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A druid was a member of the priestly class in Britannia, Ireland and Gaul and possibly

other parts of Celtic western Europe during the Iron Age. Very little is currently known

about the ancient druids as they left no written accounts about themselves, and the only

evidence of them are a few descriptions left by Greek and Roman authors, and stories

created by later mediaeval Irish writers.[2] While archaeological evidence has been

uncovered pertaining to the religious practices of the Iron Age people, "not one single

artefact or image has been unearthed that can undoubtedly be connected with the ancient

Druids."[3] Various recurring themes emerge in a number of the Greco-Roman accounts of

the druids, including that they performed human sacrifice, believed in a form of

reincarnation, and that they held a high position in Gaulish society. Next to nothing is

known about their cultic practice, except for the ritual of oak and mistletoe as described by

Pliny the Elder.

The earliest known reference to the druids dates to 200 BCE, although the oldest actual

description comes from the Roman military general Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de

Bello Gallico (50s BCE). Later Greco-Roman writers also described the druids, including

Cicero,[4] Tacitus[5] and Pliny the Elder.[6] Following the invasion of Gaul by the Roman

Empire, druidism was suppressed by the Roman government under the 1st-century

emperors Tiberius and Claudius, and it disappeared from the written record by the 2nd

century, although there were likely later survivals in the British Isles.[7 ]

The druids then also appear in some of the mediaeval tales from Christianised Ireland like

the Táin Bó Cúailnge, where they are largely portrayed as sorcerers who opposed the

coming of Christianity.[8]

In the wake of the Celtic revival during the 18th and 19th centuries, fraternal and

Neopagan groups were founded based upon the ideas about the ancient druids, a

movement which is known as Neo-druidry.[9]

[edit] Etymology

The modern English word druid derives from the Latin druides (pronounced /druˈides/),

which itself was considered by ancient Roman writers to come from the native Celtic

Gaulish word for these figures.[10][11][12] Other Roman texts also employ the form

druidae, while the same term was used by Greek ethnographers as δρυΐδης

(druidēs).[13][14] Although no extant Romano-Celtic inscription is known to contain the

form,[10] the word is cognate with the later insular Celtic words, Old Irish druí ("druid,

sorcerer") and early Welsh dryw ("seer").[12] Based on all available forms, the hypothetical

proto-Celtic word may then be reconstructed as *dru-wid-s (pl. *druwides) meaning "oak-

knower". The two elements go back to the Proto-Indo-European roots *deru-[15] and

*weid- "to see".[16] The sense of "oak-knower" (or "oak-seer") is confirmed by Pliny the

Elder,[12] who in his Natural History etymologised the term as containing the Greek noun

δρύς (drus), "oak-tree"[17 ] and the Greek suffix -ιδης.[18] The modern Irish word for Oak

is Dara, as it derives to anglicised placenames like Derry, and Kildare (literally the "church

of oak"). There are many stories and lore about saints, heroes, and oak trees, and also

many local stories and superstitions (called pishogues) about trees in general, which still

survive in rural Ireland. Both Irish druí and Welsh dryw could also refer to the wren,[12]

possibly connected with an association of that bird with augury bird in Irish and Welsh

tradition (see also Wren Day).[12][19]

[edit] Practices and doctrines

According to Ronald Hutton, "we can know virtually nothing of certainty about the ancient

Druids, so that - although they certainly existed - they function more or less as legendary

figures."[20] - the sources provided about them by ancient and mediaeval writers, coupled

with archaeological evidence, can give us an idea of what they might have performed as a

part of their religious duties.

[edit] Societal Role and Training

One of the few things that both the Greco-Roman and the vernacular Irish sources agree

on about the druids was that they played an important part in pagan Celtic society. In his

description, Julius Caesar claimed that they acted as judges in Gaul, and that they were one

of the two most important social groups in the region, alongside the equites, or nobles,

responsible for organising worship and sacrifices, divination and judicial procedure in

Gaulish and British society.[21] He also claimed that they were exempt from military

service and from the payment of taxes, and that they had the power to excommunicate

people from religious festivals, making them social outcasts.[21] Two other classical writers,

Diodorus Siculus and Strabo also wrote about the role of druids in Gallic society, claiming

that the druids were held in such respect that if they intervened between two armies they

could stop the battle.[22]

Pomponius Mela[23] is the first author who says that the druids' instruction was secret, and

was carried on in caves and forests. Druidic lore consisted of a large number of verses

learned by heart, and Caesar remarked that it could take up to twenty years to complete

the course of study. There is no historic evidence during the period when Druidism was

flourishing to suggest that Druids were other than male.[24] What was taught to Druid

novices anywhere is conjecture: of the druids' oral literature, not one certifiably ancient

verse is known to have survived, even in translation. All instruction was communicated

orally, but for ordinary purposes, Caesar reports,[25] the Gauls had a written language in

which they used Greek characters. In this he probably draws on earlier writers; by the

time of Caesar, Gaulish inscriptions had moved from the Greek script to the Latin script.

[edit] Sacrifice

An 18th century illustration of a wicker man, the form of execution that Caesar alleged

the druids used for human sacrifice. From the "Duncan Caesar", Tonson, Draper, and

Dodsley edition of the Commentaries of Caesar translated by William Duncan published in

1753.

Greek and Roman writers frequently made reference to the druids as practitioners of

human sacrifice, a trait they themselves reviled, believing it to be barbaric. Such reports of

druidic human sacrifice are found in the works of Lucan, Julius Caesar, Suetonius and

Cicero.[26] Caesar claimed that the sacrifice was primarily of criminals, but at times

innocents would also be used, and that they would be burned alive in a large wooden effigy,

now often known as a wicker man. A differing account came from the 10th-century

Commenta Bernensia, which claimed that sacrifices to the deities Teutates, Esus and

Taranis were by drowning, hanging and burning, respectively (see threefold death).

Diodorus Siculus asserts that a sacrifice acceptable to the Celtic gods had to be attended by

a druid, for they were the intermediaries between the people and the divinities. He

remarked upon the importance of prophets in druidic ritual:

"These men predict the future by observing the flight and calls of birds and by the

sacrifice of holy animals: all orders of society are in their power... and in very

important matters they prepare a human victim, plunging a dagger into his chest; by

observing the way his limbs convulse as he falls and the gushing of his blood, they are

able to read the future."

There is archaeological evidence from western Europe that has been widely used to back

up the idea that human sacrifice was performed by the Iron Age Celts. Mass graves found

in a ritual context dating from this period have been unearthed in Gaul, at both Gournay-

sur-Aronde and Ribemont-sur-Ancre in what was the region of the Belgae chiefdom. The

excavator of these sites, Jean-Louis Brunaux, interpreted them as areas of human sacrifice

in devotion to a war god,[27 ][28] although this view was criticised by another archaeologist,

Martin Brown, who believed that the corpses might be those of honoured warriors buried

in the sanctuary rather than sacrifices.[29] Bog bodies are also known from Great Britain

and Ireland, such as the "Lindow Man", found in Lindow, Cheshire.[30]

Some historians have questioned whether the Greco-Roman writers were accurate in their

claims. J. Rives remarked that it was "ambiguous" whether the druids ever performed

such sacrifices, for the Romans and Greeks were known to project what they saw as

barbarian traits onto foreign peoples including not only druids but Jews and Christians as

well, thereby confirming their own "cultural superiority" in their own minds.[31] Taking a

similar opinion, Ronald Hutton summarised the evidence by stating that "the Greek and

Roman sources for Druidry are not, as we have received them, of sufficiently good quality

to make a clear and final decision on whether human sacrifice was indeed a part of their

belief system."[32]Peter Berresford Ellis, a Celtic nationalist who authored The Druids

(1994), believed them to be the equivalents of the Indian Brahmin caste, and considered

accusations of human sacrifice to remain unproven,[unreliable source?][33] whilst an expert

in mediaeval Welsh and Irish literature, Nora Chadwick, who believed them to be great

philosophers, fervently purported the idea that they had not been involved in human

sacrifice, and that such accusations were imperialist Roman propaganda.[34]

[edit] Philosophy

Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor referred to the Druids as philosophers and called their

doctrine of the immortality of the soul and reincarnation or metempsychosis

"Pythagorean":

"The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the Gauls' teaching that the souls of men

are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another

body."

Caesar remarks: "The principal point of their doctrine is that the soul does not die and that

after death it passes from one body into another" (see metempsychosis). Caesar wrote:

"With regard to their actual course of studies, the main object of all education

is, in their opinion, to imbue their scholars with a firm belief in the

indestructibility of the human soul, which, according to their belief, merely

passes at death from one tenement to another; for by such doctrine alone,

they say, which robs death of all its terrors, can the highest form of human

courage be developed. Subsidiary to the teachings of this main principle, they

hold various lectures and discussions on astronomy, on the extent and

geographical distribution of the globe, on the different branches of natural

philosophy, and on many problems connected with religion".

—Julius Caesar, "De Bello Gallico", VI, 13

Diodorus Siculus, writing in 36 BCE, described how the druids followed "the Pythagorean

doctrine", that human souls "are immortal and after a prescribed number of years they

commence a new life in a new body."[35] One modern scholar has speculated that Buddhist

missionaries had been sent by the Indian king Ashoka.[36] Others have invoked common

Indo-European parallels.[37 ] Caesar noted the druidic doctrine of the original ancestor of

the tribe, whom he referred to as Dispater, or Father Hades.

[edit] Sources on druidism

[edit] Greek and Roman records

The earliest recorded mention of the druids comes from circa 200 BCE, when two Greek

texts, one of which was a history of philosophy written by Sotion of Alexandria, and the

other which was a study of magic that was widely albeit incorrectly attributed to Aristotle,

mentioned the existence of Druidas, or wise men belonging to the Keltois (Celts) and

Galatias (either the Galatians or the Gauls).[38] While both of these texts are now lost,

they were quoted in the 2nd century CE work Vitae by Diogenes Laertius.[39] Meanwhile,

there were also references in Greek and Roman texts during the ensuing century to

"barbarian philosophers",[40] a possible reference to the Gaulish druids.

[edit] Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar, the Roman general and later dictator, who wrote the "fullest" and

"earliest original text" to describe the druids.[38]

The first known text that actually describes the druids was Julius Caesar's Commentarii de

Bello Gallico, book VI, which had been published in the 50s or 40s BCE. A military general

who was intent on conquering Gaul and Britain, Caesar described the druids as being

concerned with "divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, private or public, and

the interpretation of ritual questions." He claimed that they played an important part in

Gaulish society, being one of the two respected classes along with the equites (a term

meaning 'horsemen' which has been usually interpreted as referring to warriors) and that

they performed the function of judges. He claimed that they recognised the authority of a

single leader, who would rule till their death, when a successor would be chosen by vote or

through conflict. He also remarked that they met annually at a sacred place in the region

owned by the Carnute tribe in Gaul, while they viewed Britain as the centre of druidic

study, and that they were not found amongst the German tribes to the east of the Rhine.

According to Caesar, many young men were trained to be druids, during which they had to

learn all the associated lore off by heart. He also claimed that their main teaching was "that

souls do not perish, but after death pass from one to another" but that they were also

concerned with "the stars and their movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the

world of nature, the powers of deities", indicating that they were involved with such

common aspects of religion as theology and cosmology, but also astronomy. Caesar also

held that they were "administrators" during rituals of human sacrifice, for which criminals

were usually used, and that the method was through burning in a wicker man.[21]

While he would have had first hand experience with Gaulish people, and therefore likely

with druids, Caesar's account has been widely criticised by modern historians as being

inaccurate. One issue that had been raised by such historians as Fustel de Coulanges[41]

and Ronald Hutton was that while Caesar described the druids as a significant power within

Gaulish society, he did not mention them even once in his accounts of his Gaulish

conquests, and nor did Aulus Hirtius, who continued Caesar's account of the Gallic Wars

following the latter's death. Hutton believed that Caesar had manipulated the idea of the

druid so that they would appear both civilised (being learned and pious) and barbaric

(performing human sacrifice) to Roman readers, thereby representing both "a society

worth including in the Roman Empire" and one that required civilising with Roman rule and

values, thus justifying his wars of conquest.[42] Sean Dunham suggested that Caesar had

simply taken the Roman religious functions of senators and applied them to the druids. [43]

Daphne Nash believed it "not unlikely" that he "greatly exaggerates" both the centralised

system of druidic leadership and its connection to Britain.[44]

Other historians have accepted the possibility of Caesar's account being more accurate.

Norman J. DeWitt surmised that Caesar's description of the role of druids in Gaulish society

may report an idealised tradition, based on the society of the 2nd Century BCE, before the

pan-Gallic confederation led by the Arverni was smashed in 121 BCE, followed by the

invasions of Teutones and Cimbri, rather than on the demoralised and disunited Gaul of his

own time.[45] John Creighton has speculated that in Britain, the druidic social influence was

already in decline by the mid-1st century BCE, in conflict with emergent new power

structures embodied in paramount chieftains.[46] Other scholars see the main reason for

the decline of druidism in the Roman conquest itself.[47 ]

[edit] Cicero, Diodorus Sicilus, Strabo and Tacitus

It would not only be Caesar, but other Greco-Roman writers who would subsequently

comment on the druids and their practices, although none of them would go into as much

detail as he. Caesar's contemporary, Marcus Tullius Cicero, noted that he had met a Gallic

druid, Divitiacus, who was a member of the Aedui tribe. Divitiacus was supposedly knew

much about the natural world and performed divination through augury.[4] Whether

Diviaticus was genuinely a druid can however be disputed, for Caesar also knew this figure,

and also wrote about him, calling him by the more Gaulish-sounding (and thereby

presumably the more authentic) Diviciacus, but never referred to him as a druid and

indeed presented him as a political and military leader.[48]

Another classical writer to take up describing the druids not too long after was Diodorus

Siculus, who published this description in his Bibliotheca historicae in 36 BCE. Alongside

the druids, or as he called them, drouidas, whom he viewed as philosophers and

theologians, he also remarked how there were poets and singers in Celtic society whom he

called bardous, or bards.[35] Such an idea was expanded on by Strabo, writing in the 20s

CE, who declared that amongst the Gauls, there were three types of honoured figures: the

poets and singers known as bardoi, the diviners and specialists in the natural world known

as o'vateis, and those who studied "moral philosophy", the druidai.[49] Nonetheless, the

accuracy of these writers has been brought into question, with Ronald Hutton stating that

"All that can be concluded is that we have absolutely no secure knowledge of the sources

used by any of these authors for their comments on Druids, and therefore of their date,

their geographical framework or their accuracy."[50]

The Roman writer Tacitus, himself a senator and a historian, described how when the

Roman army, led by Suetonius Paulinus, attacked the island of Mona (Anglesey, Ynys Môn

in Welsh), the legionaries were awestruck on landing by the appearance of a band of druids,

who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the

invaders. He states that these "terrified our soldiers who had never seen such a thing

before..." The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the

Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the sacred groves of Mona were cut

down.[51] Tacitus is also the only primary source that gives accounts of druids in Britain,

but maintains a hostile point of view, seeing them as ignorant savages.[52] Ronald Hutton

meanwhile points out that there "is no evidence that Tacitus ever used eye-witness

reports" and casts doubt upon the reliability of Tacitus's report.[53]

[edit] Irish and Welsh records

During the Middle Ages, after Ireland and Wales were Christianised, druids appeared in a

number of written sources, namely tales and stories such as the Táin Bó Cúailnge, but also

in the hagiographies of various saints. These were all written by Christian monks "who may

not merely have been hostile to the earlier paganism but actually ignorant of it" and so

would not have been particularly reliable, but at the same time may provide clues as to the

practices of druids in Ireland and to a lesser extent Wales.[54]

[edit] Irish literature and law codes

The Irish passages referring to druids in such vernacular sources were "more numerous

than those on the classical texts" of the Greeks and Romans, and paint a somewhat

different picture of them. The druids in Irish literature - for whom words such as drui,

draoi, drua and drai are used - are sorcerers with supernatural powers, who are respected

in society, particularly for their ability to perform divination. They can cast spells and turn

people into animals or stones, or curse peoples’ crops to be blighted. At the same time, the

term druid is sometimes used to refer to any figure who uses magic, for instance in the

Fenian Cycle, both giants and warriors are referred to as druids when they cast a spell,

even though they are not usually referred to as such; as Ronald Hutton noted, in mediaeval

Irish literature, "the category of Druid [is] very porous."[55]

When druids are portrayed in early Irish sagas and saints' lives set in the pre-Christian

past of the island, they are usually accorded high social status. The evidence of the law-

texts, which were first written down in the 7th and 8th centuries, suggests that with the

coming of Christianity the role of the druid in Irish society was rapidly reduced to that of a

sorcerer who could be consulted to cast spells or practise healing magic and that his

standing declined accordingly.[56] According to the early legal tract Bretha Crólige, the

sick-maintenance due to a druid, satirist and brigand (díberg) is no more than that due to a

bóaire (an ordinary freeman). Another law-text, Uraicecht Becc (‘Small primer’), gives the

druid a place among the dóer-nemed or professional classes which depend for their status

on a patron, along with wrights, blacksmiths and entertainers, as opposed to the fili, who

alone enjoyed free nemed-status.[57 ]

[edit] Welsh literature

Whilst druids featured prominently in many mediaeval Irish sources, they were far rarer in

their Welsh counterparts. Unlike the Irish texts, the Welsh term commonly seen as

referring to the druids, dryw, was used to refer purely to prophets and not to sorcerers or

pagan priests. Historian Ronald Hutton noted that there were two explanations for the use

of the term in Wales: the first was that it was a survival from the pre-Christian era, when

dryw had been ancient priests, whilst the second was that the Welsh had borrowed the

term from the Irish, as had the English (who used the terms dry and drycraeft to refer to

magicians and magic respectively, most probably influenced by the Irish terms.)[58]

[edit] Archaeology

As the historian Jane Webster stated, "individual druids... are unlikely to be identified

archaeologically",[59] a view which was echoed by Ronald Hutton, who declared that "not

one single artefact or image has been unearthed that can undoubtedly be connected with

the ancient Druids."[3] A.P. Fitzpatrick, in examining what he believed to be astral

symbolism on Late Iron Age swords has expressed difficulties in relating any material

culture, even the Coligny calendar, with druidic culture.[60] Nonetheless, some

archaeologists have attempted to link certain discoveries with written accounts of the

druids, for instance the archaeologist Anne Ross linked what she believed to be evidence of

human sacrifice in Celtic pagan society - such as the Lindow Man bog body - to the Greco-

Roman accounts of human sacrifice being officiated over by the druids.[61][62]

[edit] History of reception

[edit] Prohibition and decline under Roman rule

During the Gallic Wars of 58 to 51 BCE, the Roman army, led by Julius Caesar, conquered

the many tribal chiefdoms of Gaul, and annexed it as a part of the Roman Empire.

According to accounts produced in the following centuries, the new rulers of Roman Gaul

subsequently introduced measures to wipe out the druids from that country. According to

Pliny the Elder, writing in the 70s CE, it was the emperor Tiberius (who ruled from 14 to 37

CE), who introduced laws banning not only druidism, but also other native soothsayers and

healers, a move which Pliny applauded, believing that it would end human sacrifice in

Gaul.[63] A somewhat different account of Roman legal attacks on druidism was made by

Suetonius, writing in the 2nd century CE, when he claimed that Rome's first emperor,

Augustus (who had ruled from 27 BCE till 14 CE), had decreed that no-one could be both a

druid and a Roman citizen, and that this was followed by a law passed by the later Emperor

Claudius (who had ruled from 41 to 54 CE) which "thoroughly suppressed" the druids by

banning their religious practices.[64]

[edit] Possible late survival of Insular druidism

The best evidence of a druidic tradition in the British Isles is the independent cognate of

the Celtic *druwid- in Insular Celtic: The Old Irish druídecht survives in the meaning of

"magic", and the Welsh dryw in the meaning of "seer". Although there are no

contemporary records of Insular druidism in antiquity other than the account by Tacitus,

there is some evidence that the druidic tradition in Ireland may have survived until as late

as the 7th century: in the De Mirabilibus Sacrae Scripturae of Augustinus Hibernicus (f.

655), there is mention of local magi who teach a doctrine of trans-migration in the form of

birds. The word magus was often used in Hiberno-Latin works for a translation of

druid.[65]

While the druids as a priestly caste were extinct with the Christianization of Wales,

complete by the 7th century at the latest, the offices of bard and of "seer" (Welsh: dryw)

persisted in medieval Wales into the 13th century.

Phillip Freeman, a classics professor, discusses a later reference to Dryades, which he

translates as Druidesses, writing that "The fourth century A.D. collection of imperial

biographies known as the Historia Augusta contains three short passages involving Gaulish

women called "Dryades" ("Druidesses")." He points out that "In all of these, the women

may not be direct heirs of the Druids who were supposedly extinguished by the Romans —

but in any case they do show that the druidic function of prophesy continued among the

natives in Roman Gaul."[66] However, the Historia Augusta is frequently interpreted by

scholars as a largely satirical work, and such details might have been introduced in a

humorous fashion. Additionally, Druidesses are mentioned in later Irish mythology,

including the legend of Fionn mac Cumhaill, who, according to the 12th century The

Boyhood Deeds of Fionn, is raised by the druidess Bodhmall and a wise-woman.[67 ][68]

[edit] Christian historiography and hagiography

The story of Vortigern, as reported by Nennius, provides one of the very few glimpses of

possible druidic survival in Britain after the Roman conquest: unfortunately, Nennius is

noted for mixing fact and legend in such a way that it is now impossible to know the truth

behind his text. He wrote that after being excommunicated by Germanus, the British

leader Vortigern invited twelve druids to assist him.

In the lives of saints and martyrs, the druids are represented as magicians and diviners. In

Adamnan's vita of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of Lóegaire mac

Néill, the High King of Ireland, at the coming of Saint Patrick. They are represented as

endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and Saint Columba by raising clouds and

mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a druid made an airbe drtiad (fence of

protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is unclear.

The Irish druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word druí is always used to

render the Latin magus, and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his druid.

Similarly, a life of St Beuno states that when he died he had a vision of 'all the saints and

druids'.

Sulpicius Severus' Vita of Martin of Tours relates how Martin encountered a peasant

funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some druidic rites

of sacrifice, "because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry

about through the fields the images of demons veiled with a white covering." So Martin

halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: "Upon this, the miserable creatures

might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavoured, with

every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began

to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to

sustain the weight, they set down the dead body." Then discovering his error, Martin

raised his hand again to let them proceed: "Thus," the hagiographer points out," he both

compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought

good."[69]

[edit] Romanticism and modern revivals

"Arch-Druid in his full Judicial Costume" etching from Charles Knight, Old England: A

Pictorial Museum (1845)

From the 18th century, England and Wales experienced a revival of interest in the druids.

John Aubrey (1626–1697) had been the first modern writer to connect Stonehenge and

other megalithic monuments with the druids; since Aubrey's views were confined to his

notebooks, the first wide audience for this idea were readers of William Stukeley (1687–

1765).[7 0] John Toland (1670–1722) shaped ideas about the druids current during much of

the 18th and 19th centuries. He founded the Ancient Druid Order in London which existed

from 1717 until it split into two groups in 1964. The order never used ( and still does not

use ) the title "Archdruid" for any member, but in retrospect credited William Blake as

having been its "Chosen Chief" from 1799 to 1827, without corroboration in Blake's

numerous writings or among modern Blake scholars. Blake's bardic mysticism derives

instead from the pseudo-Ossianic epics of Macpherson; his friend Frederick Tatham's

depiction of Blake's imagination, "clothing itself in the dark stole of mural sanctity"— in the

precincts of Westminster Abbey— "it dwelt amid the Druid terrors", is generic rather than

specifically neo-Druidic.[7 1] John Toland was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories,

and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey.

The 19th-century idea, gained from uncritical reading of the Gallic Wars, that under

cultural-military pressure from Rome the druids formed the core of 1st-century BCE

resistance among the Gauls, was examined and dismissed before World War II,[7 2] though

it remains current in folk history.

Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of Romanticism.

Chateaubriand's novel Les Martyrs (1809) narrated the doomed love of a druid priestess

and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over

Pagan druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. Opera provides a barometer of well-

informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: in 1817 Giovanni Pacini

brought druids to the stage in Trieste with an opera to a libretto by Felice Romani about a

druid priestess, La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul ("The Priestess of Irminsul"). The most

famous druidic opera, Vincenzo Bellini's Norma was a fiasco at La Scala, when it premiered

the day after Christmas, 1831; but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto, Felice

Romani reused some of the pseudo-druidical background of La Sacerdotessa to provide

colour to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty. The story was similar to that of

Medea, as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by Alexandre Soumet: the

diva of Norma's hit aria, "Casta Diva", is the moon goddess, being worshipped in the "grove

of the Irmin statue".

A central figure in 19th century Romanticist Neo-Druidism is the Welshman Edward

Williams, better known as Iolo Morganwg. His writings, published posthumously as The

Iolo Manuscripts (1849) and Barddas (1862), are not considered credible by

contemporary scholars. Williams claimed to have collected ancient knowledge in a "Gorsedd

of Bards of the Isles of Britain" he had organized. Many scholars deem part or all of

Williams's work to be fabrication, and purportedly many of the documents are of his own

fabrication, but a large portion of the work has indeed been collected from meso-pagan

sources dating from as far back as 600 A.D.[citation needed] Regardless, it has become

impossible to separate the original source material from the fabricated work, and while bits

and pieces of the Barddas still turn up in some "Neo-druidic" works, the documents are

considered irrelevant by most serious scholars.

T.D. Kendrick's dispelled (1927) the pseudo-historical aura that had accrued to druids,[7 3]

asserting that "a prodigious amount of rubbish has been written about druidism";[7 4] Neo-

druidism has nevertheless continued to shape public perceptions of the historical druids.

The British Museum is blunt:

Modern Druids have no direct connection to the Druids of the Iron Age. Many

of our popular ideas about the Druids are based on the misunderstandings

and misconceptions of scholars 200 years ago. These ideas have been

superseded by later study and discoveries.[7 5]

Some strands of contemporary Neodruidism are a continuation of the 18th-century revival

and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and after by

second-hand sources and theorists. Some are monotheistic. Others, such as the largest

Druid group in the world, The Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids draw on a wide range of

sources for their teachings. Members of such Neo-druid groups may be Neopagan,

occultist, Reconstructionist, Christian or non-specifically spiritual.

[edit] Modern scholarship

In the 20th century, as new forms of textual criticism and archaeological methods were

developed, allowing for greater accuracy in understanding the past, various historians and

archaeologists published books on the subject of the druids and came to their own

conclusions. The archaeologist Stuart Piggott, author of The Druids (1968), accepted the

Greco-Roman accounts and considered the druids to be a barbaric and savage priesthood

who performed human sacrifices.[7 6] This view was largely supported by another

archaeologist, Anne Ross, author of Pagan Celtic Britain (1967) and The Life and Death of

a Druid Prince (1989), although she believed that they were essentially tribal priests,

having more in common with the shamans of tribal societies than with the classical

philosophers.[7 7 ] Ross' views were largely accepted by two other prominent archaeologists

to write on the subject, Miranda Aldhouse-Green[7 8] - author of The Gods of the Celts

(1986), Exploring the World of the Druids (1997) and Caesar's Druids: Story of an Ancient

Priesthood (2010) - and Barry Cunliffe, author of Iron Age Communities in Britain (1991)

and The Ancient Celts (1997).[7 9]

[edit] References

1. ^ Antiquitas explanatione et schematibus illustrata vol. ii, part ii, book v. (p. 436).

Montfaucon claims that he is reproducing a bas-relief found at Autun, Burgundy.

2. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.

Yale University Press. Page 01.

3. ^ a b Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in

Britain. Yale University Press. Page 23.

4. ^ a b Cicero. De divinatione. I.XVI.90.

5. ^ Tacitus. Annales. XIV.30.

6. ^ Pliny. Historiae naturalis. XVI.249.

7. ^ mention of Irish druí "druid" in a Christianized context as late as the 8th century in

the poems of Blathmac. Mac Mathúna, Liam (1999) "Irish Perceptions of the Cosmos"

Celtica vol. 23 (1999), 174-187 (p. 181).

8. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.

Yale University Press. Page 32-37.

9. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2007). The Druids. London: Hambledon Continuum.

10. ^ a b Piggott, Stuart (1968). The Druids. London: Thames & Hudson. Page 89.

11. ^ Druides, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, on Perseus project

12. ^ a b c d e Caroline aan de Wiel, "druids [3] the word", in Celtic Culture.

13. ^ Δρουίδης, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on

Perseus

14. ^ Pokorny's Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, see also American

Heritage Dictionary (4th ed.), Δρυίδης

15. ^ Proto-IE *deru-, a cognate to English tree, is the word for "oak", though the root

has a wider array of meanings related to "to be firm, solid, steadfast" (whence e.g.

English true). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth

Edition, 2000 Indo-European Roots: deru-.

16. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000

Indo-European Roots: weid-.

17. ^ δρῦς, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus

project

18. ^ List of ancient Greek words ending in -ιδης, on Perseus

19. ^ See further Brian Ó Cuív, "Some Gaelic traditions about the wren". Éigse 18

(1980): pp. 43-66.

20. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2007). The Druids London: Hambledon Continuum. p. xi

21. ^ a b c Caesar, Julius. De bello gallico. VI.13-18.

22. ^ Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 p44–45

23. ^ Pomponius Mela iii.2.18-19.

24. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1993). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their

Nature and Legacy. ISBN 0-631-18946-7 p.171

25. ^ Gallic Wars vi.14.3.

26. ^ Lucan, Pharsalia i.450-58; Caesar, Gallic Wars vi.16, 17.3-5; Suetonius, Claudius

25; Cicero, Pro Font. 31; Cicero, De Rep. 9 (15);cited after Norman J. DeWitt, "The

Druids and Romanization" Transactions and Proceedings of the American

Philological Association 69 (1938:319-332) p 321 note 4

27. ^ Brunaux, Jean-Louis (2001). "Gallic Blood Rites" in Archaeology 54.2.

28. ^ Brunaux, Jean-Louis (2002). "Le Santuaire gaulois de Gournay-sur-Aronde" in

Bulletin 56 of the Archaeological and Historical Company of Boulounge-Conchy-

Hainvillers.

29. ^ Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007 pp.133-134

30. ^ Hutton, Ronald, The Druids (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007, 132;

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/01/0117_060117_irish_bogmen.html

31. ^ Rives, J. (1995). "Human Sacrifice among Pagans and Christians" in Journal of

Roman Studies 85.

32. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.

Yale University Press. pp. 4-5, 17.

33. ^ Ellis, Peter Berresford (1994). The Druids. London: Constable. passim

34. ^ Chadwick, Nora (1966). The Druids. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. Pages xviii,

28, 91.

35. ^ a b Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historicae. V.21-22.

36. ^ Donald A.Mackenzie, Buddhism in pre-Christian Britain (1928:21).

37. ^ Isaac Bonewits, Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism, Citadel, 2006.

38. ^ a b Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in

Britain. Yale University Press. Page 02.

39. ^ Diogenes Laertius. Vitae. Introduction, section 1.

40. ^ Twenty references were presented in tabular form by Jane Webster, "At the End

of the World: Druidic and Other Revitalization Movements in Post-Conquest Gaul

and Britain" Britannia 30 (1999:1-20):2-4.

41. ^ de Coulanges, Fustel (1891). La Gaule romaine. Paris. Page 03.

42. ^ Hutton (2009), p. 4-5.

43. ^ Dunham, Sean B. (1995). "Caesar's Perception of Gallic Social Structures" in Celtic

Chiefdom, Celtic State (Eds: Bettina Arnold and D. Blair Gibson). Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press; endorsed by Maier, Bernhard (2003). The Celts.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Page 65-66.

44. ^ Nash, Daphne (1976). "Reconstructing Posidonius's Celtic Ethnography" in

Britannia 7. Page 126.

45. ^ DeWitt 1938:324f.

46. ^ Creighton, "Visions of power: imagery and symbols in Late Iron Age Britain"

Britannia 26 (1995:285-301) especially p 296f.

47. ^ e.g. Jane Webster, in "At the End of the World: Druidic and Other Revitalization

Movements in Post-Conquest Gaul and Britain" Britannia 30 (1999:1-20 and full

bibliography).

48. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.

Yale University Press. Page 05.

49. ^ Strabo. Geographica. IV.4.4-5.

50. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.

Yale University Press. Page 10.

51. ^ Tacitus. Annals. 14.30.

52. ^ Rutherford, Ward (1978). The Druids and their Heritage. London: Gordon &

Cremonesi. Page 45.

53. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2007). The Druids. London: Hambledon Continuum. pp.3-5

54. ^ Hutton, Ronald (1991). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their

Nature and Legacy. Oxford, UK and Cambridge, USA: Blackwell. Page 148.

55. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.

Yale University Press. Page 32-33.

56. ^ Kelly, A Guide to Early Irish Law, pp. 59-60.

57. ^ Kelly, A Guide to Early Irish Law, p. 60.

58. ^ Hutton, Ronald (2009). Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain.

Yale University Press. Page 47.

59. ^ Webster 1999:6.

60. ^ Fitzpatrick, A.P. (1996). "Night and Day: the symbolism of astral signs on Late Iron

Age anthropomorphic short swords". Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 62:

373–98.

61. ^ Anne Ross (1986). "Lindow Man and the Celtic tradition", in Lindow Man; The

Body in the Bog (eds: I.M. Stead, J.B. Bourke and D. Brothwell), page162-69.

62. ^ Anne Ross and Don Robins (1989) The Life and Death of a Druid Prince.

63. ^ Pliny. Historia naturalis. XXX.13

64. ^ Suetonius. Claudius. XXV.5

65. ^ Augustinus Hibernicus. "De Mirabilibus Sacrae Scripturae". King of Mysteries:

Early Irish Religious Writings edited by John Carey. Dublin: Four Courts Press,

2000.

66. ^ Freeman, Phillip,War, Women & Druids: Eyewitness Reports and Early Accounts,

University of Texas Press, ISBN 978-0-292-72545-4 pp. 49-50

67. ^ Jones, Mary. "The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn mac Cumhaill". From maryjones.us.

Retrieved July 22, 2008.

68. ^ Parkes, "Fosterage, Kinship, & Legend", Cambridge University Press, Comparative

Studies in Society and History (2004), 46: 587-615

69. ^ Hagiography.

70. ^ The modern career of this imagined connection of druids and Stonehenge was

traced and dispelled in T.D. Kendrick, The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory

(London: Methuen) 1927.

71. ^ Tatham is quoted by C. H. Collins Baker, "William Blake, Painter", The Huntington

Library Bulletin, No. 10 [October 1936:135-148] p. 139.

72. ^ Norman J. DeWitt, "The Druids and Romanization" Transactions and Proceedings

of the American Philological Association 69 (1938:319-332): "Few historians now

believe that the Druids, as a corporation, constituted an effective anti-Roman element

during the period of Caesar's conquests and in the period of early Roman Gaul;" his

inspection of the seemingly contradictory literary sources reinforced the stated

conclusion.

73. ^ T.D. Kendrick, The Druids: A Study in Keltic Prehistory (London: Methuen) 1927.

74. ^ Kendrick 1927:viii

75. ^ "Explore/". The British Museum.

http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/explore/highlights/article_index/d/the_druids.aspx

Retrieved 2007-12-02.

76. ^ Piggott, Stuart (1968). The Druids. London: Thames & Hudson. Page 92-98.

77. ^ Ross, Anne (1967). Pagan Celtic Britain. London: Routledge. Page 52-56.

78. ^ Aldhouse-Green, Miranda (1997). Exploring the World of the Druids. London:

Thames and Hudson. Page 31-33.

79. ^ Cunliffe, Barry (1991). Iron Age Communities in Britain. London: Routledge. Page

518-520.

[edit] Secondary sources

Kelly, Fergus (1988). A Guide to Early Irish Law. Early Irish Law Series 3. Dublin:

DIAS. ISBN 0901282952.

Wiel, Caroline aan de. "druids [3] the word." In Celtic Culture. A Historical

Encyclopaedia, ed. John T. Koch. 2006. pp. 615–6.

[edit] Further reading

Aldhouse-Green, Miranda J., Exploring the World of the Druids (London: Thames

and Hudson, 1997)

Aldhouse-Green, Miranda J., Caesar's Druids: Story of an Ancient Priesthood (Yale

University Press; 2010) 338 pages; documents the role of Druids as priests, judges,

healers, scientists, and power brokers in British and Gallic society in the 1st centuries

BC and AD.

Ellis, Peter, B., "The Druids" (William B. Eerdmans, 1994)

Fitzpatrick, A. P,. Who were the Druids? (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997)

Hutton, Ronald, The Druids: A History (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2008)

Hutton, Ronald, Blood and Mistletoe: The History of the Druids in Britain (Yale

University Press, 2009)

Piggott, Stuart, The Druids (London: Thames and Hudson, 1975)

Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Druidism". Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.).

Cambridge University Press.

Barnicle, Bob, "The Art of the Druid" (Melbourne: The Australian, 2009)