Dr Daunis AuersDepartment of Political ScienceUniversity of Latviaauers@lu.lv Theories of Europe&Enlargement

What is Europe?European Union 27 membersCouncil of Europe 46 membersEBU 55 member statesUEFA 53 membersOSCE 55 members

Europe can be defined:Geographically (e.g. PIGS)PoliticallyCulturally (including religion & language)EconomicallyHistorically

Previous attempts at European unification:

The Romans

Charlemagne

Napoleon Bonaparte

Adolf Hitler

The Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc

Other UnionsAnglo-French Free trade Agreement of 1860

The German Zollverein created a Customs Union in 1843-1871 & in 1871 all the German states were unified under Bismarck

Benelux monetary union

Nordic union

International OrganizationsAppeared in the nineteenth century

e.g. World Postal Union of 1870s

There were 108 different international & administrative conventions by the end of the nineteenth century.

The Idea of EuropeRousseau and KantWashington a United States of EuropeHenri de Saint-Simon wrote a pamphlet calling for the reorganization of European society into some kind of shared political sovereignty

World War One

Kalergi published Pan Europa in 1923:Europe as a political concept does not exist the European question will only be solved by means of the union of Europes nations The biggest obstacle to the accomplishment of the U.S. of Europe is the 1000 years old rivalry between the two most populated nations of pan-Europe. Germany and France.

The Briand PlanA Union of European governments located within the League of Nations at GenevaA Confederal arrangement keeping national sovereignty intactPolitical rather than economic aims stressedTo be managed by a European conference, a permanent political committee & a secretariatThe aim was to establish a tariff-free common market and bring an end to war.

The Briand Plan Failed Because:Britain did not support it

The Great Depression of the 1930s

Briand died in 1932

Why theory?

Changing Theoretical ModelsIR Approaches

Domestic & Comparative Politics

3 Pre-theories of integration

Functionalism (Mitrany)

Federalism (Spinelli)

Transactionalism (Deutsch)

+Jean Monnet

After 1951 & 1957Focus on explaining integration in the new European Community

Was it economic, social or political?What was the end-point of integration?Was it unique to Europe? Or a global trend?

Neofunctionalismsought to explain:

how and why they (states) voluntarily mingle, merge and mix with their neighbours so as to lose the factual attributes of sovereignty while acquring new techniques for resolving conflict between themselves. (Haas 1960: 610)

Neofunctionalism4 main arguments:Concept of the state is more complex than realists acknowledgeInterest groups & bureaucrats are not confined to the domestic arenaNon-state actors play an important role in international politicsSpillover

Neofunctionalism3 types of spillover:

Functional

Political

Cultivated

IntergovernmentalismStanley Hoffmann (1964;1966)European integration had to be seen in a (changing) global context.National governments controlled the nature & pace of integration to guard their national interest. Integration would not spread to high politics.

Late 1980s / 1990sEurosclerosis in 1970s / 1980s

New impetus after 1985 led to new theoretical approaches

Liberal IntergovernmentalismAndrew Moravcsik (1993)On the basis of 5 case studies he concluded that:Major integration stages reflected government, not supranational, preferences.National preferences reflected economic interests, not political biasesNegotiations reflect the relative bargaining power of states. Delegation to supranational institutions only to ensure that all commitments made by states were met.

Supranational Governance

Claimed to cut through the old dichotomy

EU was not a single regime, but a series of regimes for different policy sectors.

Supranational Governance3 Key Elements:Development of transnational societySupranational organizations with autonomous capacityEuropean law-making to resolve international policy externalities

Enlargement

Who can join?Article 49 of the Treaty on European Union states that any European state which respects the principles set out in Article 6(1) may apply to be a member of the Union

Article 6(1) lists these principles as liberty, democracy, respect for human rights & fundamental freedoms & the rule of law

Enlargement Procedure IThe European Council considers whether the application is acceptable in principleIf yes, the Commission produces an Official Opinion on the application (economic & political position of the state, & recommendation on how quickly to proceed)If the Commission recommends no, then a plan of action with the applicant country is prepared (e.g. an association agreement)

Enlargement Procedure IIIf the Commission recommends yes, The European Council sets a date to begin negotiations4. Experts from both sides carry out the negotiations, co-ordinated by the Commission, but overseen by the GAC.5. When terms are agreed, the European Council formally decides.6. Accession treaty approved by EP 7. Ratification by candidate & member states8. Accession

An intergovernmental processPrimary actors:Applicant statesMember statesEuropean Council

Consults Commission & EP. Commission also carries out the negotiations

EU negotiates with groups of states4 distinct rounds of enlargement

1973 First enlargement1980s Mediterranean enlargement1995 EFTA enlargement2004/07 Eastern enlargementFuture Southern enlargement

Theorizing Enlargement(Bache & George 2006)Most literature has been descriptive, rather than analytical

First systematic attempt at theorizing enlargement was made by Schimmelfennig & Sedelmeier (2002) who identified 4 dimensions of research focus

Schimmelfennig & Sedelmeier (2002) IEnlargement policies of the applicants- Why & under what conditions do non-members seek accession?Enlargement policies of the existing states- Why & under what conditions does a member state favour enlargement to include a particular state

Schimmelfennig & Sedelmeier (2002) II3. Enlargement policies of the EU- When does the EU offer membership rather than some other relationship? Why does it offer it to some, and not others? Under what conditions are new members admitted?4. Impact of enlargement- How does enlargement affect the distribution of power in the EU? How does it change the EUs identity, structure & goals?

Future EnlargementsJan Zielonka (2006) has argued that the 2004/2007 enlargement makes anything possible.Because it was not based on any realistic assessment of the candidate states economic or political readiness, it must have been based on geo-political interestsThus future enlargements will also be based on geo-politics

What about Turkey?It signed an association agreement envisaging future entry in 1963Lodged a formal application in 1987, but was rebuffedSigned a Customs Union in 1995Helsinki Council in December 1999 recognized Turkey as an applicant

What about Turkey?It has had problems being accepted as a candidate partly because it has had no champion among the member statesIndeed, it has a rival GreeceAlso, France is strongly opposed: Giscard DEstaing has said that Turkish accession would mean the end of EuropeOngoing division of Cyprus

ConclusionAll enlargements have had an impact on the EU

They are the result of political, rather than merely economic, considerations

Also geographic spill-over implies that the EU will continue growing.