domestication (caballero).pdf

38
Economic Botany 55(1) p. 129–166. 2001 q 2001 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA ´ N-CUICATLA ´ N VALLEY,MEXICO 1 ALEJANDRO CASAS,ALFONSO VALIENTE-BANUET,JUAN LUIS VIVEROS, JAVIER CABALLERO,LAURA CORTE ´ S,PATRICIA DA ´ VILA, RAFAEL LIRA, AND ISELA RODRı ´ GUEZ Casas, Alejandro, Alfonso Valiente-Banuet, Juan Luis Viveros (Instituto de Ecologı ´a, Universidad Nacional Auto ´noma de Me ´xico, Apartado Postal 27-3, Xangari 58089, Morelia, Michoaca ´n, Me ´xico), Javier Caballero, Laura Corte ´s, (Jardı ´n Bota ´nico, Instituto de Biol- ogı ´a, Universidad Nacional Auto ´noma de Me ´xico. Apartado postal 70-614, Me ´xico, D.F. 04510, Me ´xico), Patricia Da ´vila, Rafael Lira, and Isela Rodrı ´guez (Unidad de Biotecnol- ogı ´a y Prototipos, Escuela Nacional de Estudios Profesionales Iztacala, Universidad Na- cional Auto ´noma de Me ´xico, Avenida de Los Barrio, s. n., Los Reyes Iztacala, Tlalnepantla, 54090 Estado de Me ´xico).PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA ´ N-CUICATLA ´ N VALLEY,ME ´ XICO. Economic Botany 55(1):129–166, 2001. Information on richness of plant resources, and their forms of use and management in the biosphere reserve Tehuaca ´n-Cuicatla ´n, Mexico is an- alyzed. This 10 000 km 2 region hosts nearly 2700 vascular plant species, and it is acknowl- edged as one of the arid areas with the highest floristic diversity in North America. The seven indigenous ethnic groups that live in this region have cultural roots that date back almost 10 000 years. Based upon ethnobotanical and floristic studies, as well as bibliograph- ical sources, a total of 808 useful plant species were identified, most of them (90%) being native, and 44 species being endemic to the region. A total of 681 species are wild plants, 109 are weeds and ruderal plants, and 86 are domesticated crops. However, it was noted that considerable overlap exists between the species of these 3 categories. For example, while wild and ruderal plants (706 species) are foraged by both humans and domestic animals, 59 species of this group are also managed in situ. On the other hand, 168 wild, ruderal and domesticated species are cultivated. The Tehuaca ´n-Cuicatla ´n Valley is one of the richest regions of Mexico in plant resources. Local knowledge on use and management of plants is a valuable source of information for designing conservation and social development strate- gies for the biosphere reserve. RECURSOS VEGETALES DEL VALLE DE TEHUACA ´ N-CUICATLA ´ N,ME ´ XICO. Se analiza informacio ´n sobre la riqueza de recursos vegetales, ası ´ como sus formas de uso y manejo en la reserva de la biosfera Tehuaca ´n-Cuicatla ´n, Me ´xico. Esta regio ´n, con una extensio ´n de 10 000 km 2 , alberga a cerca de 2700 especies de plantas vasculares y es reconocida como una de las zonas a ´ridas con mayor diversidad florı ´stica de Norteame ´rica. Incluye adema ´ s a siete grupos e ´tnicos indı ´genas con una historia cultural iniciada hace aproximadamente 10 000 an ˜os. Con base en estudios etnobota ´nicos y florı ´sticos, ası ´ como informacio ´n bibliogra ´fica, se identificaron un total de 808 especies de plantas u ´tiles, la mayor parte de las cuales (90%) son nativas y 44 son ende ´micas para la regio ´n. Un total de 681 especies son silvestres, 109 son arvenses y ruderales, y 86 son domesticadas, con algunas especies presentando al mismo tiempo condicio ´n de silvestres, arvenses y domesticadas. En total, 706 especies de plantas silvestres, arvenses y ruderales son forrajeadas tanto por humanos como por animales do- me ´sticos en las a ´reas donde se encuentran, pero 59 de ellas son tambie ´n manejadas in situ, mientras que 168 especies silvestres, arvenses y ruderales, ası ´ como domesticadas, son cul- tivadas. El Valle de Tehuaca ´n es una de las regiones de Me ´xico con mayor diversidad de recursos vegetales. El conocimiento indı ´gena sobre uso y manejo de las plantas locales es una fuente de informacio ´n valiosa para el disen ˜o de estrategias de conservacio ´n y desarrollo social para la reserva de la biosfera. Key Words: domestication; ethnobotany; Tehuaca ´n-Cuicatla ´n Valley; Mixtec; Popoloca; Nahua. 1 Received 21 June 1999; accepted 1 September 2000.

Transcript of domestication (caballero).pdf

  • Economic Botany 55(1) p. 129166. 2001q 2001 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

    PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA NVALLEY, MEXICO1

    ALEJANDRO CASAS, ALFONSO VALIENTE-BANUET, JUAN LUIS VIVEROS,JAVIER CABALLERO, LAURA CORTE S, PATRICIA DA VILA,RAFAEL LIRA, AND ISELA RODRGUEZ

    Casas, Alejandro, Alfonso Valiente-Banuet, Juan Luis Viveros (Instituto de Ecologa,Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Apartado Postal 27-3, Xangari 58089, Morelia,Michoacan, Mexico), Javier Caballero, Laura Cortes, (Jardn Botanico, Instituto de Biol-oga, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Apartado postal 70-614, Mexico, D.F.04510, Mexico), Patricia Davila, Rafael Lira, and Isela Rodrguez (Unidad de Biotecnol-oga y Prototipos, Escuela Nacional de Estudios Profesionales Iztacala, Universidad Na-cional Autonoma de Mexico, Avenida de Los Barrio, s. n., Los Reyes Iztacala, Tlalnepantla,54090 Estado de Mexico). PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY, ME XICO.Economic Botany 55(1):129166, 2001. Information on richness of plant resources, and theirforms of use and management in the biosphere reserve Tehuacan-Cuicatlan, Mexico is an-alyzed. This 10 000 km2 region hosts nearly 2700 vascular plant species, and it is acknowl-edged as one of the arid areas with the highest floristic diversity in North America. Theseven indigenous ethnic groups that live in this region have cultural roots that date backalmost 10 000 years. Based upon ethnobotanical and floristic studies, as well as bibliograph-ical sources, a total of 808 useful plant species were identified, most of them (90%) beingnative, and 44 species being endemic to the region. A total of 681 species are wild plants,109 are weeds and ruderal plants, and 86 are domesticated crops. However, it was notedthat considerable overlap exists between the species of these 3 categories. For example, whilewild and ruderal plants (706 species) are foraged by both humans and domestic animals, 59species of this group are also managed in situ. On the other hand, 168 wild, ruderal anddomesticated species are cultivated. The Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley is one of the richestregions of Mexico in plant resources. Local knowledge on use and management of plants isa valuable source of information for designing conservation and social development strate-gies for the biosphere reserve.RECURSOS VEGETALES DEL VALLE DE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N, ME XICO. Se analiza informacionsobre la riqueza de recursos vegetales, as como sus formas de uso y manejo en la reservade la biosfera Tehuacan-Cuicatlan, Mexico. Esta region, con una extension de 10 000 km2,alberga a cerca de 2700 especies de plantas vasculares y es reconocida como una de laszonas aridas con mayor diversidad florstica de Norteamerica. Incluye ademas a siete gruposetnicos indgenas con una historia cultural iniciada hace aproximadamente 10 000 anos.Con base en estudios etnobotanicos y florsticos, as como informacion bibliografica, seidentificaron un total de 808 especies de plantas utiles, la mayor parte de las cuales (90%)son nativas y 44 son endemicas para la region. Un total de 681 especies son silvestres, 109son arvenses y ruderales, y 86 son domesticadas, con algunas especies presentando al mismotiempo condicion de silvestres, arvenses y domesticadas. En total, 706 especies de plantassilvestres, arvenses y ruderales son forrajeadas tanto por humanos como por animales do-mesticos en las areas donde se encuentran, pero 59 de ellas son tambien manejadas in situ,mientras que 168 especies silvestres, arvenses y ruderales, as como domesticadas, son cul-tivadas. El Valle de Tehuacan es una de las regiones de Mexico con mayor diversidad derecursos vegetales. El conocimiento indgena sobre uso y manejo de las plantas locales esuna fuente de informacion valiosa para el diseno de estrategias de conservacion y desarrollosocial para la reserva de la biosfera.Key Words: domestication; ethnobotany; Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley; Mixtec; Popoloca; Nahua.

    1 Received 21 June 1999; accepted 1 September 2000.

  • 130 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

    Throughout a cultural history of nearly10 000 years (Flannery 1986; Wenke 1990;MacNeish 1992), human groups inhabiting theMexican territory have developed complexforms of interaction with plants. The spectrumof interactions includes foraging of wild orweedy plants, different forms of managing insitu communities and populations of wild andweedy plants, as well as cultivation and selec-tion of plant variants adapted to specific envi-ronments and human cultural requirements (seeBye 1993; Hernandez-Xolocotzi 1993; Caballe-ro 1995; Casas and Caballero 1996; Casas et al.1996, 1997a,b). Currently, Mexico, and specifi-cally the cultural area known as Mesoamerica,is recognized as one of the more important cen-ters of plant domestication in the world (Harlan1975; Hawkes 1983). The importance of thisarea is explainable in terms of its long and richcultural history, as well as its plant diversity,which is amongst the highest in the world.

    A result of such history of human interactionswith plants are the nearly 5000 to 7000 speciesof useful plants that at present have been iden-tified within the Mexican territory (Caballero1984; Casas, Viveros, and Caballero 1994), aswell as an incalculable amount of infraspecificvariation that can be associated with human ma-nipulation. This extraordinary variation of usefulplants is undoubtedly an important source of ge-netic resources for satisfying the requirements ofan ever-developing society. At present, only fewof these species (maize, beans, cocoa, squashes,chili peppers, avocado, among others) are im-portant plant resources utilized throughout theworld. However, thousands of other useful plantspecies are utilized at only regional or local lev-els, but could become important in wider areas.Although these numbers may be impressive,there are probably still hundreds of other usefulplant species to be discovered. Compiling an in-ventory of Mexican plant resources, therefore,continues to be a research priority in Mexico.Many areas with high levels of biodiversity, aswell as many indigenous communities, have yetto be explored, whereas the risk of loss of bothnatural areas and indigenous cultures is increas-ing.

    The Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley deserves spe-cial attention since both biological and culturalaspects suggest that this region could be amongthe richest of Mexico in plant resources. As sug-gested by the plant and animal inventories, this

    10 000 km2 area (see Fig. 1) has probably thehighest biological diversity for an arid zone inNorth America. Davila et al. (1993) recorded2703 flowering plant species, with nearly 30%of them being endemic to the area. Valiente-Banuet et al. (n.d.) reported 29 vegetation typesin the valley, whereas Rojas-Martnez and Val-iente-Banuet (1996) reported 34 species of batsand Arizmendi and Espinoza de los Monteros(1996) identified 91 species of birds in the re-gion. In addition, the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valleyalso possesses important human cultural diver-sity, including Nahua, Popoloca, Mazatec, Chin-antec, Ixcatec, Cuicatec and Mixtec indigenousethnic groups. These peoples still maintain astrong presence in the region since nearly 30%of the approximately 650 000 inhabitants of theValley are speakers of at least one of these in-digenous tongues (Instituto Nacional Indigenista1992a,b). The historical presence of thesegroups and probably other extinct indigenouspeoples in the area appears to be very long.MacNeish (1967, 1992) reported the earliest ev-idence of human occupation of the area fromstrata of approximately 12 000 years ago, al-though more recent studies (see Hardy 1996)suggest that human occupation may have begunnearly 10 000 years ago. Because of the dry en-vironment of the Tehuacan Valley, MacNeishand other archaeologists were able to reconstructa reasonably complete chronology of humansubsistence in Mesoamerica, and this was basedupon some of the oldest remains of plant do-mestication and agriculture so far discovered inthe New World (MacNeish 1967, 1992; Smith1967).

    The Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley, therefore,represents an important scenario for the inter-action of biological and cultural diversity over along period of time, and this has resulted in theaccumulation of a vast indigenous knowledgeresource base with respect to the utilization ofnative plants. Paradoxically, relatively few eth-nobotanical reports have been published for theregion. Among the ethnobotanical studies pub-lished on Tehuacan-Cuicatlan are articles onuseful plants by Miranda (1948) and Smith(1965, 1967), as well as the preliminary reporton plant resources of the region by Casas andValiente-Banuet (1995) and the ethnobotanicaldata on columnar cacti by Casas et al. (1997a)and Casas, Caballero and Valiente-Banuet(1999). However, more comprehensive infor-

  • 2001] 131CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

    Fig. 1. Study area. The Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley. 1 5 Ajalpan; 2 5 Coxcatlan; 3 5 Rancho el Aguaje; 45 San Rafael; 5 5 Cuicatlan; 6 5 Tequixtepec; 7 5 Chazumba; 8 5 Tehuacan; 9 5 San Lorenzo; 10 5 Coapan;11 5 San Juan Raya; 12 5 Los Reyes Metzontla; 13 5 Zapotitlan de las Salinas; 14 5 Tecamachalco.

    mation and therefore exhaustive studies are stillrequired. Such studies are crucial to improve un-derstanding of agricultural origins and plant do-mestication in the region. In addition, these stud-ies could reveal information about strategies oflocal environmental management that could helpin designing conservation efforts. Plant utiliza-tion as related to biological conservation is animportant issue because the region is now a bio-

    sphere reserve, created by government decree inSeptember 1998.

    Accordingly, this research focuses on to as-sessing the richness of useful plants in the Te-huacan-Cuicatlan Valley, their uses and forms ofmanagement. The aims were (1) to investigategeneral patterns of plant utilization, manipula-tion, and domestication processes in the area, (2)to evaluate the importance of this region within

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    the context of the diversity of Mexican plant re-sources, and (3) to provide data for managementprograms of natural resources within the bio-sphere reserve.

    STUDY AREASeven municipalities of the Tehuacan-Cuica-

    tlan Valley were studied:

    (1) Municipality of Zapotitlan de las Salinas.This region is located in the southwestern partof the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley in the state ofPuebla (Fig. 1). The 3 Chocho-Popoloca villagesthat were studied here (Zapotitlan, San JuanRaya, and Los Reyes Metzontla) lie at elevationsbetween 1500 and 2300 m. The climate of thearea is arid (an average of 542.5 mm of rain andan annual temperature of 19.88C, according toGarca 1988). Thorn-scrub forest is the predom-inant type of vegetation. The subtypes of thorn-scrub vegetation include cardonal, dominatedby the giant columnar cactus Cephalocereus co-lumna-trajani (Karw.) K. Schum; tetechera,in which Neobuxbaumia tetetzo (F. A. C. Weber)Backeb. is the dominant species; and matorralrosetofilo or rosette scrub forest in which Aga-ve spp., Beaucarnea spp., Dasylirion spp., andYucca periculosa F. Baker are important ele-ments of the landscape. Mediterranean type veg-etation commonly called mexical or chaparralis also present, covering hills up to 2000 m (Val-iente-Banuet et al. 1998 n.d.).

    (2) Municipality of Tehuacan. This area is lo-cated in the central portion of the valley and isinhabited mainly by Nahua-speaking people. Al-though this municipality includes the urbanizedTehuacan City, it is surrounded by rural villageswhere the use and management of native plantsis part of their economic activities. Elevationsrange from 1600 to 1800 m. Garca (1988) liststhe annual mean temperature and precipitationas 19.18C and 590 mm, respectively. Vegetationis predominantly thorn-scrub and rosette scrubforests, as well as mesquite, Prosopis laevigata(Humb. & Bonpl. Ex Willd.) M. C. Johnston for-est in alluvial deposits (Valiente-Banuet et al.n.d.). San Lorenzo, Coapan and Tehuacan werethe villages studied in the municipality of Te-huacan.

    (3) Municipalities of Coxcatlan and (4) Ajal-pan. Both areas are inhabited by Nahua-speak-ing people and are located in the state of Pueblaat the southeastern part of the Tehuacan-Cuica-

    tlan Valley. Elevations range from 1000 to 1400m. Garca (1988) reports the annual mean tem-perature and precipitation as 23.88C and 440.6mm, respectively. Vegetation is predominantlytropical deciduous forest as well as chiotillaland cardonal, types of plant associationwhere the columnar cacti Escontria chiotilla (F.A. C. Weber) Rose and Pachycereus weberi (J.Coulter) Backeb. are particularly abundant (Val-iente-Banuet et al. submitted). Ajalpan, the maintown of the municipality of Ajalpan; San Rafael,Rancho el Aguaje, and Coxcatlan, in the munic-ipality of Coxcatlan, in the state of Puebla werethe villages studied.

    (5) Municipality of Cuicatlan. This area is lo-cated in the southeastern part of the Valley, andas such is included in the state of Oaxaca. Peo-ple of the Cuicatec and Mixtec cultures inhabitit. Elevations range from 1200 to 1600 m, andthe annual mean temperature and precipitationare 25.58C and 553 mm, respectively (Garca1988). Vegetation is predominantly tropical de-ciduous forest, chiotillal, as well as cardonalesdominated by Pachycereus weberi and Mitro-cereus fulviceps (F. A. C. Weber) Backeb. (Val-iente-Banuet et al. n.d.). In this municipality, thevillages of Cuicatlan, Tomelln and Valerio Tru-jano were studied

    (6) Municipalities of Chazumba and, (7) SanPedro y San Pablo Tequixtepec. These areas arelocated in the state of Oaxaca in the extremesouthwestern part of the Valley. Mixtec peopleinhabit the region. Elevations range from 1600to 1800 m, and the annual mean temperature andprecipitation is given by Garca (1988) as 20.68Cand 720 mm, respectively. Tropical deciduousforest is the most important vegetation type. Thevillage of Chazumba was studied in the munic-ipality of Chazumba, whereas Tequixtepec andSanta Catalina Chinango were studied in themunicipality of San Pedro y San Pablo Tequix-tepec.

    MATERIALS AND METHODSEthnobotanical studies were conducted in 22

    villages throughout the entire Tehuacan-Cuica-tlan Valley, as well as in the main markets ofthe municipalities of Tehuacan, Ajalpan, Zapo-titlan, Chazumba, Coxcatlan and Cuicatlan. De-tailed studies, consisting of botanical collectionsand lengthy ethnobotanical interviews, wereconducted only in the 16 villages mentioned inthe previous section. Plant specimens were col-

  • 2001] 133CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

    TABLE 1. FORMS OF UTILIZATION OF THE 808 USE-FUL PLANT SPECIES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA NVALLEY.

    UseNumber of

    species

    FodderMedicinalEdibleFirewoodOrnamentalWood and materials for construction

    492243242151

    9591

    Handicrafts manufactureSoil protection and reforestationLiving fencesPoisonsUseful resins, latex and sapFibers

    666348352719

    SaponiferousColorantsMelliferousAlcoholic beveragesStimulants

    1913121111

    ShadeGluesAromatizingCeremonialFood preservative

    114583

    lected in wild and anthropogenic areas in thepresence of local people participating as infor-mants. The collected voucher specimens weredeposited in the National Herbarium of Mexico(MEXU) under Valiente-Banuet et al.; Lira &Soto; and Davila et al. collection numbers. Atotal of 68 peasants participated (37 in villagesof detailed studies, 12 in other villages), givinginformation on plants, their local names, formsof use, techniques of preservation and prepara-tion, forms of management, economic value, aswell as the seasonal availability of useful prod-ucts.

    Interviews were complemented with datafrom the data base developed by the projectPlant Resources of the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Val-ley (Davila et al. 1993), and bibliographic sourc-es such as the checklists by Jaramillo (1982);Jaramillo and Gonzalez-Medrano (1983); Oso-rio-Beristain et al. (1996); Valiente-Banuet et al.(n.d.), the ethnobotanical reports from the Te-huacan Valley (Casas 1997; Casas and Valiente-Banuet 1995; Casas et al. 1997a; Miranda 1948;Ramrez 1996; Smith 1965, 1967) and ethno-botanical reports from other neighboring regions(Casas et al. 1994, 1996; Vazquez 1986; Villa-Kamel 1991). Additonal information was com-piled from ethnobotanical inventories of Mexicoby Martnez (1994), Argueta (1994) and the database on useful plants of Mexico (Banco de In-formacion Etnobotanica de Plantas Mexicanas,BADEPLAM) of the Jardn Botanico, Univer-sidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, as well asfrom studies on particular groups of plants suchas those by Bravo-Hollis (1978) and Arias,Gama and Guzman (1997) for Cactaceae; Zarate(1994) for Leucaena species; Casas, Caballeroand Valiente-Banuet (1999) for columnar cacti,and Meja and Davila (1992) for Gramineae.

    RESULTSA total of 808 plant species were recorded as

    utilized by people in the region (Appendix 1).Most of them are used as fodder, human food,firewood and medicine, but also important areother uses shown in Table 1. The useful plantspecies may have one to eleven different uses(average 6 S. D. 5 2.1 6 1.5 uses). Among thespecies with more categories of use are Acaciafarnesiana L. (Wild.) (11 uses), Guazuma ul-mifolia Lam. (11 uses), Pithecellobium dulce(Roxb.) Benth. (10 uses), Alnus acuminata

    Kunth (9 uses), Cyrtocarpa procera Kunth (8uses), and Bursera aloexylon Engelm. (8 uses).

    Useful plant species belong to 98 plant fam-ilies. However, nearly 60% of the total belongto the following families: the Gramineae (208species), Leguminosae (104 species), Cactaceae(48 species), Asteraceae (47 species), Cypera-ceae (42 species), Fagaceae (25 species), andSolanaceae (21 species). Some of these plantfamilies are among the highest in species diver-sity (Asteraceae, Leguminosae, Gramineae, So-lanaceae), whereas others attain importance asdominant groups in the landscapes of the region(Asteraceae, Leguminosae, Cactaceae, Fagaceaeand Cyperaceae) (Table 2). However, if onecompares the regional proportion of speciesrichness that is represented within each familyto the proportion of its useful species, it will beseen that Gramineae, Leguminosae, Cactaceae,Cyperaceae and Fagaceae are over-representedamong the useful plant species. This indicatesthat these families constitute the main sources ofplant resources for the region. On the otherhand, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Orchidaceae, Mal-vaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Crassulaceae are

  • 134 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

    TABLE 2. NUMBER OF USEFUL PLANT SPECIES IN THE DOMINANT PLANT FAMILIES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY.

    Family

    Total number ofspecies inthe region1

    % of plantspecies inthe region1

    Number ofuseful species

    % of usefulplant species

    Number ofvegetation typesas dominants2

    AsteraceaeLeguminosaeGramineaeEuphorbiaceaeLamiaceaeSolanaceae

    345290215106

    9576

    12.810.78.03.93.52.8

    47104208

    204

    21

    5.812.925.8

    2.50.52.6

    1612

    1130

    CactaceaeOrchidaceaeMalvaceaeScrophulariaceaeCrassulaceae

    7460565549

    2.72.22.12.01.8

    480700

    6.00.00.90.00.0

    110000

    BromeliaceaeVerbenaceaeCyperaceaeAsclepiadaceaeFagaceae

    4743424125

    1.71.61.61.50.9

    159

    429

    25

    1.91.15.21.13.1

    01103

    1 Based upon Davila et al. 1993.2 Number of vegetation types of the region, out of 29, in which the family is among the six more dominant families, based upon Valiente-Banuet

    et al., n.d.

    under-represented among the useful plant spe-cies. Since these last families are known to beimportant sources of medicinal and ornamentalplants in other regions of Mexico (Table 3) aswell as in other areas of the world (Moerman etal. 1999), these particular families probablywould be worth studying anew in Tehuacan. Asshown in Table 3, the Tehuacan plant familiesthat are the most important in terms of numberof useful species are also the ones that are im-portant in other regions of Mexico. This illus-trates that these plants have consistently attract-ed the attention of humans for utilization. Theone exception is the Cyperaceae, which rankshigh in importance only in Tehuacan. This maybe because this family has a high diversity andabundance in the region, and because the speciesof this family are widely utilized as fodder.

    The useful plant species are mostly wildplants (681 species); whereas 109 are weeds andruderal plants and 168 are cultivated (Table 4).At least 90 species have been introduced to theTehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley from other regions ofMexico and other parts of the world. These in-clude 79 cultivated species, and 11 wild orweedy species that have become naturalized.Therefore, nearly 90% of the useful plant spe-cies recorded are native and, among them, 44species are endemic to the region (Appendix 1).

    Different forms of management by local peo-ple were observed among the useful plant spe-cies (see Appendix 1 and Table 4). The mostextended human-plant interaction is gathering orextraction of useful products (including foragingby domestic animals) in wild, weedy or ruderalplant populations. Except for 99 species that oc-cur in the region exclusively under cultivation,the remainder (709 species) is foraged by bothhumans and domestic animals in wild, weedy orruderal environments. However, 59 of these spe-cies receive some form of in situ managementin their wild populations. One form of manage-ment involves the sparing of useful plant specieswithin areas that are cleared during the prepa-ration of agricultural fields in swidden systems.Moreover, it is interesting to note that farmerswill often selectively spare only particular phe-notypes of a species, according to their utilitar-ian characteristics (see Casas et al. 1996,1997a,b, 1999). Still other wild forms may bedeliberately propagated or enhanced by peoplewithin natural populations in order to increasetheir numbers. Another group of 168 species arecultivated. Some of these are brought from theirwild populations to agricultural fields or homegardens, where they are sown or transplanted(Table 4, Appendix 1), but 86 (both native andintroduced) of these species show clear signs of

  • 2001] 135CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

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    llife

    rae

    This

    stud

    y

    Mar

    tnez

    etal

    .(19

    95)

    Alc

    orn

    (1984

    )Pe

    nnin

    gton

    (1969

    )

    Sier

    rade

    Man

    antla

    n

    Ten

    ejapa

    Patz

    cuar

    o

    Legu

    min

    osae

    Legu

    min

    osae

    Ast

    erac

    eae

    Ast

    erac

    eae

    Ast

    erac

    eae

    Lam

    iace

    ae

    Euph

    orbi

    acea

    e

    Gra

    min

    eae

    Sola

    nace

    ae

    Sola

    nace

    ae

    Euph

    orbi

    acea

    e

    Pina

    ceae

    Faga

    ceae

    Cype

    race

    ae

    Legu

    min

    osae

    Rub

    iace

    ae

    Rub

    iace

    ae

    Faga

    ceae

    Mor

    acea

    e

    Men

    thac

    eae

    Scro

    phul

    aria

    ceae

    Ben

    zet

    al.(

    1996

    )

    Ber

    lin,B

    reed

    love

    and

    Rav

    en(19

    74)

    Caba

    llero

    and

    Map

    es(19

    85)

    Yuca

    tan

    Mon

    tana

    ,

    Gue

    rrero

    All

    of

    Mex

    ico

    (Bad

    eplam

    Dat

    abas

    e)

    Legu

    min

    osae

    Legu

    min

    osae

    Ast

    erac

    eae

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    min

    eae

    Ast

    erac

    eae

    Legu

    min

    osae

    Euph

    orbi

    acea

    eSo

    lana

    ceae

    Sola

    nace

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    eae

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    card

    iace

    ae

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    acea

    e

    Rub

    iace

    aeEu

    phor

    biac

    eae

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    acea

    e

    Conv

    olvu

    lace

    aeM

    yrta

    ceae

    Lam

    iace

    ae

    Sola

    nace

    aeB

    igno

    niac

    eae

    Mal

    vace

    ae

    Flor

    es(19

    98)

    Casa

    s,V

    iver

    osan

    dCa

    balle

    ro(19

    94)

    Caba

    llero

    etal

    .(20

    00)

  • 136 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

    TABLE 4. FORMS OF MANAGEMENT OF USEFUL PLANTS IN THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY (NOTE:CONSIDERABLE OVERLAP EXISTS BETWEEN THE SPECIES OF EACH CATEGORY).

    Ecological status Foraging Management in situ Cultivation Total

    WildWeeds and ruderalDomesticatedTotal

    681109

    7061

    5514?

    592

    647

    861683

    68141094

    868084

    1 Eighty-four wild species of this category have weedy and ruderal variants (see Appendix 1).2 Ten wild species managed in situ have weedy and ruderal variants.3 Of the wild species of this category, one has a ruderal variant, 14 have domesticated variants, and 1 has both ruderal and domesticated variants.

    Also, three ruderal cultivated plants have domesticated variants; and 30 species of cultivated plants are neither wild nor weedy, but have beenintroduced from other regions of Mexico. The latter show no signs of domestication (see Appendix 1).

    4 Some species listed in the wild, weedy and ruderal categories are also listed in the situ manage and/or cultivated categories (see Appendix 1).

    having gone through the domestication process.A total of 18 domesticated species have nativewild, weedy and/or ruderal relative populations.Although domestication processes have beensuspected to occur in wild or weedy populationsmanaged in situ, these have been documentedfor only one species of columnar cactus (Sten-ocereus stellatus) in the region (Casas et al.1997a; Casas, Valiente-Banuet, and Caballero1998; Casas et al. 1999a,b)

    DISCUSSIONWhen compared with other regions in terms

    of richness of plant resources, the Tehuacan-Cui-catlan Valley appears to be one of the richest inMexico in terms of useful plants (Table 5). Suchrichness in economic plants is explainable inpart by the high floristic diversity of the area.For example, the arid to semiarid Tehuacan-Cui-catlan Valley has nearly 2700 plant species with-in its 10 000 km2 territory, as compared to near-ly 3000 plant species in 275 000 km2 for theSonoran Desert and nearly 4000 plant species in453 000 km2 for the Chihuahuan Desert inNorthern Mexico (Valiente-Banuet et al. n.d.).However, the cultural diversity of this region (7indigenous ethnic groups) and the relative im-portance of its indigenous people (30% of pop-ulation in the region but higher in rural areas)(Instituto Nacional Indigenista 1992 a,b), as wellas the length of time occupied by indigenouspeople (nearly 10 000 years) also contribute tothe high richness of useful plants.

    The universe of human-plant interactions inTehuacan is characterized by a broad spectrumof situations, as in other parts of Measoamerica(see Bye 1993; Caballero 1995; Casas et al.1996, 1997b). As discussed in other studies (Ca-

    sas et al. 1997a; Casas, Caballero, and Valiente-Banuet 1999), regimes of human-plant interac-tions in the region and their level of intensityappear to be influenced by: (1) the role of plantsin human subsistence, (2) the availability ofplant products in relation to human demand, (3)the quality of plant products, and (4) the viabil-ity of manipulation of a plant given its biologicalcharacteristics, such as type of reproductive sys-tems, length of life cycle, and adaptability tomanipulated environments. The documentationof how these processes occur in the region isbeing carried out for some groups of plants (Ca-sas, Caballero, and Valiente-Banuet 1999), butmore work needs to be done. This informationis particularly relevant to understand how thedomestication process occurs at the present time,but could also be helpful to construct hypothesesabout how these processes could have occurredin the past. For instance, although most of theuseful plant species recorded in this study arewild or weedy plants, it is important that a con-siderable number of them (59 species) are ma-nipulated within their wild or weedy popula-tions, and some others (68 species) are takenfrom the wild and cultivated in home gardensand fields. In relation to this topic, it is importantto mention that in the case of Stenocereus stel-latus, S. pruinosus and Leucaena esculenta,these types of in situ and ex situ manipulationhave been involved in the domestication pro-cesses (Casas and Caballero, 1996; Casas et al.1997, 1999a,b; Luna 1999). Domestication insitu therefore appears to be an important processto document and it could lead to a revision oftheories on origins of agriculture in the area,which generally consider that domestication is a

  • 2001] 137CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

    TAB

    LE5.

    RIC

    HN

    ESS

    OF

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    FUL

    PLA

    NT

    SPEC

    IES

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    Reg

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    Hab

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    (km2 )

    Rel

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    s1So

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    Tehu

    acan

    Valle

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    rub

    fore

    stTr

    opi

    cald

    ryfo

    rest

    Tem

    pera

    tefo

    rest

    Tem

    pera

    tefo

    rest

    Clou

    dfo

    rest

    Tro

    pica

    lrai

    nfo

    rest

    808

    720

    1000

    0

    1300

    0

    0.08

    0.06

    This

    stud

    y

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    .(19

    95)

    Uxp

    anap

    a,Ve

    racr

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    Selv

    aLa

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    ona,

    Chia

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    Sian

    Ka

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    uintan

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    gion

    Tro

    pica

    lrai

    nfo

    rest

    Tro

    pica

    lrai

    nfo

    rest

    Tro

    pica

    lrai

    nfo

    rest

    Tro

    pica

    lrai

    nfo

    rest

    Tem

    pera

    tefo

    rests

    325

    415

    316

    445

    380

    5000

    1300

    052

    80

    1050

    0

    0.07

    0.03

    0.06

    0.04

    Tole

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    1995

    )To

    ledo

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    .(19

    95)

    Tole

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    1995

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    lcor

    n(19

    84)

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    ingt

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    69)

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    stsCl

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    stsTr

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    650

    645

    1400

    0.46

    Ben

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    ain

    fore

    stTr

    opi

    cald

    ryfo

    rest

    Tem

    pera

    tefo

    rest

    1000 43

    0

    140

    056

    1100

    0

    0.01

    0.04

    Flor

    es(19

    99)

    Casa

    s,V

    iver

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    dCa

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    ro(19

    94)

    1Ex

    pres

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    ratio

    betw

    een

    the

    num

    bero

    fuse

    fuls

    peci

    esan

    dth

    ear

    eaoft

    here

    gion

    .

  • 138 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

    process associated to artificial selection undercultivation ex situ.

    The factors influencing the types of interac-tion between people and plants referred to abovemay extend to a number of regions of Mexicoas well as to other parts of the world but, un-doubtedly, there are important particularitiesadopted by such interactions in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley. Although five of the ethnicgroups occurring in the Valley have occupiedwider areas of Mesoamerica and cultural ex-change has been intense throughout history, it isnecessary to point out that at present two of theethnic groups (the Cuicatec and Ixcatec) occuronly within the region and that at least 44 spe-cies of useful plants recorded are endemic. Inaddition, Davila et al. (1993) indicate that nearly30% of the vascular plant species occurring inthe Valley are endemic, and Valiente-Banuet etal. (n.d.) state that nine of the 29 types of veg-etation described for the Tehuacan Valley occurexclusively in this region. It is still necessary tostudy local knowledge of plants by people inmore detail and to document the possible en-demic interactions between local peoples andlocal plants and environments. Such particular-ities should be taken into account when planningactions for conservation and utilization of plantresources in the area.

    The broad spectrum of plant resources, uses,and ways of management shown here offers nu-merous options of plant resources and technol-ogies to be considered when designing strategiesfor conservation and development as part of thebiosphere reserve programs. This valuableknowledge is part of an experience developedby local cultures for thousands of years and itcan be the keystone for improving their lives andtheir environment.

    ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors received financial support for fieldwork from the Biodi-

    versity Program of the World Wildlife Fund; from the Direccion Generalde Asuntos del Personal Academico, UNAM (project IN 207798); andfrom the Comision Nacional de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO) and CON-ACYT (400389G35-450), Mexico, for different aspects of the research.

    LITERATURE CITEDAlcorn, J. 1984. Huastec Mayan ethnobotany. Uni-

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    Arias, S., S. Gama, and L. U. Guzman. 1997. Floradel Valle de Tehuacan-Cuicatlan. Fascculo 14 Cac-

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    Arizmendi, M. C., and A. Espinoza-de los Monte-ros. 1996. Avifauna de los bosques de cactaceascolumnares del Valle de Tehuacan, puebla. ActaZoologica Mexicana (n. s.) 67:2546.

    Benz, B. F., F. J. Santana, M. R. Pineda, J. Ceval-los, L. Robles, and D. De Nz. 1994. Character-ization of Mestizo plant use in the Sierra de Man-antlan, Jalisco-Colima, Mexico. Journal of Ethno-biology 14: 2341.

    Berlin, B., D. E. Breedlove, and P. H. Raven. 1974.Principles of Tzeltal plant classification: an intro-duction to the botanical ethnography of a Mayan-speaking community in Highland Chiapas. Aca-demic Press, New York.

    Bravo-Hollis, H. 1978. Las cactaceas de Mexico. Vol-ume I. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico.Mexico.

    Bye, R. A. 1993. The role of humans in the diversi-fication of plants in Mexico. Pages 707731 in T.P. Ramamoorthy, R. Bye, A. Lot, and J. Fa, eds.,Biological diversity of Mexico. Oxford UniversityPress, New York.

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    Casas, A. 1997. Evolutionary trends in Stenocereusstellatus (Pfeiffer) Riccobono (Cactaceae) underdomestication processes. Ph.D. dissertation, TheUniversity of Reading, U.K.

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  • 2001] 141CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

    APP

    END

    IX1.

    USE

    FUL

    PLA

    NTS

    OF

    THE

    TEH

    UA

    CA

    NV

    ALL

    EY.

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    ies

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    mon

    nam

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    ses1

    Cultu

    ral

    stat

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    Ref

    eren

    ces3

    Aca

    ntha

    ceae

    Carlo

    wrig

    htia

    neesi

    ana

    (Sch

    auer

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    anie

    lCa

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    Ros

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  • 142 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

    APP

    END

    IX1.

    CON

    TIN

    UED

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  • 2001] 143CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

    APP

    END

    IX1.

    CON

    TIN

    UED

    .

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  • 144 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

    APP

    END

    IX1.

    CON

    TIN

    UED

    .

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    ies

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  • 2001] 145CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

    APP

    END

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  • 146 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

    APP

    END

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  • 2001] 147CASAS ET AL.: PLANT RESOURCES OF THE TEHUACA N-CUICATLA N VALLEY

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  • 148 [VOL. 55ECONOMIC BOTANY

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