D O S S I E R

F or the scientific community involved in research relying on space

assets, a CNES space science seminar is always a major event to look

forward to. It gives scientists the opportunity to review the latest advances

in their field of research and look at what needs to be done in the years

and the decade ahead.

A space science seminar also provides a focal point for exchange between

scientists and the agency, and a chance for scientists from a

broad range of disciplines—astronomers, geophysi-

cists, physiologists and biologists—to meet. It helps

CNES to plan science programmes by concert-

ing with these communities through its eval-

uation committees, among which the Sci-

ence Programmes Committee or CPS plays

the leading role.

The 12-member CPS is appointed by exec-

utive order. It meets three times a year

on average, sometimes more frequently

if CNES feels the need to focus on a spe-

cific project, and advises the CNES President

on space science policy and programmatic

issues. The CPS was chaired by Gérard Mégie,

who passed away on 5 June. Gérard played a key

advisory role for many years, and he received a vibrant

tribute at the latest seminar in July from all concerned.

The CPS receives input from thematic working groups: five for sciences

of the Universe (astrophysics, Solar System, Sun/heliosphere/magneto-

sphere, fundamental physics and cosmobiology), federated by the CERES*

committee, chaired by M. Blanc; four for Earth observation (solid Earth,

ocean, continental landmasses and atmosphere), federated by the TOSCA*

committee, chaired by M. Diament; one for life science, chaired by A. Hol-

ley; and one for materials science, chaired by R. Borghi. These groups,

which provide direct support to CNES’s Strategy and Programmes Direc-

torate, worked almost non-stop from 2001 to prepare for the seminar on

6 and 7 July.

The CPS is now poring over this seminar’s findings and rec-

ommendations, and will then advise CNES on

which projects it deems the highest priority

or most urgent. At its initial review meet-

ing on 2 September, it confirmed the

importance of maintaining France’s

significant contribution to the

European Space Agency’s science

programmes, mandatory pro-

gramme and Earth Observation

Envelope Programme (EOEP).

In this area, it also acknowl-

edged the need for continuity

of measurements that could

be provided by future GMES

assets, under the purview of

the European Union. It com-

mended the quality of

formation flying pro-

posals selected by the working groups, and proposed that CNES should

immediately give the go-ahead for phase 0 and phase A, so that the

project can be ready to kick off phase B by end 2006. Lastly, it recom-

mended making a start on the Venus project to observe continental

landmasses at high resolution, in partnership with Israel. At its next

meeting scheduled on 15 October, the CPS will decide on short-

term choices, projects and the early phases (0 and A)

of other proposed missions, particularly bilat-

eral cooperation projects, after a more in-

depth review.

All in all, we have an abundance of ideas,

projects and enthusiasm. The ball is

now in CNES’s court to translate them

into reality, working closely with the

scientific community.

Geneviève Debouzy,

CNES Deputy Director

Bernard Dupré,

Acting Chair, CPS

* Comité d'Evaluation sur la Recherche et l'Exploration Spatiales

* Terre, Océan, Surfaces Continentales et Atmosphère

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Every four years,

CNES brings together the

space science community to estab-

lish its medium-term programmatic

science plan.This unique exercise is

unparalleled at any other research

organization.The approach and work-

ing method adopted for this year’s

seminar made a break with the past

and were more akin to a pre-pro-

grammatic symposium. In fact, the

latest seminar was atypical in more

ways than one.Preparations begun

in 2001—subsequently pushed back

on several occasions and preceded

by a pre-seminar in September 2002—

were eventually abandoned as a

result of financial difficulties at CNES

in late 2002 and early 2003, from

which it recovered after revising pro-

grammatic plans during the course

of 2003. As the agency is also keen

to bolster

upstream research activ-

ities under these new plans,the sem-

inar could not have come at a bet-

ter time. CNES President Yannick

d’Escatha took the opportunity to

assure the scientific community that

budgets devoted to science pro-

grammes—in sciences of the Uni-

verse, Earth and environmental sci-

ences,and microgravity sciences—would

remain stable. This was a welcome

message in today’s difficult environ-

ment,shaken by the loss of Columbia

and the grounding of the US space

shuttle,ESA’s revised programme and

the arrival of the European Union as

a new player in space.

The seminar on 6 and 7 July in Paris

was attended by 300 researchers.

The science proposals presented to

CNES well and truly confirmed the

utility of space research activities,

with over 60 projects demonstrat-

ing that space research remains

attuned to real needs and is a fertile

source of innovation.

Europe firstThe seminar yielded a consensus

on the need for Europe to play a

central role,putting research firmly

within a European perspective,even

if this was sometimes at the expense

of historic partnerships. But there

is still plenty of scope for coopera-

tion on small projects.

ESA’s mandatory science programme

was reaffirmed as the number one

priority. Everything points towards

a clarification of the principle of

subsidiarity with respect to Euro-

pean science and national roles.

The adoption of space as a shared

competency with the European

Union is bound to impact policy

and will go beyond the current

remit of the EU’s Research DG and

Framework Programme. Today’s

complex programmatic context

spans national, European, bilat-

eral and multilateral initiatives.

So, rather than all moving in dif-

ferent directions, we should com-

bine our efforts and pursue pro-

jects within a European framework,

as we have already achieved for

Mars. We must accept that this

new context implies a different

approach to space science plan-

ning,including medium-term plans.

CNES must therefore realign its

programmatic plans to develop

new,non-recurring projects fuelled

by a vigorous R&T programme.

Continuity and innovation It is not hard to trace themes recur-

ring from one seminar to another.

CERES* chair Michel Blanc explains:

“Picard is still just as relevant as

PHARAO.The study of Mars is a con-

stant theme.Today, it is being pur-

sued through ESA’s Aurora pro-

gramme,which plans,among other

things, to build a lander demon-

strator. The promise of discoveries

in geoscience and exobiology is

underpinning a major technology

programme to build the next gen-

erations of in-situ instruments.”

The emphasis here is on the

medium term, so as not to leave

13

A boost for phase 0 and phase A of projects, a shift

towards operational observatories, an assured con-

stant budget and projects with an increasingly European flavour

are the trends to emerge

fromthe 2004 CNES space

science seminar at the

Maison de la Chimie, in

July. On the engineering front,

formation flying captured a lot

of attention.

The future of space science

Sustaining a vigorous R&T programme

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14

the United States free to occupy

the terrain on Mars.

Many new lines of research and

thinking are also appearing. For

example, astronomers are grap-

pling with the concept of dark energy

as a possible new cosmological

paradigm.In planetary science, the

systems approach is gaining

widespread acceptance. The idea

of data access centres has entered

the debate concerning the organi-

zation of French research. In life sci-

ence,new research themes in plan-

etary exploration are emerging to

study how the nervous system and

bone system develop and function,

and the impact of nutrition (see

interview with André Berthoz p.20).

And materials science is adopting

a new approach and positioning

itself as an application-driven sci-

ence (see interview with Bernard

Zappoli p.18). In particular, physi-

cists are showing a strong com-

mitment to space transport and

exploration,working with existing

inter-organization structures.

The issues involved in transferring

space assets to operational struc-

tures or research observatories—

for example, to Meteosat, Spot

Image, CLS and Galileo—are still

with us. In the past, such transfers

were heavily funded by space agen-

cies. Today, transferring assets to

operational structures requires a

new approach based on a system-

oriented view of satellites geared

towards producing data (like GMES),

with support from space agencies

but also from other quarters. New

channels need to be conceived by

identifying users and finding new

sources of funding. This is one of

the objectives of the TOSCA group,

as its chair Michel Diament (see

interview p.15) explains: “Improv-

ing spatial and temporal resolution

is obviously a priority, but above all

we are looking to ensure conti-

nuity through space-based obser-

vatories and set up data access

centres to provide unin-

terrupted monitor-

ing of the envi-

ronment

and more accurate predictions.”

It is these social challenges that are

encouraging space research to

become an increasingly applica-

tion-driven science.

Transitional technologiesToday’s most pressing science

issues are driving the evolution

of space technologies. For exam-

ple, systems physics is calling for

large telescopes; astronomy and

fundamental physics for clocks

and inertial sensors, high-angu-

lar-resolution imaging instru-

ments capable of detecting grav-

itational waves and high-energy

observations using large focal

lengths (hence the value of for-

mation flying); planetary explo-

ration for in-situ analysis on the

surface of planets and sample

return for geosciences and exo-

biology; and space environment

physics and studies of the Sun-

Earth relationship are calling for

constellation flying and in-situ

measurements of the solar corona.

In Michel Blanc’s view (see inter-

view p. 17), “we need a multi-year

D O S S I E R

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Y Interferometry to detect exoplanets,large-focal-length telescopesfor X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy

The utility of formation flyingDominique Séguéla, Formation Flying R&T Programme Manager, CNES

Paul Duchon, CNES

E merging science missions discussed at the CNES

space science seminar call for ever-larger instru-

ments that would require unreasonably large satel-

lites to carry them—too large to loft into orbit with

current launcher technologies. Structures capable

of deploying or inflating in space are also restricted

by their dimensional and rigidity limits. So, the only

conceivable way to deploy very large instruments

today is formation flying.

The concept of formation flying is based on con-

trolling the position and orientation of several satel-

lites very precisely to constitute a “virtual rigid plat-

form”. It is this precise control, performed autonomously

by the satellites themselves, that distinguishes a for-

mation from a constellation. The number of satel-

lites flying in formation may vary greatly, from just

two to as many as several tens, depending on the

mission. As a general rule, satellites in a formation

are not identical: the “pieces” of the instrument are

not the same on all the satellites, and one of the

satellites often plays the lead role in holding for-

mation.

Formation flying is particularly well suited to astro-

physics missions—like ESA’s Darwin mission or

Pegase—at a Lagrange point 1.5 million kilometres

from Earth to discover and observe extrasolar plan-

ets. These missions require fine control of the satel-

lites’ relative positions to within a few milliarcsec-

onds (Darwin) or 100 milliarcseconds (Pegase) along

their line of sight.

Other missions, devoted to X-ray and gamma-ray

astronomy (Simbol-X, Max) or observation of the

Sun’s corona (Aspics), are not quite so demanding

and centimetre precision of positional control is suf-

ficient. Earth observation missions using radar inter-

ferometry, such as the interferometric cartwheel or

Micromega, are also envisaged. Again, control require-

ments are less strict, but perturbations are a lot

stronger since the satellites orbit at low altitude.

Beyond the missions CNES has already selected to

begin phase 0, formation flying also holds out the

possibility of much more futuristic astrophysics mis-

sions observing across the spectrum from the infrared

to the X-ray and gamma-ray regions. An example is

based on deployable Fresnel plate lenses spanning

a few metres to a few tens of metres, with a Fresnel

surface pattern (like lighthouse lenses) to focus light

by diffraction onto a focal plane tens or thousands

of kilometres away.

Formation flying thus affords the ability to conduct

very ambitious missions much cheaper than with a

single satellite, by adapting existing spacecraft

buses—Proteus-type minisatellite buses and Myri-

ade-type microsatellite buses—and using current

launchers like Ariane 5 and Soyuz. ■

y What has brought Earth observation research to

what seems today to be a turning point ?

Michel Diament: We already possess basic data at a

global scale, but not always with good resolution

and accuracy. That’s why we need new instruments

or combinations of instruments to improve our

understanding of the Earth system and predict its

evolution. Advances in technology and methodol-

ogy will be required to achieve this. Paradoxically, it

is sometimes easier for us to obtain certain kinds of

data about Mars than about our own planet. Learn-

ing more about the water cycle, greenhouse gases,

15

science programme to demonstrate

formation flying and a small mis-

sions programme based on

microsatellites.” While the Paris

seminar confirmed the need to

consolidate the microsatellite

product line, which responds to a

real need, it went further than a

mere rehash of the conclusions of

the Saint Malo seminar. Forma-

tion flying is where attention must

be focused. It now remains to

establish if the concept is techni-

cally feasible.

Wrapping up the seminar, Jean-

François Minster, CEO of IFREMER,

the French institute of marine

research and exploration, stressed

the importance of acknowledg-

ing that “science needs to adopt a

holistic approach embracing all

aspects from technology through

to outreach. Deciding which pro-

jects to keep is not difficult. The

hard part is putting everything

together, from the technology pro-

gramme to forming the project

team and selecting the PI, and from

data access to the communication

strategy, which should be built into

projects from the outset, as it is in

other countries. Because we have

to raise the profile of science to

defend it effectively.”

The CPS’s task in the months ahead

will be to finalize CNES’s space sci-

ence programme, on the basis of

the scientific community’s work

and taking into account staffing

issues. In this regard, the CIO inter-

organization committee has initi-

ated a review of how laboratories’

human resources should evolve to

meet emerging needs and offset

the wave of retirements expected

in the coming decade.CNES is ready

to provide more people for project

management and development of

science instruments, coordinating

its support with partner organi-

zations under an overall plan the

CIO is currently working on. ■

* Comité d'Evaluation sur la Recherche

et l'Exploration Spatiales (Space research

and exploration evaluation committee)

© C

nes.D

ist.S

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E arth is a complex and fascinating object that we do not yet fully

understand. It is also unique in the way humans interact with its

natural environment.The key issues facing us in the future pose a number of

technical and methodological challenges to improve data accuracy and reso-

lution,and to acquire new data to better understand,monitor and predict the mech-

anisms driving the Earth system. All fields of investigation involved in this endeav-

our need to interact. And we need continuous, complementary measurements at a human

scale. For Michel Diament, who chairs the TOSCA* committee, integrated observatories are the

way to go.

Earth observation

Integrating observatorieswithin data access centresInterview with Michel Diament, TOSCA Chair

16

sea level variations and the origin

of Earth’s magnetic field are just

some of the big challenges that

lie ahead. We are ready to make

the leap from research to envi-

ronmental monitoring, and we

need to prepare for and support

the transition to operational pro-

grammes and applications, as we

have succeeded in doing in

oceanography with Mercator. To

fulfil these objectives in funda-

mental and applied research, we

must observe Earth over the long

term while seeking to assure data

quality and acquire complemen-

tary measurements.

y The value of restructuring

Earth observation around obser-

vatories would appear vital. Is

this move being driven by users

or is it the only way for EO to sur-

vive as a discipline?

M.D:We need continuity of mea-

surements on the ground and

in space. Space-based mea-

surements have become

an essential component

of Earth observa-

tion systems.

Take vol-

canology, for example.We can use

radar interferometry or space

geodesy techniques to monitor

building displacement before,

during and after a volcano erup-

tion. Or oceanography, which com-

bines satellite altimetry data with

in-situ measurements. We need

integrated measuring systems,

observatories capable of acquir-

ing ground data (on land, at sea,

and from the ocean depths), data

from airborne or balloon-borne

platforms, and satellite data. For

future missions, we must define

new sensor combinations to estab-

lish long-term space-based obser-

vatories. Lastly,we need to develop

thematic data access centres to aid

the many users working in Earth

observation. So the shift we’re see-

ing is being driven by user require-

ments and is a vital development

for Earth observation.

y So, what are your priority

avenues of research in the years

ahead?

M. D: France has a history of pio-

neering achievements in Earth

observation.For example,the mete-

orology observatory at the Parc

Montsouris in Paris was one of the

first of its kind; and in Brest, we

have obtained one of the longest-

running time series of tide gauge

measurements in

the world. We aim

to pursue this tra-

dition of French sci-

ence into the 21st

century through

integrated obser-

vatories reaching

from the Earth’s sur-

face to space. We

must now strive to

improve the spatial

and temporal reso-

lution of observa-

tions, which will

involve R&T studies and develop-

ing new sensors. Our objectives

are threefold: ensuring continu-

ity of observatories, which implies

that CNES must partner with other

organizations such as INSU, IRD

and IFREMER**,for example;acquir-

ing new EO data to meet new sci-

entific challenges; and sustaining

a vigorous R&T programme. For

solid Earth sciences, that will mean

pursuing measurements of mag-

netic field variations after Oersted

and CHAMP, and producing high-

resolution digital elevation mod-

els (10-metre vertical accuracy, 20-

metre horizontal accuracy); for

oceanography, it will mean new

series of altimetry satellites to suc-

ceed Jason and Envisat, measur-

ing ocean colour and designing a

dedicated sea-state mission; for

continental landmasses, we will

need continuous high- and medium-

resolution optical observations to

follow on from SPOT and POLDER,

and a high-resolution (100 metres)

infrared imaging mission with a

daily revisit capability; and for the

atmosphere, continuity of radia-

tion balance measurements after

Calipso and Parasol, and an atmo-

spheric chemistry mission to mon-

itor pollution at a spatial resolu-

tion of 1 to 10 kilometres, every

hour. Lastly, R&T efforts will need

to focus on areas like formation

flying,high-resolution observation

from geostationary orbit, lidar and

P-band radar to prepare the mis-

sions of the future. ■

* Terre, Océan, Surfaces Continentales et

Atmosphère (Earth, ocean, continental land-

masses and atmosphere committee)

** INSU: INstitut des Sciences de l’Univers,

the French national institute for universe

sciences

IRD: Institut de Recherche par le Développe-

ment, the French development research

institute

IFREMER: Institut FRançais de recherche

pour l’Exploitation de la MER, the French

institute of marine research and exploration

D O S S I E R

Y Space component of an Earth-observation system

© Ip

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17

y Are you optimistic about ESA’s

Mars plans?

Michel Blanc: The two big issues

facing us are: How do we respond

to the scientific community’s desire

to get to Mars and how do we

accommodate this ambition,which

CNES has pursued for many years

at national level, within a Euro-

pean programme? The key science

goals of Mars exploration in geo-

science and exobiology fold natu-

rally into ESA’s Aurora programme.

But Aurora is still awaiting official

go-ahead. France must advance

this project, in particular to con-

vince our German and Italian col-

leagues. Ultimately, we will cer-

tainly work with our American

colleagues, too.But the most urgent

priority right now is to get our

European programme on the rails.

y There’s been a lot of talk about

formation flying projects. How is

this technology relevant to your

field of work?

M. B: Astronomy observations

are evolving in two directions:

towards systems with long base-

lines and separate collectors (inter-

ferometric systems), for exam-

ple to acquire very-high-resolu-

tion imagery of stars or extrasolar

planetary systems; and towards

systems with large focal lengths,

in particular for observing high-

energy objects. To do that, we

need to operate separate tele-

scope elements together, spaced

tens or hundreds of metres apart

to begin with, and in the future

thousands of kilometres apart,

by controlling their positions with

extreme accuracy. That’s what

we mean by “formation flying”,

which represents a real leap-

ahead technology for future-gen-

eration satellites. It’s a concept

that requires a great deal of rigour.

We have to position the satellites

relative to one another, to within

a few centimetres at least and

sometimes with sub-millimetre

accuracy. In comparison, con-

stellation flying is less constraining.

It meets the current need in mag-

netospheric physics to explore

space in three dimensions at dif-

ferent scales, by acquiring mea-

surements simultaneously from

a constellation of accordingly

spaced satellites.

y Acquiring systematic in-situ

surface measurements on other

planets seems to be the other lead-

ing-edge technology right now.

M. B: We have completed our ini-

tial exploration of the Solar System,

with the exception of Pluto, and

orbited almost all of the planets

from Saturn to Mercury (which we

will achieve with the forthcoming

Bepi-Colombo mission). The next

step is to land on the surface of plan-

ets and small celestial objects to

study them using the tools of the

geophysicist and the geochemist,

rather than those of the astronomer.

That’s the best way to analyse a solid

planet, but Europe is yet to accom-

plish such a feat on the surface of

another planet. This new in-situ

exploration approach confirms the

prospect that we will be sending

geologists to Mars in 30 years’time!

Science of the Universe

Mars still taking pride of placeInterview with Michel Blanc, CERES Chair

T he list of space science issues

involved in exploration of the

Universe is a long one. Astronomy and

fundamental physics, planetary exploration, physics of

the space environment and the Sun-Earth relationship are just

some areas fuelling revolutionary technologies in the effort to push

back the frontiers of discovery. Formation and constellation flying, and techniques

for in-situ analysis on the surface of other planets are promising concepts. The first

step is to test their feasibility through demonstration missions. Michel Blanc, who

chairs the CERES* committee, explains how far we have come.

© E

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y The new trend this year would

seem to be towards viewing mate-

rials science as an “application-

driven” or “use-inspired” science.

What does that mean exactly?

Bernard Zappoli: First, we need to

be clear that all science is by defi-

nition use-inspired. A researcher

discovers what already exists in

nature. S/he conceives models to

explain what s/he observes in the

world around us, and then stores

that away in a repository of knowl-

edge. An engineer builds some-

thing that does not exist in nature

on the basis of what the researcher

has described, and in that sense is

a creator. So, any scientific discov-

ery can serve to build something

new. Microgravity research is fun-

damentally important, because it

lets us see things we cannot see

on the ground and reveals new

mechanisms and laws of interest

to a broad community.That is what

our materials science programme

is trying to achieve.The space sem-

inar emphasized the close rela-

tionship between materials sci-

ence knowledge and space

technologies. It underlined the

value for CNES and major research

organizations of strengthening the

ties that bind research and appli-

cations in this field.To make mate-

rials science an application-driven

science, we must seek to leverage

synergies between the two, iden-

y How about fundamental physics?

M. B: Fundamental physics is a key

area in which France is playing a

leading role. We can only survey

space and time and study how they

are related to gravitation in space,

and that calls for extremely sophis-

ticated measuring instruments. A

major national effort is now under-

way with the PHARAO and Micro-

scope projects to test the equiva-

lence principle and study gravitation

at microscopic to Solar System scales,

which is set to yield very important

results in fundamental physics, as

well as precise positioning (with

the Galileo programme) and time-

keeping applications. In the not-

too-distant future, we can expect

the atomic time reference to be

provided from space. ■

* Comité d'Evaluation sur la Recherche et l'Ex-

ploration Spatiales (space research and explo-

ration evaluation committee)

D O S S I E R

R esearch into combustion, granular media, foams, emulsions and

supercritical fluids will logically lead to a wealth of applications, mak-

ing materials science a truly application-driven science. Bernard Zappoli, who leads

CNES’s materials science programme, explains.

Materials science

New fields

of research emergingInterview with Bernard Zappoli, CNES materials science programme manager

18

Y Proposed geophysical station on Mars

© E

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tify common ground between sci-

ence and technology issues and

then address those issues.For exam-

ple, sloshing of cryogenic propel-

lant inside a tank and pressure

changes during the gaseous phase—

key to maintaining control and

mechanical strength during long

orbital transfers, as for the Rosetta

mission—are technology and sci-

ence issues. So are capillary phe-

nomena during phase transitions

when dealing with propellant leaks

or the flow of caesium in capillary

tubes. Researchers could find new

fields to explore in applied science,

while engineers could draw off-

the-shelf results from the corpus

of knowledge acquired by labora-

tories or orient researchers towards

new areas of investigation. We’re

not trying to turn research labo-

ratories into design offices or get

industry to perform fundamental

research. Simply, we need to care-

fully identify who does what rather

than who thinks they can. CNES

could play a key role here clearing

the way for future programmes.

There are plenty of ideas,so it’s just

a matter of will and coordination.

y Is the planned decommis-

sioning of the International Space

Station in 2016 limiting your

activities?

B. Z: The ISS is a large-scale facil-

ity that has been a magnet for all

microgravity experiment resources,

to the detriment of other tech-

niques such as sounding rockets,

parabolic flights, drop shafts and

Photon capsules. It has always been

turned towards the future. Indeed,

the instrument racks developed

by ESA are yet to fly. By virtue of

its design inherited from tech-

nologies used on Russia’s Mir space

station, DECLIC (Dispositif pour l’E-

tude de la Croissance et des LIquide

Critiques)—the mainstay of our

national programme—is an instru-

ment that requires very little astro-

naut time. And, because it takes

up very little space, it doesn’t need

the US space shuttle and can be

launched by the ATV or by a Soyuz,

and installed anywhere inside the

U.S. module. However, the limited

number of shuttle flights to the

ISS will probably impact DECLIC’s

schedule. On the other hand, more

than its planned decommission-

ing, it is the probable shift in ISS

utilization that could constrain

the ESA programme to which we

are very attached, particularly with

regard to the use of instrument

racks in the European module.

y What new avenues of research

emerged from the 2004 space sci-

ence seminar?

B. Z: Since the Arcachon seminar

in 1998, experiments on parabolic

flights and sounding rockets have

brought new areas of research to

the fore. These include the rheol-

ogy of heavy, humid foams and

the response of granular media

and critical fluids to calibrated

vibrations. New experiments will

be performed in instruments devel-

oped by ESA. Research projects

focusing on combustion have also

started to emerge, for example to

study three-dimensional droplet

arrays and levitation of dense

sprays (over a long period) to under-

stand how flames propagate at

high pressure. Such projects will

help to mature combustion tech-

nologies needed to restart engines

in orbit and increase chamber pres-

sure. For critical fluid research,

DECLIC will be used to investigate

corrosion, combustion in water

and dissolution. In materials sci-

ence, growth of lamellar eutectic

materials and the formation of

massive microstructures have been

identified as a priority area of

research, and will also be studied

in DECLIC.

The science community has iden-

tified fields of research where

microgravity is contributing sig-

nificantly to advancing knowledge.

We must take note of the appli-

cations side of the research effort,

in relation with exploration pro-

jects,and make the transition from

research in space to research for

space.

y So, is materials science turn-

ing it sights towards Europe?

B. Z: France is maintaining a strong

contribution to the European pro-

gramme. At the same time, ESA

is implementing a programmatic

structure to invite calls for ideas,

establish groups of experts, and

select and put together European

research groups to compete with

those in the United States. This

shift will only benefit science if

we rethink the way CNES, ESA and

working groups function: for exam-

ple, ESA could issue calls for ideas

to put together European groups

converging toward specific pro-

jects, while CNES could select Euro-

pean research actions and assign

budgets to laboratories. That

would be the logical way to oper-

ate a true network of centres. We

must experiment, and I believe

in experiments more than I believe

in models.

y You have underlined the need

to strengthen French-Russian coop-

eration through the Krit project.

What will this project lead to?

B. Z: Russia approached us to study

the effects of vibrations on criti-

cal fluids, since CNES has acted as

a focal point for nurturing inter-

nationally renowned expertise,

and has itself acquired unrivalled

engineering prowess in this area.

They also talked to ESA, which nat-

urally pointed them to us. As a

result, ESA has agreed to fund the

instrument, Russia the launch and

operations, and CNES will coordi-

nate the project. Krit therefore pre-

figures what could be a truly Euro-

pean approach. ■

19

y One of the most striking effects on collision inelasticity

y Topological transformation caused byshearing of a dry foam

y Side view of a eutectic solidification front

© C

nes

Y Gravity has major effects on the development of many vital functions(here, amphibians and small mammals). Space is ideal for studying these

effects. Gravity also exerts a big influence on bones, muscles, nutri-tion mechanisms and plants. Experts in these fields are now

devising new projects and instruments for fundamentalresearch.

y What new avenues of research

emerged from the 2004 space sci-

ence seminar?

Alain Berthoz: Life science in fact

covers several fields of research. A

major new development this year

is the ties that some fields are forg-

ing to achieve integrative physiol-

ogy. For example, the science com-

munities researching muscles and

bones are working more closely

with those focusing on the nervous

system. A new community is also

looking at nutrition aspects. At the

same time, the two leading areas

of life science research—the car-

diovascular system and neuro-

sciences—are also working

together on mechanisms

or spatial orientation,

coordination of

movements

and

the regulation of peripheral vas-

cularization.

In neurosciences, new issues are

emerging to do with perception,

spatial memory and motor systems.

An issue of both fundamental and

applied interest is dual adaptation.

For example,can a motorist’s brain

stay adapted to driving on the right

in France and on the left in the United

Kingdom? For future flights to the

Moon and Mars,a centrifuge could

be used to maintain a crew’s adap-

tation to gravity. But will humans

be able to stay adapted to gravity

and to microgravity during the jour-

ney, or to low gravity on the Moon

or Mars? This is a broad problem of

multiple parallel processing in the

brain that also impacts clinical reha-

bilitation methods on Earth.

New brain research to find answers

will be made possible by the SENS

project.SENS is a multi-user instru-

ment designed to succeed Cogni-

lab, which flew on the Mir space

station. Among other things, SENS

will comprise a computer and periph-

erals to test sensorimotor functions

and memory; an oculometer; a vir-

tual reality headset; a force-feed-

back stick; an acoustic stimulator;

and a motion measurement sys-

tem. In other words,a complete lab

for exploring neural functions that

could also be used to study tele-

operation and telepresence. This

instrument could be combined with

measurements of brain activity

using the MEM electroencephalo-

gram system developed by ESA. For

the first time ever, we will be able

to see what goes on inside the

human brain in space!

This integrated device will com-

plement the Cardiolab and Car-

diomed instruments for the explo-

ration of cardiovascular function,

and the Teresa robotic remote-

scanning instrument designed to

explore cardiovascular functions

remotely from Earth.

Several research laboratories have

proposed new projects to study the

development of sensory receptors

and the nervous system in rats and

mice. A very active community is

also concentrating on the effects

of gravity on plants. And biologists

are calling for a dedicated cell-cul-

ture instrument.

y Are there any international part-

nership projects pursuing space

research in life science?

A.B:Life science research teams are

all working with partner laborato-

ries in Europe, Russia, the United

States,Canada and around the world.

L ife science research—

whether into the effects

of gravity on the way life

evolves, develops and func-

tions, or applied space

medicine research—is help-

ing us to better understand

the human body. Scientists are

on the verge of new dis-

coveries about the car-

diovascular system, the

brain, nervous system,

muscles and bones,nutri-

tion, plants and much more

besides, fostering new ties between science communities and new

international partnerships. The life science community is pursuing a two-track research agenda: first, it is working on fun-

damental research projects, some focusing on animals and humans, to ascertain how gravity affects life forms; and second,

it is studying human adaptation to life in space with a view to exploring the Moon and Mars. These areas of research are complemen-

tary in more ways than one. Alain Berthoz, Professor at the Collège de France, explains.

20

D O S S I E R

Life science

Probing deeper inside the human brainInterview with Alain Berthoz, Professor at the Collège de France

© G

.Mit

hieu

x et

P.Be

snar

d/In

serm

© C

ollè

ge d

e Fra

nce

The community is fully involved in

ESA programmes and we have worked

with the team preparing the VISION

of Europe for future flights. They

have already flown experiments on

many spaceflights as part of inter-

national projects,and some of them

are playing a leading role.The French

and Japanese life science commu-

nities are cooperating in many areas

on ground-based bilateral programmes,

but not in space. The remarkable

quality of Japanese research in neu-

roscience and its interest in links

between neuroscience and robotics,

for example,is proving important in

addressing issues related to teleop-

eration and telepresence for plane-

tary exploration. The explosion of

space science in China also makes it

a potential partner. We are hoping

to forge closer ties with India,where

there is a neuroscience community

and a vibrant computer science

research community involved in

neuro-informatics,as we are big data

consumers, particularly in brain

research. Here again, there are new

opportunities for us. And we must

not forget our continuing close ties

with Russian research laboratories,

with whom we have cooperated so

fruitfully in the past.

y The utility of CADMOS is already

well proven.What role do you see

for MEDES?

A. B. : CADMOS provides vital sup-

port in developing and testing

instruments, and in monitoring

missions for our research com-

munity. It also has a fundamental

role to play in cementing ties

between scientists and CNES engi-

neers. MEDES has a dual role as a

space clinic and in supporting lab-

oratories looking to exploit space

assets. It must therefore help to

drive forward European research

projects and encourage coopera-

tion initiatives and applications

to biomedical fields. ■

y Catching a ball:the effect of gravity on sensorimotor functions is a centraltopic of fundamental research. It is also important in studying human adap-tation to space for interplanetary exploration missions to the Moon andMars. What’s new in projects now emerging is the use of equipment to mon-itor brain activity (MEMS and SENS instruments) and virtual reality for tele-operations and telepresence.

21

A to ZNew projects

in the offingMarie-José Vaissière, CNES

This A to Z is not an exhaustive list.

Rather, it provides a glimpse

of projects among the 60 discussed

at the CNES space science seminar,

some new and some back in favour.

All will be subjected to close scrutiny

in the coming months.

AltiKa • Aspics • DECLIC • DUNE • Eclairs •

Interferometric cartwheel • Mars network • Max •

Microméga • NEO • Pégase • Picard • Pollution •

Sanpam • SENS • Simbol-X • Swarm • Swimsat •

Taranis

© N

asa

D O S S I E R

22

A to ZNew projects

in the offing

Marie-José Vaissière, CNES

A

● AltiKa - Earth observation - The key feature of

this project to develop a Ka-band (35 GHz) altimetry instrument for space

oceanography applications is its very high altimetric resolution. AltiKa is

designed to complement Jason-2 in terms of spatial and temporal cover-

age. It could also find applications for studying continental waters and ice

sheets. AltiKa will be a compact instrument able to ride as a passenger on

a mission of opportunity or on a dedicated microsatellite. Its first scheduled

flight is being envisaged as part of a follow-on mission to Envisat, around

2008-2009. ●

D

● DECLIC - Mate-

rials science - This

mini-laboratory comprises

an ancillary module pro-

viding mechanical, thermal

and optical diagnostics, and

a locker to accommodate inserts for specific experiments. DECLIC (Disposi-

tif d’Etude de la Croissance et des Liquides Critiques) will allow micrograv-

ity investigations near the critical point, in particular combustion of super-

critical water, and solidification of transparent model materials. CNES is

prime contractor on this project, partnered by the French national scientific

research centre CNRS and the French atomic energy agency CEA. Delivery

of the flight model to NASA is scheduled in November 2005 for launch in

the first half of 2006. ●

● DUNE - Study and exploration of the Univers -

This cosmology observation mission aims to detect and characterize dark

matter by studying and detecting the most distant supernovae, and by inves-

tigating gravitational shear (gravitational lens effect). This research theme

has been proposed in response to ESA’s 2004 call for ideas. The phase 0

study, scheduled to begin in 2005, will seek to establish the main lines of the

mission concept. DUNE (Dark UNiverse Explorer) is a wide-field imager.

French atomic energy agency CEA and the IAP Paris astrophysics institute. ●

E

● Eclairs - Study and exploration of the Uni-

verse - This science mission aims to detect and characterize gamma-

ray bursts. Before the end of the decade, Eclairs will guarantee the ability to

observe 100 gamma-ray bursts every year, thus making a unique contribu-

tion to two extremely rich areas of astronomy research: understanding the

phenomenon of bursts and how they relate to cosmology. The project is

expected to employ a Myriade-type microsatellite to observe gamma-ray

bursts—no matter how short-lived—in the gamma ray and visible portions

of the spectrum. The Eclairs mission will be conducted by a team of partner

laboratories, including in France the DAPNIA astrophysics, particle physics

and nuclear physics department at CEA’s Saclay facility; CESR, the French space

radiation research centre, and the LATT astrophysics laboratory; the LAM astro-

physics laboratory in Marseille and the Observatoire de Haute Provence; IAP,

the Paris astrophysics institute; and the APC astroparticles and cosmology

research federation, Paris. ●

● Aspics - Study and exploration of the

Universe - This solar physics mission aims to observe the Sun’s

corona at close quarters, at a distance of about 7,000 kilometres. Aspics

will have the capability to conduct fine observations of UV phenomena dif-

ficult to see from Earth. Two

satellites orbiting in for-

mation will make up a

coronograph. The first

“occulting” satellite will hide

the Sun’s disk, leaving only

its corona visible, while the

second “observing” satel-

lite will measure visible UV

phenomena. The two satel-

lites will be spaced 100

metres apart, their posi-

tions controlled to within one centimetre, and measurements will be accu-

rate to one millimetre. Phase 0 studies are expected to begin this year.

If the Aspics project gets the final go-ahead in 2006, it could be ready

for launch between 2010 and 2012. ●

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● Max - Study

and exploration

of the Universe

- With sensitivity nearly

double that of existing

instruments, Max offers

extraordinary potential for

fine gamma-ray spec-

troscopy. Observing nuclear

gamma rays is one of the keys to fundamental questions concerning the

structure and evolution of the Universe, in particular about matter cycles

and how matter behaves in extreme conditions. Following in the footsteps

of the Claire gamma astronomy experiments, this mission will tell us more

about black holes, compact objects and gamma-ray bursts—high-energy

phenomena capable of generating about 400-500 keV. Max will be an

astronomy observatory consisting of two satellites in formation, with a “lens”

satellite focusing gamma rays onto a “detector” satellite to achieve a focal

length of approximately 90 metres. The relative position of the satellites will

be controlled to within one centimetre, and the focusing satellite will be

pointed with a precision of about 10 arcseconds. Phase 0 studies are sched-

uled to begin this year and project go-ahead is expected in 2006.

CESR space radiation research centre. ●

● Micromega - Earth observation - This mis-

sion aims to precisely measure Earth’s gravity field by studying orbit per-

turbations of a formation of three or four satellites in low-Earth orbit. Micromega

builds on the heritage of GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment,

to measure temporal variations in the gravity field) and GOCE (Gravity Field

and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer, to provide precise, high-res-

olution observations of the gravity field). The satellites will carry accelerom-

eters capable of distinguishing gravitational forces from the surface forces

acting on the satellites. A laser link will be used to control the relative veloc-

ity of the two satellites, whose position will be determined by GPS. The French

aerospace research agency ONERA will be a project partner, supplying the

accelerometers in particular. The project—which has not yet entered phase

0—was initiated by GRGS, the French space geodesy research centre. ●

y

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M

● Marsnetwork- Study and exploration of the Universe - The

Mars network mission aims to deploy a network of small landers on the

surface of Mars to study its climate, carry out seismic and magnetic sound-

ing measurements, and acquire geodetic data. The network principle involves

operating sensors across the planet’s surface simultaneously. Such time-

correlated measurements will yield new data that could not be obtained

otherwise. We know that at least three stations will be needed to triangu-

late Marsquakes. The project’s central aim is to study Mars’ inner structure

using seismology techniques. Now that the reliability of landing systems is

proven, mission planners are leaning towards sending four stations, which

would be relatively light and low power. Since the stations would not have

enough power on board to send science data directly to Earth, a relay satel-

lite will be used in Martian orbit. It is now planned to pursue the mission

within a new framework, possibly through ESA’s Aurora programme, NASA’s

Scout mission in 2011, or with the Canadian Space Agency. Phase 0 is sched-

uled to start in 2005, followed by project selection in 2006 for a target launch

date in late 2011. ●

I

● Interferometric cartwheel - The chief

objective of the interferometric cartwheel mission is to produce a global dig-

ital elevation model of the Earth, in other words, to precisely measure ter-

rain elevation at every point on the surface of the globe. The project intends

to fly three passive radar

microsatellites in for-

mation, in low-Earth orbit,

in the vicinity of an active

radar imager. These

microsatellites would

rotate about a fictional

point a few tens of kilo-

metres from the active

radar and retrieve part of the radar beam after it has been backscattered

by the surface. The data acquired will make it possible for the first time to

map the entire Earth with metre accuracy, in just one year. The interfero-

metric cartwheel could also conduct secondary missions, for example to

measure ocean currents or demonstrate how data processing could improve

the resolution of the active radar imagery. The main mission partners will

be the imaging radar operator, and possibly Germany for data processing.

The preliminary project has reached phase A. No decision has yet been

taken to move to phase B. ●

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D O S S I E R

A to Z cont.

● Pollution - Earth observation - This mis-

sion, currently in the concept study phase, aims to monitor chemical pollu-

tion in the lower layers of Earth’s atmosphere. Pollution is an innovative

satellite mission that would complement ground measurement networks,

providing continuous, uniform temporal and spatial coverage of industri-

ally developed regions. The system’s instruments will be based on infrared

spectrometers, an area where CNES has acquired engineering expertise

on the IASI project. Atmospheric chemistry missions are also being defined

at European level, to achieve the level of scientific and engineering excel-

lence needed to meet operational requirements, as part of the Global Mon-

itoring for Environment and Security programme (GMES). Data collected will

be assimilated into models to complement ground data and guide Euro-

pean policy decisions concerning industrial emissions, energy and trans-

port, health and ecology, and other environmental protection issues. Pol-

lution is a partnership mission between science laboratories and national

agencies in charge of energy, the environment and disaster management.

A phase 0 study got underway in mid-2004, and a team of CNES engineers

and a mission group of scientific experts is working to define technical spec-

ifications. The objective of this phase is to identify obstacles and initiate R&T

actions if needed in order to converge, within the next year or two, toward

a single mission concept that could be operational around 2012. ●

S

● SANPAM - Study and exploration of the

Universe - SANPAM (Satellite pour l’ANalyse Polarisée des Anisotropies

Micro-ondes) intends to measure the cosmic microwave background in the

submillimetre range. These measurements will enable scientists to pursue

their research into the primitive Universe after ESA’s Planck-Surveyor mis-

sion. A phase 0 study to flesh out the concept is expected. IAS space astro-

physics institute, Orsay. ●

P

● Pegase -

Study and exploration of the Universe - Pegase

is an infrared interferometry demonstrator mission aimed at understand-

ing how stars and planetary systems form. It is part of ESA’s Darwin science

mission to study Earth-like exoplanets. Pegase will fly three satellites in for-

mation to explore the concept of seven satellites imagined for Darwin. Two

of the satellites will each carry a mirror inclined at 45° with a pointing accu-

racy of around 0.1 arcsecond to catch light from stars. This light will be

reflected to a central recombining satellite with two opposing telescopes

each pointing at one of the mirrors. High-precision optical systems on the

recombining satellite will merge the infrared radiation from the two “mir-

ror” satellites. The mirror satellites could be spaced up to 500 metres apart.

The decision to go ahead with the project will be taken in 2006. IAS space

astrophysics institute. ●

● Picard - Study and exploration of the Uni-

verse - Picard is a purely scientific mission to observe the Sun and how

it affects weather conditions on Earth. It will measure the Sun’s diameter,

sunspot movements, the solar constant and radiometry at certain wave-

lengths. The payload will comprise three instruments: a telescope developed

by CNRS’s aeronomy research laboratory; a radiometer developed by the

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● NEO (Near Earth

Object) - Study

and exploration

of the Universe - This Solar System exploration mission plans

to study primitive asteroids on a potential Earth-crossing trajectory. A satel-

lite will be placed into orbit around an asteroid to drop a Rosetta-type lan-

der onto its surface and carry out in-situ measurements of its chemical com-

position. The mission will address science issues related to the formation of

the Solar System, as well as the social issues posed by the risk of an aster-

oid impact. The scope of the project goes beyond science programmes and

could involve the European Space Agency and European Union member

countries. CNES will complete a phase 0 study in house in 2005. ●

Royal Meteorological Insti-

tute of Belgium (IRMB); and

a second radiometer devel-

oped by the Physico-Mete-

orological Observatory of

Davos (PMOD) in Switzer-

land. Picard is built around

the Myriades system, with

a generic ground segment

and a near-generic spacecraft bus. The project was frozen in 2003 and a

decision was expected at the latest meeting of CNES’s Science Programmes

Committee (CPS) in October. If approved, the mission would be launched at

the start of the next ascending phase of the solar cycle, in 2008. ●

25

● Swarm - Earth observat ion - Swarm is the

next Opportunity Mission in ESA’s Earth Explorer programme. It will consist of

three satellites carrying magnetometers and placed in orbits optimized to

sense the different sources of Earth’s magnetic field. CNES will supply the

instruments: a first magnetometer will acquire absolute measurements of

the magnetic field to calibrate the other payload instruments, which will take

three-axis readings. The magnetometer will be built by the LETI electronics,

technology and instrumentation laboratory at CEA’s Grenoble facility. Target

launch date: 2009. ●

● Swimsat - Earth observation - Swimsat (Sur-

face Waves Investigation and Monitoring from SATellite) is a candidate ESA

Opportunity Mission that will seek to measure certain sea-state spectral

properties, such as the directional wave spectrum (direction, wavelength

and height of waves). Swimsat will carry a multi-beam, real-aperture radar

operating in Ku band that could be accommodated on a minisatellite bus.

This radar will use six beams: a nadir beam, and five off-nadir beams posi-

tioned around it every two degrees. This system will describe a surface pat-

tern of around 150 kilometres, scanning at a rate of about six rotations per

minute, making it possible to observe a point on the ground with several

beams and from different angles. Collected data will be processed for assim-

ilation into sea-state prediction models. Users of the system would be sea-

state forecasting centres, shipowners and sailors. Phase A of the project

has already been completed at CNES, and it is now awaiting a go-ahead

decision for phase B. ●

T

● Taranis - Study and exploration of the

Universe - Taranis (Tool for the Analysis of Radiations from Lightning

and Sprites) is a micromission intended to study sprites—luminous flashes in

the upper atmosphere, also referred to as “high-altitude lightning”—and asso-

ciated emissions, as well as other energetic phenomena occurring between

the lower atmosphere, the Sun and the upper atmosphere. It will focus on

atmosphere-ionosphere-magnetosphere couplings under the influence of

phenomena in the lower atmosphere (atmospheric storms, weather activity,

volcanoes, human activity) and in space (solar wind and cosmic radiation).

Possible partner laboratories likely to supply payload instruments are: the

LPCE environmental physics and chemistry laboratory (Orléans, France); CEA,

the French atomic agency authority; the CETP terrestrial and planetary envi-

ronment research centre; the CESR space radiation research centre; the LESIA

space and astrophysics instrumentation research laboratory; CNRS’s aeron-

omy research laboratory (SA);

the French national weather ser-

vice Meteo-France; the Danish

Space Research Institute; and

Los Alamos National Labora-

tory (United States). ●

● SENS - Life science - SENS is a multi-user instrument

designed to enable the neuroscience community to investigate human sen-

sorimotor functions (perception, motion control, spatial memory, balance

and brain activity). It will comprise a central computer connected to mea-

suring instruments, including an oculometer, virtual reality headset, force-

feedback stick and acoustic stimulator. SENS could also operate in concert

with ESA’s MEM electroencephalogram system to study brain activity. It is

designed for fundamental research applications, as well as for space

medicine and human factors studies, and planetary exploration (of the

Moon and Mars). The project is moving forward at CNES, where it has

reached phase A. ●

● Simbol-X - Study

and exploration of the

Universe - Descended from

ESA’s XMM-Newton X-ray astronomy

observatory, Simbol-X will observe the

most violent known phenomena in the

Universe—black holes, neutron stars, supernovae, etc.—in the X-ray and

gamma-ray portions of the spectrum, at energy levels below 100 keV. A

high-resolution telescope will be formed by two satellites in formation: a

“mirror” satellite will collect rays and focus them onto a second “detector”

satellite. The two satellites will be 30 meters apart, with positioning con-

trolled to within one centimetre and measurements accurate to one mil-

limetre. Phase 0 studies began in 2003 and a firm go-ahead decision (phase

B) will be taken in 2006 for a launch some time between 2012 and 2014.

French atomic energy agency CEA. ●

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