Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Individual Behavior,

Personality, and Values

Chapter TwoChapter Two

2-2

Recently Organizational Behavior is investigating the predictors of individual behavior and performance

One frequently mentioned formula is:

Performance = ability X Motivation (Skill and Will)

This formula identifies two characteristics within the person that directly influence behavior and performance

Another formula is:

Performance = Person X Situation

Person includes individual characteristics and situation represent external influences on the individual’s behavior

MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance

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MARS Model of Individual Behavior and Performance

Individual Individual behavior and behavior and

resultsresults

Individual Individual behavior and behavior and

resultsresults

SituationalSituationalfactorsfactors

SituationalSituationalfactorsfactors

Values

Personality

Perceptions

Emotions

Attitudes

Stress

Values

Personality

Perceptions

Emotions

Attitudes

StressRole Role

perceptionsperceptionsRole Role

perceptionsperceptions

MotivationMotivationMotivationMotivation

AbilityAbilityAbilityAbility

The following exhibit represents the four factors that

directly influence individual behavior and performance:

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Employee Motivation

Internal forces that affect a person’s direction, intensity and persistence of behavior (effort) Direction refers to the path along which people

engage their effort (goal direction) Intensity is the amount of effort allocated to the

goal Persistence , continuing the effort for a certain

amount of time. People put effort until they reach their goal or give up beforehand

RRRR

BARBARBARBAR

SSSSMMMM

AAAA

2-5

Employee Ability

Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a taskAptitudes (physical and mental) are the natural talents that help employees learn specific tasks more quickly and perform them betterLearned capabilities are skills and knowledge that you have actually acquired. Acquiring competencies depend on one’s aptitudesCompetencies skills, knowledge, aptitudes and personal characteristics that lead to superior performancePerson job matching

Selecting, developing, redesigning

RRRR

BARBARBARBAR

SSSSMMMM

AAAA

2-6

Employee Role Perceptions

Employees also require clear role perceptions to perform their job well

Employees have clear role perception in three ways: understanding what tasks to perform understanding relative importance (priority) of

tasks understanding preferred behaviors to accomplish

tasks when there are more than one method

RRRR

BARBARBARBAR

SSSSMMMM

AAAA

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Situational Factors

Environmental conditions beyond the individual’s short-term control that constrain or facilitate behavior. These include: customers competitors regulators suppliers

Other factors are controllable. These are: time people budget work facilities RRRR

BARBARBARBAR

SSSSMMMM

AAAA

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Defining Personality

Relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics

It is the mix of characteristics that make us similar to or different from other people

Behavior patterns that reflect underlying stable traits (talkative, risk taking, social, introvert, cheerful, ..etc)

However, people do not act the same way in all situations. Rather they adjust to suit the situation

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Nature vs. Nurture of Personality

What determines an individual’s personality?

Heredity explains about 50 percent of behavioral tendencies and 30 percent of temperament preferences

See Minnesota studies of twins, which include those separated at birth exhibited very similar behavior patterns

Nurture also counts which includes socialization, life experiences, learning, and interaction with environment

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Big Five Personality Dimensions (CANOE)

Outgoing, talkative, sociable

Sensitive, curious, creative

Careful, dependable, disciplined

Courteous, caring, cooperative

Anxious, hostile, depressive

ConscientiousnessConscientiousnessConscientiousnessConscientiousness

AgreeablenessAgreeablenessAgreeablenessAgreeableness

NeuroticismNeuroticismNeuroticismNeuroticism

Openness to ExperienceOpenness to ExperienceOpenness to ExperienceOpenness to Experience

ExtroversionExtroversionExtroversionExtroversion

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Personality & Performance

Conscientiousness and emotional stability Motivational components of personality (the will to

achieve) People with low conscientiousness tend to be careless,

disorganized, and irresponsible

Extroversion Related to social interaction and persuasion The opposite is introversion (quite, shy, and cautious) Linked to sales and mgt performance

Agreeableness Better performance in jobs requiring cooperation and

helpfulness

Openness to experience Linked to higher creativity and adaptability to change

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Self-concept: the “I” in

Organizational Behavior

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Yasmeen YoussefFairmont Hotels & Resorts

2-13

Fairmont’s Success Begins with Self-Concept

Yasmeen Youssef (shown in photo) received a huge boost in her self-esteem and self-concept when she joined Fairmont Hotels & Resorts soon moving from Egypt to Canada. “I was worried no one would take a chance on me, would believe in me,” Youssef recalls. “Everything changed when I started working at Fairmont.”

Yasmeen YoussefFairmont Hotels & Resorts

2-14

Self-Concept Defined

People develop, nurture, and act in ways that maintain and enhance their self-conceptSelf-concept is an individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations It is the “Who am I?” and “How do I feel about myself?” that

people ask themselves and that guide their decisions and actions

People think of themselves in several ways in various situations. For example you might think of your self as a creative person, risk taker, outgoing, competent…etc.

People develop a clearer self-concept as they get older

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Three “Selves” of Self-Concept

Self-enhancement Promoting and protecting our positive self-view

(employees like to feel valued as contributors to the company’s success)

Self-verification Affirming our existing self-concept (good and bad

elements)

Self-evaluation Evaluating ourselves through self-esteem, self-

efficacy, and locus of control

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Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement

An internal human drive to promote and protect a positive self-view of being competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued …etc

This self assessment is observed in many ways: people tend to: (1) rate themselves above average, (2) selectively recall positive feedback while forgetting negative feedback, (3) attribute their success to personal motivation or ability while blaming the situation of their mistakes

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Self-Concept: Self-Verification

Motivation to verify and maintain our existing self-concept

People prefer feedback that is consistent with their self-concept

Effects of self-verificationWe ignore or reject information inconsistent with self-concept

We interact more with those who affirm/reflect self-concept

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Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation

Self-evaluation defined mainly by self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of controlSelf-esteem Represents a global self-evaluation; that is the extent to which

people like, respect, and are satisfied with themselves (good student, good father, good worker)

People with high self-esteem are less influenced by others, more persistent, thinking more logically

Self-efficacy Belief in one’s ability, motivation, role perceptions, and situation

to complete a task successfully (i.e. MARS analysis) People with high believe of self-efficacy possess the energy,

resources, understanding, and competencies to perform the task

Locus of control General belief about the amount of personal control over life

events External vs. internal locus of control

Copyright © 2009 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Values in the Workplace

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

2-20

Values in the Workplace

Values are stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences for outcomes or courses of action

Define right or wrong, good or bad practices

People arrange values into a hierarchy of preferences called value system

Espoused vs. enacted values: Espoused -- the values we say and often think we use.

Mangers might say they value creativity and politeness, whether or not they really do value these things in practice

Enacted -- values we actually rely on to guide our decisions and actions. They are apparent by watching people in action

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Types of Values

Openness to change

Self-enhanceme

nt

Self-transcendence

Conservation

Schwartz’s Values Model

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Types of Values

Openness to change

Self-enhanceme

nt

Self-transcendence

Conservation

Schwartz’s Values Model

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Schwartz’s Values Model

Openness to change -- extent to which a person is motivated to pursue innovative ways. It includes the value of self-direction (independent thought and action) and stimulation (excitement and challenge)

Conservation -- the extent to which a person is motivated to preserve the status quo. It includes the value of conformity (adherence to social norms and expectations) and security (safety and stability)

Self-enhancement -- how much a person is motivated by self-interest. Includes the values of achievement (pursuit of personal success) and power (dominance over others)

Self-transcendence -- the motivation to promote the welfare of others and nature. It includes the values of benevolence (concern of others in one’s life) and universalism (concern for the welfare of all people and nature

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Values Congruence

Values congruence is the extent to which two or more entities have similar value systems

Problems with (high) value incongruence Incompatible decisions Lower satisfaction and commitment Increased stress and turnover

Benefits of (some) value incongruence Diverse values mean different views which lead to

better decision making

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Values Across Culture: Individualism

The degree to which people value independence and personal uniqueness

Highly individualist people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over their own life, and appreciation of the unique qualities that distinguish them from others

DenmarkDenmark

TaiwanTaiwan

ItalyItaly

High IndividualismU.S.U.S.

Low Individualism

IndiaIndia

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Values Across Culture: Collectivism

The degree to which people value their duty to groups to which they belong and to group harmony

Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group membership and value harmonious relationships with those groups

IndiaIndia

U.S.U.S.

TaiwanTaiwan

High Collectivism

ItalyItaly

Low Collectivism

DenmarkDenmark

2-27

Values Across Culture: Power Distance

The degree that people accept an unequal distribution of power in a society

People with high power distance accept and value unequal power, obedience to authority, and are comfortable receiving commands from their superiors without debate

JapanJapan

IsraelIsraelDenmarkDenmark

VenezuelaVenezuela

High Power DistanceMalaysiaMalaysia

Low Power Distance

U.S.U.S.

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Values Across Culture: Uncertainty Avoidance

High U. A.

Low U. A.

JapanJapanGreeceGreece

U.S.U.S.

The degree that people tolerate ambiguity (low uncertainty avoidance) or feel threatened by ambiguity and uncertainty (high uncertainty avoidance)

People with high uncertainty avoidance value structured situations where rules of conduct and decision making are clearly documented

ItalyItaly

SingaporeSingapore

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Values Across Culture: Achievement-Nurturing

Achievement

Nurturing

JapanJapan

U.S.U.S.

SwedenSweden

The degree to which people value assertiveness, competitiveness, and materialism (achievement) versus relationships and well-being of others (nurturing)

People with high achievement orientation value assertiveness, competitiveness, and materialism

ChinaChina

ChileChile

FranceFrance

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UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

Individual Individual RightsRights

Greatest good for the greatest number of people. Choosing the options providing the highest degree of satisfaction to those affected

Fundamental entitlements in society. Examples are freedom of movement, physical security, fair trial, and freedom of speech

Distributive Distributive JusticeJustice

People who are similar should receive similar benefits and burdens; those who are dissimilar should receive different benefits and burdens

Ethical Values and Behavior

Three Ethical Principles