Dr. Richard Powell Associate Professor of Human Geography, University of Oxford

Arctic Academy Programme ARKTIKO Seminar

Responsible Development of the Arctic

Academy of Finland, Helsinki

10 May 2016

‘CROSS-BORDER ARCTIC POLICY’

WILL ATTEMPT TO PUT ISSUES OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE CIRCUMPOLAR NORTH INTO A GLOBAL PICTURE

WILL ARGUE THAT THERE ARE A NUMBER OF EMERGENT THEMES AND FRAMING NARRATIVES…

“The Soviet Union is in favour of a radical lowering of the level of military confrontation in the region. Let the North of the globe, the Arctic, become a zone of peace. We suggest that all interested states start talks on the limitation and scaling down of military activity in the North as a whole, in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres … What, specifically, do we mean? Firstly, a nuclear-free zone in Northern Europe … Secondly, … restricting naval activity in the seas washing the shores of Northern Europe … Thirdly, the Soviet Union attaches much importance to peaceful cooperation in developing the resources of the North, the Arctic…”

www.barentsinfo.fi/docs/Gorbachev_speech.pdf

Oran Young (1992) Arctic Politics: Conflict and Cooperation in the Circumpolar North “The purpose of this book is to launch Arctic politics as a field of inquiry capable of attracting the attention not only of those with specialized interests in the polar regions but also of those who will see issues of a more generic nature being played out in a particularly clear-cut or intriguing fashion in the Circumpolar North.” (p.ix)

http://foreignpolicyblogs.com/2011/07/12/pollution-shipping-kindergartens-russian-arctic/

http://assets.knowledge.allianz.com/img/pollution_russia_norilsk_factories_emissions_rtr1o9it_q_49487.jpg http://justinjin.com/reportage/arctic/

http://englishrussia.com/2009/02/11/russian-ionospheric-link/

Both Russia and USA reduced their Arctic forces Attention shifted away from military concerns to

environmental protection

Significant marine and air pollution as a result of militarisation

Military sites were largely abandoned and allowed to deteriorate

Fears over nuclear fallout resulting from the military activities of the Soviet fleet in the Arctic

• Widespread international and inter-regional cooperation • Often led by Finland and/or Canada • But Post-Soviet ‘Russia’ was key player after 1991 • US often reluctant

• New institutional environment in the region – 1980, Inuit Circumpolar Conference (later Council)

http://inuit.org/en/about-icc.html – 1991, Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy – 1993, Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region – 1996, ‘Declaration on Arctic Military Environmental Campaign’

signed by Russia, USA and Norway • Growth of international cooperation organisations

• E.g. Barents Euro-Arctic Council (1993) • E.g. Arctic Council (1996)… • Etc.

Study of Arctic Governance and Geopolitics since early 1990s has stressed:

International cooperation

Environmental Governance

Indigenous Rights…

BUT ideas of scramble around sovereign rights and resource development have persisted, especially in the media and popular imagination

Importance of Scalar governance Interplay of:

Global/international

Regional

National

Local

Indigenous Rights – both global and local BUT national governments often attempt

to subsume indigenous within the national

Constant invention of ‘New Arctics’

1945

1991

2007

BUT in historical perspective:

Mid/Late C19th - Search for North West Passage

C18th - Danish-Norwegian missions in West Greenland

C.986-1500 - Norse Settlements in Greenland…

Attempts to develop a critical framework

Comparative Arctic-as-Global Focuses on interactions of

actors, institutions and practices

Examines sites, texts, objects… Understands role of indigenous

territories, states, supra-national institutions, MNCs…

MEMBERS Founded 1996 Intergovernmental forum to

promote cooperation/ coordination among Arctic states

Rotating Chairmanship…

Observers Non-Arctic States (now 12)

▪ E.g. UK; France; China; India, South Korea

Intergovernmental Organizations (9)

▪ E.g. Nordic Council of Ministers; UNEP

NGOs (11)

▪ E.g. WWF- Global Arctic; IASC

Finland

Canada

Russia

US

Kingdom of Denmark (Greenland, Faroe Islands)

Norway

Sweden

Iceland

Six Permanent Participants (Indigenous Groups)

▪ E.g. ICC; SC

Above:

Location Map

of Kotzebue,

Alaska

President Obama, Kotzebue, Alaska – 2 Sept. 2015

‘One of the reasons I came up here, is to really focus on what is probably the biggest challenge our planet faces. If there’s one thing that threatens opportunity and prosperity for everybody, wherever we live, it’s the threat of a changing climate.’

‘If another country threatened to wipe out an American town, we’d do everything in our power to protect it. Well, climate change poses the same threat right now. And that’s why I care so deeply about this. If we do nothing, temperatures in Alaska are projected to rise between 6 and 12 degrees by the end of the century. That means more melting, more fires, more erosion, more thawing of the permafrost, more warming after that. And it threatens all of us with hardship, not just people Up North.’ Background: Kotzebue

Just before Obama was in Alaska, Secretary of State John Kerry convened this meeting for 20 states with Arctic interests

E.g. UK, South Korea…

Attempt to broaden agenda from Arctic Council…

Possibly also tensions between State Departments view of Arctic Policy and that of departing Obama Presidency

OTHER STATES LIKE THE U.K.

CONTINUE TO PURSUE A ROLE IN

ARCTIC GOVERNANCE, OFTEN

FOR THEIR OWN ‘DOMESTIC’

REASONS…

Rotation in AC Chairmanship often changes agenda?

Future Role of EU? Future Role of

Observers?

Current state Observers? (e.g. U.K.)

Pending applicants? (e.g. Turkey)

Above EU Arctic Communication

82/2016 – released 28 April 2016

FOCUSES EU POLICY ON CLIMATE

CHANGE; SUSTAINABLE DEVPT.;

INT’L COOPERATION

FINLAND OF GREAT IMPORTANCE IN

THE DEVELOPMENT OF

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN

THE ARCTIC

‘ROVANIEMI PROCESS’ SINCE 1989

LEADERSHIP IN FORMATION OF THE

ARCTIC COUNCIL (with Canada)

LEADERSHIP IN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND ITS ARCTIC POLICY

Minister for Foreign Affairs, Timo Soini

Importance of Continuity in AC agenda?

Move to pragmatism?

Speech at Arctic Frontiers, Tromsø, 25/01/16

“…We are preparing our chairmanship program for 2017-19, and we want it to be a program that will be shared and owned by all members of the Arctic Council. … You can rest assured that the Arctic – the top of the world – remains a top priority of the Finnish Government.”

THANK YOU!!