Domain 1: Evolution - Ms. Bagby AP...
Transcript of Domain 1: Evolution - Ms. Bagby AP...
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Domain 1: Evolution
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1. NATURAL SELECTION
1.1: Natural selection is a major mechanism of evolution
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Charles Darwin
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Pre-Darwin Lyell: Geology, Uniformitarianism! very old earth. Malthus: Exponential Population Growth LaMarck: Evolution. Inheritance of acquired characteristics (wrong, but still evolutionary)
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The Voyage of the HMS Beagle
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Natural Selection
Observation 1: Variation
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No two organisms are completely alike.
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Observation 2: Reproduction…
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…And overproduction
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Inference 1: Differential “fitness” in the environment due to variations.
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The “struggle for existence”
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Inference 2: Over the span of geological time (billions of years), inheritance of adaptations will lead to evolution of the population.
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Fundamental Conclusions 1. To develop the diversity of life seen on
the Earth today, the Earth has to be incredibly old.
2. If organisms evolve from pre-existing organisms, then all organisms should share a universal “common ancestor”
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“tree thinking”
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Unsettled by Darwin 1. Origin of Life 2. Origin of species 3. Nature of variation/inheritance
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2. THE MODERN SYNTHESIS
1.1: Natural selection is a major mechanism of evolution
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The “Modern Synthesis” Connects Darwinian evolution to genetics and modern understanding of inheritance.
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Where Traits come from:
Trait
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Variation comes from Mutation Mutation: A change in a DNA sequence. Happens spontaneously and unavoidably.
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Mutations create “alleles” Alleles: Different versions of the genes for a trait.
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Evolution Defined: Evolution: Changes in allele frequencies over time.
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Ex. Galapagos Finches Grant and Grant: Studied the finch population on an isolated island in the Galapagos. Measured the beak dimensions of all birds on the island every year for decades.
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Connected changes in beak dimensions to fluctuations in the environment (precipitation, seed sizes)
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Evolution Misconception Alert! Misconception: Individuals evolve. Evolution is a “population level” phenomenon. Individuals DO NOT evolve! The evolution of a population emerges from the individual fitness of members of that population. As they survive and reproduce or not, the frequencies of alleles in the next generation will change accordingly.
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1. HOW NATURAL SELECTION WORKS.
1.2: Natural selection acts on phenotypic variations in populations.
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Genotype The alleles that an individual has for a particular trait. 2 Types: Homozygous: Two copies of the same allele. Heterozygous: Two copies of different alleles for each trait.
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Phenotype The trait that an individual shows. Genotype determines Phenotype!
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Alleles control the production of proteins and proteins determine traits.
Trait
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Dominant & Recessive Some alleles (“dominant”) will control phenotype over other alleles (“recessive”) when both are present. Ex. Eye color (simplified)
Two alleles: B (dominant) and b (recessive) Two phenotypes: Brown eyes and blue eyes
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Eye Color Genetics: 3 possible genotypes:
BB Bb bb Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous Dominant Recessive
2 possible phenotypes: Brown eyes Blue eyes Heterozygotes have BROWN eyes.
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Evolution Misconception Alert! Misconception: Dominant = “better” Dominant alleles are NOT “better” than recessive alleles Dominant and recessive have nothing to do with their effect on fitness. They only refer to how they contribute to phenotype expression.
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Phenotype and Fitness
Different phenotypes will be more or less fit, depending upon the requirements of the environment.
“Fitness”: Ability to contribute genes to the next generation (reproduction). The environment determines fitness.
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Fitness changes with the environment
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Ex. Pesticide Resistance
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Human Impact on Variation Humans are able to impact variation in other organisms by controlling which individuals are able to reproduce. Artificial selection: When reproductive success is determined by human requirements
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Ex. Dog Breeds
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Ex. Food Crops
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1. OTHER EVOLUTIONARY FORCES
1.3: Evolutionary change is also driven by random processes.
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Genetic Drift
Random, non-selective, changes in allele frequency due to chance.
Has a larger effect on smaller populations, since each individual is more of the total alleles.
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Founder Effect The descendants of a small, founding population have different allele percentages than the population the founders came from.
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Ex. Amish Populations and polydactyly
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Bottleneck Effect The survivors of a catastrophic decrease in a population may have a different allele frequency than the pre-bottleneck population
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Ex. Modern Cheetahs are all genetically similar due to 2 bottlenecks
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Gene Flow
Movement of alleles due to immigration and emigration
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Example: Modern Human Migration
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Sexual Selection Persistence of traits that signify fitness and aid in reproduction
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Ex. Peacocks are male.
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Can be intersexual or intrasexual
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Evolution Misconception Alert!
Misconception: Evolution is “random”. Evolution is a change in allele frequency in a population. That change involves random forces (ex. Genetic drift) and selective processes (ex. Natural selection).
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1. EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION
1.4: Biological evolution is supported by scientific evidence from many disciplines, including mathematics.
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Geological Evidence: Radiometric dating: Used to date geological formations and fossils. Establishes chronological history of Earth, and establishes Earth’s age at ~4.5 billion years.
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Fossil Record: Establishes History of life on Earth.
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Living organisms resemble fossilized forms.
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Transitional Fossils: Show evolutionary progression between groups
Ex. Tiktaalik
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Anatomical Evidence Similarities and differences in the anatomy (morphology) of organisms. Vestigial structures: structures that have lost their primary adaptive purpose Ex. Whale hind-limbs
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Homologous structures: Structures present in a common ancestor, which have diverged during evolution. Ex. Vertebrate limbs
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Analogous structures: Structures that have evolved multiple times in different lineages to fill similar adaptive needs. Ex. Wings
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Chemical Evidence Similarities and differences in DNA and protein sequences.
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Chemical evidence has been used to establish the evolutionary relatedness (“phylogeny”) of all life on Earth
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Mathematical Modeling: Computational analysis: The ability to analyze large amounts of chemical sequence data to establish evolutionary relationships among organisms. Hardy-Weinberg Theory: The ability to quantify the amount of evolutionary change from generation to generation.
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1. EVIDENCE OF COMMON ANCESTRY
1.5 Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among many organisms today
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The Universal Genetic Code
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Common Metabolic Pathways Ex. Glycolysis
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Cellular Morphology Note: Not to scale. Prokaryotic Cell:
“Plant-like” eukaryotic cell: “Animal-like” eukaryotic cell:
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Endosymbiosis
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2. MATH SKILLS: HARDY-WEINBERG THEORY
1.4: Biological evolution is supported by scientific evidence from many disciplines, including mathematics.
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What is Hardy Weinberg Theory? Equations that enable us to determine how much a population is evolving from generation to generation. “Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium”: Refers to an idealized, non-evolving population. Five characteristics:
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Characteristics of a non-evolving population:
1. Large size (no genetic drift) 2. Random mating (no sexual selection) 3. Stable environment (no natural
selection) 4. No immigration/emigration (no gene
flow) 5. No mutations. No real population is in HW equilibrium.
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Hardy-Weinberg Equations For a trait controlled by two alleles, where p is the dominant allele and q is the recessive allele: Gene Frequency:
p + q = 1 Genotype Frequency:
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
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Sample Problem In pea plants, the allele for purple flowers is dominant to the allele for white flowers. If 99% of the plants in the population have purple flowers, determine the percentage of heterozygotes in the population.
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Uses of HW Theory To determine how a population is evolving from generation to generation. To help to determine which evolutionary pressures are affecting a population more/less.
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1. PHYLOGENY
1.6: Phylogenetic trees and cladograms are graphical representations (models) of evolutionary history that can be tested.
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Cladograms Diagrams that group items together based on the number of common characteristics. 1. Determine number of shared
characteristics. 2. Arrange items as a tree showing most
commonality possible
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Phylogenetic Tree A cladogram that represents evolutionary relationships. Use two types of data: 1. Shared Derived Characters: Physical
traits that represent evolutionary history (homologous structures).
2. DNA/Protein sequence Data: Differences in sequences accumulate as species evolve away from each other.
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Ex. Vertebrate Phylogeny.
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Ex. Complete Phylogeny
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Phylogenetic Tree Construction 1. Determine similarities among
organisms (character table works well). 2. Arrange organisms in a tree diagram
showing simplest possible evolution. Maximum parsimony: All else being equal, a trait is assumed to evolve once and be present in all descendants
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SKILL: Create a tree- Selected Vertebrates
Animal Opposable Thumb
4-chamber heart
Amniotic egg
lungs Spinal column
Chimpanzee
1 1 1 1 1
Mouse 0 1 1 1 1
Turtle 0 0 1 1 1
Frog 0 0 0 1 1
Fish 0 0 0 0 1
Lamprey 0 0 0 0 0
Character Table:
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Trees are Hypotheses Continual revision:
As more data is gathered, the phylogenetic relationships among organisms are continually revised. Role of computers:
Computer analysis is needed to determine the similarities in large amounts of DNA/protein sequence information.
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1. SPECIATION CONCEPTS
1.7: Speciation and extinction have occurred throughout the Earth’s history.
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What is a species? “Biological Species”: A group of organisms that are capable of successfully reproducing. It’s testable, but simplistic. And it is limited in application.
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Speciation Rate Gradualism: species are the product of slowly accumulating, small evolutionary changes. Punctuated equilibrium: species undergo long periods of very little change, followed by rapid, large evolutionary changes.
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Ex. Major Extinctions.
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Adaptive Radiation One species evolves in to many species that occupy open niches. Ex. Lake Cichlids, Mammals, Galapagos Finches.
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1. SPECIATION PROCESS
1.8: Speciation may occur when two populations become reproductively isolated from each other.
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Reproductive Isolation Speciation occurs when a population can no longer interbreed with any other population. Allopatric: Happens due to physical separation. Sympatric: Happens while occupying the same area.
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Species Barriers Pre-Zygotic: Post-Zygotic: Physical Reduced Viability Temporal Reduced Fertility Behavioral Hybrid Breakdown Mechanical Chemical
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Ex. Mules
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Ex. Apples
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Ex. Fruit Fly Food Speciation.
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1. ONGOING EVOLUTION OF ORGANISMS
1.9 Populations of Organisms Continue to Evolve
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Evolution is Ongoing Evolution continues to happen. Ex. Pesticide Resistance
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Ex. Rock Pocket Mouse
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Analysis of Evolution Mathematical modeling (e.g. HW Equilibrium) and genetic analysis can be used to investigate evolution as it occurs in real-time over generations.
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1. ORIGIN OF LIFE
1.10: There are several hypotheses about the natural origin of life on Earth, each with supporting scientific evidence.
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Origin Hypotheses Hypotheses must be testable. Many thoughts about the origin of life are not testable. Two major hypothesis for life on Earth. 1. Panspermia: Life from extraterrestrial
life. 2. Abiogenesis: Life from non-life.
Requires 4 major milestones to occur.
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1. Development of Biological Molecules
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2. Development of Proto-cells
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3. Information Molecule Evolution
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4. Reproduction
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The “RNA World” A Hypothetical pre-DNA state of life. Based on RNA’s dual ability to store information AND catalyze reactions.
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Evolution of Metabolism “Heterotroph Hypothesis”: Glycolysis ! Photosynthesis ! Aerobic Cellular Respiration.
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Endosymbiosis Prokaryote ! Eukaryote
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Multicellularity Multicellularity opens previously inaccessible niches. Many organisms have unicellular and multicellular stages of their life cycles.
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History of Life on Earth
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1. EVIDENCE FOR THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
1.11: Scientific evidence from many different disciplines supports models of the origin of life.
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Geology Radioisotope Dating: Allows estimates of events during evolutionary history.
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~65 – 70 mya
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Ex. Banded Iron Formations
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Ex. Fossil Fuels
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Miller-Urey Experiments Simulated “Early Earth” conditions (no O2). Created Simple Biological Molecules
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Commonalities among all organisms suggests common ancestry.
It is the simplest explanation for the evidence. DNA Stores Information in all cells on Earth.
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The Genetic Code is universal in all cells
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Glycolysis is universal in all cells
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All life is organized into cells These cells contain fundamental structural similarities Note: Not to scale.
Prokaryotic Cell:
“Plant-like” eukaryotic cell: “Animal-like” eukaryotic cell:
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A Universal Phylogenetic
Tree
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Image Credits All images taken from wikimedia commons. Exceptions slide 23: Image from Grant & Grant, 2002. Slide 96: Image and Diagram from M. Nachman