Durham E-Theses An edition and analysis of Kitab Qira'at ...
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Durham E-Theses
An edition and analysis of Kitab Qira'at Abi 'Amr by
Al-Nakzawi.
El-Magboul, Abbas Mustafa
How to cite:
El-Magboul, Abbas Mustafa (1991) An edition and analysis of Kitab Qira'at Abi 'Amr by Al-Nakzawi.,Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1187/
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AN EDITION AND ANALYSIS OF
KITAB QIRÄ'AT ABI `AMR
BY AL-NAKZAWI
(THE BOOK OF THE QUR'ÄN READING OF ABU `AMR IBN AL-`ALÄ' AL-BASRI
BY IMAM ABU MUHAMMAD 'ABDALLAH IBN MUHHAMMAD
AL-NAKZÄWI)
by
Abbas Mustafa El-Magboul
A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies
The University of Durham September 1991
Z1 ýý 1992
THESIS CONTAINS
TAPE CASSETTE
PLEASE CONTACT THE
I
UNIVERSITY IF YOU WISH TO SEE THIS MATERIAL.
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Abstract
Abbas Mustafa El-Magboul: AN EDITION AND ANALYSIS OF
KITAB QIRA'AT AB1 `AMR BY AL-NAKZAWI (THE BOOK OF ME QUR'ÄN READING OF ABU 'AMR IBN AL-'ALBA' AL-BASRI BY IMAM ABU MUHAMMAD
'ABDALLAH IBN MUHAMMAD AL-NAKZAWn. A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of,, Durham in September 1991.
The subject of this thesis is the preservation of a particular method of reading the Qur'än (girä'a or "Reading"), the Reading of Abd `Amr ibn
al-`A1ä' of Basra or girä'at Abi `Amr al-Basri, which dates from the first Muslim century. There are no published works in any language which deal comprehensively with this Reading. Considering that from at least
the eighth century of the Christian era through the nineteenth, this Reading was the dominant method of reading the Qur'an throughout the
central Muslim lands, this is a great lack, and the thesis aims to help
rectify this situation. The core of the thesis is a technical treatise about this particular girä a, written by the Imam Abü Muhammad `Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Nakzäwi in the seventh Muslim century. As the title indicates, the thesis provides a critical edition of the text of the treatise,
and a broad analysis of its transmission. The preservation, or transmission, of the Reading has three main aspects. First, its
preservation in physical book form, primarily this particular treatise. Second, the preservation of its sounds, i. e. a record of the main characteristics of the Reading. Third the method whereby, in Sudan at least, the Reading is passed down. These aspects are dealt with in turn in
the three sections of the thesis. An audio tape is attached as an appendix.
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Thanks and Appreciation
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I would like to offer my thanks and appreciation to eminent men whose assistance played a significant role in completing this study. In particular, I would like to give my special thanks to Professor Adrian Brockett, Chairman of the Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, Professor of Arab and Islamic Studies in Durham University, and the supervisor of this study; in whom I have found deep thoughts, variety of knowledge, skilfull methods of research coupled with humbleness, kindness and patience. He gave me a lot of his time and efforts. From his opinions, discussions and directions I drew great benefit.
Also, I offer my sincere and heartfelt thanks to my dear friend Dr. Ahmad Tutunji, who works alone yet achieves more than organisations with hundreds of workers. He has offered me much financial and spiritual support enabling me to continue my study.
My thanks go to my respected friend Shaykh A1-Tayyib Ibn al- Jadd Badr for the valuable information he supplied, and also to Dr. Muhammad Hasan a1-Turäbi who introduced me to Professor Brockett and helped me through difficulties. I also extend sincere thanks to Dr. `Ali `Abdullah, Dr. Zia` M. Islim, and to Durham University.
Finally, I thank the youth at `Umar House, Leeds, management, members and visitors, for their respect and appreciation, which helped me to settle comfortably and to carry out my duties and to finish. my study. To these men and to everyone who helped me I offer my warm thanks.
Table of Contents
Terms and conventions
Introduction
§1 Written transmission
. 1.1. The need for the study
1.2 The reasons for selecting the manuscript
1.3 The description of the manuscript
1.4. The contents of the manuscript
1.5. The transmission
1.6. The Meccan and Medinan suras
-- and the numbering of the verses
§2 Oral transmission
2.1. The distinguishing characteristics
of girä'at Abi `Amr
2.2 The audio tape (appendix)
§3 Institutional transmission
3.1. The khalwa
1.7. The edition of the manuscript'
Endnotes
Bibliography
page
1
2
5
8
12
13
16
33
37
47
1
158
229
TERMS AND CONVENTIONS
Glossary of main technical terms
al-idghäm al-kabir
al-idgham al-sagh r
al-imäla al-kubra
al-imäla al-sugra
farsh al-hurüf 'isnäd khalwa, p1. khaläwi gäri', p1. qurra' girä'a, p1. gira'at riwäya räwi, pl. ruwät tiläwa al-usül
major assimilation, eg. gärrajul for gäla rajul minor assimilation, eg. mirrabbikum formin rabbikum major inclination,
eg. al-nays foral-näs minor inclination,
eg. al-dunye foral-dunyd individual cases (as opposed to al-usül) chain of transmission -
residential Sudanese Qur'an school Reader/s Reading/s or reading/s' transmission transmitter transmission of the Qur'an sound general principles (as opposed to farsh)
Transliteration scheme
The scheme is that used by the Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd.
edition, with the following differences.
" alif-läm is always al- "j stands for j; m " th, kh, dh, sh, gh for thä', kh if, dhäl, shin and ghayn are
not underlined or overlined "q stands for qäf
Dates are A. H. unless specified A. D. If cited as 8th. /14th. = A. H. /A. D.
'A capital R signifies the whole method, a small r an individual word or phrase.
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INTRODUCTION
The subject of this thesis is the preservation of a particular method
of reading the Qur'in (gira'a or "Reading"), the Reading of Abü
`Amr ibn al-`A1ä' of Basra or gira'ät Abi 'Amr al-Basri, which dates
from the first Muslim century.
There are no published works in any language devoted to this
Reading. Considering that from at least the eighth century of the
Christian era through the nineteenth, this Reading was the dominant
ethod -of -reading -the-Qur'an-throughout the central Muslim lands,
this is a great lack, and the thesis aims to help rectify this situation.
The core of the thesis is a technical treatise about this particular
qir fa, written by the Imam Abü Muhammad `Abdallah ibn
Muhammad al-Nakzäwi in the seventh Muslim century
(henceforward called simply al-Nakzäwi). As the title indicates, the
thesis provides a critical edition of the text of the treatise, and a
broad analysis of its transmission. For convenience, the edition
comes last.
2
The preservation, or transmission, of the Reading has three main
aspects.
- First, its preservation in physical book form, primarily this
particular treatise.
- Second, the preservation of its sounds, i. e. a record of the
main characteristics of the Reading.
- Third the method whereby, in Sudan at least, the Reading is
passed down.
These aspects are dealt with in turn in the three sections of this
thesis:
§1 Written transmission
2-Oral transmission
§3 Institutional transmission
Under §1 come:
1.1. The need for the study
1.2 The reasons for selecting the manuscript
1.3 The description of the manuscript
1.4. The contents of the manuscript
1.5. The transmitters.
1.6. The Meccan and Medinan sums
3
and the numbering of the verses.
1.7. The edition of the manuscript (placed after §3)
Under §2 come:
2.1. The distinguishing characteristics of girä'at Abiý'Amr.
2.2 The audio tape (appendix)
Under §3 comes:
3.1. The khalwa.
4
§1. WRITTEN TRANSMISSION
§1.1. The need for this study
Since at least the second century A. H. it was a tradition that
compilers of Books of Readings included a large number of
Readings in their works. Some authors wrote books on the seven
Readings and some wrote on the ten, and others increased this by
including irregularities shawädhdh . This applies to the author of
Al-Sab' fir al-girä'ät, Abu Bakr Ibn Mujähid, to Abü `Amr a1-Däni,
to Al-Shätibi, to Makki ibn Abi Talib and likewise to our author
al-Nakzäwi. Ibn al-Jazari mentioned that he wrote a
comprehensive book on Readings. 1 Most scholars like these
produced comprehensive compilations of Readings. But in order
to make it easy for non-specialists some scholars of Readings
singled out some Readings and compiled independent books for
every Reader with an outline of the principles followed in his
Reading. Among those who wrote such independent books on
Readings is a1-Nakzäwi, who wrote one on the Reading of Abb
`Amr Ibn al-`A1ä' al-Basri.
There are three Readings current in the Muslim world, those of
I Ghaya, vol. 1 p. 452. 5
`Asim as transmitted through Hafs, of Näfi` as transmitted through
Warsh and Qilnn, and of Abi `Amr as transmitted through Abü
`Umar al-Din. The first two are widespread in the Muslim world2
and have been printed and recorded on audio tape, but very little
work has been done in the West on the Reading of Abü `Amr. 3
Apart from small areas in Mauritania, Somalia and Ethiopia, this
Reading is now confined to the Sudan, where I memorised the
Qur'än according to this Reading from childhood. There is
therefore a great need to fill this gap in knowledge, and I am well
placed to fill it. Furthermore, much of, the knowledge is
disappearing in the, Sudan itself, and should be recorded before it
is too late.
The Reading of Abü `Amr al-Bash is no longer known on the
level of thousands of people because their Qur'än is still written
by hand and the handwritten Qur'än is more costly and difficult to
obtain. As a result most Qur'an Readers of the Reading of Abü
`Amr through al-DBr now possess printed Qur'än copies of the
Reading of `Asim through Hafs. This has led to the conflation of
the two Readings. Furthermore, the knowledge of Readings is an
oral skill. It is a knowledge that depends on direct hearing from
Shaykhs, through words and voice of definite distinction that can
only be heard from special scholars who have trained their
2A special study of them is to be found in Brockest, Two transmissions, and "The value of the Hafs and Warsh transmissions". 3 Since Jeffery's brief mention (p. 6 n. 6), the only studies that have gone into any depth are Neuwirth and Brockett "Aspects".
6
tongues to be exact in this science. This science has been badly
neglected because most scholars avoid the science of Readings,
because it cannot contain language or sound mistakes. It is not an
exaggeration to say that 90% of graduates in Islamic 'Studies, not
to speak of the others, cannot properly read short chapters from
the Qur'an. The learned Shaykh Yiisuf Ibrähim al-Nür (one of the
first graduates of al-Ma'had al-`Ilmi in Omdurman) expressed his
sorrow over the negligence of this knowledge after it had been
famous in the Sudan as it used to be in the Hijaz 4 He pointed out
how conditions have deteriorated since the last century and
Qur'änic science in the Sudan has become a thing of the past, and
how there is no one now in the Arabian Peninsula who has a
thorough understanding of the Qur'än except for a few individuals
who met Al-Sharif Muhammad al-Amin, the last famous Qur'än
Reader in the Arabian Peninsula. Yiisuf Ibrähim al-Nür criticised
the al-Ma'had al-'IlmT in Omdurman which has neglected this
knowledge completely. It is not within its syllabus. Within its
three certificates, primary, secondary and University, there is no
mention of Qur'änic science; and no study circle to deal with this
knowledge such that with the death of scholars like Al-Shaykh al-
Nadhir Khälid, Al-Shaykh Muhammad al-Amin al-Darir it has
disintegrated, - and the Institute has not redressed this
shortcoming.
4 "Safha min tä'rikh al-Südän al-gadim".
7
Yüsuf Ibrahim al-Nür complained about the negligence of the
scholars towards Qur'änic sciences, but the complaint now is that
today's scholars have neglected and become ignorant even of the
Qur än text itself. So a student of the Reading of Abu `Amr must
be attentive firstly to restoring sound foundations for it. This can
be assisted by publishing an authentic book which lays down the
principles, and at the same time observes the different stages of
recitation that will earn the scholar his objective. Beginners r will
also clearly benefit. The student of Readings will find it easy to
view every reading independently instead of taking it from a
book that discusses various Readings.
There is clearly therefore a need for such a book, but why did our
choice -fäll ön-the -b6bk of the Reading of Abü `Amr by al-Nakzäwi
rather than another manuscript of this Reading?
§1.2. Reasons for choosing the manuscript.
I- The author is famed as a scholar with sound knowledge in
Qur'anic Sciences. He wrote other books that have been praised
by other prominent scholars.
8
2- The period in which the book was compiled was one in
which the Qur'änic Sciences increased in quantity and quality.
The author was a student of Abu Qäsim al-Shätibi, like Al-
Sakhäwi, Al-Kamäl al-Darir and Al-Safräwi.
3- The book is neatly structured and clearly written.
4- It contains all that the student may need regarding the
principles of Reading. It summarizes without a loss in meaning.
5- The book is of a moderate size which makes for a handy
reference for scholars.
6-I have consulted many other works on the Reading of Abu-
`Amr, by -going through indices of manuscripts or reading
microfilms on travels I_ have undertaken for this purpose. I read
through a manuscript in al-Zahiriyah Library in Damascus under
the heading Qira'ai, for instance. I found that it contained
discussions about the Readings generally rather than specifically
the Reading of Al-Basri. Another manuscript I consulted in Dar
al-Kutub al-Misriyya called Al-Qutr al-Misri was discovered to be
of far later compilation than Al-Nakzawi's book, as it was written
in the ninth century A. D. A third, anonymous, manuscript I
consulted was the Reading of , AH `Amr Ibn al-`Alä' al-Basri in a
9
photographed version from the Islamic University of Imam
Muhammad Ibn Sa`üd, in Riyadh, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A
fourth was a manuscript entitled `Alam al-Nusrah in Ribat, but the
author `Abd al-Rahmän ibn ab-1 al-Qäsim commented principally
on the language structure while neglecting other topics. A fifth
manuscript I studied was obtained from Italy, but it omitted the
transmission of al-Süsi, the second transmitter of the Reading of
Abi `Amr al-Bash A sixth manuscript I consulted was entitled
Jamal al-Qurrä' by al-Sakhäwi, and there were others. All these
manuscripts were found unsuitable either because of the quality
or because of the lack of knowledge of the author, or, because they
did not embrace the subject completely. They were however
beneficial as references.
7- There is an excellent copy of al-Nakzäwi's book in the
Library of Faydallah -attached to the Library of Millat in Istanbul
in Turkey under Number 213.
8 - It has the stamp of Al-Janäb al-`Ali, indicating the attention
of the Sultan.
9- The Arab World League paid attention to it in the
Introduction to the Institute of Reviving Manuscripts in
22/2/1949.1 met the Director of this Institute in Cairo; he told..
10
me that the Institute does not copy or sell a manuscript unless it
has educational value, and its correctness has been confirmed by
the expertise of the Institute.
10 - The book was used extensively by Dr. `Abd al-Sabür Shähin,
a famous teacher of Arabic and Islamic Studies at the College of
Dar al-'Ulum in Cairo University in his book The Effect of
Readings in Sounds and Arabic Grammar. This is significant
testimony from a prominent scholar in this field.
11 -I compared the content of a1-Nakzäwi's work with
manuscripts and their references to various topics. For example I
compared makhärij al-hurüf and al-'idghäm al-kabir in the
manuscript with what is mentioned in Kitab al-idgham al-kablir of
-the . Al-Däni -(in -manuscript) and in - Kitab Sibawayh .I did the
same with other chapters like those on the 'isnäd, their histories,
'imälä, waqf, the Meccan and Medinan verses, hamza with sukün,
etc. I seldom found poor or irregular information in the
manuscript of al-Nakzawi, with the exception of certain errors
which have been pointed out in the edition. These are copyist's
spelling mistakes due to lack of revision or copyists' ignorance of
the Reading of Abü `Amr.
12. The accuracy of this work by al-Nakzäwi has continually
11
proved itself during the study of it. Its information tallies
entirely with the Reading I was taught as a child (and continue to
use daily) and which has passed down from teacher to student,
not just from the time of a1-Nakzäwi to today, but from the time
of Abü `Amr to Al-Nakzawi. It can be said for certain that the
contents of this manuscript are a faithful and near perfect account
of the Reading of Abü `Amr ibn al-`A1ä' al-Basri.
§1.3 Description of the manuscript.
The manuscript is a work in the science of Qur'änic Readings. Its
title is "The Reading (girä'a ) according to abü `Amr ibn al-`A1ä' al-
Basri reported by abu `Umar Hafs al-Düri and abu Shu'ayb Salih
al-Süsi". The author is Imam abii Muhammad `Abdullah ibn ., r
--Muhammad Ibn -`Abdullah al-Nakzawi al-Iskandari, born 614 and
died 683 (1217-1284 A. D. )
The manuscript was therefore written between about 640 and
680, i. e. in the second half of the 13 th. century A. D., probably in
Egypt. There is a frontispiece in Mamluk style. It is written on
paper in a fine 'Naskh' hand dating from the 8th. /14th. century,
with the opening page in illuminated letters. There are no glosses
or marginalia. The original manuscript is kept in Fayd Allah's
Library in Turkey under reference number 213/1/79. A
12
photocopy of the manuscript is kept in the Institute of
Manuscripts of the Arab League at Cairo and it has 80 leaves, size
18x27cm.
§1.4 Contents of the manuscript
(i) The Introduction.
(ii) Transmission from the Prophet of both the types:
and riwaya.
(iii) Transmission of the riwaya of al-Düri.
(iv) Transmission of the riwaya of al-Sysi.
(v) Phonetics.
(vi) Al-idghäm al-kabir.
(vii) Madda.
(viii) Vowelless hamza.
(ix) Conjunction of two hamzas.
(x) Al-ldghäm al-saghir.
(xi) Dhal as in "idh".
(xii) Tä' of the feminine.
(xiii) Dal as in " qad".
(xiv) Hal and bal.
(xv) Vowelless nun and tanwin.
tiläwa
13
(xvi) Vowelled to vowelless.
(xvii) Al imäla.
(xviii) Alimala al-saghira.
(xix) Weakening and strengthening of sounds.
(xx) Pause at the end of words.
(xxi) Pause at the end of words as written.
(xxii) Possessive ya' . (xxiii) Apocopated ya' .
The above topics are detailed in the first part of the manuscript
individually and explained in separate chapters. The author then
enters the chapters of the Qur'an (starting from Sürat al-Fätiha
(1), ending with Surat al-Nas (114)) and discusses all the places of
the difference of opinion of Readers in order to explain the girä'a
f-Ab i- Amr-without-mentioning the names of the other Readers
who differed with him. This is done, as the author explained in
the introduction of the manuscript, for the sake of brevity.
The method of presentation of the author is to start by mentioning
the name of the süra then to explain whether it is Makkan or
Medinan and state the number of its verses then to point to the
Qur'anic words as read by al-Basri. At the end of the sura
indication is made to ya'ät al-idäfa (1st person possessive
suffixes) whether Abü `Amr read them with fatha or with sukün,
14
or committed them or omitted' them (deleted them in his girä'a),
or differentiated between waqf and wasl. This discussion always
comes to an end with the mention of 'idgham
occurring in the
sura whether al-idgham al-kabir or al-idgham al-saghir.
The above methodology was followed by all the Readers. One
point of difference is the presentation of al-idghäm al-kabir,
which is especially attributed to Abü `Amr ibn al-`A1ä' al-Basrf
among the ten prominent Readers. Others did not mention it. "As
for the ruwit (of al-idgham al-kabir), the fam ous one, from among
the ten Readers and the one to whom it is attributed, and the one
who specialized in it, is Abü `Amr ibn al-`Alä'. However he is not
alone in that, for al-idghäm al-kabir was also reported from al- r
Hasan al-Basri, ibn Muhaysin and al-A`mash etc. "s
Ibn al-Jazari then explained that the scholars of gira'a have
different ways of reporting al-idghäm al-kabir. Some scholars
omitted it altogether, like Abi `Ubayd in his Kitäb, and ibn
Mujähid in his Saba, and Makki in his Tabsira. He also explained
that some of the scholars (mostly Iraqis) have provided its one
interpretaion reporting it from Abü `Amr by 'isnäd. Some of the
scholars, like Abi Ma'shar al-Tabari in his Talkhis, and Safräwi in
his' 7'län, attributed it to al-Duri and al-Süsi and some, like the
Ibn a]-Jazari, al-Nashr, vol. 1 p. 275. 15
author of al-Taysir and his Shaykh Abu al-Hasan Tahir ibn
Ghalbün and al-Shätibi etc. attributed it to al-Süsi only. While
some other scholars, as like the author of al-Tajrid, and Maliki in
his al-Rawda did not attribute it to al-Süsi or a1-Duri, but to the
followers of al-Yazidi, and to the followers of Shuja' via Abn `Amr.
These different attributions were of course made after considering
the riwäya and sanad for each of them. The present Sudan as well
as the ancient Sudan however never recited with al-idghäm al-
kabir. In this decision they are influenced by al-Taysir and al-
Shajibiyya. Also because the Sudanese riwaya of the girä'a of
Abü `Amr is the riwäya of al-Düri and not of al-Susi.
§1.5 The names of the transmitters
Al-Nakzäwi mentions the names of forty-seven persons in his
chapter on the isnäd. All these names have been examined in the
light of the information provided in the most reliable biographical
works, notably Ghayat al-Nihäya by Ibn al-Jazari, and are set out
in what follows. Preceding that, as a supplement to Al-Nakzäwi's
chapter, brief biographical notes regarding Abü `Amr al-Basri, Al-
Yazidi, Al-Dori, Al-Süsi and Al-Nakzäwi are provided. This is
because they are the most important figures in the transmission
under -investigation, and need to be highlighted. The notes are
16
brief because they are fully documented in print elsewhere.
ABU `AMR IBN AL-`ALA
Abü `Amr Zabbän ibn al-`A1ä ibn `Ammär ibn al-`Uryin al-
Tamimi a1-Mäzini al-Basri was one of the "seven Readers"7 of the
Qur'in. He was probably born in Mecca in a 68, but there is a
controversy over the precise date of his birth. He studied the way
of reciting the Qur'än in Mecca, Madina, al-Kufa and al-Basra. His
teachers were 'Anas ibn Malik, Al-Hasan al-Basri, Said ibn
Jubayr, `Asim ibn Abi al-Nujud, `Abdullah ibn Kathir al-Makki, 'Ikrima
and Mujahid ibn Jabr. His students were Yahya ibn al-
Mubarak al-Yazidi, Yunus ibn Habib and Sibawayh .
Abu' __Amr was the most outstanding scholar of his time in the
sciences of the Qur'än and Arabic language. Al-Asma`i8 said that
Abü `Amr told him, "I have learned a lot of things with regard to
the Qur'änic sciences that Al-A`mash would never have been able
to carry if I wrote them on paper. "9 A1-Asma`i added that he
knew of no man who surpassed Abü `Amr in knowledge.
6 E12 s. v. 7 Jeffery; Gilliot. 8 The famous grammarian. E12 s. v. 9 A1-A`mash was one of the fourteen Readers. (E12 s. v. )
17
According to Al-Akhfash, 10 the great Al-Hasan al-Basri passed by
Abu `Amr's halaqa (teaching circle) where a lot of people were
listening to him, and said: "There is no God but Allah - scholars
have almost become gods ('arbab) and all glory unsupported by
knowledge will vanish. "11 He died between 154 and 158.
AL-YAZIDI
Al -Imam Abu Muhammad Yahya ibn al-Mubärak ibn al-Mughira
al Adawi I al-Basri, commonly known as Al-Yazidi. He was one of
the "fourteen Readers" 12 of the Qur'an. He learned the rules of
Qur'anic Readings under the supervision of Abu `Amr al-Basri and
subsequently became his caliph, i. e. he deputised for him. Abu
`Umar al-Duri and Abu Shu'ayb al-Süsi (the transmitters of Abu
`Amr's Reading) were among Al-Yazidi's students.
Ibn Mujahid13 said, "We (meaning himself along with others) rely
on Al-Yazidi's transmission, since he devoted himself solely to
Abu `Amr's Reading and was the closest of Abu `Amy's followers.
A1-Dhahabi14 said that Al-Yazidi was a reliable and eloquent
10 The famous grammarian. 11 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 288f. 12 i. e. in the third rank of Readers, after the "seven" and the "ten".
13 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 370. 14 ibid.
18 -ý°ý
scholar who possessed enormous information about the Arabic
language. It has been said that Al-YazTdi wrote ten thousand
papers about Abu `Amr's work. A number of Al-Yazidi's works
have been recorded15 of which are: Kitab al-Nawädir, Kitab al-
Magsur, Kitab al-Mushkil and a book on Arabic grammar. In
addition Al-Yazidi composed good quality poems. He died in a
202.
AL-DURI
Abu `Umar Hafs ibn `Umar ibn `Abd al-`Aziz ibn Sahban al-Duri
a1-Azdi al-Baghdädi al-Nahwi was the chief of the readers of the
Qur'an of his time. He was a reliable and trustworthy reciter, and
he was the first person who wrote a book on the Readings. Al-
Dur, the place after which he was named, was located on the
eastern side of Baghdad. He studied and taught in Baghdad. Al-
Duri was the student of Al-Yazidi, Ismail ibn Ja'far, Salim al-Kisai
and Abu Bakr ibn `Asim. Among his students were: Ahmad ibn
Farah al-Mufassir, `Abd al-Rahman ibn `Abdus. ' It is also known
that Ahmad ibn Hanbal narrated information about Al-Düri. He
died in 24616
15 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 370. '" Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol i p. 255; al-Baghdadi vol. 8, p. 203.
19
AL-SUSI
Abu Shu'ayb Sä1ih ibn Ziyäd ibn `Abdallah ibn Ismä`il al-Rasti
al-Susi al-Raqqi was a reliable and precise reader of the Qur'an,
and the second of Abu `Amy's narrators. He was one of the closest
companions to Al-Yazidi who taught him the rules of the Qur'an.
He studied and taught in Baghdad. His son Abü al-Masnm
Muhammad and Musa ibn Jarir were some of his students. He
died in 261. "
AL-NAKZAWI
Abu Muhammad `Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn `Abdallah ibn
`Umar ibn Abi Zayd al-Qädi Win al-Din al-Nakzäwi al-Madani al-
' Iskandari al-Ansari. 18 He was born in Alexandria in a 614/ 1217
and died there in a 683/1284. He was taught in Egypt by the
following teachers: `Ali al-Safriwi, Abü al-'Abbas al-Marjäni, Abn
`Ali al-Qabisi, Al-Kamäl al-Darir and Ibn al-Hajib. He was also
taught in Damascus under the supervision of 'Ali al-Sakhawi. The
most outstanding of Al-Nakzäwi's students were `Ali ibn `Abd al-
Rahman al-Qurashi al-Maliki al-Iskandari (d. a 730) and Ahmad
ibn 'Ali, well known as Al-Safi al-Harazi (d. a 730).
" Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol ii p. 331. 18 Ibn al-Jazari, Ghaya vol i p. 411; Brockelmann, SI 729 §17.
20
His works: Al-Shämil fi~al-girä'ät al-sab' exists in manuscript, 19
but is not yet located. Al-'igtidä' fir ma'rifat al-wagf wa al-'ibtidä'
I consulted in the library of Al-Azhar in Cairo. Another copy is
available in the University of Al-Zaytüna in Tünis. 20 It is being
edited by two men in Cairo. In addition to these A1-Nakzäwi
wrote Kitab Qira'at Abi 'Amr, which is the subject of this study.
Having mentioned A1-Nakzäwi's biography Al-Dhahabi said that
Al-Nakzäwi wrote a book about the Readings of the Qur'än. 21 He
added that he was a leading teacher who taught many people the
way of reading the Qur'än. Ibn al-Jazari said that Al-Nakzäwi was
a knowledgeable, leading and perfect reciter who composed A l-
Shämil fial-Qirä'at al-Sab'. 22 Al-Si 'üti acknowledges that he has
made use of Al-Nakzäwi's works when composing Al-Itgän fi
`Ulüm al-Qur'an. 23 Al-Nakzäwi's biography is also to be found in
the books of Ibn Hajar, 24 A1"Zirikli25 and Brockelmann. 26
19 Brockelmann, SI 729. 20 Brockelmann, S1 729. 21 Ma`rifa vol ii p. 545. 22 Ghaya vol i p. 411. 23 ltgan vol. 1 p. 21 24 Lisan vol i p. 325. 25 vol. 4 p. 270.
26 Brockelmann, S1 729. 21
Following is the sanad of al-Nakzäwi of the girä'a of abn `Amr
transmitted according to two riwäyäs, the riw'aya of Abn `Amr
Hafs ibn `Umar al-Düri and the riwäyä of Abü Shu'ayb Salih ibn
Ziyäd al-Süsi. These riwayas are narrated, both riwäyatan and
tiiawätan (according to the transmitters and the content) with an
explanation of why there are multiple sanads.
Sanad 1 of the riwaya.
1. The author
2. Al-Sharif Najm al-Din abu `Amr `Uthman ibn al-Shaykh al-
Sharif al-Hasan27 (d. 634).
3. Abu `Abdullah Muhammad ibn Said ibn Zarqun a1_Ishbili.
He transmitted the gira'a from Abu `Abdullah Ahmad ibn
Muhammad ibn `Abdullah al-Khawläni. (d. 586)28.
4. Abu `Abdullah Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn `Abdullah al-
Khawlini. Ibn Zargi n read with him. He also read with al-Däni
(d. 508)29.
5. Al Imäm al-Hafiz abn `Amr `Uthmän al-Däni, the author of
al-Taysir (271-444).
27 See Ibn Kathir a1-Bidäya vol. 13, p. 146. 28 ibid. , p. 142. 29 ibid. , p. 121.
22
Sanad2 of the riwaya
1. The author.
2. Al-Sharif Najm al-Din abü `Amr `Uthnian ibn al-Shaykh al-
Sharif abi Hasan.
3. Abu Bakr ibn Khattab ibn Abi Jamra/Muhammad ibn
Ahmad ibn `Abd al-Malik ibn Musa ibn Abi Jamra abn Bakr al-
Maräsi, the gadi of Marsiya (508-599). He read with his father 30
4. Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn `Abd al-Malik ibn Musa ibn Abi Jamra
Abu al-Qasim al-Maräsi (dates unknown). He transmitted al-
Taysir from al-Däni and was the last person to talk about him 31
5. Al-imam al-Hafiz abü `Amr `Uthman al-Däni.
Sanad3 of the riwäyäh
1. The author. r
2. `Alam al-Din Abu'l-Hasan `Ali ibn Muhammad ibn `Abd al-
Saurad al-Sakhäwi (born at Sakha in Egypt, died 642). 32 He read
with al-Shätibi The author of the manuscript al-Nakzawi read
with him.
3. A1Imäm al-Shätibi, Abu Muhammad Qasim ibn Firäh abu
al-Qäsim al-Shatibi (born at al-Shatiba in Andalus in 522 and died
30 ibid. , p. 69. 31 ibid. , p. 77. 32 ibid. , p. 568.
in 590 in Cairo) 33 A1-Sakhäwi and ibn al-Häjib read with him.
4. Abi `Abdullah Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn Said known as
ibn Ghuläm al-Faris (472-547). 34
5. Abü `Abdullah Muhammad ibn al-Hasan (d. 496)35. He
transmitted from the following scholars. All of these scholars are
at one level. (i) Abü al-Hasan `Ali ibn Muhammad ibn `Abd al-
Rahman known as ibn al-Dush who read with al-Din[ Ibn al-
Ghuläm al-Farris Abü `Abdullah Muhammad read with him. (ii)
Abü Däwüd Sulaymän ibn Najäh ibn abi al-Qäsim (d. 496)36. Some
of his works are Kitab al- Bayän s and an urjüza of
18,440 verses. (iii) Ibn al-Bayäz, abü al-Hasan ibn Yahyä ibn
Ibrähim ibn abi Zayd (d. 496)37 . He read with al-Däni. Ibn
Ghuläm al-Faris and _`1sä ibn Hazm a1-Ghäfigi'read with him.
6. A1-Imäm al-Hafiz abi `Amr `Uthman ibn Said al-Dim (see
above).
Sanad 4 of the riwaya.
1. The author.
2. Abi `Amr `Uthmän ibn `Umar, known as ibn al-Hajib
33 ibid. , p. 20. 34 ibid., p. 121. 35 ibid., p. 548. 36 ibid., p. 216. 37 ibid., p. 264.
24
(570/71-646)38. He read with al-Shätibi.
3. Abi al-Jnd Ghayyath ibn Färis al-Mundhirf al-Misri (518-
605)39. Abu `Amr ibn a1-Hajib and a1-Sakhäwi read with him.
4. A1-Sharif al-Khatib, Nasir ibn Hasan ibn 'Isma`il Abi al-Futüh
al-Zaydi (d. 562)40. He read with Yahyä ibn `Ali ibn al-Faraj al-
Khashshäb and with `Abdullah ibn Abi al-Wafa al-'Atabi. Abi al-
Jud Ghayäth read with him.
5. A1-Khashshab, Yahya ibn `Ali ibn al-Faraj al-Misri (d. 504)41.
He read with `Ali Abi al-Fath Ahmad Babshadh al-Jawhan. Abu
a1-Ftüh Näsir ibn al-Hasan al-Sharif al- Khatib read with him.
6. Abü `Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Q2rrawani ibn `Ali
abu `Abdullah ibn abi Said al-Qazwini (d. 452)4 2. He read with
`Ali ibn Dawud al-Daräni and with `Ali al-Hasan ibn Sulaymän al-
'InCaki. Yahya ibn `Ali al-Khashshab read with him.
7. Abu `Ali al-Husayn/al-Hasan ibn Sulayman/ibn al-Khayr al-
'Intäki al-Näfi`i (d. 299)43. He read with Abu al-Fath ibn Badhan
and in Egypt with abu Bakr al-ub\i F, i Abu `Amr al-Däni read
with him.
8. Abu `Abdullah al-Dajuni/al-`Abbäs ibn Muhammad abu al-
Fad1 a 1- Ram11
38 ibid., p. 508. 39 ibid., p. 4. 40 ibid., p. 329. 41 ibid., p. 275. 42 ibid., p. 75. 43 ibid., p. 215.
25
(d. 270)44. He transmitted the girä'a from abu Bakr al-Däjüni, the
senior, his uncle, and from abu Bakr ibn Mujahid. Al-Hasan ibn
Sulaymän al-Afafi`f a1-In(aki transmitted from him.
9. Abü Bakr Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Rahman/Ahmad ibn
`Umar al- Däji ni, the senior (d. 324)45., He read with Müsa ibn
Janr. Al-`Abbas ibn Muhammad al-Dajüni, the junior, read with
him.
10. Abu `Imrän Musa ibn Jarir al-Nahwi al-Rägqi (d. 310 or
316)46. He read with a1-Süsi, one of his boon companions.
`Abdullah ibn al- Yasa` a1=lnfaki and al-Däjüni, the senior, read
with him.
11. Abu Shu'ayb Salih ibn Ziyäd ibn `Abdullah al-SUsi (d. 261)47,
the transmitter of the riwäya of al-Sufi. He read with abn
Muhammad Yahyä al-Yazidi. Ibn Muhammad al-Ma`süm and
Müsä ibn Jarir read with him. (For a more detailed biography of
al-Süsi, see above).
12. Abu `Umar Hafs ibn `Umar a1-Düri, the transmitter of the
ri wäya of al"Düri (d. 246)4 8. He read with Abu Muhammad Yahya
al-Yazidi. `Abd al-Rahman ibn `Abdus abü al-Zara' read with
him. (For his biography see above).
44 ibid., p. 254. 45 ibid., p. 77. 46 ibid., p. 318. 47 ibid., p. 332. 48 ibid., p. 255.
26
I
13. Yahyä ibn al-Mubä rik ibn al-Mughira al-Yazidi (d. 202 at
Marw)49. Al-Duri and al-Snsi read with him (see above for a
more detailed biography).
14. Ab"n `Amr Zabbän ibn al-'Ala' al-Basri (68-154)50. He read
with al-Hasan al-Basri and with Said ibn Jubayr and with Mujähid
ibn Jabr. Al-Yazidi read with him. (see above for a more detailed
biography).
Sanad 1 of a1-tiläwa
1. The author.
2. Abü al-`Abbäs Ahmad ibn Sulaymän ibn Ahmad al-Marjäni
al- Mäliki al Iskandar (his dates are unknown) S1 He read with
`Abd al-Karim ibn 'Atiq.
3. Abü Muhammad `Abd al-Karim ibn AT Bakr ibn `Atiq al-
Rab`i al Iskandari known as ibn al-Sharabi (dates unknown). He
read with abu al-Ghana'im and with al-Yasa` ibn `Isa. Ahmad
ibn Sulaymän a1-Marjäni read with him 52
4. Abü al-Ghana'im Salim ibn Ibrahim al-Umawi al-Iskandari
(485-564)53. He read with abu a1-Qäsim `Abd al-Rahman ibn al-
49 ibid., p. 275. 50 ibid., p. 288. 51 ibid., p. 58. 52 ibid., p. 402. 53 ibid., p. 300.
27
Fahhäm. Abd al-Karim ibn `Atiq read with him.
5. Abu al-Qasim `Abd al-Rahmän ibn abii Bakr al-Qallüshi,
known as ibn al-Fahham/`Abd al-Rahmän ibn `Atiq ibn Khalaf abu
al-Qäsim ibn abi Bakr ibn abi Said ibn al-Fahhäm (d. 516)54. He
read with Ahmad ibn Naffs.
6. Abu al-`Abbas Ahmad al-Taräblasi/Ahmad ibn Said ibn
Ahmad ibn Ahmad ibn `Abdullah ibn Sulaymän known as ibn
Naffs abu al-`Abbäs originally from Tarablus, then migrated to
Egypt (d. 452/445)55. He read with `Ali ibn Ahmad `Abdullah al-
Sämiri. Ibn al-Fahhäm read with him.
7. Abi Ahmad `Abdullah al-5amiri/`Abdullah ibn al-Husayn
ibn Hasnün Abu Ahmad al-Sämiri al-Baghdädi, who afterwards
migrated to Egypt (295-256/370)56. He read with `Ali ibn
Mujahid and with Müsa ibn Jarir. Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad ibn naafis
read with him.
Sanad2 of al-tilawa
1. The author.
2. Abü al-`Abbas Ahmad ibn Sulayman (see above).
3. Abu Muhammad `Abd al-Karim ibn abiý Bakr ibn `Atiq al-
Rabi`i (see above).
54 ibid., p. 274. 55 ibid., p. 56. 56 ibid., p. 415.
28
4. Abü Yahyä al-Yasa' ibn `Isä ibn Hazm a]-Andalusi al-Ghafigi
(d. 575 in Egypt)57. He read with his father abu al-Asbagh Isä.
Abu a1-Qäsim a1-Safräwi and abn al-Jüd read with him.
5. `Isa ibn Hazm ibn `Abdullah ibn al-Yasa' abn al-Isbagh al-
Ghäfigi al-Andalusi (dates unknown)58. He read with ibn al-
Bayyiz and with abu Dawüd and with ibn al-Dush.
6. Abu Diwüd Sulaymän ibn Hajah and abu al-Hasan Yahya ibn
Ibrahim al-Bayyäz (see above).
7. Abu `Amr `Uthmän ibn Said al-Däni (see above).
8. Abi Muhammad `Abd al-'Aziz al-Baghdädi/`Abd al-'Aziz ibn
Ja'far ibn Muhammad ibn Ishaq Khuwästi abü al-Qäsim al-Färisi
then al-Baghdidi, known as ibn Abi Ghassän (320-412)59. He
read with `Abd al-Wähid ibn Abi Hashim. Abu `Amr al-Däni,
when visiting Andalus as a merchant, read with him.
9. Abü Tahir `Abd al-Wahid/'Abd al-VWahid ibn `Umar ibn
Muhammad ibn Abi Häshim abu Tahir al-Baghdädi (d. 349)60. He
read with ibn Mujähid. `Abd al-`Aziz ibn Ja'far Khuwästi and a
great number of other scholars read with him.
10. Abu Bakr ibn Mujähid/Ahmad ibn Musa ibn al-`Abbas
ibn Mujahid (245-324)61. He is the first scholar who reduced the
57 ibid., p. 375. 58 ibid., p. 608. 59 ibid., p. 392. 60 ibid., p. 475. 61 ibid., p. 139.
29
number of girä'at to seven. He read with `Abd al-Rahmän ibn
`Abdüs. Abu Tahir and a great number of scholars read with him.
11. Ibn `Abdüs/`Abd al-Rahman ibn `Abdns abü al-Zara' al-
Baghdädi (d. 280)62 who reported it from al-Dhahabi. He read
with abü `Umar al-Diiri. He was one of his near colleagues, the
most prominent one, having the most accurate memory and the
most trustworthy. Abu Bakr ibn Mujähid and some other scholars
read with him.
12. Al-Dori and al-Süsi63 (see above).
13. Yahyä ibn al-Mubärak al-Yazidi64. (see above for a more
detailed biography).
14. Abü `Amr ibn al-`Ali' al-Basri65. (see above for a more
detailed biography).
15. Mujahid ibn Jabr ibn al-Hajjäj al-Makki (d. 103/102/101)66.
He read with ibn `Abbas. Abu `Amr ibn al-`Ala' al-Basri read with
him.
16. Said ibn Jubayr ibn Hish im a1-A ýdi (al-Hajjäj killed him in 1-11
95)67. He read with `Abdullah ibn 'Abbas. Abu `Amr ibn al-`Ala'
al-Basri read with him.
17. Ibn `Abbas/`Abdullah ibn `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib
62 ibid., p. 373. 63 ibid., pp. 255,332. 64 ibid., p. 375. 65 ibid., p. 288. 66 ibid., p. 41. 67 ibid., p. 305.
30
(d. 68)68. He read with Ubayy ibn Ka'b and with Zayd ibn Thäbit
and with `Ali ibn Abi Talib. Mujahid ibn Jabr and Said ibn Jubayr
read with him.
18. Ubayy ibn Ka'b ibn Qays a1-Ansäri (d. 19/20/32)69. He read
with the Prophet (s. m. ). `Abdullah ibn `Abbas read with him.
19. The Prophet, peace be upon him.
Sanad3 of al-tiläwa
1. The author.
2. Hasan ibn `Uthman ibn `Aliýal-Qabisi al-Maliki who migrated
to al- Iskandariyya, known as ibn al-Rukn (574-670). He read
with Abu `Ali Mansur ibn Khamis. Ibn abi al-Tähir read with
him.
3. Abi `Ali Mansur ibn Khamis ibn Muhammad al-Lakhmi al-
Andalusi (dates unknown)? O. Al-Hasan ibn `Uthman al-Qabisi read
with him.
4. Abü `Abdullah Muhammad ibn Sulayman ibn Yahya al-Qaysi
al-Büti
5. Abu- Dawüd Sulaymän abn al-Qäsim (see above).
6. Abu `Amr `Uthmän ibn Said a1-Däni (see above).
68 ibid., p. 425. 69 ibid., p. 31. 70 ibid., p. 312.
31
Sanad4 of al-tilawa
1. The author.
2. Abü `Abdullah Muhammad ibn `Umar al-Fäsi al-Mu`afiri who
later lived in al'Iskandariyya (born in 549)71. He read with al-
Qäsim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Zagqäq. The author explained that
the sanad of al-Mu`afiri describing the riwäya of al-Süsi is as the
sanad of Hasan al-Qabisi.
3. Al-Imam al-Zagqäq/Qäsim ibn Muhammad ibn Mubärak
abu Muhammad ibn al-Zagqäq, known as ibn al-Hajj and ibn al-
Tawil (d. 560)72. He read with a number of scholars, two of them
are `Isa ibn Hazm - and Abü `Abdullah Muhammad ibn `Umar al-
Ma`äfiri.
4. Abn Dawnd Sulaymän ibn abi al-Qäsim (see above).
5. Abu `Amr ibn `Uthnian ibn Said al-Däni (see above).
The author then described that there are some other 'isnäds but
he did not mention them.
71 ibid., p. 218. 72 ibid., p. 24.
32
§1.6 The Meccan and Medinan suras and the numbering of
verses
These two subjects are summarised by some of the famous authors of
works on girä'at, while others omit them. Ibn Mujahid, Al-Däni, and
Ibn al-Jazari, for instance, did not mention them, whereas Makki Ibn abi
Tä1ib in his book al-Kashf mentioned at the start of his discussion of
each süra whether it was Meccan or Medinan, or both, followed by the
number of its verses according to the Medinan and Kufan methods of
numbering. Since al-Nakzawi is also among those who gave some
attention to clarifying the Meccan and Medinan s iras and the number of
verses, a brief outline is provided here. It should be noted that for a
süra to be designated Meccan or Medinan has no bearing on its readings,
whereas the number of verses does have an effect, with respect to pausal
and non-pausal forms.
1.6.1 The Meccan and the Medinan suras
This Qur'änic sub-science is not of direct relevance to the science of
girä'at, but since al"Nakzäwi mentioned in the headings of each sera
whether it was Meccan or Medinan, a brief discussion follows. This
Qur'änic sub-science is of importance to the interpreters of the Qur'än,
students of hadith, and jurisprudents. Some scholars have compiled
special books on the subject. Its principal function is the determining of
33
the chronology of individual sections of the Qur'än, so that legal
principles can be deduced according to the principle that the later
abrogates the earlier. A secondary function is that it assists an
understanding of the development of the Islamic legal system.
The scholars have three ways of classifying whether a süra be Meccan
or Medinan. The first is that "Meccan" denotes all that came before the
hijra and that "Medinan" denotes all that came after the hijra,
irrespective of its recorded time and place (sabab al-nuzül ). This
definition is preferred by al-Siiyiiti in al-Itgän 73 The second is that
"Meccan" denotes the süras that came in Mecca, even after the hijra,
and that "Medinan" denotes the süras that came in Medina. This
classification is not comprehensive because in the Qur'än there are süras
that came in neither Mecca nor Medina. The third is that "Meccan"
denotes the süras that came to address the people of Mecca and that
"Medinan" denotes the suras that came to address the people of Medina.
This classification is also not comprehensive because some verses which
came with the words usually addressed to the people of Mecca, "Oh you
people", came in Medina, for instance at the beginning of the Meccan
süras al-Nisä' and al-Hajj. The address "Oh you who believe" was the
usual address for the people of Medina.
The first method of classification, as preferred by al-Süyüti, is to be
recommended, since it is comprehensive and excludes contradictions,
73 vol. 1 p. 25ff. 34
w kcrt0. s the other two do not. Al-Suyüti notes in al-Itgän, 74 that
twenty suras in the Qur'an are agreed as being Medinan, that there is a
difference of opinion regarding twelve suras, and that the rest are
Meccan;
1.6.2. The numbering of verses.
Abu `Amr al-Dani said that the number of verses in the Qur'an is ageed
to be 6,000? 5 but there are various opinions that hold that there are
more than that. The schools of Mecca, Medina, Basra, Küfa and Syria
all have their own traditional numbering, traceable by isnäd back to
the Prophet. Because his book concerned only the Reading of Abu
`Amr (al-Basri), al-Nakzawi only mentioned the Basran calculation.
The scholars have divided the calculation of the verse-numbering in the
Qur' .n into three groups of sums. With a group of forty suras there is
unanimity on the numbering. With four süras76 there is agreement over
the total but disagrement over where the verse ends occur. With the
remaining seventy suras there is disagreement over the total of their
verses. "
74 vol. 1 p. 28.
75 Itgän vol. 1 p. 210. This is the Basran numbering.
76 al-Qasas, al-'Ankab it, al-Jinn and al-'Asr. Al-Fätiha also. " E. g. sürat Ta Ha has 132 in the Medinan and Basran numbering, but 134 in the Küfan.
35
Understanding the numbering of verses requires principles of practice
and theory. Regarding practice, stopping at the end of every verse is
preferred by reciters - Abu `Amr himself used to - and in fact it is
sünna (the practice of the Prophet). On the authority of Umm Salama,
the Prophet used to break his recitation verse by verse. 7s Thus with
Surat al-Fätiha he would recite "In the name of God the most gracious,
the most merciful", then stop, then recite, "All praise is due to God, the
Lord of the worlds", then stop, then recite, "the most gracious, the most
merciful" and so on. Regarding theory, note the precept cited by al-
Suyüti, "Whoever lacks the knowledge of sürat al-Fätiha must substitute
it with seven verses", 79 and the regulation that the Friday sermon must
contain a complete verse.
" Itgän, vol. 1 p. 271.
79 Itgän, vo1.1 p. 218.
36
§2 ORAL TRANSMISSION
§2.1 The distinguishing characteristics of
girä'at Abi `Amr
The Reading of Abu `Amr has many similarities with the other
seven Readings. It also has many differences, and in this section,
these differences will be highlighted. The first two sub-sections illustrate a general characteristic possessed by the Reading of Abu
`Amr, that of constraint. The Reading can generally be considered
as a middle way between some of the more extreme positions of
the other two principal Readings, those of `Asim and Näfi`. The
final sub-section outlines the large number of transmitters for the
Reading of Abn `Amr and the phenomenon of variety within a Reading. The distinguishing characteristics of the Reading of Abi
`Amr can probably be best appreciated by listening to the audio
tape attached as an appendix to this thesis and recorded by the
author It contains süras al-Kahf and Maryam in the transmission
of al-Duri, and sürat al-Fajr in the three Readings of Abn `Amr
through al-Duri, Nafi` through Warsh, and `Asim through Hafs.
Al-Nakiawf did not mention the specific nature of any differences
or agreements between Abu `Amr and other Readers, nor did he
even state that ANY `Amr has differences or agreements with other Readers. For example, he did not say that Abü `Amr was in
agreement with Nafi` over this word, or that he disagreed with Ibn `Amir over that word. The procedure that he followed with a given word was simply to find out whether one or more of the Readers
was in disagreement with the others including Abn `Amr, and then
37
state that the Reading of Abi `Amr is such and such, or that he
omitted ya' or fatha or sukun, or the like. The author's aim was to
single out the Reading of Abü `Amr from other Readings without detailing disagreement, in order to summarise the subject. This is
stated in the introduction to his book. Similarly, he did not discuss
the important subject of al-idghäm al-kabir , but simply placed at the end of each surah the number of letters that Abn `Amr
assimilated in this way. Since al, idghäm al-kabis is an area in
which there are great differences between scholars of gira'at it
has a sub-section below.
2.1.1. al-1m5la al-kubra
AbiT `Amr was in some agreement concerning al'fmala al-kubra
with Hamza and al-Kisa'i but he did not go as far as them. They
employed al-(mäla al-kubra for every ya'-'alif in nouns and verbs,
e. g. ý.. and . Abi `Amr only employed it after fa', as in
L5yJl Abu `Amr thus agreed with Nafi` in employing al-imäla al-
sughra, since alimala al-kubra was not employed by Warsh
except in aL , nor by Qälün except in lA -Iy in sürat al-Tawba.
It was not employed by `Asim except with in sürat Hid.
Thus Abü `Amr employed in his Reading a light kind of 'imäla,
reflecting his intermediate position between the Reading of the Hijaz and the traditional language of Tamim. It could be said that the degree of imala used by Abii `Amr was in line with that of the Quraysh accent.
38
2.1.2. vowelless hamza
Concerning vowelless hamza, the Reading of `Äsim pronounces the hamza fully in all circumstances, whereas the Reading of Warsh
from Nafi' elides it when it is the first radical of the word, as in
,: jj:. ý1) J_tSL and .:., s The Reading of Abu `Amr is
intermediate. It agrees with `Äsim when read slowly, and agrees
with Näfi` through Warsh when read with'idgham or in prayers or fast readings. In the latter case, however, the elision is not limited
to the first radical of the word, but applies to any radical.
2.1.3. al-idghän: al-kabir
That al-idghäm al-kabir is an area in which Abt `Amr was alone in disagreement with others is well-known. Not all scholars agree however. According to Ibn al-Jazari for instance, "' of the ten Readers Ab'u' `Amr was not the only one to have employed a l- ýidghäm al-kabir, but that al-Hasan al-Basri, Ibn Muhaysin, and al- A`mash are also reported to have done so. Ibn al-Jazari then cited various opinions of scholars of gira'at about Abi `Amr employing al-idghäm al-kabir. Some scholars, like Abü `Ubayd and Ibn Mujähid did not even mention it. Others mentioned it as transmitted through both al-Düri and al-Süsi, like Ibn Ma'shar al- Tabari and al-Safräwi. Others mentioned it as transmitted through
al-Süsi alone, like al-Däni and his Shaykh Abu al-Hasan Tähir ibn Ghalbun, as also al-Shätibi. Yet others did not mention it as
40 vol. 1 p. 275
39
transmitted through al-Susi or al-Düri but through others from the
colleagues of al-Yaiidi and Shuji', like ibn al-Fahhäm the author of al-Tajrid and al-Talmanki the author of al-Rawda.
Despite the fact that Abu `Ubayd and Ibn Mujähid did not mention it, the majority opinion of the scholars of gira'at mentioned above
show that al 'idgham al-kabir was employed in the Reading of Abi
`Amr. The main disagreement arises over who transmitted it from
Abi `Amr. The transmission through al-Snsi is the most
acceptable. This view is supported by the great scholars of qira'at
al-Dani and al-Shatibi, and is widely mentioned in the books of
girä'at. The transmission through al-Düri is the least acceptable. Written Qur'ans in the transmission of al-Duri are numerous, yet
none indicate al-idgham al-kabir. Moreover, in/ Sudan the
transmission of al-Dori has been widely known and carefully
preserved for centuries, yet it has not been noted that al idghäm
al-kabis has ever been used there.
2.1.4. Other unique characteristics of the Reading of Abu
'Amr.
2.1.4.1. General.
" He used kasra on the mim of the plural before sukün if a hä'
came before it with kasra or a ya' with sukün, such as ýl ý! I j.
and ZJ : iJ I r. i--. .
9 He disregarded the first of two hamzas with kasra, e. g.
40
r=S CA I'VSA .
" He did the same with damma, the only example of this being in
surat al-Ahgäf, LJ jl .
" He assimilated rä' with sukün to lam such as iä1 '. L,
" He used 'imala with v,, I: JI with final kasra.
0 He stopped on the ya' of Cli- 'Ü, in pause, i. e. he did not
pronounce the ntin, despite its spelling; and on L before lam (but
not when the läm formed the actual word Jl. ) in the surahs al-
Nisa', al-Furgän and al-Ma`ärij despite its spelling; and on the kaf
of C L5. e j and 451-5., j from sürat al-Qasas despite its spelling.
------ -He-pronounced the kasra as a yä' in seven cases when not in
pause: 4. ) yt.., Ij in sürat al-Bagara, CjyL* j in sürat Al `Imrän,
1j in sürat al-Ma'ida, 01.1A . 131 in sürat al-An`äm,
and Cjj Vj in sürat Hid and in sürat Ibfahim
and »y_, I., in surat al-Zukhruf. In manuscripts this is indicated
by a red ja'.
" He pronounced the ya' in L5al.. r wý; in sürat al-Zumar, with
fatha when not in pause and with suk6n in pause, as transmitted by al-Süsi.
41
2.1.4.2. Specifics.
Abu `Amr is known to have read the following individual words in
a unique way:
" In sürat al-Bagara: L' . uj without alif after the waw (as also in
sürat al-A`räf and surat Ta Ha); r. l; in both its occurences with
suknn in place of hamza, or near omission of the vowel; r-5 -I,. - L
and its like with sukün on the rä' or near omission of the vowel;
_t-WI J with damma for the wäw, and ýy` with fatha on the
ia' and kasra on the jim.
" In sürat Al `Jmrin: - __aJ 415 _. -'D CjI J3 with damma on the
1äm; and rSi. L ( without shadda on the 1äm (and so throughout the
Qur'än).
" In sürat al-A`räf: a: ýý) with sukün on the hamza in pause;
r. L LL: *.. (as also rL ll. -, -. in surat Nuh) on the same basis as
rSL LJ ; i, J, L oI and Is1yý jI with the ja'.
" In sürat al-Anfäl: 0,45 ýt with the tä', and OjL.. VI ýj with
the hamza and 'alif after the sin.
42
" In sürat Yünus: with hamzat al-qat` of interrogation.
" In sürat Hüd: C. 5 i, JI L$aL with hamza at the end of the first
word.
" In Yüsuf: J L. L with alif in both words when not in pause,
but without them in pause.
" In sürat al-Nahl: 4J Ij.
" In sürat al "Isrä': Ij 3&:. -, Vt with the yä'.
" In sürat al-Kahf: ý. `º and with sukün on the mim in both
words (this is the transmission of al-Düri through a1-Yazidi and
those who agreed with him); i. j`... tt L... with fatha on the
rä' and the shin.
" In sürat Ti Hä: 'IyL J :ýC. i with the yä': I j. ýL; with
elision of the alif and fatha on the mim, and &; with fatha on
the nun and damma on the fa'.
"in sprat al-Hajj: Lg: SL I with damma on the tä'.
" In sürat a1-Mu'minün: . 41i lC jj ,� with the 'alif, and damma
on the hä'.
43
" In sürat al-Qasas: with the yä'.
" In sürat Lugmän: y, ýJ I, with fatha on the Ti. '
" In sürat al-Ahzäb: �J- (twice) with the yä', and 71
with the tä'.
" In sürat Säd: Ij with the form fu`oC.
" In Surat al-Zumar: e. =, ' ° lS and 4---j _ºL%,... - with
tanwin in both and fatha on the fa' in and on the tä' in
4--- ,.
" In sürat al-Qitä1: J.. 1ý with damma on the hamza, kasra on
the lam and fatha on the yä'.
" In surat al-Fath: Imo. .; C). ß l.; with the yä'.
" In sürat a1-Hujurät: rS JL 11 with the hamza.
9 In sürat al-Tur: 1:, Iý with hamzat al-qat' and sukun on the
tä' and `ayn, and pronouncing nun and a1if81 ;Ljl in the
plural.
All the others have wattaba'athum. 44
" In si rat al-Hadid: rOL:.,. L1 with damma on the hamza,
kasra on the kha' and damma on the qäf; rSb ( L.; with
curtailment of the hamza.
" In sürat al-Hashr: vý; y.: with shadda on the rä'.
" in sprat al-Mumtahina: (J5.,,.. ß 'l j with fatha on the mim and
shadda on the sin.
" In sürat al-Munafiqün: ýsSlý with the waw and fatha on the
nun.
" In sürat a1-Mursalät: . _. ý with the waw.
" In sürat al-Fajr:
with the ya' in each.
ýý.. J, ýý. ý. ý DJ and
The above are the places where Abu `Amr al-Basri has unique
readings in al 'usul and infarsh al-hurüf.
2.1.5. transmitters (ruwat )
It should be noted that transmitters from Abü `Amr, other than al-
Di r and al-Süsi, . have agreed in some of the above with other Readers. This is considered perfectly acceptable. Abü Bakr Shu`ba
45
ibn `Ayyäsh, for example, a transmitter from Asim had many
readings that disagreed wi th his colleague, Hafs, the second
transmitter from `Asim. Moreover, the limitation of two
transmitters for each Reader is simply a convenience for keeping
the number of transmitters manageable, and does not exclude
other scholars of gira'ät.
According to some, Abü `Amr had seventeen transmitters: al- Yazidi, Shüja`, `Abd al-Wärith, al-'Abbas ibn al-Fall, Said ibn Aws,
Harlin al-A'war, al-Khaffäf, `Ubayd ibn `Ugayl, Husayn al-Ju`fi, Yünus ibn Habfb, al-Lu'1ü'i, Mahbüb, Khärija, al-Jahdami, `Isma, al- Asma`i and Abu Ja'far al-Ru'asi. The Reading of Abi `Amr cannot
therefore be confined to the transmission of al-Yazidi, ignoring
these others. Some of them indeed may have been even more
knowledgeable and trustworthy than al-Yazidi. Furthermore, the
ten most famous transmitters from al-Yazidi were al-Düri, al-Süsi, Abu Samdän, Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Jubayr, Awqiya Abü al- Fath, Abu Khiläd, Ja`far -ibn Hamdän Sajjäda, Ibn Sa'c'-an, Ahmad ibn
-Muhammad ibn al-Yaiidi and Abü al-Harith al-Layth ibn Khalid. It
is therefore a shortcoming of the author that he limited his
information to the transmissions of al-Süsf and al-Düri alone, ignoring these other transmitters, some of whom might in certain
cases have been more strict and trustworthy. His intention to be
brief excuses him.
In Sudan, however, the khaläwi have been more eclectic, and have
diverged a little from the transmission of al-Duri. In al"usül this is
notably with al ! imäla al-sughra, which they replace with fatha,
contrary to al-Sh itibi. Two examples from farsh al-huruf are:
J... ý a1 :, l, Sj and j-ý from sürat al-Kahaf. They were
46
transmitted by `Ali ibn Nasr and Husayn al-Ju`fi through Abu `Amr with the mim with damma, corresponding with Näfi` and disagreeing with al-Düri who read the mim with sukün.
§3 INSTITUTIONAL TRANSMISSION
Islam spread in the Sudan through the Süfis, of that there is no
doubt. It was they who used and greatly expanded the khaläwi
to run their courses for teaching the Qur'an. This section focusses
on one such khalwa, Umm Dubban, with the overall aim of
showing how the khalawi have preserved the Reading of Abt
`Amr al-Basri up till today. After a brief explanation of the word
khalwa, the sub-sections therefore provide an overview of the
coming of the Reading of Abu `Amr to the Sudan, of Umm Dubban
and its history, of its shüyükh, of its enrolment and teaching
procedures, and to conclude, of its daily life to illustrate the
discipline in transmission.
3.1 The word khalwa
The meaning of the root of the word khalwa is to be confined to
yourself away from other people, either in a room, mountain or in
47
the open. In the Sudan, it means that a person has kept himself
alone from others in a room for the purpose of worship. It occurs
when the Shaykh or one of his followers on his order, "enters the
khalwa". If a person is left alone outside the room they are called
sa'ih. The word khalwa may also mean a guest's room including
the general facilities (bathroom, toilet etc. ), but this has been
replaced in many areas of the Sudan by the word diwan, and in
towns and cities by the word sälün. But the most common
meaning of al-khalwa or al-khalawt is that of the school/s devoted
to the teaching of the Qur'än especially when associated with the
name of a founder, such as khalawi al-Shayqiyya wal-Majädhi. b,
khalawi al-Ghubush, khalwat Wad al-Fädni., khalwat Wad
Nu`man.
3.2 The coming of the Reading of Abu 4Amr to the Sudan
According to Ibn al-Jazari the Reading of Abu `Amr was widely
known in his day in the Hijäz, the Yemen and Egypt, and that up
till the fifth century it was the Reading of Syria 82 Now many of
the emigrants to the Sudan at the end of the fifteenth century A. D.
were from al -Hijaz, al-Yemen and Egypt. It is also known that a
considerable number of Islamic scholars were among the Arabs
82 Nashr vol. 1 p. 41.
48
who settled in the Sudan at that time. Accordingly over time
many khaläwi were established in different places throughout the
Sudan. Some of these khaläwi are still providing the teaching of
the rules of Abu `Amr's Reading, despite the fact that this Reading
is no longer known in, the rest of the Islamic world. Since the
spread ' of the Ottoman Dynasty, it has been replaced by the
Reading of `Asim. This is because the mushaf of the Qur'an was
printed according to `Asim's Reading on a mass scale and then 11
distributed throughout the regions under Turkish rule, and in
particular to the Government controlled schools. The Sudan,
however, was too remote and its communications too difficult to
be influenced by this phenomenon, and it was able to preserve
the tradition of the early scholars of the Qur. 'än.
Apart from the unsuccessful exploratory raids against the Nubians
by the Umayyad 'Uqba ibn Nafi' during the early Muslim
conquests, "' the first Arab emigrants to the Sudan were a small
number of Ummayads fleeing from the conquering `Abbäsids.
Then there were merchants who came looking for gold and
animals, and bedouin shepherds seeking pasture and water for
their animals. These people were the first to establish khalawi as
a sign of their good intention towards religion. They were full of
emotional, feelings for Islam rather than knowledge, and as such,
" Trimingham 60.
49
the khalwa had only a limited benefit to them,, mainly as a place
for their gatherings and to accommodate their guests. Due
therefore to their limited knowledge of Islam, the Sudan was far
removed from orthodox teachings, and it was not until the great
expansion of the Sufi movement that Islam proper spread in the
Sudan. Four great scholars should be isolated.
The first came to the Sudan from Yemen. 84 He was Shaykh
Ghulämalläh ibn "A'id al-Yemeni who settled in Dongola in the
mid-fourteenth century A. D. He was the forefather of the famous
Sudanese tribe of al-Rikäbiyya. He is reported to have said that
he came to the area when the people were in great doubt about
their religion. There were no copies of the Qur'an, and no scholars.
He started to build -mosques, and to teach the Qur'an and other
knowledge-to-his--sons and to other pupils. Shaykh Muhammad
Nur ibn Dayfallah notes" that under the Funj, who had ruled
Nüba since 910 A. H. and established the town of Sýar, there were
no schools to teach the Qur'än or even to teach any knowledge and
that a man could divorce his wife and re-marry her in the same
day without allowing for the period of `idda to expire.
The second was Shaykh Mahmüd al-'Araki, who came from Egypt
in 1510 A. D. and started to teach people about the religion,
" Or at least his father did (Trimingham100) 'S Tabaqat p. 40.
50
settling near the White Nile and establishing many khaläwi
there. "'
The third scholar, or rather group of scholars, were the four sons
of Jabir, descendants of Ghulamallah ibn `A'id. These four greatly
improved the teaching in the khaläwi in the sixteenth century
A. D. " Their sons and other pupils later became leaders and
scholars themselves, like Shaykh Ya`qüb the forefather of al-
Ya`qübät near the town of Sinar, and Shaykh `Abd Allah al-'Araki
the leader of al-`Arakiyyin to the east of the Jazira.
The fourth scholar was Muhammad walad `Isa Siwär al-Dhahab, BB
during whose time (the second half of the seventeenth century
A. D. 89 specialisation in the Qur'an and its teachings developed.
-Although his khalwa was an extension of the khalwa of the-sons of
Jäbir (his father had been a pupil in their khalwa taught by his
father) Muhammad Siwar al-Dhahab incorporated the Arabic and
Qur'änic studies taught him by al-Tilmisäni al-Maghribi. It can be T
said that the expansion of religious studies in general came
through the children of Jabir, and the expansion of Qur'änic
studies in particular came through Muhammad. Every Qur'anic
reader in the Sudan who came after him would have to have his
"Trimingham 100,115 n. 2. "' Trimingham 100. "Trimingham 116. " Trimingham 197,116.
51
transmission connected to Muhammad (unless of course it was
that of Hafs from `Asim, only introduced into the Sudan this
century). The transmission of Warsh from Näfi`, still in use in
Dongola, is also connected to Muhammad through al-Tilmisäni al-
Maghribi. Those from I? ongola who studied this particular reading
trace their transmission back to `Isa walad Kanu, a pupil of
Muhammad Siwär al-Dhahab. 9° It could therefore be said that
Muhammad taught a different Reading to that of Abi `Amr.
However, while it is true that he taught `Isa walad Kanu the
transmission of Warsh, this transmission was not his main one,
nor did it spread beyond Dongola for two reasons. First, `Isa was
not consistent in his teaching, and according to Süfi practices he
would take time off, called "Attraction Time" (jadhb) when he
was absent from his senses. Second, a fellow student of `Isa called
`Abd Allah al-Aghbash, was more intellectual than the other
students and developed his studies contrary to `Isa walad Kanu.
He was followed by his sons and grandsons who became famous
scholars in the Qur'anic sciences, called al-Ghubush. Al-Ghubush
are known to the Sudanese as the tribe of those who read the
Qur'än by heart. `Abd Allah al-Aghbash and his offspring and
students reached the highest level in the teaching of the Qur'anic
sciences, writing and editing many books. In their time, the
number of those who knew the Qur'an by heart greatly increased,
'° I am indebted to Dr. Ahmad ̀ Ali al-Imäm for this information. 52
and their period was the golden era for the khalwa and Qur'änic
studies. A story that illustrates this is that if somebody wanted a
written Qur'än, he would bring paper and other requirements and
give them to a few of those who knew the Qur'an by heart and
who had a similar way of writing. He would then ask each of
them to write from such and such a verse of the Qur'än up to such
and such a verse. At the end of the day he would collect all the
individual sections from them and it would make up a complete
written Qur'än in exactly the same style. One of the scholars of
this time was Daf' Allah ibn abi Idas al-`Araki" to whom most of
the branches of al-Täriga al-Qadiriya are connected in the Sudan.
Through his followers, the biggest and many of the khaläwi of the
Qur'an were founded in different parts of the country, such as the
khalwa of Umm Dubban.
§3.3. The khalwa of Umm Dubbin
Umm Dubbin is a large village east of Khartoum. It has grown up
around a khalwa founded by Shaykh Muhammad Badr (1810 -
1884 A. D. ), a Sufi of great fame and an outstanding teacher of the
Qur'an y2 Umm Dubbin is, and has been for the last century, the
" Trimingham 131,134,198. 92 It was featured in Basim Musallam's Channel 4 TV series The Arabs. See also Trimingham 220.
53
largest khalwa in the Sudan in terms of both human and financial
resources. It was where I had my primary education and learnt
the Qur'an by heart. It has been ignored by researchers for a long
time, and nothing has come down to us about it except the limited
information provided by Muhammad al-Nur Wad Dayfallah in his
Kitäb al-Tabagät. For these reasons I have taken this khalwa as a
good example of the khalwa in the Sudan.
As to the origin of the name Umm Dubbän, according to reliable
Sudanese sources, when Muhammad Badr arrived for the first
time to the area, he sat under a tree in which a colony of bees was
nesting, so he called the place Umm Dubban. In Sudanese
colloquial bees and domestic flies are both called al-dubban (al-
dhubäb in Classical Arabic). The former president of the Sudan,
Nimeiri, renamed it -Umm Dawan Ban, to avoid using the word
flies for this respectable place. But the original name is preferred
by those attached to the place, and fits the metre of the poetry
composed about it.
3.3.1. The fire of Qur'än
The khalwa of Umm Dubbän was established in 1285 by
Muhammad Badr, but his teaching the Qur'an started twenty one
54
years before that in1264 when he asked his follower al-Faki
Muhammad ibn al-Hajj to kindle the fire of Qur'an in al-Nakhayra,
an agricultural area to the east of Umm Dubbin.
The words Shaykh, Khalifah and Faki have specific meanings in Umm
Dubban. Shaykh means Shaykh al-Tariqa and on its own it means
Muhammad Badr. It may also mean the pupils who later on become r
Shaykh al-Tariga by the order of the Shaykh. Sometimes, however, the
title Shaykh can be given out of respect to a ruler or even to an outside
official. Khalifah means the man chosen to be in charge after the
death of his predecessor. He has to be from the sons of the Shaykh or
his grandsons and their male children. The word Faki (cf. faqih) is a
scholar or someone who knows the Qur'än by heart. He might be from
the Shaykh's sons or not, although the sons of the Shaykh who became
Khalifahs or Shaykhs had their title changed from Faki to Khalifah or
Shaykh.
The fire of Qur'an is a fire set to logs of wood during the night to
enable the pupils of a khalwa to recite the Qur'an, since this study
is mainly at night and at dawn. The above mentioned Faki
Muhammad ibn al-Hajj lit the fire for a year. He was followed by
al-Faki Balla for another year, then his brother al-Faki
Muhammad for a year, then al-Khälifa Ahmad ibn al-Shaykh
Muhammad for two years, after which the al-Faki Balla returned
to light the fire for four years. Al-Khalifa `Ali al-Karär ibn al-
Shaykh Muhammad then lit it for one year followed by al-Faki
55
`Abd al-Rahmän ibn al-Fakir Muhammad a1-Muhalläwi for eleven
years.
A new era of the fire of the Qur'an then started when al-Shaykh
moved from al-Nakhayrah to Umm Dubbän, where it settled and
more effort was paid to it. Hajj al-Tayyib took over as Shaykh.
He had great knowledge and respect, and continued in his
teaching for eleven years, after which his brother `Abbas
succeeded him for six years. The process of teaching the Qur'an at
Umm Dubbän continued under the supervision of the following
men one after another:
al-Faki `Abd al-Rahnian Handöl (four years)
al-Faki Muhammad al-Häjj Nur (four years)
al-Khalifah Hasab al-Rasiil ibn al-Shaykh Muhammad Badr
(forty years till his death in 1349)
al-Faki Klialid (eight years till his death in 1357)
al-Faki Harlin `Umar(till 1963 A. D. )9 3
al-Faki `Ali Salih (till 1984 A. D. )
al-Faki `Uthmän al-Rayyah - in charge of the fire of the Qur'än
till the present time.
Those who chair the teaching in the khalwa need assistance from
93 He was the one who taught me the Qur'an.
56
those who recite the Qur'än by heart. They help in teaching as
well as in managing the khalwa . In some cases, they will
become Shaykh, such as al-Faki Khälid and al-Faki Harlin. There
were others who expended considerable efforts in teaching but
did not succeed in becoming Shaykh. This may be due to early
death, such as al-Faki Ibrahim Muhammad in the time of al-
Khalifa Hasab al-Rasul or due to leaving the job of teaching in the
khalwa, such as al-Faki Muhammad al-Bashir `Amr and al-Faki al-
Tahir al-Rubätäbi.
The following are the Khalifahs94 of Shaykh Muhammad Badr
from his sons, with their dates of birth:
Khalifah Ahmad 1245
Khalifah `Ali a1-Kar . rä r 1252
Khalifah Hasab al-Rasü1 1282
Khalifah Mustafa 1288
From his grandsons - Khalifah Yüsüf `Amr.
The system of choosing the Khalifah during the time of the
Shaykh's sons was that the eldest son should be Khalifah, unless
he gives up his right to the next in line. This happened with
14 i. e. the leaders of the Sufi tariga 57
Shaykh `Abbas who relinquished his right to become Khalifah to
his younger brother Hasab al-Rasul. After the death of the last son
of the Shaykh, Khalifah Mustafa, the grandsons decided to follow a
new procedure in choosing the new Khalifah. This was to choose
one of the grandsons of the Shaykh whose father had not had a
chance to become Khalifah although he had had all the
requirements of becoming one. It was unanimously agreed that
Khalifah Yüsuf al-Faki `Amr be chosen. After his death, some
difficulties arose with choosing the new Khalifah due to external
intervention, but they were solved by choosing two Khalifahs, al-
Tahir al-Shaykh al-Tayyib and al-Faki `Amr, a brother of Khalifah
Yusuf.
3.3.2. Enrolment and teaching procedures in the khal wa
There are few restrictions for attendance at the khalwa. People of
different age groups may enrol, for instance, some are in their
teens and others in their fifties. There is no specific time to apply,
nor any application forms for enrolment. It is open all the year
and joining the khalwa can be at any time and from any place,
village, city, or even from outside the Sudan. Those who are from
the village usually stay at their homes and simply attend the
58
khalwa, but those who are outsiders are provided with free
accommodation and meals. The ability of the student and his
intellect will determine the period necessary for him to stay in the
khalwa. He graduates from the khalwa when he has learnt the
Qur'än by heart.
A mature prospective applicant usually comes without a written
request, and greets the Khalifah, -telling him that he wants to study
the Qur'an. If the Khalifah accepts, he will answer him by saying
"Khayr in sha' Alläh", andl order one of the students to take the
newcomer to Shaykh al fugarä' who will consider that the
acceptance of this student has been approved since the new
student is accompanied by an older student sent by the Khalifah.
This is for a mature student, but for younger ones their father or
guardian will follow this procedure until the new student is
received by Shaykh al fugarä'. The Shaykh al fugara' will ask
some questions to ascertain the level of the new student
particularly in connection with learning the Qur'än by heart. Also
through the discussion he will find out the personality, way of
thinking and the environment which the newcomer has been
raised in. The Shaykh al fugara' will then call one of the old
students whom he thinks is the most suitable one to share
accommodation etc. with the new student. The old student will
then greet and receive the new student and a new bed will be
59
provided. After settling down, the old student will bring the new
one back to the Shaykh al-hirän who will give him a wooden
writing board, which differs in size depending on the level of the
new student. Bigger wooden writing boards are given to those of
an advanced level of education, and smaller ones for the beginners.
If the new student has already made advances in learning the
Qur'an by heart, then he will become directly attached to the
Shaykh al-hirän or to one of his assistants, but the beginner is
usually attached* to an older student appointed by the Shaykh. * The
new student will be called huwär and will be considered a pupil of
the older one.
The advanced student may have many beginners (hiran) under his
supervision. He usually starts them with the basics of the
alphabet. Sometimes he writes on the soil and other times he
sticks date stones to a wooden writing board (law/. ), to show the
pupils the shapes of the letters, and asks them to run their pens
around the date stones, to teach them writing skills. After
becoming familiar with the alphabet the Shaykh will transfer the
pupil to a higher level which is called al-ramya. This level has two
categories, one is very simple and the other one is an ordinary
level. The simple level is run by the Shaykh who pronounces the
word to be written by the pupils each letter separately. He may
also mention that this letter is connected to that one or is
60
separated from the other letter and so on. For example, the
Shaykh says, "al-hamdu lilah" then he says, "write hamza". The
pupil replies, "sayyiduna hamza" then the Shaykh says, "1äm",
where, upon the pupil will write lam and will say, "sayyidunä him".
and so on. The word sayyiduna is pronounced with'imala in the
khalwa according to the narration of al-Duri. It is mainly used in
the conversation with the Shaykh either for the sake of al-ramya
or in general conversation. The ordinary ramya is conducted by
the Shaykh by pronouncing a whole word such as wal-duha. The
pupil then writes the word and after he has finished writing, says
the word wal-duha, whereupon the Shaykh says the next word or
words, i. e. wallayii idhä sajä. ' The ramya can be for one pupil or
ten or more at any one time. It may also involve different
chapters of the Qur'an, and each pupil will reply in turn to avoid
confusion. The Shaykh knows the level of his pupils, so he may
stop one of them at a certain word or ask another to write an extra
line or two.
The period of al-ramya ends when the pupil has learnt to read and
write and when he has developed the skill of learning by heart.
The Shaykh then asks his pupil to start learning al-mutala`a. This
means it is now compulsory for this particular pupil to learn by
himself, since the period of receiving knowledge from the Shaykh
is now over, and it is time to rely on himself. Al-mutäla`a is a
61
specific amount of the Qur'in for a student to write on his wooden
writing writing board for the next morning. For those who are not q jus" C, t
learning by heart, it is about one eighth or sixteenth ofLthe Qur'an,
which they write on the following morning. The Shaykh or one of
the elder students will read the section out loudly, and the student
will follow by listening and looking at his writing on the wooden
writing board. He then spends his day learning that part of the
Qur'an and the following morning erases what has been written,
ready for the next session. The beginners usually sit in a circle
round their Shaykhs for al-ramiya. The advanced student will
have his own writing board and usually separates himself from
others to write what he has learnt from al-mutäla`a. The Shaykh
watches those who are doing al-mutäla`a from a distance so that
they -do not -cheat. They are only -allowed to ask one or two
-questions. Exceeding -these limits will -result in punishment for the
student who did not prepare his mutala`a very well. After
finishing writing on the writing board the process of correction
begins, called al-sahha. The beginners will give their writing
boards to the advanced students. The advanced students will give
theirs to the Shaykh al-hirtin or to one of his assistants. The
writings are checked thoroughly for the shape of letters, and any
errors. Commendations, reminders and other comments will be
made and in some cases they will ask the pupil to clear this writing
board and re-write the subject again if there is large number of
62
mistakes. The Shaykh will then write on one side of the writing
board what is required to be written by the student for the next
day. He writes in a beautiful way so that the student may be able
to follow or copy the same style. He also notes that this particular
writing board has been corrected. The student who does not
correct his writing errors will face punishment. The punishment
will be harsher if the student writes on the space left for the
Shaykh's writings. Writing may vary from a few lines for the
beginners, a sixteenth for other ones which is called kharuba, an
eighth for those of intermediate level, and two eighths for those
about to graduate, called maqara.
Those whose writing boards have been corrected will go back to
their writing boards to continue reading and reciting until eleven
o'clock in the morning. This period is called al-dahwiyya. After
that the student is dismissed to .h accommodation to take food
and rest and to prepare themselves for the coming period which is
called al-duhriya. This starts from al-zahira 94 and is for the
student to read from his writing board to the Shaykh. The student
reads in a loud voice, continous looking. at his writing board to
ensure he reads correctly.
The next period is called al-`asriya, from the time of al-'asr. This is
" zä' is usually pronounced as dad. 63
for learning the mutäla'a. The following period is called al-
maghribiya, from the time of al-maghrib. This period is for al-
`arda which is when the student recites by heart to the Shaykh
what is written in his writing board without looking at it. The time
of al-` isha' is called the period of al-scab`. This period is for the
advanced students to read a seventh of the Qur'an which they have
learnt by heart, lest they forget what they have learnt. This period
ends at ten o'clock in the evening. Supper is then served followed
by bed-time.
Th enext period is called al-daghshiya. For Sudanese in general
this means the time for morning prayer al-fajr, but here it starts
one hour before al fajr. This is to give time for revision and a last
chance for al-'arda for those who were unable to show their
writing boards the night before. This is called al-daghshiya al-
kubra. The other is called al-du. hshiya al-sughra and it starts
after morning prayer and lasts until sunrise when all writing
boards are cleaned and ready for a fresh start as with the day
before. This is the daily programme except for Thursday and the
Friday which is the weekly holiday. The other exceptions are the
two Eids, when each student has a break of fifteen days.
Each year many students graduate on completing learning the
Qur'än by heart. They have to pass an exam before the Shaykh
64
al-hirän in which they have to recite the whole Qur'an by heart to
the satisfaction of the Shaykh al-hiran. If any fail, the Shaykh asks
him to take his writing board back and to start again. This is called
`awda. Graduates usually stay in touch with their Shaykhs and
with the khalwa. They show great respect to Shaykhs and the
khalwa since they offered these graduates the best thing in the life
of a Muslim which is learning the Qur'än by heart. Also provided
was the accommodation, food and a parental care. These facilities
are provided to more or less two thousand students. The most
recent figure is one thousand and seven hundred students.
Through the graduates of Umm Dubban many khaläwi have been .
established which have had great success in teaching many
students to know the Qur'än by heart, and in directing the public
towards Islamic knowledge and behaviour. Examples of these
other khaläw are the khalwa of wad Abü Salih, from which the
greatest reader of the Qur'an in the Sudan graduated, Shaykh Sicldiq
Ahmad Hamadün; the khalwa of Abü Qurün and the khalwa of
Shaykh Mustafa al-Fäd ni. These three khaläwi are on the East
bank of the River Nile. In al-Jazira there are the kh al wa of Umm
Daqras, the khalwa of al-'idayy4 and the khalwa of al-Nakhayra al-
Thaniya.
65
3.3.3. The role of the khalwa in preserving the reading of
Abu 'Amr.
The reading of Abi `Amr has been preserved only in the Sudan,
and this is solely thanks to the khalwa. The reasons are:
1. At the time the khaläwi expanded rapidly the Reading of Abi
`Amr was the only one for them to learn and to teach.
2. The khalwa in the Sudan is independent from the government
with its own financial resources, whereas in many other parts of
the Islamic world, the State can impose upon educational
institutions and even on scholars.
3. The strictest discipline is imposed on the pupils of the khalwa to
prevent intermixing the different Readings.
4. The loyalty of the khaläwi to each other. The new khalwa will
follow the footsteps of the old one, since they have the same
resources of knowledge. This knowledge has enormous influence
on the pupils since it has been inherited by fathers and forefathers
and it is unacceptable for any of it to be lost.
5. The continuity of the khaläwi. Before one khalwa becomes old,
66
a new one is established.
67
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