Dr. Paradzai Pathias Bongo1

Community-based disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change: The case

of rural Zimbabwe

INTRODUCTION

This paper is based on a current Department for Overseas Development (DFID) funded

Community-Based Disaster Risk Management project in the semi-arid Southern part of

Zimbabwe, entitled ‘Mainstreaming Livelihood Centred Approaches to Disaster

Management’.2 The paper posits the need for building, supporting and strengthening

communities’ livelihoods so that they become more resilient during and after a hazard as

they mainly use their local resources, institutional arrangements and own conceptions of

risk. It is envisaged that community based risk reduction plans could inform meso and

macro policy levels, thereby shaping the current disaster management regime prevailing

in the country. Since time immemorial, human beings have been faced with various types

of hazards, most of which turned into disasters. In such cases, mainstream and official

prescriptions have focused on response and relief aid, without paying due regard to the

need for reducing the vulnerability of affected communities by increasing their resilience

through building their capacity.

With the effects of climate change worsening globally, communities will be called to be

even more responsive to these changes, as they affect them in newer and unique ways.

They will therefore have to be supported in their adaptation measures, considering that

most developing world governments are already cash-strapped to fund development and

investment, let alone disaster management projects. Yet at the same time, risks that

communities face dictate that livelihood-centred approaches be mainstreamed into

1 Projects Manager Livelihoods and Disaster Risk Management, Reducing Vulnerability (RV) Programme, Practical Action Southern Africa, Zimbabwe.2 The project is based initially in 4 countries (Bangladesh, Peru, Zimbabwe and UK), and is being co-ordinated by a project co-ordinator based in the UK. The project is managed through a core team consisting of the project co-ordinator, project managers from participating countries and a disaster mitigation specialist from Sri Lanka. This team meets at least once a year to review progress and agree on outputs and work plans for the coming months.

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disaster management and development plans. Disasters and hazards greatly reverse the

gains of development, and ignoring Disaster Risk Reduction in development projects is

self-defeating.

WHY FOCUS ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION IN DEVELOPMENT?

Disaster risk reduction is defined as, “The systematic development and application of

policies, strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities, hazards, and the unfolding

disasters impacts throughout a society, in the broad context of sustainable development”,

(UNDP, 2004).

There is convincing evidence that the frequency and magnitude of disasters is increasing,

and that poor countries and poor communities are disproportionately affected. More than

half of disaster deaths occur in low human development countries even though only 11%

of people exposed to hazards live there. These countries also suffer far greater economic

losses relative to their GDP than richer countries (DFID, 2004: 1). Death, disablement or

migration of key social actors leads to an erosion of social capital.

Disasters are known to hold back development and progress towards attainment of the

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Among other repercussions, recent studies

indicate that both governments and donors tend to fund disaster relief and rehabilitation

assistance by reallocating resources from development programmes. This affects the poor

disproportionately through adverse effects on poverty reduction efforts. Many developing

countries have economies based on rain-fed agriculture. This makes development in these

countries particularly sensitive to weather extremes and climatic patterns (Karimanzira,

R.1999: 19). The severity of the 1991/2 drought alone underlines the importance of

taking into account hazards such as meteorological drought in future economic

development policies. According to Karimanzira (1999), in Zimbabwe poor planning

resulted in national strategic grain reserves being sold off. Other services such as health,

education, and water provision came under severe pressure and this reversed much of

development gains achieved in Zimbabwe in the preceding decade.

Development can also cause disaster risk. This happens through unsustainable

development practices that create wealth for some at the expense of unsafe working or

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living conditions for others or degrade the environment (see Madeley, J, 1999; Low and

Gleeson, 1998; Leach and Mearns, 1996). Vandana Shiva3 argues that local seed varieties

and traditional cropping patterns are being rapidly replaced by hybrid varieties and

monoculture. With the growing economic policies of deregulation, liberalisation and

privatisation, states are advised by International Financial Institutions (IFIs) to withdraw

subsidies and cut social spending to balance fiscal deficits. In the absence of protection

mechanisms for the poor and marginalised against this ‘free market’ mechanism, the

vulnerability of disenfranchised communities is greatly increased. At a social level, some

development paths can generate cultural norms that promote social isolation or political

exclusion (Bongo, P.P, 2003).

Development can also reduce disaster risk. Access to adequate drinking water, food,

waste management and a secure dwelling increases people’s resilience. Trade and

technology can reduce poverty. Investing in financial mechanisms and social security can

cushion against vulnerability. At a social level this can be seen in building community

cohesion, recognising excluded individuals and providing opportunities for greater

involvement in decision-making. Enhanced educational and health capacity increases

resilience.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

The Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) pilot project runs for an initial five years spanning

from January 2006 to December 2010. It is partly premised on the Hyogo Declaration

and Hyogo Framework of Action 2005 – 2015.4 In implementing this project, Practical

Action is working in partnership with two local NGOs, Organisation of Rural

Associations for Progress (ORAP) and Hlekweni Friends Rural Service Centre, which

has a strong Quakers grounding. The project focuses on the roles and linkages between

3 Shiva, Vandana, Poverty and Globalization www.biotech-info.net/poverty_globalization.html4 This is a reference document which underscores disaster-development linkages, pledging that “We build upon relevant international commitments and frameworks, as well as internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium Declaration, to strengthen global disaster reduction activities for the twenty-first century. Disasters have a tremendous detrimental impact on efforts at all levels to eradicate global poverty: the impact of disasters remains a significant challenge to sustainable development.” (ISDR, WCDR, 2005)

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vulnerable communities, district and national level government institutions and

humanitarian agencies in regards to disaster preparedness and mitigation. It examines

how these agencies can be made more responsive to the needs of poor people by adopting

a livelihood-centred approach to disaster management. There are four main aims:

1. To establish models in at least 3 locations (Bangladesh, Peru, Zimbabwe) where

livelihood-centred approaches to disaster management are combined with other

methodologies such as participatory action development planning in order to link

communities better with wider institutional structures involved in disaster and

development planning. The locations selected encompass areas and communities with

exposure to a mixture of disaster risks including drought, flood, disease and conflict.

2. To develop guidelines and training materials on livelihood-centred disaster

management for use by local and national service providers, planners and

humanitarian agencies.

3. To learn lessons from experiences in implementing this approach, including an

analysis of best practice in building consensus amongst stakeholders on how to link

most effectively with and support communities’ own disaster planning in a

sustainable way. We are also reviewing how the approach can be applied in different

contexts, e.g. in fragile states where institutions are weak and where community/state

relations may be antagonistic. We will undertake peer reviews and share learning on

risk reduction interventions with other NGOs active in disaster risk management.

4. To influence policy makers at all levels involved in disaster management and

development planning to adopt a livelihood-centred approach to disaster risk

management. This will be done through:

o Providing evidence of the positive impact of a livelihood-centred approach to

disaster risk management on the livelihood assets of poor people through collation

and analysis of past and current projects;

o Working in partnership with regional networks, such as Duryog Nivaran and

LaRed, and international networks such as ALNAP to disseminate project findings

and provide a platform for policy discussion and advocacy;

o Forming strategic alliances with other NGOs active in disaster management to

promote joint actions in support of regional or international policy developments.

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The area of operation (Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe) is plagued with

recurring droughts and is the province with the highest levels of food insecurity. It falls in

the driest region in the country, where the major livelihood viably possible is cattle

ranching. Rain fed agriculture is not profitable and is often not an option in many locales.

The situation is further compounded by the fact that there are few water reservoirs since

it is a very low rainfall area. Many people have therefore diversified out of agriculture

into harvesting forest products for both subsistence and commercial purposes. It also has

occasional episodes of flash floods. Like any other province of Zimbabwe, Matabeleland

South also has been plagued with HIV and AIDS.

Apart from the natural hazards mentioned above, manmade hazards have also taken their

toll in the three districts. The current hyperinflationary environment in Zimbabwe has

impacted negatively on livelihoods and survival strategies. Inflation stands at 8000% and

this has resulted in many people not affording the basic commodities for survival, let

alone school fees and other important household needs. Even those who are trying to start

small income earning activities are hard hit by the high inflation and other macro-

economic maladies. The project is being implemented in 12 wards5 in three Districts,

namely Gwanda, Bulilima and Mangwe, targeting 10 000 beneficiary households.

SUMMARY OF PROGRESS WITH PROJECT ACTIVITIES

A rigorous process of awareness raising and project entry involving stakeholder

consultations and assessments at provincial, district and community level was conducted,

with ORAP and Hlekweni staff (Field Officers) based in the rural area wards responsible

for implementation of activities on the ground. One provincial, three district and twelve

ward inception meetings were held, streamlining the role of each stakeholder, and

created space for buy in and assisted the project team in strengthening and value addition

to existing and newly identified Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and food and livelihood

security initiatives. Thus the awareness workshops have identified strategic implementing

partners who have been given the mandate and support to effectively implement the

5 A ward is usually made up of 6 villages and is overseen by a ward councillor, who sits in Rural District Council meetings. A ward can have an average of 600 households (approximately 3000 people), though some have more or less than this.

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identified initiatives. To this effect, a number of NGOs, extension and other development

agencies have supported project initiatives, notably World Vision, SNV, TBT (Tchinyunyi

Babili Trust), AREX (Department of Agricultural Research and Extension), Department

of Veterinary Services, Matopos Research Station, ICRISAT (International Crops

Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics) and the PME (Provincial Monitoring and

Evaluation) unit, among others.

The lady councillor for Marula Ward, Ward inception workshop for Manama Ward,Mangwe District, addressing villagers at Gwanda District, in process.the Ward inception meeting, May 2007.

A Provincial stakeholder brainstorming workshop on Disaster Risk Reduction that saw

participation from a wide spectrum of players, was conducted. The workshop

demonstrated the central role played by ‘disaster-proofing’ development initiatives. Some

of the identified initiatives included strengthening soil and water conservation initiatives,

exploring more livelihood strategies away from agriculture, hazard awareness education

and other forms of disaster risk reduction so as to guard the gains made in food and

livelihood security.

A participatory household DRR and food security and livelihoods baseline survey was

conducted in the three Districts, from mid to late August 2007. The major challenges

identified by communities in order of severity were: shortages of food and water (largely

located in recurrent droughts), transport, unstable prices, sanitation and health problems

(HIV and AIDS). This raises implications on the need for the project to take into

consideration these challenges when designing future livelihood protection and DRR

interventions. A strong partnership involving Practical Action, Hlekweni Friends Rural

Services and ORAP has been created through mutually agreed dialogue and

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communication processes. Harmonisation of rural development experiences, approaches

and financial management practices has been achieved through joint institutional

planning and technical support meetings. Joint Management Team (JMT) meetings

involving project managers meet every three months to review operations and the

Steering Committee involving Directors of the three organisations meet after every four

months to provide strategic direction to the project.

Facilitation Skills Training for 40 District Training Team members was successfully

conducted, preceding the CBP trial run process carried out three months later. The CBP

trial run was an important opportunity for testing the CBP manual and to train District

Training Teams (DTTs) from other districts to enable them to go and facilitate the

production of community based plans for their wards. Adopting a multi-stakeholder

approach and creating space for other organisations such as World Vision and

government departments was an effective strategy to spread knowledge on the CBP

process.

Community Based (Disaster Risk Management) Planning (CBP), (CBDRM)

Community Based Planning was piloted in Zimbabwe’s Gwanda and Chimanimani Rural

Districts in 2002. The planning system seeks to engage poor and vulnerable groups in

communities to improve the quality of their plans, improve the quality of services and to

influence resource allocation. These development plans will be integrated into the local

authority plans and subsequently into the central government budgeting cycle.

The benefits for conducting CBP in Zimbabwe are;

Opportunities for promoting community empowerment and ownership in the

development process.

A reliable method for obtaining realistic and focused plans at ward level.

Potential for integrating ward (micro) and local authority level (meso) plans.

Harmonisation and integration of plans of various actors at ward and district level.

Identification of additional sources of revenue for implementing local plans.

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Opportunities for capacity building for institutions operating at sub-district level.

Transparency in the selection and prioritisation of projects at all levels.

Opportunities for improved accountability during project and programme

implementation. (Gumbo, D.,2007)

Stages in Community Based (Disaster Risk Management) Planning

1. The first step was to conduct a community leadership debriefing meetings in the

12 wards. The meetings preceded actual planning and were held a week or two

before the actual planning week. The CFT first met the community leadership and

the ward committee. The objective was to explain the CBP process to the

community leadership and get them to mobilise the different sections of the

community. Full community participation enhances community ownership as

people realise this is their process that demands local action and not only

resources from outside.

Community debriefing for CBP

2. The second step was community debriefing. Here village heads called for village

assembly meetings. The aim was to mobilise representatives of many different

sections of the community. Two or three villages would attend one debriefing

meeting whose duration ranged from 2-3 hours; therefore the CFT in each ward

could do up to two debriefing meetings per day.

By the end of this meeting:

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The broad community in the each village understood background information

on CBP, the objectives of CBP, the planning process and expected outputs

The broad community was committed to supporting an inclusive planning

process (which prioritised the needs of all people including

marginalised/vulnerable groups)

The main socio-economic groups were identified and each socio-economic

group selected a representative to participate in the intensive planning process.

3. The third step involved collection of background information on the ward. This

background information was collected by the CFT members between preplanning

and the actual planning week and pooled together at the beginning of the planning

week so that it could be validated and updated in the planning sessions or any

gaps in it could be identified and filled. Examples of information collected

included:

basic statistics on the people who live in the community (number of people,

number of households, number of people in different age groups, different

ethnic groups).

Infrastructural information: number and location of boreholes, number of

houses with and without pit latrines etc.

Health records. Disease patterns, understanding the main diseases/illnesses

that people suffered from and when (e.g. malaria, rainy season and the under

5s)

Understanding soils and land capabilities, understanding the main crops and

varieties that people grow and the diseases they suffer from.

information on who are the service providers in the ward (government and

non governmental organisations). Their future focus, their direct community

investment and finding out whether they would be present at the intensive

planning or would send their resource envelope.

4. The next step was the intensive community based planning process. Crucial at this

juncture was to present the findings of the pre-planning meeting concerning the

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different socio-economic groups identified in the community. These were

discussed and amended to develop a final list.

Community hazard risk mapping, Community hazard risk mapping, NataneMadabe Ward, Mangwe District Ward, Bulilima District.

Technical backstopping…Practical Action Video case study during Livelihoods and DRR International DRR Project Coordinator training for DTT and CFT, Mangwe andPieter Van Den Ende closely following a CBDRM Bulilima Districts.planning workshop in Mangwe rural area, Zimbabwe.

Participatory vulnerability and capacity Group work during Livelihoods and DRRassessment in session, Madabe Ward. training for the DTT and CFT, Gwanda District.

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5. The community plan then took shape through the use of a variety of PRA tools. It

was then compiled by a team chosen from the CFT, after which it would be

presented back to the community for comments and revision. The plan would then

be submitted to the Rural District Council and ready for implementation.

DISCUSSION

We have seen how rural communities in drought prone rural Zimbabwe are taking

action to reduce the impact of hazards and disasters on their livelihood asset base. This is

being done against a background of changing climate patterns even in Matabeleland

South Province. At the beginning of October 2007, this usually arid region experienced

unexpected heavy rains even before the beginning of the ‘known’ rainy season in the

country. Last winter (June 2007), the same area that usually has very high temperatures

also experienced frost, which in some cases led to destruction of crops like tobacco and

some horticultural crops. Even in the early stages of this project, we see the signs of

climate change impinging upon rural people’s livelihoods, making an inquiry into climate

change imperative. Longer term climate predictions can inform strategic decisions about

the location and approach of development interventions. Short-term and medium term

climate monitoring should be strengthened. This should not be dominated by

meteorology, but should focus on how climate is affecting poor people’s livelihoods, and

how the poor perceive this (DFID Key Sheet 5, p. 3).

In many cases, responses to climate change may be a case of strengthening current

development initiatives, rather than doing anything differently. Africa currently has a

‘relief culture’ that should be discouraged. Focus should rather be on ‘risk reduction’ or

risk management culture that focuses more on social protection, preventative measures,

and promoting increased resilience through access to markets and income generation

opportunities. Pro-poor economic growth that is resilient to climate variability and

enhanced policies and institutional mechanisms for reducing the vulnerability of the poor

to shocks are imperative. In Matabeleland Province, a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan

has been unveiled, and this still needs refining as it does not explicitly address climate

change issues. There is also a Disaster Preparedness and Response Plan, spearheaded by

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World Vision Zimbabwe under the auspices of the Provincial Administrator’s office.

Although this is a good starting point in disaster mitigation issues, largely missing from

the plan is input from grassroots community and risk reduction measures, particularly to

slow-onset disasters like HIV and AIDS and drought.

The Zimbabwe DRR project is putting emphasis on the key role played by knowledge

generation and dissemination on climate change and disaster risk reduction. Coupled with

this will be an emphasis on the need for more evidence of effective responses by

individuals and governments to current and increasing climate variability. There are plans

to translate the current livelihoods and DRR training manual into the local vernacular

languages to enable accessibility of information to a wider grassroots audience. This can

inform the identification of effective adaptation responses.

The linkage between macro-level policy and institutional arrangements is seen in the

shrinking economic base that appears to stifle DRR efforts. As the economic climate gets

more intricate, rural communities are being faced with dwindling alternative livelihood

diversification options out of agriculture, causing them to even further exploit the

degraded natural resource base. This could lead to a vicious cycle of poverty,

environmental destruction and vulnerability. The major challenge is the fragmented

nature of pieces of legislation dealing with disaster management and above all the

weaknesses of the Civil Protection Act. It is apparent that disasters affect the environment

and people, more than anything else. However, in Zimbabwe, different administrative

sections handle disaster management and environmental management. There is need to

rethink this arrangement in the light of coordination, attitudes, and accountability.

Some DRR approaches include climate insurance, though this project has not taken this

on board owing to a number of limitations. There is a small climate insurance market in

Africa owing to a number of reasons. Insurance companies are finding past climate

variability a poor predictor of future risks, leading to volatile markets and costs of

insurance. Climate change will probably increase demand and/or need for insurance,

while at the same time increasing its cost. This therefore makes climate insurance less

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attractive to poor regions like Southern Africa. Climate variability, drought and poor

people’s vulnerability are not taken as separate emergency issues in this project. Africa

has highly variable and unpredictable climate. For example, rainfall in the Sahel varies

for the region as a whole, over short distances, from year to year, and within single

seasons (DFID Key Sheet 10). Baseline data on African climate, which is essential to

drive models of future climate, is sketchy at present. El Nino has dominant influence on

climate patterns in Africa – it is linked to reduced summer rainfall in South East Africa

(e.g. the drought in Southern Africa in 1991/2), and to higher than average rainfall in

Eastern Africa-but it is not fully understood, and is mixed up with the effect of climate

change.

Models of climate change suggest that climate in Africa will become more variable, for

instance, in the next 50 years: Africa is likely to get drier in the northern and southern

latitudes and wetter in the tropics. These overall trends hide variations between regions

and countries, for example Southern Africa may be drier as a whole but some countries

may be wetter than average. The frequency and intensity of severe weather events is

likely to increase, among other key predictions. Food security is likely to be affected by

increased frequency and intensity of droughts and/or floods. Trends such as the rising

burden of HIV and AIDS and the impact of prolonged conflict are reducing the ability of

the poor to cope with the existing climate. If current AIDS trends continue in Africa, it is

predicted that life expectancy will fall to below 30 years of age by 2010. It is already

changing social structures in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Zimbabwe, 2.2 million people are

living with HIV and AIDS, and 600 000 children have been orphaned by the pandemic,

losing both their immediate and extended families.

In the spirit of enhancing community participation and ownership, the government of

Kenya has developed a community based surveillance questionnaire that collects

information on the movement of pastoralists and the length of time and distance to fetch

water supplies. This early warning system forms part of a wider natural resource and

drought management program that supports building institutional capacity for

contingency planning. In South Asia, the concepts and practices of community based

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disaster management and risk reduction are receiving widespread recognition. These

approaches (like the one adopted in this project), emphasise community based risk

assessments and vulnerability and capacity analysis, with a prime role assumed by the

communities at-risk. Community perspectives and practices need to be integrated into

disaster risk reduction policies (South Asia Disaster Report, 2005: 127). Participatory

Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) is a useful tool in disaster preparedness and response. The

essence of PVA is for the community not only to develop community action plans, but

also to have their confidence built through valuing their knowledge and to constantly

seek opportunities to enhance their resilience to difficult conditions6. The RV (Reducing

Vulnerability) Social Scientist is developing the livelihoods monitoring tool that will

capture key issues regarding people’s livelihoods in the current environment and will act

like an early warning system/disaster preparedness tool. Community volunteers will be

trained on data collection- to be implemented in all our project areas under RV.

Development has tended to overlook DRR owing to ‘…a perverse architecture of

incentives stacked against disaster risk reduction’, (DFID, 2004: 4). It is generally a long-

term, low visibility process with no guarantee of tangible results in the short-term.

Furthermore, both donors and NGOs are under pressure to disburse and expend funds

efficiently and within relatively short time spans, while DRR is a longer term, lower-cost

but relatively staff intensive process.

CONCLUSION

This project will no doubt benefit a lot from the climate change, hazard, poverty,

development and vulnerability interface, which continues to yield new lessons and trends

through research on the direct experiences of communities and regions affected by

climate change and hazards. Far removed from the various contestations and international

relations implications of climate change ostensibly through atmospheric pollution, the

poor rural communities will still need to engage in activities that protect their assets from

the impacts of climate change and other hazards and strengthen their livelihood base,

upon which their survival depends.

6 ActionAid, PVA Case Studies, pva@actionaid.org

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AREX : Department of Agricultural Research and Extension

CBDRM : Community Based Disaster Risk Management

CBP : Community Based Planning

CFT : Core Facilitation Team

DFID : Department For International Development

DRR : Disaster Risk Reduction

DTT : District Training Team

GDP : Gross Domestic Product

ICRISAT : International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IFIs : International Finance Institutions

JMT : Joint Management Team

MDGs : Millennium Development Goals

NGO : Non-Governmental Organization

ORAP : Organization of Rural Associations for Progress

PME : Provincial Monitoring and Evaluation Unit

PADET : Patriots for Development Trust

PRA : Participatory Rural Appraisal

PVA : Participatory Vulnerability Analysis

RV : Reducing Vulnerability

SNV : Netherlands Development Organisation

TBT : Tchinyunyi Babili Trust

UNDP : United Nations Development Program

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