMPLES
PREDICT: The PREDICT [27] step uses a function that approximates the data
set. The differences between the approximation and the actual data replace
the odd elements of the data set. The even elements are left unchanged and
become the input for the next step in the transform. The PREDICT step,
where the odd value is "predicted" from the even value is described by the
equation.
---------------------------------------- (2)
UPDATE:
The UPDATE [27], [28] step replaces the even elements with an average.
These results in a smoother input for the next step of the wavelet transform.
The odd elements also represent an approximation of the original data set,
which allows filters to be constructed. The UPDATE phase follows the
PREDICT phase. The original values of the odd elements have been
overwritten by the difference between the odd element and its even
"predictor". So in calculating an average the UPDATE phase must operate on
the differences that are stored in the odd elements:
-------------------------------- (3)
If there are data elements in an image, the first step of the forward
transform will produce averages and differences (between the
prediction and the actual odd element value). These differences are
sometimes referred to as wavelet coefficients.
The split phase that starts each forward transform step moves the odd
elements to the second half of the array, leaving the even elements in the
lower half. At the end of the transform step, the odd elements are replaced
by the differences and the even elements are replaced by the averages. The
even elements become the input for the next step, which again starts with
the split phase.
2.2. Inverse Lifting Scheme:
One of the elegant features of the lifting scheme is that the inverse
transform is a mirror of the forward transform. Inverse Lifting Scheme block
schematic is shown in figure2.2. In the case of the Haar transform, additions
are substituted for subtractions and subtractions for additions. The merge
step replaces the split step.
Figure2.2. Inverse lifting wavelet transforms
2.3. Piecewise Lifting scheme DWT
In conventional Lifting Scheme based DWT, complete image is divided into
two parts that is even and odd image pixels. One even and one odd image
UPDATE PREDICT
EVEN SAMPLES
ODD SAMPLES
MERGE
pixel leads to PREDICT and UPDATE step as discussed. Here, in modified
version of
Lifting Scheme based DWT, image is not divided into even and odd sections,
but the complete image is windowed. Windowing technique is applied
throughout the complete image so as to have equal number of pixels in each
window. Number of windows formed depends on the percentage
interpolation required to be calculated. For example, if an image of size 256
x 256 is to be interpolated with 10% of reduction of original image size, then
overall 26 x 26 pixels are to be reduced from original image. To achieve this
from the original image of 256x256, 26x26 rows and columns are to be
dropped such that resultant image formation is of size 230x230. To achieve
this, the image is divided into n number of windows each having size as
256/26=9.86 rounded off to 10. Then, Lifting scheme is applied on a window
of size 10 pixels. Thus, 26 windows are formed each containing 10 pixels for
an image size of 256x256 for 10% reduction in image size. To equalize the
last window containing 6 samples, complete image is padded by 2 rows of
zeros at the top and bottom and 2 columns of zeros at left and right side of
the image and then Lifting Scheme is applied on each window of 10 samples.
Thus PREDICT and UPDATE step application on each window throughout the
complete image yields reduction in size of an image. Thus, 10% reduction in
image size is computed. Magnification of image so as to increase image size
by 10% can be achieved using inverse Lifting Scheme. For this the difference
components obtained at every stage during forward Lifting Scheme
procedure are stored and are used here in inverse lifting scheme procedure.
Currently available average component and the stored difference
components undergo inverse lifting scheme procedure to yield magnification
of an image. The only difference remains in the application of PREDICT and
UPDATE steps. These steps are interchanged and magnification of an image
is obtained. Thus, piecewise application of Lifting Scheme based DWT
technique results in reduction and magnification of an image.
Figure2.3 shows piecewise application of Lifting scheme DWT. In this original
image of size 30x30 is taken into consideration which is divided into 3
windows each containing 10 samples. To each window individually modified
Lifting Scheme is applied so as to achieve required reduction. Similarly,
reverse procedure that is Inverse Lifting Scheme is applied to obtain
magnification of an image. For generalized Lifting scheme it was necessary
to divide data into two parts i.e. even values and odd values and process it
for Lifting Scheme. Here, in modified piecewise lifting scheme procedure,
image is divided into number of windows as shown in fig.5. If original image
is of size 30x30 pixels, then it is divided into 3 windows for 10% reduction in
size. To each window lifting scheme procedure is applied.
Original Image of size 30 X 30
Window1
Window2
Window3
Row wise application
lifting scheme
Row wise application
lifting scheme
Row wise application
lifting scheme
Column wise application
lifting scheme
Column wise application
lifting scheme
Column wise application
lifting scheme
Reduced Image
Figure2.3. Piecewise Application of Lifting Scheme DWT
CHAPTER-3
IMPLEMENTATION OF
PIECEWISE LIFTING SCHEME DWT
The architecture for the implementation of the Piecewise Lifting Scheme
DWT Algorithm consists of the two main components, windowing technique
and Lifting Scheme. In windowing technique complete image is divided into
different windows of equal size and then applying the Lifting Scheme for
each and every window to reduce the image size. Reconstruction is also
possible by applying Inverse Lifting Scheme.
3.1. Piecewise Lifting Scheme
In the hardware implementation entire design has been divided in to
various modules given below.
1. Windowing.
2. Applying lifting scheme.
Split
Predict
Update
3. Applying Inverse Lifting Scheme.
3.1.2. Flow chart for Piecewise Lifting Scheme DWT
Figure3.1.Flow chart for the piecewise lifting scheme DWT
3.1.3. Windowing
In conventional Lifting Scheme based DWT, complete image is divided into
two parts that is even and odd image pixels. One even and one odd image
pixel leads to PREDICT and UPDATE step as discussed. Here, in modified
version of
Start
Read the image from MATLAB
Compressed image
End
Apply window technique
Apply Row wise lifting scheme DWT
Apply column wise lifting scheme DWT
Apply inverse lifting scheme
Original image
Lifting Scheme based DWT, image is not divided into even and odd sections,
but the complete image is windowed. Windowing technique is applied
throughout the complete image so as to have equal number of pixels in each
window. Number of windows formed depends on the percentage
interpolation required to be calculated.
3.1.4. Lifting Scheme
The lifting scheme consists of three steps Split, Predict and Update.
(1) Split step: The input samples are split into even samples and
odd samples.
-------------------------------------- (3.1)
Figure3.2.Architecture for Split Module
(2) Predict step: The PREDICT [8] step uses a function that
approximates the data set. The differences between the approximation
and the actual data replace the odd elements of the data set. The even
elements are left unchanged and become the input for the next step in
Sequence
Counter Mux
………….
Controller Even
Odd
Reset
Clk
the transform. The PREDICT step, where the odd value is "predicted"
from the even value is described by the equation. The even samples
are subtracted from the odd samples.
--------------------------------- (3.2)
Figure3.3.Architecture for Prediction Module
(3) Update step: The UPDATE [2], [3] step replaces the even
elements with an average. These results in a smoother input for the
next step of the wavelet transform. The odd elements also represent
an approximation of the original data set, which allows filters to be
constructed. The UPDATE phase follows the PREDICT phase. The
original values of the odd elements have been overwritten by the
difference between the odd element and its even "predictor". So in
Input samples
Split
Even samples(s) Odd samples (d)
Subtractor
Predicted odd samples ()
)0(1s
)0(1d
calculating an average the UPDATE phase must operate on the
differences that are stored in the odd elements.
---------------------------------- (3.3)
Figure3.4.Architecture for Update Module
3.2. Inverse Piecewise Lifting Scheme
Magnification of image so as to increase image size can be achieved using
inverse Lifting Scheme. For this the difference components obtained at every
stage during forward Lifting Scheme procedure are stored and are used here
in inverse lifting scheme procedure. Currently available average component
)0(1s
)0(1d
)1(1d
2
)1(1d
Split
Odd samplesEven samples
Predicted samples
Right shift by one
Signed Adder
Updated samples ()
and the stored difference components undergo inverse lifting scheme
procedure to yield magnification of an image.
3.2.1. Inverse Lifting Scheme
One of the elegant features of the lifting scheme is that the inverse
transform is a mirror of the forward transform. Inverse Lifting Scheme block
schematic is shown in fig. In the case of the Haar transform, additions are
substituted for subtractions and subtractions for additions. The merge step
replaces the split step.
In the hardware implementation entire design has been divided in to
various modules like Update and Prediction.
(1) Update: In the Update step, where the even samples are
reconstructed from the predicted and Update functions of the forward
transform described by the equation
----------------------------------- (3.4)
Forward Transform
Updated samples samples
Predicted samples samples
Right shift by one
Subtractor
Even samples ()
)1(1d
)1(1s
Figure3.5.Architecture for Inverse Update Module
(2) Prediction: In Prediction step the odd values are reconstructed
from the predicted values of the forward transform and the
reconstructed even samples described by the equation
-------------------------------- (3.5)
Figure3.6.Architecture for Inverse Predict Module
After getting even and odd samples we merge both to reconstruct the
original sequence.
)1(1d
)1(1s
)0(1s
Forward Transform
Updated samples samples
Predicted samples samples
Even samples
Adder
Odd samples ()
CHAPTER-4
FPGA DESIGN FLOW
This is part of chapter deals with the implementation flow specifying
the significance of various properties, reports obtained and simulation
waveforms of architectures developed to implement.
4.1. FPGA Design flow
The various steps involved in the design flow are as follows:
1) Design entry.
2) Functional simulation.
3) Synthesizing and optimizing (translation) the design.
4) Placing and routing the design
5) Timing simulation of the design after post PAR.
6) Static timing analysis.
7) Configuring the device by bit generation.
4.1.1. Design entry
The first step in implementing the design is to create the HDL code
based on design criteria. To support these instantiations we need to include
UNISIM library and compile all design libraries before performing the
functional simulation. The constraints (timing and area constraints) can also
be included during the design entry. Xilinx accepts the constraints in the
form of user constraint (UCF) file.
4.1.2. Functional Simulation
This step deals with the verification of the functionality of the written
source code. ISE provides its own ISE simulator and also allows for the
integration with other tools such as Modelsim. This project uses Modelsim.
Therefore the functional verification by selecting the option during project
creation. Functional simulation determines if the logic in the design is correct
before implementing it in a device. Functional simulation can take place at
the earliest stages of the design flow. Because timing information for the
implemented design is not available at this stage, the simulator tests the
logic in the design using unit delays.
4.1.3. Synthesizing and Optimizing
In this stage behavioral information in the HDL file is translated into a
structural net list, and the design is optimized for a Xilinx device. To perform
synthesis this project uses Xilinx XST tool. From the original design, a net list
is created, then synthesized and translated into a native generic object
(NGO) file. This file is fed into the Xilinx software program called NGD Build,
which produces a logical native generic database (NGD) file.
4.1.4. Design implementation
In this stage, The MAP program maps a logical design to a Xilinx FPGA.
The input to MAP is an NGD file, which is generated using the NGD Build
program. The NGD file contains a logical description of the design that
includes both the hierarchical components used to develop the design and
the lower level Xilinx primitives. The NGD file also contains any number of
NMC (macro library) files, each of which contains the definition of a physical
macro. MAP first performs a logical DRC (Design Rule Check) on the design in
the NGD file. MAP then maps the design logic to the components (logic cells,
I/O cells, and other components) in the target Xilinx FPGA.
The output from MAP is an NCD (Native Circuit Description) file, and PCF
(Physical constraint file).
NCD (Native Circuit Description) file—a physical description of the
design in terms of the components in the target Xilinx device.
PCF (Physical Constraints File)—an ASCII text file that contains
constraints specified during design entry expressed in terms of
physical elements. The physical constraints in the PCF are expressed in
Xilinx’s constraint language.
After the creation of Native Circuit Description (NCD) file with the MAP
program, place and route that design file using PAR. PAR accepts a mapped
NCD file as input, places and routes the design, and outputs an NCD file to
be used by the bit stream generator (BitGen).
The PAR placer executes multiple phases of the placer. PAR writes
the NCD after all the placer phases are complete. During placement, PAR
places components into sites based on factors such as constraints specified
in the PCF file, the length of connections, and the available routing
resources.
After placing the design, PAR executes multiple phases of the router.
The router performs a converging procedure for a solution that routes the
design to completion and meets timing constraints. Once the design is fully
routed, PAR writes an NCD file, which can be analyzed against timing. PAR
writes a new NCD as the routing improves throughout the router phases.
4.1.5. Timing simulation after post PAR
Timing simulation at this stage verifies that the design runs at the
desired speed for the device under worst-case conditions. This process is
performed after the design is mapped, placed, and routed for FPGAs. At this
time, all design delays are known. Timing simulation is valuable because it
can verify timing relationships and determine the critical paths for the design
under worst-case conditions. It can also determine whether or not the design
contains set-up or hold violations. In most of the designs the same test
bench can be used to simulate at this stage.
4.1.6. Static timing analysis
Static timing analysis is best for quick timing checks of a design after it
is placed and routed. It also allows you to determine path delays in your
design. Following are the two major goals of static timing analysis:
Timing verification: This is verifying that the design meets your timing
constraints.
Reporting: This is enumerating input constraint violations and placing
them into an accessible file.
ISE provides Timing Reporter and Circuit Evaluator (TRACE) tool
to perform STA. The input files to the TRACE are .ncd file and .pcf from
PAR .and the output file is a .twr file.
4.1.7. Configuring the device by BitGen
After the design is completely routed, it is necessary to configure the
device so that it can execute the desired function. This is done using files
generated by BitGen, the Xilinx bit stream generation program. BitGen
takes a fully routed NCD (native circuit description) file as input and
produces a configuration bit stream—a binary file with a .bit extension. The
BIT file contains all of the configuration information from the NCD file that
defines the internal logic and interconnections of the FPGA, plus device-
specific information from other files associated with the target device. The
binary data in the BIT file is then downloaded into the FPGAs memory cells,
or it is used to create a PROM file.
4.2. Processes and properties
Processes and properties enable the interaction of our design with the
functionality available in the ISE™ suite of tools.
4.2.1. Processes
Processes are the functions listed hierarchically in the Processes
window. They perform functions from the start to the end of the design flow.
4.2.2. Properties
Process properties are accessible from the right-click menu for select
processes. They enable us to customize the parameters used by the process.
Process properties are set at synthesis and implementation phase.
4.3. Synthesize options
The following properties apply to the Synthesize properties .using the
Xilinx® Synthesis Technology (XST) synthesis tool.
Optimization Goal
Specifies the global optimization goal for area or speed.
Select an option from the drop-down list.
Speed: Optimizes the design for speed by reducing the levels of logic.
Area: Optimizes the design for area by reducing the total amount of
logic used for design implementation.
By default, this property is set to Speed.
4.3.1. Optimization Effort
Specifies the synthesis optimization effort level.
Select an option from the drop-down list.
Normal: Optimizes the design using minimization and algebraic
factoring algorithms.
High: Performs additional optimizations that are tuned to the selected
device architecture. “High” takes more CPU time than “Normal”
because multiple optimization algorithms are tried to get the best
result for the target architecture.
By default, this property is set to Normal.
This project aims at Timing performance and was selected HIGH effort
level.
4.3.2. Power Reduction
When set to Yes (checkbox is checked), XST optimizes the design to
consume as little power as possible.
By default, this property is set to No (checkbox is blank).
4.3.3. Use Synthesis Constraints File
Specifies whether or not to use the constraints file entered in the
previous property. By default, this constraints file is used (property checkbox
is checked).
4.3.4. Keep Hierarchy
Specifies whether or not the corresponding design unit should be
preserved and not merged with the rest of the design. You can specify Yes,
No and Soft. Soft is used when you wish to maintain the hierarchy through
synthesis, but you do not wish to pass the keep_ hierarchy attributes to place
and route.
By default, this property is set to No.
The change in option of this property from no to yes gave me almost
double the speed.
4.3.5. Global Optimization Goal
Specifies the global timing optimization goal
Select an option from the drop-down list.
AllClockNets: Optimizes the period of the entire design.
Inpad to Outpad: Optimizes the maximum delay from input pad to
output pad throughout an entire design.
Offset In Before: Optimizes the maximum delay from input pad to
clock, either for a specific clock or for an entire design.
Offset Out After: Optimizes the maximum delay from clock to output
pad, either for a specific clock or for an entire design.
Maximum Delay: Global optimization will be set to maximum delay
constraints for paths that start at an input and end at an output. This
option incorporates the goals of all the above options.
By default, this property is set to AllClockNets.
4.3.6. Generate RTL Schematic
Generates a pre-optimization RTL schematic of the design. Values for
this property are Yes, No, and only. Only stops the synthesis process before
optimization, after the RTL schematic has been generated.
The default value is yes.
4.3.7. Read Cores
Specifies whether or not black box core are read for timing and area
estimation in order to get better optimization of the rest of the design. When
set to True (checkbox is checked), XST parses any black boxes that have
been instantiated in your code to extract timing and resource usage
information. The black box net list is not modified or re-written. When set to
False (checkbox is blank), cores are not read.
By default, this property is set to True (checkbox is checked).
4.4. Write Timing Constraints (FPGA only)
Specifies whether or not to place timing constraints in the NGC file. The
timing constraints in the NGC file will be used during place and route, as well
as synthesis optimization.
By default, this property is set to False (checkbox is blank).
4.4.1. Slice Utilization Ratio
Specifies the area size (in %) that XST will not exceed during timing
optimization. If the area constraint cannot be satisfied, XST will make timing
optimization regardless of the area constraint. The default ratio is 100%. You
can disable automatic resource management by entering -1 here.
4.4.2. LUT-FF Pairs Utilization Ratio
Specifies the area size (in %) that XST will not exceed during timing
optimization. If the area constraint cannot be satisfied, XST will make timing
optimization regardless of the area constraint. The default ratio is 100%. You
can disable automatic resource management by entering -1 here.
4.4.3. BRAM Utilization Ratio
Specifies the number of BRAM blocks (in %) that XST will not exceed
during synthesis. The default percentage is 100%. You can disable automatic
BRAM resource management by entering -1 here.
4.5. Implementation options
4.5.1. Map Properties
4.5.2. Perform Timing-Driven Packing and Placement
Specifies whether or not to give priority to timing critical paths during
packing in the Map Process. User-generated timing constraints are used to
drive the packing and placement operations. The timing constraints are
generally specified in the User Constraints File (UCF) and are annotated onto
the design during the Translate process. At the completion of the process,
the result is a completely placed design, and the design is ready for routing.
If Timing-Driven Packing and Placement is selected in the absence of
user timing constraints, the tools will automatically generate and
dynamically adjust timing constraints for all internal clocks. This feature is
referred to as “Performance Evaluation” mode. This mode allows the clock
performance for all clocks in the design to be evaluated in one pass. The
performance achieved by this mode is not necessarily the best possible
performance each clock can achieve. Instead it is a “balance” of
performance between all clocks in the design.
By default, this property is set to False (checkbox is blank).
This project aims at speed and this option is selected.
4.5.3. Map Effort Level
Note: Available only when Perform Timing-Driven Packing and
Placement is set to True (checkbox is checked).
Specifies the effort level to apply to the Map process. The effort level
controls the amount of time used for packing and placement by selecting a
more or less CPU-intensive algorithm for placement.
Select an option from the drop-down list.
Standard
Gives the fastest run time with the lowest mapping effort. Appropriate
for a less complex design.
Medium
Gives a medium run time with good mapping results.
High
Gives the longest run time with the best mapping results. Appropriate
for a more complex design.
By default, this property is set to Medium.
As this project is a complex design the option high is selected.
4.5.4. Extra Effort
Map spends additional run time in an effort to meet difficult timing
constraints.
Note The Extra Effort property is available only when the Map Effort
Level is set to High.
Select an option from the drop-down list.
None
No extra effort level is applied.
Normal
Runs until timing constraints are met unless they are found to be
impossible to meet. This option focuses on meeting timing constraints.
Continue on Impossible
Continues working to improve timing until no more progress is made,
even if timing constraints are impossible. This option focuses on getting
close to meeting timing constraints.
By default, this property is set to none.
This project has a timing constraint of 100 ns; to meet this option
Normal is selected.
4.6. Combinatorial Logic Optimization
Specifies whether or not to run a process that revisits the
combinatorial logic within a design to see if any improvements can be made
that will improve the overall quality of results. Timing constraints and logic
packing information are considered when this process is run
By default, this property is set to False (checkbox is blank), and this
process is not run on the design.
This project aims to meet timing constraint and this option is selected.
4.7. Optimization Strategy (Cover Mode)
Specifies the criteria used during the "cover" phase of MAP. In the
"cover" phase, MAP assigns the logic to CLB function generators (LUTs).
Select an option from the drop-down list.
Area
Select Area to make reducing the number of LUTs (and therefore the
number of CLBs) the highest priority.
Speed
Select Speed to make reducing the number of levels of LUTS (the
number of LUTs a path passes through) the highest priority. This setting
makes it easiest to achieve your timing constraints after the design is placed
and routed. For most designs there is a small increase in the number of LUTs
(compared to the area setting), and in some cases the increase may be
large.
Balanced
Select Balanced to balance two priorities; reducing the number of LUTs
and reducing the number of levels of LUTs. The Balanced option produces
results similar to the Speed setting but avoids the possibility of a large
increase in the number of LUTs.
Select Off to disable optimization.
By default, this property is set to Area.
To meet timing constraints this project selected the option of speed.
4.8. PAR properties
4.8.1. Place and Route Effort Level (Overall)
Specifies the effort level you want to apply to the Place & Route
process. The effort level controls the placement and route times by selecting
a more or less CPU-intensive algorithm for placement and routing. You can
set the overall level from Standard (fastest run time) to High (best results).
By default, this property is set at Standard.
To meet the timing constraint HIGH is selected for this project.
4.9. Xilinx Core Generator
The Xilinx CORE Generator System provides you with a catalog of ready-
made functions ranging in complexity from simple arithmetic operators such
as adders, accumulators and multipliers, to system level building blocks
including filters, transforms and memories.
The CORE Generator System can customize a generic functional building
block such as a FIR filter or a multiplier to meet the needs of your application
and simultaneously deliver high levels of performance and area efficiency.
4.9.1. Block Memory Generator
Block Memory Generator core is an advanced memory constructor that
generates area and performance-optimized memories using embedded block
RAM resources in Xilinx FPGAs. Available through the CORE Generator
software, users can quickly create optimized memories to leverage the
performance and features of block RAMs in Xilinx FPGAs.
The Block Memory Generator core uses embedded Block Memory primitives
in Xilinx FPGAs to extend the functionality and capability of a single primitive
to memories of arbitrary widths and depths. Sophisticated algorithms within
the Block Memory Generator core produce optimized solutions to provide
convenient access to memories for a wide range of configurations.
The Block Memory Generator has two fully independent ports that access a
shared memory space. Both A and B ports have a write and a read interface.
In Virtex-6, Virtex-5 and Virtex-4 FPGA architectures, all four interfaces can
be uniquely configured, each with a different data width. When not using all
four interfaces, the user can select a simplified memory configuration (for
example, a Single-Port Memory or Simple Dual-Port Memory), allowing the
core to more efficiently use available resources.
4.9.2. Memory Types
The Block Memory Generator core uses embedded block RAM to generate
five types of memories:
• Single-port RAM
• Simple Dual-port RAM
• True Dual-port RAM
• Single-port ROM
• Dual-port ROM
For dual-port memories, each port operates independently. Operating mode,
clock frequency, optional output registers, and optional pins are selectable
per port. For Simple Dual-port RAM, the operating modes are not selectable;
they are fixed as READ_FIRST.
4.9.3. Configurable Width and Depth
The Block Memory Generator can generate memory structures from 1 to
1152 bits wide, and at least two locations deep. The maximum depth of the
memory is limited only by the number of block RAM primitives in the target
device.
4.9.4. Selectable Operating Mode per Port
The Block Memory Generator supports the following block RAM primitive
operating modes: WRITE FIRST, READ FIRST, and NO CHANGE. Each port may
be assigned an operating mode.
4.9.5. Selectable Port Aspect Ratios
The core supports the same port aspect ratios as the block RAM primitives:
• In all supported device families, the A port width may differ from the B port
width by a factor of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32.
• In Virtex-6, Virtex-5 and Virtex-4 FPGA-based memories, the read width
may differ from the write width by a factor of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32 for each
port. The maximum ratio between any two of the data widths (DINA, DOUTA,
DINB, and DOUTB) is 32:1.
4.9.8. Optional Byte-Write Enable
In Virtex-6, Virtex-5, Virtex-4, Spartan-6, and Spartan-3A/3A DSP FPGA-based
memories, the Block Memory Generator core provides byte-write support for
memory widths of 8-bit (no parity) or 9-bit multiples (with parity).
4.9.9. Optional Pipeline Stages
The core provides optional pipeline stages within the MUX, available only
when the registers at the output of the memory core are enabled and only
for specific configurations. For the available configurations, the number of
pipeline stages can be 1, 2, or 3.
4.9.10. Memory Initialization
The memory contents can be optionally initialized using a memory
coefficient (COE) file or by using the default data option. A COE file can
define the initial contents of each individual memory location, while the
default data option defines the initial content of all locations.
4.9.11. Simulation Models
The Block Memory Generator core provides behavioral and structural
simulation models in VHDL and Verilog for both simple and precise modeling
of memory behaviors, for example, debugging, probing the contents of the
memory, and collision detection.
4.9.12. Functional Description
The Block Memory Generator is used to build custom memory modules from
block RAM primitives in Xilinx FPGAs. The core implements an optimal
memory by arranging block RAM primitives based on user selections,
automating the process of primitive instantiation and concatenation. Using
the CORE Generator Graphical User Interface (GUI), users can configure the
core and rapidly generate a highly optimized custom memory solution.
CHAPTER-5
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
5.1. Simulation Results
The behavioral simulation and post rout simulations waveforms for the
Split function is shown in figure5.1 and figure5.2. In the figure5.1,the inputs
are clock,reset, enable and 143 bit sequence input.143-bit sequence is
given as the input, when the reset is high, all the signals are set to all zero’s.
The ena is high after the reset is set to low, this causes the 143-bit input
splited and then generate even and odd samples as output.
Figure5.1.Behavioral simulation waveform for the Split
function
Figure5.2.Post route simulation waveform for the Split
function
The behavioral simulation and post route simulation waveforms for the
prediction and update function is shown in figure5.3 and figure5.4. In the
figure5.2,the inputs are clock,reset, enable and 143 bit sequence input.143-
bit sequence is given as the input, if enable is high the total sequence splits
as even and odd samples. After splitting the sequence the prediction
operation performed and generated the detailed coefficients as output and
then update operation performed to generate coarse coefficients.
Figure5.3.Behavioral simulation waveform for the
prediction and update function
Figure5.4.Post Route Simulation waveform for the
prediction and update function
The behavioral simulation and post route simulation waveforms for the
inverse lifting scheme is shown in figure5.3.in the figure the inputs are
detailed and coarse samples of forward transform.when ever the enable
signal is high the update and prediction functions are performed to generate
the original sequence.
Figure5.5. Behavioral simulation waveform for the
inverse lifting scheme
Figure5.6. Post Route simulation waveform for the
inverse lifting scheme
5.2. Design Summary Piecewise Lifting Scheme
The design implementation summary of Forward Lifting Scheme shown
in Table 5.1 and Inverse Lifting Scheme shown in Table 5.2.
Table1: Design Implementation summary for Forward Lifting
Scheme
Logic Utilization Used Available
Utilization
Number of Slices 105 14752 0%
Number of Slice Flip Flops 31 29,504 0%
Number of 4 Input LUT’s 208 29,504 0%
Number of IOs 165 -- --
Number used as Flip Flops 5 -- --
Number used as Latches 26 -- --Logic DistributionNumber of occupied Slices 105 14,752 1%
Number of Slices containing only related logic
105 105 100%
Number of Slices containing unrelated logic 0 105 0%
Total Number of 4 input LUTs 206 29,504 1%
Number used as logic 165 376 43%
IOB Latches 9 -- --
Number of GCLKs 2 24 8%
Total equivalent gate count for design 2,018
Additional JTAG gate count for IOBs 7,920
Peak Memory Usage 190 MB
Timing Summary:
Minimum period: 2.346ns (Maximum Frequency: 426.212MHz)
Minimum input arrival time before clock: 3.141ns
Maximum output required time after clock: 8.386ns
Maximum combinational path delay: No path found
Table2: Design Implementation summary for Inverse Lifting Scheme
Logic Utilization Used Available
Utilization
Number of Slices 68 14752 0%
Number of Slice Flip Flops 9 29,504 0%
Number of 4 Input LUT’s 132 29,504 1%
Number of IOs 36 -- --
Number used as logic 131 -- --
Logic DistributionNumber of occupied Slices 66 14,752 1%
Number of Slices containing only related logic
66 66 100%
Number of Slices containing unrelated logic
0 66 0%
Total Number of 4 input LUTs 132 29,504 1%
Number used as logic 131 -- --%
IOB Latches 9 -- --
Number of GCLKs 1 24 4%
Total equivalent gate count for design 1,284
Additional JTAG gate count for IOBs 1,728
Peak Memory usage 188MB
Timing summary
Minimum period: No path found
Minimum input arrival time before clock: 6.895ns
Maximum output required time after clock: 8.188ns
Maximum combinational path delay: 8.852ns
5.3 RTL Schematic
In integrated circuit design, register transfer level (RTL) description is a way
of describing the operation of a synchronous digital circuit. In RTL design, a
circuit's behavior is defined in terms of the flow of signals (or transfer of
data) between hardware registers, and the logical operations performed on
those signals.
After the HDL synthesis phase of the synthesis process, use the RTL Viewer
to view a schematic representation of the pre-optimized design in terms of
generic symbols that are independent of the targeted Xilinx device, for
example, in terms of adders, multipliers, counters, AND gates, and OR gates.
The RTL schematic for the Forward Piecewise Lifting Scheme generated by
the Xilinx Synthesis tool is shown in figure5.7 below.
Figure5.7.RTL Schematic for Forward Lifting Scheme
The RTL schematic for the Forward Piecewise Lifting Scheme generated by
the Xilinx Synthesis tool is shown in figure5.8 below.
Figure5.8.RTL
Schematic for Inverse
Lifting Scheme
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