Dog - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - unizg.hr · PDF fileDomestic dog Temporal range:...

Domestic dogTemporal range: 0.033–0Ma

Pleistocene – Recent

Nine different breeds of dogs.

Conservation status

Domesticated

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Canidae

Genus: Canis

Species: C. lupus

Subspecies: C. l. familiaris

Trinomial name

Canis lupus familiaris[1]

Synonyms

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris or Canis familiaris)is a usually furry, carnivorous[2][3][4] canid carnivoran mammal.Domestic dogs are commonly known as "man's best friend".The dog was the first domesticated animal[5][6] and has beenwidely kept as a working, hunting, and pet companion. It isestimated there are between 700 million and one billiondomestic dogs, making them the most abundant member oforder Carnivora.[7][8]

1 Etymology and related terminology2 Taxonomy3 Origin4 Roles with humans

4.1 Early roles4.2 As pets4.3 Work4.4 Sports and shows4.5 As a food source4.6 Health risks to humans4.7 Health benefits for humans4.8 Medical detection dogs4.9 Shelters

5 Biology5.1 Senses

5.1.1 Vision5.1.2 Hearing5.1.3 Smell

5.2 Physical characteristics5.2.1 Coat5.2.2 Tail

5.3 Types and breeds5.4 Health

5.4.1 Lifespan5.4.2 Predation

5.5 Diet5.6 Reproduction

PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg N↓

Species synonymy

Dog - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog

1 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

5.6.1 Neutering5.7 Communication

6 Intelligence and behavior6.1 Intelligence6.2 Behavior6.3 Dog growl

7 Differences from wolves7.1 Physical characteristics7.2 Behavioral differences7.3 Trainability

8 Cultural depictions8.1 Mythology8.2 Religion and culture8.3 Gallery of dogs in art

9 See also10 References11 Bibliography12 Further reading13 External links

The term "domestic dog" is generally used for both of the domesticated and feral varieties. The English worddog comes from Middle English dogge, from Old English docga, a "powerful dog breed".[9] The term maypossibly derive from Proto-Germanic *dukkōn, represented in Old English finger-docce ("finger-muscle").[10]

The word also shows the familiar petname diminutive -ga also seen in frogga "frog", picga "pig", stagga"stag", wicga "beetle, worm", among others.[11] The term dog may ultimately derive from the earliest layer ofProto-Indo-European vocabulary, reflecting the role of the dog as the earliest domesticated animal.[12]

In 14th-century England, hound (from Old English: hund) was the general word for all domestic canines, anddog referred to a subtype of hound, a group including the mastiff. It is believed this "dog" type was socommon, it eventually became the prototype of the category "hound".[13] By the 16th century, dog hadbecome the general word, and hound had begun to refer only to types used for hunting.[14] Hound, cognate toGerman Hund, Dutch hond, common Scandinavian hund, and Icelandic hundur, is ultimately derived fromthe Proto-Indo-European *kwon- "dog", found in Sanskrit kukuur (कुक्कुर),[15] Welsh ci (plural cwn), Latincanis, Greek kýōn, and Lithuanian šuõ.[16]

In breeding circles, a male canine is referred to as a dog, while a female is called a bitch[17] (Middle Englishbicche, from Old English bicce, ultimately from Old Norse bikkja). A group of offspring is a litter. The fatherof a litter is called the sire, and the mother is called the dam. Offspring are, in general, called pups or puppies,from French poupée, until they are about a year old. The process of birth is whelping, from the Old Englishword hwelp (cf. German Welpe, Dutch welp, Swedish valpa, Icelandic hvelpur).[18] The term "whelp" canalso be used to refer to the young of any canid, or as a (somewhat archaic) alternative to "puppy".


2 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

In 1753, Carl Linnaeus listed among the types of quadrupeds familiar to him the Latin word for dog, canis.Among the species within this genus, Linnaeus listed the fox, as Canis vulpes, wolves (Canis lupus), and thedomestic dog, (Canis canis). In later editions, Linnaeus dropped Canis canis and greatly expanded his list ofthe Canis genus of quadrupeds, and by 1758 included alongside the foxes, wolves, and jackals and manymore terms that are now listed as synonyms for domestic dog, including aegyptius (hairless dog), aquaticus,(water dog), and mustelinus (literally "badger dog"). Among these were two that later experts have beenwidely used for domestic dogs as a species: Canis domesticus and, most predominantly, Canis familiaris, the"common" or "familiar" dog.[19]

By 1993 with advancements in molecular biology, the mitochondrial DNA mtDNA analysis of extant (i.e.living today) Canidea species indicated that "The domestic dog is an extremely close relative of the graywolf, differing from it by at most 0.2% of mtDNA sequence.... In comparison, the gray wolf differs from itsclosest wild relative, the coyote, by about 4% of mitochondrial DNA sequence."[20] In the same year, thedomestic dog Canis familiaris was reclassified as Canis lupus familiaris, a subspecies of the gray wolf Canislupus in Mammal Species of the World.[21] By 1999, further genetic analysis indicated that the domestic dogmay have emerged from multiple wolf populations.[22][23] Based on these latest two pieces of research andthe reference reclassification, canis lupus familiaris is the name for the taxon listed by ITIS.[24] However,canis familiaris is also accepted due to a nomenclature debate regarding the naming of wild and domesticsub-species.[25]

As of January 2014, a mtDNA study of extant and extinct dog and wolf specimens raises a question aboutthis classification. Refer Origin and Gray wolf.

The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris or Canis familiaris), based on nuclear DNA evidence as ofJanuary 2014, began from a single domestication 11 to 16 thousand years ago that predates the rise ofagriculture and implies that the earliest dogs arose along with hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists.[26]

Mitochondrial DNA evidence as of November 2013, indicates that all modern dogs are most closely relatedto the extant and extinct canids of Europe[27][28] compared to earlier writers who proposed the origins fromEurasia as well as Eastern Asia.[29][30][31]

The analysis indicates that the dog is not a descendant of the extant (i.e. living) gray wolf but forms a sisterclade, and that dogs were originally domesticated from a now-extinct wolf population that was moregenetically diverse than today’s wolf population. The dog's genetic closeness to modern wolves is due toadmixture.[26][32]

Conceivably, proto-dogs might have taken advantage of carcasses left by early hunters, assisted in thecapture of prey, or provided defense from large competing predators at kills. Furthermore, several ancientdogs may represent failed domestication attempts, such as the 36,000 year old Goyet specimen of Belgiumand the 33,000 year old Altai Mountains specimen from Russia, as they have no descendents today.[27][33]

Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which wouldhave been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition andcommunication may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households andsocial situations, and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them tobecome one of the most successful species on the planet today.[34]:pages95-136


3 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

A Siberian Husky used as a packanimal

A German Shepherd with a football

The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quicklybecoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many rolesfor people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection,assisting police and military, companionship, and, more recently,aiding handicapped individuals. This impact on human society hasgiven them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. Insome cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.[35][36]

Early roles

Wolves, and their dog descendants, would have derived significantbenefits from living in human camps—more safety, more reliablefood, lesser caloric needs, and more chance to breed.[37] They wouldhave benefited from humans' upright gait that gives them larger rangeover which to see potential predators and prey, as well as color visionthat, at least by day, gives humans better visual discrimination.[37]

Camp dogs would also have benefited from human tool use, as inbringing down larger prey and controlling fire for a range ofpurposes.[37]

Humans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogsassociated with their camps.[38] For instance, dogs would haveimproved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps.[38] Dogs may haveprovided warmth, as referred to in the Australian Aboriginalexpression "three dog night" (an exceptionally cold night), and theywould have alerted the camp to the presence of predators orstrangers, using their acute hearing to provide an early warning.[38]

Anthropologists believe the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs' robust sense of smell toassist with the hunt.[38] The relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is oftenmentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with andwithout a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was animportant factor in wolf domestication.[39]

The cohabitation of dogs and humans would have greatly improved the chances of survival for early humangroups, and the domestication of dogs may have been one of the key forces that led to human success.[40]

Emigrants from Siberia likely crossed the Bering land bridge with dogs in their company, and some experts[41]

suggest the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered North Americaroughly 12,000 years ago,[41] although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in NorthAmerica dates from about 9,400 years ago.[34]:104[42] Dogs were an important part of life for the Athabascanpopulation in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs also carried much of the load inthe migration of the Apache and Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. Use of dogs as pack animals in these culturesoften persisted after the introduction of the horse to North America.[43]

As pets

"The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs"[38] and the keeping ofdogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.[44] (As a possible example, at the Natufianculture site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together).[45] However, pet dog populations grew significantly afterWorld War II as suburbanization increased.[44] In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often


4 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

A British Bulldog shares a day at thepark.

A young male border terrier with araccoon toy.

A pet dog taking part in Christmastraditions

than they tend to be today[46] (using the expression "in the doghouse"to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance betweenthe doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, actingas a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From the1980s, there have been changes in the role of the pet dog, such as theincreased role of dogs in the emotional support of their humanguardians.[47] People and dogs have become increasingly integratedand implicated in each other's lives,[48] to the point where pet dogsactively shape the way a family and home are experienced.[49]

There have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs.The first has been the 'commodification' of the dog, shaping it toconform to human expectations of personality and behaviour.[49] Thesecond has been the broadening of the concept of the family and thehome to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines andpractices.[49]

There are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform apet dog into an ideal companion.[50] The list of goods, services andplaces available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furnitureand housing, to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dogcafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotels, airlines andcemeteries.[50] While dog training as an organized activity can betraced back to the 18th century, in the last decades of the 20thcentury it became a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviorssuch as barking, jumping up, digging, rolling in dung, fighting, andurine marking became increasingly incompatible with the new role ofa pet dog.[51] Dog training books, classes and television programs proliferated as the process ofcommodifying the pet dog continued.[52]

The majority of contemporary people with dogs describe their pet aspart of the family,[49] although some ambivalence about therelationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of thedog–human family as a pack.[49] A dominance model of dog–humanrelationships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as on thetelevision program Dog Whisperer. However it has been disputed that"trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog–humaninteractions.[53] Pet dogs play an active role in family life; forexample, a study of conversations in dog–human families showedhow family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, ortalking through the dog, to mediate their interactions with eachother.[54]

Another study of dogs' roles in families showed many dogs have settasks or routines undertaken as family members, the most common of which was helping with the washing-upby licking the plates in the dishwasher, and bringing in the newspaper from the lawn.[49] Increasingly, humanfamily members are engaging in activities centered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog, or inwhich the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga.[50]

According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the NationalPet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, it is estimated there are 77.5 million people with pet dogs in the UnitedStates.[55] The same survey shows nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67%


5 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Book of the Hunt, Gaston III, Count ofFoix, 1387–88.

own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any genderpreference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of female and male dog pets.Yet, although several programs are undergoing to promote pet adoption, less than a fifth of the owned dogscome from a shelter.

The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to humans and dogs together proved that dogs havesame response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans to do so. This gives dogs the ability torecognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.[56]

Work

Dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that they have earned the unique nickname,"man's best friend",[57] a phrase used in other languages as well. They have been bred for herdinglivestock,[58] hunting (e.g. pointers and hounds),[59] rodent control,[60] guarding, helping fishermen with nets,detection dogs, and pulling loads, in addition to their roles as companions.[60] In 1957, a husky-terrier mixnamed Laika became the first animal to orbit the Earth.[61][62]

Service dogs such as guide dogs, utility dogs, assistance dogs,hearing dogs, and psychological therapy dogs provide assistanceto individuals with physical or mental disabilities.[63][64] Somedogs owned by epileptics have been shown to alert their handlerwhen the handler shows signs of an impending seizure,sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian toseek safety, medication, or medical care.[65]

Dogs included in human activities in terms of helping out humansare usually called working dogs. Dogs of several breeds areconsidered working dogs. Some working dog breeds includeAkita, Alaskan Malamute, Anatolian Shepherd Dog, BerneseMountain Dog, Black Russian Terrier, Boxer, Bullmastiff,Doberman Pinscher, Dogue de Bordeaux, German Pinscher,German Shepherd,[66] Giant Schnauzer, Great Dane, GreatPyrenees, Great Swiss Mountain Dog, Komondor, Kuvasz,Mastiff, Neapolitan Mastiff, Newfoundland, Portuguese Water Dog, Rottweiler, Saint Bernard, Samoyed,Siberian Husky, Standard Schnauzer, and Tibetan Mastiff.

Sports and shows

People often enter their dogs in competitions[67] such as breed-conformation shows or sports, includingracing, sledding and agility competitions.

In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluatesindividual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard.As the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog (such as appearance,movement, and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judgingin conformation shows.

As a food source

Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China, and Vietnam, a practice thatdates back to antiquity.[68] It is estimated that 13–16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia everyyear.[69] The BBC claims that, in 1999, more than 6,000 restaurants served soups made from dog meat in


6 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Gaegogi (dog meat) stew being servedin a Korean restaurant

Pet waste station at a governmentbuilding.

South Korea.[70] In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, thenureongi (누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets thatKoreans may keep in their homes.[71]

The most popular Korean dog dish is gaejang-guk (also calledbosintang), a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during thesummer months; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensuregood health by balancing one's gi, or vital energy of the body. A 19thcentury version of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared byboiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations of thedish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are stillpopular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not aswidely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork.[71]

A CNN report in China dated March 2010 includes an interview with a dog meat vendor who stated thatmost of the dogs that are available for selling to restaurants are raised in special farms but that there is alwaysa chance that a sold dog is someone's lost pet, although dog pet breeds are not considered edible.[72]

Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history.However, Western, South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern cultures, in general, regard consumption of dogmeat as taboo. In some places, however, such as in rural areas of Poland, dog fat is believed to havemedicinal properties—being good for the lungs for instance.[73] Dog meat is also consumed in some parts ofSwitzerland.[74]

Health risks to humans

Citing a 2008 study, the U.S. Center for Disease Control estimated in2015 that 4.5 million people in the USA are bitten by dogs each year.[75]

A 2015 study estimated that 1.8% of the U.S. population is bitten eachyear.[76] In the 1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year,while in the 2000s this has increased to 26.[77] 77% of dog bites are fromthe pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the property ofthe dog's legal owner.[77]

A Colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites inadults.[78] The incidence of dog bites in the US is 12.9 per 10,000inhabitants, but for boys aged 5 to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per10,000. Moreover, children have a much higher chance to be bitten inthe face or neck.[79] Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them canlacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections.[80]

In the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog attacks onhumans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost in sick leave.[81]

In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.[82] It has been estimatedaround 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found thatwhile dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidentsinvolving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.[83]

Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population isinfected.[84] In Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained T. canis eggs.[85]

Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.[85] Dog feces can also contain


7 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

A human cuddles a Doberman puppy.

Gunnar Kaasen and Balto, thelead dog on the last relayteam of the 1925 serum runto Nome.

hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.[86][87][88][89]

Health benefits for humans

The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether companionship of adog can enhance human physical health and psychologicalwellbeing.[90] Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physicalhealth and psychological wellbeing[91] have been criticised for beingpoorly controlled,[92] and finding that "[t]he health of elderly peopleis related to their health habits and social supports but not to theirownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studieshave shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit bettermental and physical health than those who do not, making fewer visitsto the doctor and being less likely to be on medication thannon-guardians.[93]

A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associatedwith a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or anypsychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however,pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets."[90]

In one study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the firstmonth following pet acquisition, and this effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of thestudy.[94]

In addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and thosewithout pets. The group without pets exhibited no statistically significant changes in health or behaviour. Theresults provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, and thatfor guardians of dogs these effects are relatively long-term.[94] Pet guardianship has also been associated withincreased coronary artery disease survival, with human guardians being significantly less likely to die withinone year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs.[95]

The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, andnot solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in the presence of apet dog, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, andpsychological indicators of anxiety.[96] Other health benefits are gained fromexposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which, according to thehygiene hypothesis, can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases.The benefits of contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs areable to not only provide companionship and social support themselves, butalso to act as facilitators of social interactions between humans.[97] One studyindicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactionswith strangers when they are accompanied by a dog than when they arenot.[98]

The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates backto the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mentalinstitutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders.[99] Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with adog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, amongpeople with Alzheimer's disease.[100] One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conductdisorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increasedattendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior


8 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Lateral view of skeleton.

compared to those who were not in an animal-assisted program.[101]

Medical detection dogs

Medical detection dogs are capable of detecting diseases by sniffing a person of directly or samples of urineor other specimens. Dogs can detect odour in one part per trillion, as their brain's olfactory cortex is (relativeto total brain size) 40 times larger than humans. Dogs may have as many as 300 million odour receptors intheir nose, while humans may have only 5 million. Each dog is trained specifically for the detection of singledisease from the blood glucose level indicative to diabetes to cancer. To train a cancer dog requires 6 months.A Labrador Retriever called Daisy has detected 551 cancer patients with an accuracy of 93 percent andreceived the Blue Cross (for pets) Medal for her life-saving skills.[102][103]

Shelters

Every year, between 6 and 8 million dogs and cats enter US animal shelters.[104] The Humane Society of theUnited States (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 to 4 million of those dogs and cats are euthanized yearlyin the United States.[105] However, the percentage of dogs in US animal shelters that are eventually adoptedand removed from the shelters by their new legal owners has increased since the mid-1990s from around25% to a 2012 average of 40% among reporting shelters[106] (and many shelters reporting 60–75%).[107]

Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia forvarious behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physicalattributes.[60] Modern dog breeds show more variation in size,appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal.Nevertheless, their morphology is based on that of their wild wolfancestors.[60] Dogs are predators and scavengers, and like manyother predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fusedwrist bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprintingand endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing.

Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallestknown adult dog was a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood only 6.3 cm(2.5 in) at the shoulder, 9.5 cm (3.7 in) in length along thehead-and-body, and weighed only 113 grams (4.0 oz). The largestknown dog was an English Mastiff which weighed 155.6 kg (343 lb) and was 250 cm (98 in) from the snoutto the tail.[108] The tallest dog is a Great Dane that stands 106.7 cm (42.0 in) at the shoulder.[109]

Senses

Vision

Like most mammals, dogs have only two types of cone photoreceptor, making them dichromats.[110][111]

[112][113] These cone cells are maximally sensitive between 429 nm and 555 nm. Behavioural studies haveshown that the dog's visual world consists of yellows, blues and grays,[113] but they have difficultydifferentiating red and green making their color vision equivalent to red–green color blindness in humans(deuteranopia). When a human perceives an object as "red", this object appears as "yellow" to the dog andthe human perception of "green" appears as "white", a shade of gray. This white region (the neutral point)occurs around 480 nm, the part of the spectrum which appears blue-green to humans. For dogs, wavelengthslonger than the neutral point cannot be distinguished from each other and all appear as yellow.[113]


9 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Frequency sensitivity compared with humans.

Dogs use color instead of brightness to differentiate lightor dark blue/yellow.[114][115][116][117] They are lesssensitive to differences in grey shades than humans andalso can detect brightness at about half the accuracy ofhumans.[118]

The dog's visual system has evolved to aid proficienthunting.[110] While a dog's visual acuity is poor (that of apoodle's has been estimated to translate to a Snellenrating of 20/75[110]), their visual discrimination formoving objects is very high; dogs have been shown to be able to discriminate between humans (e.g.,identifying their human guardian) at a range of between 800 and 900 metres (2,600 and 3,000 ft), howeverthis range decreases to 500–600 metres (1,600–2,000 ft) if the object is stationary.[110]

Dogs have a temporal resolution of between 60 and 70 Hz. This means that domestic dogs are unlikely toperceive modern TV screens in the same way as humans because these are optimized for humans at50–60 Hz.[118] Dogs can detect a change in movement that exists in a single diopter of space within their eye.Humans, by comparison, require a change of between 10 and 20 diopters to detect movement.[119]

As crepuscular hunters, dogs often rely on their vision in low light situations: They have very large pupils, ahigh density of rods in the fovea, an increased flicker rate, and a tapetum lucidum.[110] The tapetum is areflective surface behind the retina that reflects light to give the photoreceptors a second chance to catch thephotons. There is also a relationship between body size and overall diameter of the eye. A range of 9.5 and11.6 mm can be found between various breeds of dogs. This 20% variance can be substantial and isassociated as an adaptation toward superior night vision.[120]

The eyes of different breeds of dogs have different shapes, dimensions, and retina configurations.[121] Manylong-nosed breeds have a "visual streak"—a wide foveal region that runs across the width of the retina andgives them a very wide field of excellent vision. Some long-muzzled breeds, in particular, the sighthounds,have a field of vision up to 270° (compared to 180° for humans). Short-nosed breeds, on the other hand, havean "area centralis": a central patch with up to three times the density of nerve endings as the visual streak,giving them detailed sight much more like a human's. Some broad-headed breeds with short noses have afield of vision similar to that of humans.[111][112]

Most breeds have good vision, but some show a genetic predisposition for myopia – such as Rottweilers, withwhich one out of every two has been found to be myopic.[110] Dogs also have a greater divergence of the eyeaxis than humans, enabling them to rotate their pupils farther in any direction. The divergence of the eye axisof dogs ranges from 12–25° depending on the breed.[119]

Experimentation has proven that dogs can distinguish between complex visual images such as that of a cubeor a prism. Dogs also show attraction to static visual images such as the silhouette of a dog on a screen, theirown reflections, or videos of dogs; however, their interest declines sharply once they are unable to makesocial contact with the image.[122]

Hearing

The frequency range of dog hearing is approximately 40 Hz to 60,000 Hz,[123] which means that dogs candetect sounds far beyond the upper limit of the human auditory spectrum.[112][123][124] In addition, dogs haveear mobility, which allows them to rapidly pinpoint the exact location of a sound.[125] Eighteen or moremuscles can tilt, rotate, raise, or lower a dog's ear. A dog can identify a sound's location much faster than ahuman can, as well as hear sounds at four times the distance.[125]


10 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Anatomy of the ear.

The wet, textured nose of a dog

A heavy winter coat withcountershading in amixed-breed dog

Smell

While the human brain is dominated by a large visual cortex, thedog brain is dominated by an olfactory cortex.[110] The olfactorybulb in dogs is roughly forty times bigger than the olfactory bulbin humans, relative to total brain size, with 125 to 220 millionsmell-sensitive receptors.[110] The bloodhound exceeds thisstandard with nearly 300 million receptors.[110]

Consequently, it has been estimated that dogs, in general, havean olfactory sense ranging from one hundred thousand to onemillion times more sensitive than a human's. In some dog breeds, suchas bloodhounds, the olfactory sense may be up to 100 million timesgreater than a human's.[126] The wet nose, or rhinarium, is essentialfor determining the direction of the air current containing the smell.Cold receptors in the skin are sensitive to the cooling of the skin byevaporation of the moisture by air currents.[127]

Physical characteristics

Coat

The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common withdogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarseguard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only.

Domestic dogs often display the remnants of countershading, a commonnatural camouflage pattern. A countershaded animal will have dark coloringon its upper surfaces and light coloring below,[128] which reduces its generalvisibility. Thus, many breeds will have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star"of white fur on their chest or underside.[129]

Tail

There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle,curled, or cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of adog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important ingetting along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail istraditionally docked to avoid injuries.[130] In some breeds, such as the Braque du Bourbonnais, puppies canbe born with a short tail or no tail at all.[131]

Types and breeds

Most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old, having been artificially selected for particularmorphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles. Through this selective breeding, the doghas developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation thanany other land mammal.[132] For example, height measured to the withers ranges from 15.2 centimetres(6.0 in) in the Chihuahua to about 76 cm (30 in) in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white throughgrays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a widevariation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth.[133] Itis common for most breeds to shed this coat.


11 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Cavalier King Charles Spanielsdemonstrate within-breed variation.

While all dogs are genetically very similar,[134] natural selection andselective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certainpopulations of dogs, giving rise to dog types and dog breeds. Dogtypes are broad categories based on function, genetics, orcharacteristics.[135] Dog breeds are groups of animals that possess aset of inherited characteristics that distinguishes them from otheranimals within the same species. Modern dog breeds arenon-scientific classifications of dogs kept by modern kennel clubs.

Purebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguishable frompurebred dogs of other breeds,[136] but the means by which kennelclubs classify dogs is unsystematic. Systematic analyses of the doggenome has revealed only four major types of dogs that can be said tobe statistically distinct.[136] These include the "old world dogs" (e.g., Malamute and Shar Pei), "Mastiff"-type(e.g., English Mastiff), "herding"-type (e.g., Border Collie), and "all others" (also called "modern"- or"hunting"-type).[136][137]

Health

Dogs are susceptible to various diseases, ailments, and poisons, some of which can affect humans. To defendagainst many common diseases, dogs are often vaccinated.

There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs including begonia, Poinsettia and aloe vera.[138]

Poinsettia is often claimed to be toxic but this is untrue.

Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow and hip dysplasia, blindness,deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two serious medical conditions particularlyaffecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all types and ages, and bloat, which affects thelarger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can kill rapidly. Dogs are alsosusceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, and mites, as well as hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, andheartworms.

A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids(theobromine poisoning), onion and garlic (thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning),[139] grapes andraisins, macadamia nuts, xylitol,[140] as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials.[141][142]

The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can get it by scavenging in garbage or ashtrays; eatingcigars and cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Someother signs are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death.[143] Dogs are highly susceptible totheobromine poisoning, typically from ingestion of chocolate. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, althoughthe dog's metabolism is capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that even smallamounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate.

Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental andheart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.[144]

Lifespan

The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median longevity, the age at whichhalf the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years.[145][146][147][148]

Individual dogs may live well beyond the median of their breed.

The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with areasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several


12 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

A mixed-breed terrier. Mixed-breeddogs are generally healthier thanpure-breds. (See heterosis)

Golden Retriever gnawing apig's foot

breeds, including Miniature Bull Terriers, Bloodhounds, and IrishWolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities of 6 to7 years.[148]

The longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodles, Japanese Spitz,Border Terriers, and Tibetan Spaniels, have median longevities of 14to 15 years.[148] The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken asan average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that ofpurebred dogs when all breeds are averaged.[146][147][148][149] The dogwidely reported to be the longest-lived is "Bluey", who died in 1939and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death;however, the Bluey record is anecdotal and unverified.[150] On 5December 2011, Pusuke, the world's oldest living dog recognized byGuinness Book of World Records, died aged 26 years and 9months.[151]

Predation

Although large wild dogs, like wolves, are apex predators,[152] they can be killed in territory disputes withwild animals.[153] Furthermore, in areas where both dogs and other large predators live, dogs can be a majorfood source for big cats or canines. Reports from Croatia indicate wolves kill dogs more frequently than theykill sheep. Wolves in Russia apparently limit feral dog populations. In Wisconsin, more compensation hasbeen paid for dog losses than livestock.[153] Some wolf pairs have been reported to prey on dogs by havingone wolf lure the dog out into heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush.[154] In some instances,wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to theextent that they have to be beaten off or killed.[155]

Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular are known to have apredilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of the dog's size orferocity.[156] Tigers in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are reputed to kill dogs with the samevigor as leopards.[157] Striped Hyenas are major predators of village dogs in Turkmenistan, India, and theCaucasus.[158] Reptiles such as alligators and pythons have been known to kill and eat dogs.

Diet

Despite their descent from wolves and classification as Carnivora, dogs arevariously described in scholarly and other writings as carnivores[159][160] oromnivores.[60][161][162][163] Unlike obligate carnivores, such as the cat familywith its shorter small intestine, dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and arenot dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein inorder to fulfill their basic dietary requirements. Dogs will healthily digest avariety of foods, including vegetables and grains, and can consume a largeproportion of these in their diet.[60] Compared to their wolf ancestors, dogshave adaptations in genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to anincreased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.[164]

Reproduction

In domestic dogs, sexual maturity begins to happen around age six to twelvemonths for both males and females,[60][165] although this can be delayed untilup to two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at which femaledogs will have their first estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles biannually, during


13 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

A feral dog from Sri Lanka nursing herfour puppies

which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, beingmentally and physically receptive to copulation.[60] Because the ova survive and are capable of beingfertilized for a week after ovulation, it is possible for a female to mate with more than one male.[60]

2–5 days post conception fertilization occurs, 14–16 days embryo attaches to uterus 22–23 days heart beat isdetectable.[166][167]

Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,[60][168] with an average of 63 days, althoughthe length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies,[169] though this number mayvary widely based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter,while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve.

Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere with reproduction. MaleFrench Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting the female. For many dogs of this breed, the femalemust be artificially inseminated in order to reproduce.[170]

Neutering

Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal ofthe male's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, in order toeliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of theoverpopulation of dogs in some countries, many animal controlagencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Crueltyto Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for furtherbreeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesiredpuppies that may have to later be euthanized.[171]

According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3–4 milliondogs and cats are put down each year in the United States and manymore are confined to cages in shelters because there are many moreanimals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.[172] Local humanesocieties, SPCAs, and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adoptanimals from shelters instead of purchasing them.

Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.[173] Spayed female dogs areless likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductiveorgans.[174] However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs,[175] and prostatecancer in males,[176] as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, anddiabetes mellitus in either sex.[177]

Communication

By the age of four weeks, the dog has developed the majority of its vocalizations.[178] The dog is the mostvocal canid and is unique in its tendency to bark in a myriad of situations.[178]

Barking appears to have little more communication functions than excitement, fighting, the presence of ahuman, or simply because other dogs are barking.[178] Subtler signs such as discreet bodily and facialmovements, body odors, whines, yelps, and growls are the main sources of actual communication.[178] Themajority of these subtle communication techniques are employed at a close proximity to another, but forlong-range communication only barking and howling are employed.[178]


14 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

The Border Collie is considered to beone of the most intelligent breeds.[179]

Sergeant Stubby wearing his uniformand medals. Stubby participated in fouroffensives and 17 battles.

Intelligence

The domestic dog has a predisposition to exhibit a social intelligencethat is uncommon in the animal world.[110] Dogs are capable oflearning in a number of ways, such as through simple reinforcement(e.g., classical or operant conditioning) and by observation.[110][180]

Dogs go through a series of stages of cognitive development. As withhumans, the understanding that objects not being actively perceivedstill remain in existence (called object permanence) is not present atbirth. It develops as the young dog learns to interact intentionally withobjects around it, at roughly 8 weeks of age.[110]

Puppies learn behaviors quickly by following examples set byexperienced dogs.[110] This form of intelligence is not peculiar tothose tasks dogs have been bred to perform, but can be generalized tomyriad abstract problems. For example, Dachshund puppies thatwatched an experienced dog pull a cart by tugging on an attached piece of ribbon in order to get a rewardfrom inside the cart learned the task fifteen times faster than those left to solve the problem on theirown.[110][181]

Dogs can also learn by mimicking human behaviors. In one study, puppies were presented with a box, andshown that, when a handler pressed a lever, a ball would roll out of the box. The handler then allowed thepuppy to play with the ball, making it an intrinsic reward. The pups were then allowed to interact with thebox. Roughly three quarters of the puppies subsequently touched the lever, and over half successfullyreleased the ball, compared to only 6% in a control group that did not watch the human manipulate thelever.[182] Another study found that handing an object between experimenters who then used the object'sname in a sentence successfully taught an observing dog each object's name, allowing the dog tosubsequently retrieve the item.[183]

Dogs also demonstrate sophisticated social cognition by associatingbehavioral cues with abstract meanings.[110] One such class of socialcognition involves the understanding that others are conscious agents.Research has shown that dogs are capable of interpreting subtle socialcues, and appear to recognize when a human or dog's attention isfocused on them. To test this, researchers devised a task in which areward was hidden underneath one of two buckets. The experimenterthen attempted to communicate with the dog to indicate the locationof the reward by using a wide range of signals: tapping the bucket,pointing to the bucket, nodding to the bucket, or simply looking at thebucket.[184](pp1634–6) The results showed that domestic dogs werebetter than chimpanzees, wolves, and human infants at this task, andeven young puppies with limited exposure to humans performedwell.[110]

Psychology research has shown that humans' gaze instinctively moves to the left in order to watch the rightside of a person's face, which is related to use of right hemisphere brain for facial recognition, includinghuman facial emotions. Research at the University of Lincoln (2008) shows that dogs share this instinct whenmeeting a human being, and only when meeting a human being (i.e., not other animals or other dogs). Assuch they are the only non-primate species known to do so.[185][186]

Stanley Coren, an expert on dog psychology, states that these results demonstrated the social cognition ofdogs can exceed that of even our closest genetic relatives, and that this capacity is a recent genetic


15 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Properly socialized dogs can interactwith unfamiliar dogs of any size andunderstand how to communicate.

acquisition that distinguishes the dog from the wolf.[110] Studies have also investigated whether dogs engagedin partnered play change their behavior depending on the attention-state of their partner.[187] Those studiesshowed that play signals were only sent when the dog was holding the attention of its partner. If the partnerwas distracted, the dog instead engaged in attention-getting behavior before sending a play signal.[187]

Coren has also argued that dogs demonstrate a sophisticated theory of mind by engaging in deception, whichhe supports with a number of anecdotes, including one example wherein a dog hid a stolen treat by sitting onit until the rightful owner of the treat left the room.[110] Although this could have been accidental, Corensuggests that the thief understood that the treat's owner would be unable to find the treat if it were out ofview. Together, the empirical data and anecdotal evidence points to dogs possessing at least a limited form oftheory of mind.[110][187] Similar research has been performed by Brian Hare of Duke University, who hasshown that dogs outperform both great apes as well as wolves raised by humans in reading humancommunicative signals.[184](pp1634–6)[188]

A study found a third of dogs suffered from anxiety when separated from others.[189]

A border collie named Chaser has learned the names for 1,022 toys after three years of training, so many thather trainers have had to mark the names of the objects lest they forget themselves. This is higher than Rico,another border collie who could remember at least 200 objects.[190]

Dogs can discriminate the emotional expressions of human faces.[191]

Behavior

Although dogs have been the subject of a great deal of behaviorist psychology (e.g. Pavlov's dog), they donot enter the world with a psychological "blank slate".[110] Rather, dog behavior is affected by genetic as wellas environmental factors.[110] Domestic dogs exhibit a number of behaviors and predispositions that wereinherited from wolves.[110]

After undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version ofthe same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not.[192]

Given that dogs' abilities to use human social cues originated during the process of domestication, it is likelythat individual dogs that were able to use social cues to predict the behavior of humans more flexibly thancould their last common wolf ancestor were at a selective advantage.[184]

The existence and nature of personality traits in dogs has been studied(15329 dogs of 164 different breeds) and five consistent and stable"narrow traits" identified, described as playfulness,curiosity/fearlessness, chase-proneness, sociability andaggressiveness. A further higher order axis for shyness–boldness wasalso identified.[193][194]

The average sleep time of a dog is said to be 10.1 hours per day.[195]

Like humans, dogs have two main types of sleep: slow-wave sleep,then rapid eye movement sleep, the state in which dreams occur.[196]

Dogs prefer, when they are off the leash and Earth's magnetic field is calm, to urinate and defecate with theirbodies aligned on a north-south axis.[197]

Dog growl

A new study in Budapest, Hungary, has found that dogs are able to tell how big another dog is just by


16 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Some dogs, like this Tamaskan Dog,look very much like wolves.

listening to its growl. A specific growl is used by dogs to protect their food. The research also shows that dogsdo not, or can not, misrepresent their size, and this is the first time research has shown animals can determineanother's size by the sound it makes. The test, using images of many kinds of dogs, showed a small and bigdog and played a growl. The result showed that 20 of the 24 test dogs looked at the image of theappropriately sized dog first and looked at it longest.[198] Additionally, most people can tell from a barkwhether a dog was alone or being approached by a stranger, playing or being aggressive,[199] and able tellfrom a growl how big the dog is.[200] This is thought to be evidence of human-dog coevolution.[200]

Physical characteristics

Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smallerskulls, 30% smaller brains,[59]:35 as well as proportionately smallerteeth than other canid species.[201] Dogs require fewer calories tofunction than wolves. It is thought by certain experts that the dog'slimp ears are a result of atrophy of the jaw muscles.[201] The skin ofdomestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some Inuittribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greaterresistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.[201] Wolves do not havedewclaws on their back legs, unless there has been admixture withdogs.[202]

Behavioral differences

Dogs tend to be poorer than wolves at observational learning, being more responsive to instrumentalconditioning.[201] Feral dogs show little of the complex social structure or dominance hierarchy present inwolf packs. For example, unlike wolves, the dominant alpha pairs of a feral dog pack do not force the othermembers to wait for their turn on a meal when scavenging off a dead ungulate as the whole family is free tojoin in. For dogs, other members of their kind are of no help in locating food items, and are more likecompetitors.[201]

Feral dogs are primarily scavengers, with studies showing that unlike their wild cousins, they are poorungulate hunters, having little impact on wildlife populations where they are sympatric. However, feral dogshave been reported to be effective hunters of reptiles in the Galápagos Islands,[59]:267 and free ranging petdogs are more prone to predatory behavior toward wild animals.

Domestic dogs can be monogamous.[203] Breeding in feral packs can be, but does not have to be restricted toa dominant alpha pair (such things also occur in wolf packs).[204] Male dogs are unusual among canids by thefact that they mostly seem to play no role in raising their puppies, and do not kill the young of other femalesto increase their own reproductive success.[59]:267 Some sources say that dogs differ from wolves and mostother large canid species by the fact that they do not regurgitate food for their young, nor the young of otherdogs in the same territory.[201]

However, this difference was not observed in all domestic dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females for theyoung as well as care for the young by the males has been observed in domestic dogs, dingos as well as inother feral or semi-feral dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females and direct choosing of only one mate hasbeen observed even in those semi-feral dogs of direct domestic dog ancestry. Also regurgitating of food bymales has been observed in free-ranging domestic dogs.[203][205]

In 1982, a study to observe the differences between dogs and wolves raised in similar conditions took


17 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Tesem, an old Egyptiansighthound-like dog.

place.[206] The dog puppies preferred larger amounts of sleep at the beginning of their lives, while the wolfpuppies were much more active.[206] The dog puppies also preferred the company of humans, rather thantheir canine foster mother, though the wolf puppies were the exact opposite, spending more time with theirfoster mother.[206] The dogs also showed a greater interest in the food given to them and paid little attentionto their surroundings, while the wolf puppies found their surroundings to be much more intriguing than theirfood or food bowl.[206] The wolf puppies were observed taking part in agonistic play at a younger age, whilethe dog puppies did not display dominant/submissive roles until they were much older.[206] The wolf puppieswere rarely seen as being aggressive to each other or towards the other canines.[206] On the other hand, thedog puppies were much more aggressive to each other and other canines, often seen full-on attacking theirfoster mother or one another.[206]

Trainability

Dogs display much greater tractability than tame wolves, and are, in general, much more responsive tocoercive techniques involving fear, aversive stimuli, and force than wolves, which are most responsivetoward positive conditioning and rewards.[207] Unlike tame wolves, dogs tend to respond more to voice thanhand signals.[208]

Dogs have been viewed and represented in different manners by different cultures and religions, over thecourse of history.

Mythology

See also Category:Mythological dogs.

In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.[209]

In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed watchdog whoguards the gates of Hades.[209] In Norse mythology, a bloody,four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim.[209] In Persianmythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge.[209] InPhilippine mythology, Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god ofthunder, is responsible for lightning. In Welsh mythology, Annwn isguarded by Cŵn Annwn.[209]

In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death owns two watch dogswho have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates ofNaraka.[210] Hunter god Muthappan from North Malabar region of Kerala has a hunting dog as his mount.Dogs are found in and out of the Muthappan Temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dogfigurines.[211]

Religion and culture

In Islam, dogs are viewed as unclean scavengers.[209] In 2015 in The Hague in the Netherlands, HasanKüçük, a representative on The Hague city council for the Islam Democrats, called for the possession of dogsin The Hague to be criminalized.[212] In Lérida, Spain, two Islamic groups asked local officials to ban dogsfrom all areas frequented by Muslim immigrants, saying their presence violated the Muslims' religiousfreedom.[212] In Britain, police sniffer dogs trained to identify bombs carried by terrorists at train stations areno longer allowed to come into contact with Muslim passengers, following complaints that it was offensive to


18 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Ancient Greek black-figure potterydepicting the returnof a hunter and hisdog. Made in Athensbetween 550–530 BC,

Riders and dogs.Ancient Greek Atticblack-figure hydria,ca. 510–500 BC, fromVulci. LouvreMuseum, Paris.

William McElcheran'sCross Section-dogsDundas (TTC)Toronto

Detail of TheImperial Prince andhis dog Nero byJean-BaptisteCarpeaux 1865Marble.

A woodcutillustration from Thehistory of four-footedbeasts and serpentsby Edward Topsell,1658

their religion.[212]

In Judaism, Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets.[213] Jewish law requires Jews to feedtheir dogs before themselves, and make arrangements for feeding them before first obtaining them.[213] InChristianity, dogs represent faithfulness.[209]

In Asian countries such as China, Korea, and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.[209] The role of thedog in Chinese mythology includes a position as one of the twelve animals which cyclically represent years(the zodiacal dog).

Gallery of dogs in art

Aging in dogsAnimal track


19 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Ancient Greek rhyton in the shape of a dog's head, made by Brygos, early 5th centuryBC. Jérôme Carcopino Museum, Department of Archaeology, Aleria

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Dogs in art.

Argos (dog)Dog in ChinesemythologyDogs in artDog odorDognappingEthnocynologyHachikō–a notableexample of dogloyaltyLost pet servicesWolfdog

Lists

List of dog breedsList of fictional dogsList of individual dogsList of most popular dog breeds

"Mammal Species of the World – Browse: Canis lupus familiaris" (http://www.bucknell.edu/MSW3/browse.asp?id=14000752). Bucknell.edu. 2005. Retrieved 12 March 2012.

1.

Kim, K.S., Lee,S.E., Jeong, H.W. and Ha, J.H. (1998). "The complete nucleotide sequence of the domestic dog(Canis familiaris) mitochondrial genome" (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790398905139). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 10 (2): 210–220.

2.

Wayne, R.K. and Ostrander, E.A. (1999). "Origin, genetic diversity, and genome structure of the domestic dog."(http://parkinson.cos.ucf.edu/Courses/PCB6677/pdf/bioassay_dog.pdf). BioEssays 21: 247–257.

3.

Clauss, M., Kleffner, H. and Kienzle, E. "Carnivorous mammals: nutrient digestibility and energy evaluation."(http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/zoo.20302/abstract;jsessionid=383ABB2CBFFC1A66659DC86E211048B2.f04t02?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false). Zoo Biology 29 (6): 687–704.

4.

Nikolai D. Ovodov, Susan J. Crockford, Yaroslav V. Kuzmin, Thomas F. G. Higham, Gregory W. L. Hodgins,Johannes van der Plicht. (2011). A 33,000-Year-Old Incipient Dog from the Altai Mountains of Siberia:Evidence of the Earliest Domestication Disrupted by the Last Glacial Maximum. Published: 28 July, 2011DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0022821. Page 1 online here OCT14 (http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0022821)

5.


20 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Greger Larson, Elinor K. Karlsson, Angela Perri, Matthew T. Webster, Simon Y. W. Ho, Joris Peters, Peter W.Stahl, Philip J. Piper, Frode Lingaas, Merete Fredholm, Kenine E. Comstock, Jaime F. Modiano, ClaudeSchelling, Alexander I. Agoulnik, Peter A. Leegwater, Keith Dobney, Jean-Denis Vignes, Carles Vilàt, LeifAnderssond, and Kerstin Lindblad-Toh; Edited by Joachim Burger. (2012). Rethinking dog domestication byintegrating genetics, archeology, and biogeography. vol. 109 no. 23 > Greger Larson, 8878–8883, doi:10.1073/pnas.1203005109. Page 1 online here OCT14 (http://www.pnas.org/content/109/23/8878.full)

6.

Hughes, Joelene; Macdonald, David W. (2013). "A review of the interactions between free-roaming domesticdogs and wildlife". Biological Conservation 157: 341–351. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.005 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2012.07.005).

7.

Gompper, Matthew E. (2013). "The dog–human–wildlife interface: assessing the scope of the problem". InGompper, Matthew E. Free-Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 9–54.

8.

"Domestic PetDog Classified By Linnaeus In 1758 As Canis Familiaris And Canis Familiarus Domesticus"(http://www.encyclocenter.com/Domestic-Pet-134.html). www.encyclocentral.com. Retrieved 18 June 2008.

9.

Seebold, Elmar (2002). Kluge. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Berlin/New York: Walter deGruyter. p. 207. ISBN 3-11-017473-1.

10.

"Dictionary of Etymology", Dictionary.com, s.v. dog, encyclopedia.com (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/dog.aspx#5-1O27:dog-full) retrieved on 27 May 2009.

11.

Mallory, J. R. (1991). In search of the Indo-Europeans: language, archaeology and myth. London: Thames andHudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1.

12.

Broz, Vlatko (2008). "Diachronic Investigations of False Friends" (http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=48370&lang=en). Contemporary Linguistics (Suvremena lingvistika) 66 (2): 199–222.

13.

René Dirven; Marjolyn Verspoor (2004). Cognitive exploration of language and linguistics(http://books.google.com/?id=uZcs6poXkfEC&pg=PA215). John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 215–216.ISBN 978-90-272-1906-0.

14.

Klaus Glashoff. "Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit" (http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?script=HK&beginning=0+&tinput=+dog&trans=Translate&direction=AU). spokensanskrit.de.

15.

"The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition" (http://web.archive.org/web/20061018073726/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE259.html). www.bartleby.com. Archived from theoriginal (http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE259.html) on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 30 November 2006.

16.

"Dog" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/dog). Dictionary.com.17. Gould, Jean (1978). All about dog breeding for quality and soundness. London, Eng: Pelham.ISBN 0-7207-1064-2.

18.

Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae:secundum classes, ordines, genera, species,cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. (http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726931) 1 (10th ed.).Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). p. 38. Retrieved 8 September 2008.

19.

Wayne, Robert K. (1993). "Molecular evolution of the dog family". Trends in Genetics 9 (6): 218–224.doi:10.1016/0168-9525(93)90122-X (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0168-9525%2893%2990122-X).

20.

Wozencraft, W. Christopher (1993). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Animal Species of theWorld:A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 1 (2 ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.p. 576. ISBN 9780801882210.

21.

Wayne, Robert K.; Ostrander, Elaine A. (1999). "Origin, genetic diversity, and genome structure of the domesticdog". BioEssays 21: 247–257. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199903)21:3<247::AID-BIES9>3.0.CO;2-Z(https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291521-1878%28199903%2921%3A3%3C247%3A%3AAID-BIES9%3E3.0.CO%3B2-Z).

22.


21 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Vilà, C.; Maldonado, J.E.; Wayne, R.K. (1999). "Phylogenetic relationships, evolution, and genetic diversity ofthe domestic dog". Journal of Heredity 90: 71–77.

23.

"ITIS Report: Canis lupus familiaris" (http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=726821). ITIS Data. Integrated Taxonomic Information System from 3rd Edition of the MammalSpecies of the World (Wozencraft in Wilson & Reeder, 2005). Retrieved 21 October 2014.

24.

Gentry, Anthea; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Groves, Colin P. (2004). "The naming of wild animal species and theirdomestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2003.10.006).

25.

Freedman, Adam H.; Gronau, Ilan; Schweizer, Rena M.; Ortega-Del Vecchyo, Diego; Han, Eunjung; Silva, PedroM.; Galaverni, Marco; Fan, Zhenxin; Marx, Peter; Lorente-Galdos, Belen; Beale, Holly; Ramirez, Oscar;Hormozdiari, Farhad; Alkan, Can; Vilà, Carles; Squire, Kevin; Geffen, Eli; Kusak, Josip; Boyko, Adam R.;Parker, Heidi G.; Lee, Clarence; Tadigotla, Vasisht; Siepel, Adam; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Harkins, Timothy T.;Nelson, Stanley F.; Ostrander, Elaine A.; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Wayne, Robert K.; Novembre, John (16January 2014). "Genome Sequencing Highlights Genes Under Selection and the Dynamic Early History of Dogs"(http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1004016). PLOS Genetics (PLOSOrg) 10 (1): e1004016. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1004016). PMC 3894170 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3894170).PMID 24453982 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24453982). Retrieved December 8, 2014.

26.

Thalmann, O.; Shapiro, B.; Cui, P.; Schuenemann, V.J.; Sawyer, S.K.; Greenfield, D.L.; Germonpré, M.B.; Sablin,M.V.; López-Giráldez, F.; Domingo-Roura, X.; Napierala, H.; Uerpmann, H-P.; Loponte, D.M.; Acosta, A.A.;Giemsch, L.; Schmitz, R.W.; Worthington, B.; Buikstra, J.E.; Druzhkova, A.S.; Graphodatsky, A.S.; Ovodov,N.D.; Wahlberg, N.; Freedman, A.H.; Schweizer, R.M.; Koepfli, K.-P.; Leonard, J.A.; Meyer, M.; Krause, J.;Pääbo, S.; Green, R.E.; Wayne, Robert K. (15 November 2013). "Complete Mitochondrial Genomes of AncientCanids Suggest a European Origin of Domestic Dogs" (http://www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6160/871).Science (AAAS) 342 (6160): 871–874. doi:10.1126/science.1243650 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1243650). Retrieved 24 December 2014.

27.

Wolpert, Stuart (November 14, 2013), "Dogs likely originated in Europe more than 18,000 years ago, UCLAbiologists report" (http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/dogs-likely-originated-in-europe-249325), UCLA NewsRoom, retrieved December 10, 2014

28.

Wang, Xiaoming. Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History. Columbia University Press.pp. 233–236.

29.

Miklósi, Ãdám. Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition. Oxford. p. 167.30. Cossins, Dan (May 16, 2013), "Dogs and Human Evolving Together" (http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/35585/title/Dogs-and-Human-Evolving-Together/), The Scientist, retrieved January 12,2014

31.

Viegas, Jennifer (January 16, 2014), "Dogs Not as Close Kin to Wolves as Thought" (http://news.discovery.com/animals/pets/dogs-not-as-close-kin-to-wolves-as-thought-140116.htm), Discovery News, retrieved December 10,2014

32.

Yong, Ed (November 14, 2013), "Origin of Domestic Dogs" (http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/38279/title/Origin-of-Domestic-Dogs/), The Scientist, retrieved December 10, 2014

33.

Miklósi, Adám (2007). Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition (http://books.google.com/?id=KnVEIrVNGhIC). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295852.001.0001(https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199295852.001.0001). ISBN 978-0-19-929585-2.

34.


22 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Wingfield-Hayes, Rupert (29 June 2002). "China's taste for the exotic" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm). BBC News.

35.

"Vietnam's dog meat tradition" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm). BBC News. 31 December2001.

36.

Groves, Colin (1999). "The Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Domesticated". Perspectives in HumanBiology 4: 1–12. ISSN 1038-5762 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1038-5762).

37.

Tacon, Paul; Pardoe, Colin (2002). "Dogs make us human". Nature Australia 27 (4): 52–61.38. Ruusila, Vesa; Pesonen, Mauri (2004). "Interspecific cooperation in human (Homo sapiens) hunting: the benefitsof a barking dog (Canis familiaris)" (http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf41/anzf41-545.pdf). Annales ZoologiciFennici 41 (4): 545–9.

39.

Newby, Jonica (1997). The Pact for Survival. Sydney: ABC Books. ISBN 0-7333-0581-4.40. A History of Dogs in the Early Americas, Marion Schwartz, 1998, 260 p., ISBN 978-0-300-07519-9, YaleUniversity Press

41.

"The University of Maine – UMaine News – UMaine Student Finds Oldest Known Domesticated Dog inAmericas" (http://umaine.edu/news/blog/2011/01/11/umaine-student-finds-oldest-known-domesticated-dog-in-americas/). Umaine.edu. 11 January 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2013.

42.

Derr, Mark (2004). A dogs history of America. North Point Press. p.1243. Derr, Mark (1997). Dog's Best Friend. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-14280-9.44. Clutton-Brock, Juliet (1995), "Origins of the dog: domestication and early history", in Serpell, James, Thedomestic dog: its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,ISBN 0-521-41529-2

45.

Franklin, A (2006). "Be[a]ware of the Dog: a post-humanist approach to housing". Housing Theory and Society23 (3): 137–156. doi:10.1080/14036090600813760 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14036090600813760).ISSN 1403-6096 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1403-6096).

46.

Katz, Jon (2003). The New Work of Dogs. New York: Villard Books. ISBN 0-375-76055-5.47. Haraway, Donna (2003). The Companion Species manifesto: Dogs, People and Significant Otherness. Chicago:Prickly Paradigm Press. ISBN 0-9717575-8-5.

48.

Power, Emma (2008). "Furry Families: Making a Human-Dog Family through Home". Social and CulturalGeography 9 (5): 535–555. doi:10.1080/14649360802217790 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F14649360802217790).

49.

Nast, Heidi J. (2006). "Loving ... Whatever: Alienation, Neoliberalism and Pet-Love in the Twenty-FirstCentury". ACME: an International E-Journal for Critical Geographies 5 (2): 300–327. ISSN 1492-9732(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1492-9732).

50.

"A Brief History of Dog Training" (http://www.dogzone.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=22%3Aa-brief-history-of-dog-training&catid=16%3Ageneral&Itemid=31). Dog Zone. 3 June 2007. Retrieved19 February 2010.

51.

Jackson Schebetta, Lisa (2009). "Mythologies and Commodifications of Dominion in The Dog Whisperer withCesar Millan". Journal for Critical Animal Studies (Institute for Critical Animal Studies) 7 (1): 107–131.ISSN 1948-352X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1948-352X).

52.

Bradshaw, John; Blackwell, Emily J.; Casey, Rachel A. (2009). "Dominance in domestic dogs: useful constructor bad habit?" (http://www.webcitation.org/5sIbRXtwx). Journal of Veterinary Behavior (Elsevier) 4 (3):135–144. doi:10.1016/j.jveb.2008.08.004 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jveb.2008.08.004). Archived fromthe original (http://www.pawsoflife.org/pdf/Library%20articles/Bradshaw%202009.pdf) on 27 August 2010.

53.


23 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Tannen, Deborah (2004). "Talking the Dog: Framing Pets as Interactional Resources in Family Discourse".Research on Language and Social Interaction 37 (4): 399–420. doi:10.1207/s15327973rlsi3704_1(https://dx.doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15327973rlsi3704_1). ISSN 1532-7973 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1532-7973).

54.

"U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics" (http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html). Retrieved 24 June 2010.

55.

James Edgar (21 February 2014). "Dogs and humans respond to voices in same way"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/10653182/Dogs-and-humans-respond-to-voices-in-same-way.html). The Daily Telegraph (London).

56.

"The Story of Old Drum" (http://www.almostheaven-golden-retriever-rescue.org/old-drum.html). CedarcroftFarm Bed & Breakfast — Warrensburg, MO. Retrieved 29 November 2006.

57.

Williams, Tully (2007). Working Sheep Dogs. Collingwood, Vic.: CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 0-643-09343-5.58. Serpell, James (1995). "Origins of the dog: domestication and early history". The Domestic Dog. Cambridge:Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0-521-41529-2.

59.

Dewey, T. and S. Bhagat. 2002. "Canis lupus familiaris (http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Canis_lupus_familiaris.html)", Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 6 January 2009.

60.

"sputnik" (http://www.russianspaceweb.com/sputnik2.html/). Retrieved 25 September 2013.61. Solovyov, Dmitry; Pearce, Tim (ed.) (11 April 2008). "Russia fetes dog Laika, first earthling in space"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/11/us-russia-space-dog-idUSL1117596720080411). Reuters.

62.

"Psychiatric Service Dog Society" (http://www.psychdog.org/attclinicians.html). Psychdog.org. 1 October 2005.Retrieved 21 December 2010.

63.

"About Guide Dogs – Assistance Dogs International" (http://www.assistancedogsinternational.org/guide.php).Assistancedogsinternational.org. Retrieved 21 December 2010.

64.

Dalziel DJ, Uthman BM, Mcgorray SP, Reep RL (2003). "Seizure-alert dogs: a review and preliminary study".Seizure 12 (2): 115–20. doi:10.1016/S105913110200225X (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS105913110200225X). PMID 12566236 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12566236).

65.

"German Shepherd Dog | American Kennel Club" (http://www.akc.org/breeds/german_shepherd_dog/). AmericanKennel Club. Retrieved 28 December 2010.

66.

"A Beginner's Guide to Dog Shows" (http://www.akc.org/events/conformation/beginners.cfm). American KennelClub. Retrieved 30 October 2008.

67.

Simoons, Frederick J. (1994). Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present(http://books.google.com/?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA208) (second ed.). University of Wisconsin Press.pp. 208–212. ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4.

68.

"How many dogs and cats are eaten in Asia?" (http://www.animalpeoplenews.org/03/9/dogs.catseatenAsia903.html). Animalpeoplenews.org. Retrieved 19 December 2012.

69.

"South Korea's dog day" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/422338.stm). BBC News. 17 August 1999.Retrieved 19 December 2012.

70.

Pettid, Michael J., Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2008, 25. ISBN1-86189-348-5

71.

"Inside the cat and dog meat market in China" (http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/03/09/china.animals/index.html). CNN. 9 March 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2010.

72.

Day, Matthew (7 August 2009). "Polish couple accused of making dog meat delicacy"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html). London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 21 December 2010.

73.


24 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Schwabe, Calvin W. (1979). Unmentionable Cuisine. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. p. 173(http://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC&pg=PA173). ISBN 0-8139-1162-1.

74.

"Home & Recreational Safety – Dog Bites" (http://www.cdc.gov/homeandrecreationalsafety/dog-bites/). Centersfor Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 27 January 2015. citing Gilchrist J.; Sacks J.J.; White, D.;Kresnow, M.J. "Dog Bites: Still a Problem?". Injury Prevention 14 (5): 288–301.

75.

Jeffrey J Sacks; Marcie-jo Kresnow; Barbara Houston. "Dog bites: how big a problem?"(http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/2/1/52.full.pdf). p. 53.

76.

"Statistics about dog bites in the USA and elsewhere" (http://www.dogbitelaw.com/PAGES/statistics.html).Dogbitelaw.com. Retrieved 18 December 2012.

77.

Whitcomb, Rachael (1 July 2009). "Study: Chihuahuas bite vets most; Lhaso Apsos inflict worst injuries"(http://veterinarynews.dvm360.com/dvm/Working+with+patients+-+technicians/Study-Chihuahuas-bite-vets-most-Lhaso-Apsos-inflic/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/613820?contextCategoryId=204&ref=25). DVMNewsmagazine. Retrieved 15 February 2013.

78.

Weiss, HB; Friedman, DI; Coben, JH (1998). "Incidence of dog bite injuries treated in emergency departments".JAMA 279 (1): 51–3. doi:10.1001/jama.279.1.51 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.279.1.51). PMID 9424044(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9424044).

79.

Tierney, DM; Strauss, LP; Sanchez, JL (2006). "Capnocytophaga canimorsus Mycotic Abdominal AorticAneurysm: Why the Mailman Is Afraid of Dogs" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392675).Journal of Clinical Microbiology 44 (2): 649–51. doi:10.1128/JCM.44.2.649-651.2006 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.44.2.649-651.2006). PMC 1392675 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1392675). PMID 16455937 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16455937).

80.

"Mail campaign over dog attacks" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/4142200.stm). BBC News. 11August 2005.

81.

"Injury Prevention Bulletin" (http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/english/services/health_promotion/pdf/injury_prevention_bulletin.pdf). Northwest Territories Health and Social Services. 25 March 2009.Retrieved 7 January 2010.

82.

Bewley, BR (1985). "Medical hazards from dogs" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1417177).British Medical Journal 291 (6498): 760–1. doi:10.1136/bmj.291.6498.760 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.291.6498.760). PMC 1417177 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1417177).PMID 3929930 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3929930).

83.

Huh, Sun; Lee, Sooung (20 August 2008). "Toxocariasis" (http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview). Medscape.com. Retrieved 15 February 2013.

84.

"Toxocariasis" (http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/parasitic/toxocariasis.html). Kids' Health. The NemoursFoundation. 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2010.

85.

Johnson, Kate (May 2002). "Parasites in pet feces cause puzzling infections" (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb4384/is_5_36/ai_n28919851). Pediatric News. Retrieved 11 May 2009.

86.

Chiodo, Paula; Basualdo, Juan; Ciarmela, Laura; Pezzani, Betina; Apezteguía, María; Minvielle, Marta (2006)."Related factors to human toxocariasis in a rural community of Argentina". Memórias do Instituto OswaldoCruz 101 (4): 397–400. doi:10.1590/S0074-02762006000400009 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1590%2FS0074-02762006000400009).

87.

Talaizadeh, A. H.; Maraghi2, S.; Jelowdar, A.; Peyvasteh, M. (October–December 2007). "Human toxocariasis:A report of 3 cases" (http://pjms.com.pk/issues/octdec107/article/casereport6.html). Pakistan Journal ofMedical Sciences Quarterly 23 (5). Part I.

88.


25 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

"Dog fouling" (http://www.woking.gov.uk/planning/envhealthservice/dog/dogfouling). UK: Woking BoroughCouncil. Retrieved 21 December 2010.

89.

McNicholas, June; Gilbey, Andrew; Rennie, Ann; Ahmedzai, Sam; Dono, Jo-Ann; Ormerod, Elizabeth (2005)."Pet ownership and human health: A brief review of evidence and issues" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1289326). BMJ 331 (7527): 1252–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.331.7527.1252 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7527.1252). PMC 1289326 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1289326).PMID 16308387 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16308387).

90.

Podberscek, A.L. (2006). "Positive and Negative Aspects of Our Relationship with Companion Animals".Veterinary Research Communications 30 (1): 21–27. doi:10.1007/s11259-006-0005-0 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11259-006-0005-0).

91.

Winefield, Helen R.; Black, Anne; Chur-Hansen, Anna (2008). "Health effects of ownership of and attachment tocompanion animals in an older population". International Journal of Behavioral Medicine 15 (4): 303–10.doi:10.1080/10705500802365532 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F10705500802365532). PMID 19005930(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19005930).

92.

Headey B. (1999). "Health benefits and health cost savings due to pets: preliminary estimates from an Australiannational survey". Social Indicators Research 47 (2): 233–243. doi:10.1023/A:1006892908532 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1006892908532).

93.

Serpell J (1991). "Beneficial effects of pet ownership on some aspects of human health and behaviour"(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1295517). Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 84 (12):717–20. PMC 1295517 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1295517). PMID 1774745(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1774745).

94.

Friedmann E, Thomas SA (1995). "Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival after acute myocardialinfarction in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST)". The American Journal of Cardiology 76 (17):1213–7. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80343-9 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0002-9149%2899%2980343-9).PMID 7502998 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7502998).

95.

Wilson CC (1991). "The pet as an anxiolytic intervention". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 179(8): 482–9. doi:10.1097/00005053-199108000-00006 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2F00005053-199108000-00006). PMID 1856711 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1856711).

96.

McNicholas, J.; Collis, G. M. (2006). "Animals as social supports: Insights for understanding animal assistedtherapy". In Fine, Aubrey H. Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines forpractice. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 49–71. ISBN 0-12-369484-1.

97.

Eddy J, Hart LA, Boltz RP (1988). "The effects of service dogs on social acknowledgments of people inwheelchairs". The Journal of Psychology 122 (1): 39–45. doi:10.1080/00223980.1988.10542941(https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F00223980.1988.10542941). PMID 2967371 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2967371).

98.

Kruger, K.A. & Serpell, J.A. (2006). Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoreticalfoundations, In Fine, A.H. (Ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelinesfor practice. San Diego, CA, Academic Press: 21–38. ISBN 0-12-369484-1

99.

Batson, K.; McCabe, B.; Baun, M.M.; Wilson, C. (1998). "The effect of a therapy dog on socialization andpsychological indicators of stress in persons diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease". In Turner, Dennis C.; Wilson,Cindy C. Companion animals in human health. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 203–15.ISBN 978-0-7619-1061-9.

100.


26 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Katcher, A.H.; Wilkins, G.G. (2006). "The Centaur's Lessons: Therapeutic education through care of animalsand nature study". In Fine, Aubrey H. Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations andguidelines for practice. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 153–77. ISBN 0-12-369484-1.

101.

Terry Gasking. "How my dog sniffed out breast cancer and saved my lifeYYY" (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/telegraphchristmasappeal/11241191/How-my-dog-sniffed-out-breast-cancer-and-saved-my-life.html).Retrieved November 22, 2014.

102.

"Medal for the heroic dog who sniffed out her owner's cancer: Daisy the Labrador has helped find disease in 551patients" (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2843349/Medal-heroic-dog-sniffed-owner-s-cancer-Daisy-Labrador-helped-disease-551-patients.html). November 21, 2014.

103.

Animals abandoned as recession hits home (http://www.thestar.com/News/World/article/557223). TheStar.com.22 December 2008.

104.

HSUS Pet Overpopulation Estimates (http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html) The Humane Society of the United States

105.

"ASPCA Pet Statistics" (http://www.aspca.org/about-us/faq/pet-statistics.aspx). Retrieved 8 August 2012.106. Palika, Liz (4 February 2004). Purebred Rescue Dog Adoption: Rewards and Realities (http://books.google.com/?id=3UK5jPQqo7gC&pg=PA4). Howell Book House. ISBN 978-0-7645-4971-7. Retrieved 24 February 2010.

107.

"World's Largest Dog" (http://worldslargestdog1.com/zorba2/). Retrieved 7 January 2008.108. "Guinness World Records – Tallest Dog Living" (http://web.archive.org/web/20110711133443/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records/natural_world/fantastic_pets/tallest_dog_living.aspx). Guinness WorldRecords. 31 August 2004. Archived from the original (http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records/natural_world/fantastic_pets/tallest_dog_living.aspx) on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2009.

109.

Coren, Stanley (2004). How Dogs Think. First Free Press, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2232-6.110. A&E Television Networks (1998). Big Dogs, Little Dogs: The companion volume to the A&E specialpresentation. A Lookout Book. GT Publishing. ISBN 1-57719-353-9.

111.

Alderton, David (1984). The Dog. Chartwell Books. ISBN 0-89009-786-0.112. Jennifer Davis (1998). "Dr. P's Dog Training: Vision in Dogs & People" (http://www.uwsp.edu/psych/dog/LA/davis2.htm). Retrieved February 20, 2015.

113.

"Dogs CAN see in colour: Scientists dispel the myth that canines can only see in black and white"(http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2374872/Dogs-CAN-colour-Scientists-dispel-myth-canines-black-white.html). Daily Mail (London). 23 July 2013.

114.

Anna A. Kasparson, Jason Badridze, Vadim V. Maximov (Jul 2013). "Colour cues proved to be moreinformative for dogs than brightness". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 280 (1766).doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1356 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2013.1356).

115.

Jay Neitz, Timothy Geist, Gerald H. Jacobs (1989). "Color Vision in the Dog" (http://www.neitzvision.com/images/cvdog.pdf). Visual neuroscience 3: 119–125. doi:10.1017/s0952523800004430 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0952523800004430).

116.

Jay Neitz, Joseph Carroll, Maureen Neitz (Jan 2001). "Color Vision — Almost Reason Enough for Having Eyes"(http://www.neitzvision.com/images/CV-ReasonForEyes.pdf). Optics \& Photnics News: 26–33.

117.

Miklósi, p. 140.118. Mech, David. Wolves, Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. The University of Chicago Press, 2006, p. 98.119. Miklósi, p. 139.120. Jonica Newby, Caroline Penry-Davey (25 September 2003). "Catalyst: Dogs' Eyes" (http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s953902.htm). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 26 November 2006.

121.

Miklósi, p. 142.122.


27 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Elert, Glenn; Timothy Condon (2003). "Frequency Range of Dog Hearing" (http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2003/TimCondon.shtml). The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 22 October 2008.

123.

"How well do dogs and other animals hear" (http://www.lsu.edu/deafness/HearingRange.html). Retrieved7 January 2008.

124.

"Dog Sense of Hearing" (http://www.seefido.com/html/dog_sense_of_hearing.htm). seefido.com. Retrieved22 October 2008.

125.

"Smell" (http://web.archive.org/web/20080801101136/http://www.nhm.org/exhibitions/dogs/formfunction/smell.html). nhm.org. 6 May 2004. Archived from the original (http://www.nhm.org/exhibitions/dogs/formfunction/smell.html) on 1 August 2008. Retrieved 22 October 2008.

126.

Dijkgraaf S.;Vergelijkende dierfysiologie;Bohn, Scheltema en Holkema, 1978, ISBN 90-313-0322-4127. Klappenbach, Laura (2008). "What is Counter Shading?" (http://animals.about.com/od/zoology12/f/countershading.htm). About.com. Retrieved 22 October 2008.

128.

Cunliffe, Juliette (2004). "Coat Types, Colours and Markings". The Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds. ParagonPublishing. pp. 20–23. ISBN 0-7525-8276-3.

129.

"The Case for Tail Docking" (http://www.cdb.org/case4dock.htm). Council of Docked Breeds. Retrieved22 October 2008.

130.

"Bourbonnais pointer or 'short tail pointer' " (http://www.braquedubourbonnais.info/en/tail-genetics.htm).Braquedubourbonnais.info. Retrieved 19 December 2012.

131.

Spady TC, Ostrander EA (January 2008). "Canine Behavioral Genetics: Pointing Out the Phenotypes andHerding up the Genes" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2253978). American Journal of HumanGenetics 82 (1): 10–8. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.001 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ajhg.2007.12.001).PMC 2253978 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2253978). PMID 18179880(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18179880).

132.

The Complete dog book: the photograph, history, and official standard of every breed admitted to AKCregistration, and the selection, training, breeding, care, and feeding of pure-bred dogs. New York, N.Y:Howell Book House. 1992. ISBN 0-87605-464-5.

133.

Savolainen P, Zhang YP, Luo J, Lundeberg J, Leitner T (November 2002). "Genetic evidence for an East Asianorigin of domestic dogs". Science 298 (5598): 1610–3. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.1610S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...298.1610S). doi:10.1126/science.1073906 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1073906).PMID 12446907 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12446907).

134.

The Merriam-Webster Editorial Staff, ed. (1967). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the EnglishLanguage, Unabridged. Springfield, MA U.S.A.: G&C Merriam Company. p. 2476. "type (4a) the combinationof character that fits an individual to a particular use or function (a strong horse of the draft type)"

135.

Parker, Heidi G.; Kim, Lisa V.; Sutter, Nathan B.; Carlson, Scott; Lorentzen, Travis D.; Malek, Tiffany B.;Johnson, Gary S.; DeFrance, Hawkins B.; Ostrander, Elaine A.; Kruglyak, Leonid (2004). "Genetic structure ofthe purebred domestic dog". Science 304 (5674): 1160–4. Bibcode:2004Sci...304.1160P(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Sci...304.1160P). doi:10.1126/science.1097406 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1097406). PMID 15155949 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15155949).

136.

Ostrander, Elaine A. (September–October 2007). "Genetics and the Shape of Dogs; Studying the new sequenceof the canine genome shows how tiny genetic changes can create enormous variation within a single species"(http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/2007/5/genetics-and-the-shape-of-dogs). American Scientist(online). www.americanscientist.org. pp. also see chart page 4. Retrieved 22 September 2008.

137.

"Plants poisonous to dogs – Sunset" (http://www.sunset.com/garden/flowers-plants/plants-poisonous-to-dogs-00418000068562/). Sunset.

138.


28 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Sources vary on which of these are considered the most significant toxic item.139. Murphy, L. A.; Coleman, A. E. (2012). "Xylitol Toxicosis in Dogs". Veterinary Clinics of North America: SmallAnimal Practice 42 (2): 307. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.12.003 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cvsm.2011.12.003).

140.

"Toxic Foods and Plants for Dogs" (http://www.entirelypets.com/toxicfoods.html). entirelypets.com. Retrieved24 June 2010.

141.

Drs. Foster & Smith. "Foods to Avoid Feeding Your Dog" (http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=2+1659&aid=1030). peteducation.com. Retrieved 24 June 2010.

142.

Fogle, Bruce (1974). Caring For Your Dog.143. Ward, Dr. Ernie. "Diseases shared by humans and pets" (http://dogtime.com/diseases-shared-by-humans-pets-ernie-ward.html). Dogtime.com. Retrieved 2 October 2010.

144.

"Kennel Club/British Small Animal Veterinary Association Scientific Committee"(http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/item/570). 2004. Retrieved 5 July 2007.

145.

Proschowsky, H. F., H. Rugbjerg, and A. K. Ersbell (2003). "Mortality of purebred and mixed-breed dogs inDenmark". Preventive Veterinary Medicine 58 (1–2): 63–74. doi:10.1016/S0167-5877(03)00010-2(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0167-5877%2803%2900010-2). PMID 12628771 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12628771).

146.

Michell AR (1999). "Longevity of British breeds of dog and its relationships with sex, size, cardiovascularvariables and disease". The Veterinary Record 145 (22): 625–9. doi:10.1136/vr.145.22.625 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fvr.145.22.625). PMID 10619607 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10619607).

147.

Compiled by Cassidy, K. M. "Dog Longevity Web Site, Breed Data page" (http://users.pullman.com/lostriver/breeddata.htm). Retrieved 8 July 2007.

148.

Patronek GJ, Waters DJ, Glickman LT (1997). "Comparative longevity of pet dogs and humans: implications forgerontology research". The Journals of Gerontology. Series a, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 52 (3):B171–8. doi:10.1093/gerona/52A.3.B171 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fgerona%2F52A.3.B171).PMID 9158552 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9158552).

149.

AnAge entry for Canis familiaris AnAge Database (http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Canis_familiaris). Human Aging Genomic Resources. Retrieved 17 July 2007.

150.

"Pusuke, world's oldest living dog, dies in Japan" (http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/315700). 7 December2011.

151.

Paul Steyn. "This Will Shatter Your View of Apex Predators: How Wolves Change Rivers"(http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/02/16/this-will-shatter-your-view-of-apex-predators-how-wolves-change-rivers/). (blog) National Geographic.

152.

Boitani, Luigi; Mech, L. David (2003). Wolves: behavior, ecology, and conservation. Chicago: University ofChicago Press. p. 448. ISBN 0-226-51696-2.

153.

Graves, Will (2007). Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages (http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/). Calgary:Detselig Enterprises. p. 222. ISBN 1-55059-332-3.

154.

Kojola, I., Ronkainen, S., Hakala, A., Heikkinen, S., Kokko, S. "Interactions between wolves Canis lupus anddogs C. familiaris in Finland". Nordic Council for Wildlife Research.

155.

Scott, Jonathan & Scott, Angela (2006). Big Cat Diary: Leopard. London: Collins. p. 108. ISBN 0-00-721181-3.156. Perry, Richard (1965). The World of the Tiger. p. 260. ASIN: B0007DU2IU.157. "Striped Hyaena Hyaena (Hyaena) hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758)" (http://web.archive.org/web/20070928225108/http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm). IUCN Species Survival Commission Hyaenidae Specialist Group. Archived fromthe original (http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 21 May 2008.

158.


29 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Marc Bekoff; Dale Jamieson (2006). "Ethics and the Study of Carnivores". Animal passions and beastly virtues(http://books.google.com/?id=5qQNetdJKnwC&pg=PA232). Temple University Press.ISBN 978-1-59213-348-2.

159.

Hazard, Evan B. (1982). "Order Carnivora". The mammals of Minnesota (http://books.google.com/?id=sjoQK1bedB0C&pg=PA113). U of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-0952-9.

160.

S. G. Pierzynowski; R. Zabielski (1999). Biology of the pancreas in growing animals (http://books.google.com/?id=p_n1qXT7SuEC&pg=PA417). Volume 28 of Developments in animal and veterinary sciences. ElsevierHealth Sciences. p. 417. ISBN 978-0-444-50217-9.

161.

National Research Council (U.S.). Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition (2006). Nutrient requirementsof dogs and cats (http://books.google.com/?id=aqeCwxbRWvsC&pg=PA137). National Academies Press.p. 137. ISBN 978-0-309-08628-8.

162.

Smith, Cheryl S. (2008). "Chapter 6, Omnivores Together". Grab Life by the Leash: A Guide to Bringing Upand Bonding with Your Four-Legged Friend (http://books.google.com/?id=p0y9b9voiI8C&pg=PA77). JohnWiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-17882-9.

163.

Axelsson, E.; Ratnakumar, A.; Arendt, M. L.; Maqbool, K.; Webster, M. T.; Perloski, M.; Liberg, O.; Arnemo, J.M.; Hedhammar, Å.; Lindblad-Toh, K. (2013). "The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptationto a starch-rich diet". Nature 495 (7441): 360–364. doi:10.1038/nature11837 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature11837). PMID 23354050 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23354050).

164.

"Sexual Maturity — Spay and Neuter" (http://web.archive.org/web/20090610035254/http://www.pets911.com/hosted/buffalo/puppy/article.php?num=11045). Buffalo.com. Archived from the original(http://www.pets911.com/hosted/buffalo/puppy/article.php?num=11045) on 10 June 2009. Retrieved 22 October2008.

165.

Concannon, P; Tsutsui, T; Shille, V (2001). "Embryo development, hormonal requirements and maternalresponses during canine pregnancy". Journal of reproduction and fertility. Supplement 57: 169–79.PMID 11787146 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11787146).

166.

"Dog Development – Embryology" (http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Dog_Development#Development_Overview). Php.med.unsw.edu.au. 16 June 2013. Retrieved22 September 2013.

167.

"Gestation in dogs" (http://www.cpvh.com/2011/07/27/gestation-in-dogs/). Retrieved 24 March 2013.168. "HSUS Pet Overpopulation Estimates" (http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html). The Humane Society of the United States. Retrieved 22 October 2008.

169.

"French Bulldog Pet Care Guide" (http://web.archive.org/web/20110726070030/http://www.frenchbulldog.org/2008/05/01/is-a-french-bulldog-the-right-breed-for-you/). Archived from the original(http://www.frenchbulldog.org/2008/05/01/is-a-french-bulldog-the-right-breed-for-you/) on 26 July 2011.Retrieved 7 January 2008.

170.

"Top 10 reasons to spay/neuter your pet" (http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/spayneuter/). American Society forPrevention of Cruelty to Animals. Retrieved 16 May 2007.

171.

Mahlow, Jane C. (1999). "Estimation of the proportions of dogs and cats that are surgically sterilized". Journalof the American Veterinary Medical Association 215 (5): 640–643. PMID 10476708(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10476708). "Although the cause of pet overpopulation is multifaceted,the lack of guardians choosing to spay or neuter their animals is a major contributing factor."

172.

Heidenberger, E; Unshelm, J (Feb 1990). "Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration". Tierärztliche Praxis(in German) 18 (1): 69–75. ISSN 0303-6286 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0303-6286). PMID 2326799(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2326799).

173.


30 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Morrison, Wallace B. (1998). Cancer in Dogs and Cats (1st ed.). Williams and Wilkins. ISBN 0-683-06105-4.174. Arnold S (1997). "[Urinary incontinence in castrated bitches. Part 1: Significance, clinical aspects andetiopathogenesis]". Schweizer Archiv Für Tierheilkunde (in German) 139 (6): 271–6. PMID 9411733(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9411733).

175.

Johnston, SD; Kamolpatana, K; Root-Kustritz, MV; Johnston, GR (Jul 2000). "Prostatic disorders in the dog".Anim. Reprod. Sci. 60–61: 405–15. doi:10.1016/S0378-4320(00)00101-9 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0378-4320%2800%2900101-9). ISSN 0378-4320 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0378-4320).PMID 10844211 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10844211).

176.

Root-Kustritz MV (Dec 2007). "Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats". JAVMA 231(11): 1665–1675. doi:10.2460/javma.231.11.1665 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2460%2Fjavma.231.11.1665).ISSN 0003-1488 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1488). PMID 18052800 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18052800).

177.

Fox, Michael W. (1971). Behaviour of Wolves, Dogs, and Related Canids (1st United States ed.). New York:Harper & Row. pp. 183–206. ISBN 0-89874-686-8.

178.

Coren, Stanley (1995). The Intelligence of Dogs: A Guide to the Thoughts, Emotions, and Inner Lives of OurCanine Companions. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-37452-4.

179.

"How Dogs Learn" (http://www.naiaonline.org/articles/article/how-dogs-learn1). National Animal InterestAlliance. Retrieved 4 July 2014.

180.

Adler, Leonore Loeb and Adler, Helmut E. (2004). "Ontogeny of observational learning in the dog (Canisfamiliaris)". Developmental Psychobiology 10 (3): 267–271. doi:10.1002/dev.420100310 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fdev.420100310). PMID 863122 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/863122).

181.

Kubinyi, E., Topal, J., & Miklosi, A. (2003). "Dogs (canis familiaris) learn their owners via observation in amanipulation task". Journal of Comparative Psychology 117 (2): 156. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.117.2.156(https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2F0735-7036.117.2.156).

182.

McKinley, Sue; Young, Robert J (2003). "The efficacy of the model-rival method when compared to operantconditioning for training domestic dogs to perform a retrieval-selection task". AABS 81 (4): 357.doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00277-0 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-1591%2802%2900277-0).

183.

Hare, B., Brown, M., Williamson, C., & Tomasello, M. (Nov 2002). "The domestication of social cognition indogs". Science 298 (5598): 1634–6. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.1634H (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...298.1634H). doi:10.1126/science.1072702 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1072702).ISSN 0036-8075 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 12446914 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12446914).

184.

K Guo, C Hall, S Hall, K Meints, D Mills (2007). "Left gaze bias in human infants, rhesus monkeys, anddomestic dogs" (http://www.perceptionweb.com/abstract.cgi?id=v070385). Perception. 36 ECVP. Retrieved24 June 2010.

185.

Alleyne, Richard (29 October 2008). "Dogs can read emotion in human faces" (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/3354028/Dogs-can-read-emotion-in-human-faces.html). Daily Telegraph (London).Retrieved 24 June 2010.

186.

Horowitz, Alexandra (2009). "Attention to attention in domestic dog (Canis familiaris) dyadic play". JournalAnimal Cognition (Springer Berlin / Heidelberg) 12 (1): 107–18. doi:10.1007/s10071-008-0175-y(https://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10071-008-0175-y). PMID 18679727 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18679727).

187.

Zimmer, Carl (22 April 2013). "A Virtual Pack, to Study Canine Minds" (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/23/science/enlisting-a-virtual-pack-to-study-dog-minds.html). New York Times. Retrieved 30 April 2013.

188.


31 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

"Behaviour problems linked to pessimistic dogs" (http://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/lifematters/behaviour-problems-linked-to-pessimistic-pups-20101012-16gup.html). Sydney Morning Herald. 12 October 2010.Retrieved 21 October 2010.

189.

Sheridan, Kerry Smart US dog learns more than 1,000 words (http://news.theage.com.au/breaking-news-world/smart-us-dog-learns-more-than-1000-words-20110108-19j38.html). The Age (8 January 2011)

190.

Corsin A. Müller1, Kira Schmitt, Anjuli L.A. Barber, Ludwig Huber (2 July 2015). "Dogs can discriminate theemotional expressions of human faces" (http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(14)01693-5).Current Biology 25 (5): 601–605.

191.

Miklósi, Adam; Kubinyi E; Topál J; Gácsi M; Virányi Z; Csányi V. (29 April 2003). "A simple reason for a bigdifference: wolves do not look back at humans, but dogs do". Current Biology;13(9) 13 (9): 763–6.PMID 12725735 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12725735).

192.

Kenth Svartberga, Björn Forkman, K; Forkman, Björn (14 June 2002). "Personality traits in the domestic dog(Canis familiaris)". Applied animal behavior science 79 (2): 133–155. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00121-1(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0168-1591%2802%2900121-1).

193.

Svartberg, K; Tapper, I; Temrin, H; Radesater, T; Thorman, S (February 2005). "Consistency of personality traitsin dogs". Animal Behaviour 69 (2): 283–291. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.04.011 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.anbehav.2004.04.011).

194.

"40 Winks?" Jennifer S. Holland, National Geographic Vol. 220, No. 1. July 2011.195. Do Dogs Dream? (http://www.petplace.com/dogs/do-dogs-dream/page1.aspx) by Dr. Nicholas Dodman196. Hart, Vlastimil; Nováková, Petra; Malkemper, Erich Pascal; Begall, Sabine; Hanzal, Vladimír; Ježek, Miloš;Kušta, Tomáš; Němcová, Veronika; Adámková, Jana; Benediktová, Kateřina; Červený, Jaroslav; Burda, Hynek(27 December 2013). "Dogs are sensitive to small variations of the Earth's magnetic field"(http://www.frontiersinzoology.com/content/10/1/80/abstract). Frontiers in Zoology.doi:10.1186/1742-9994-10-80 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1186%2F1742-9994-10-80). Retrieved 25 February 2014.

197.

Faragó, T; Pongrácz P; Miklósi Á; Huber L; Virányi Z; Range, F (2010). Giurfa, Martin, ed. "Dogs' Expectationabout Signalers' Body Size by Virtue of Their Growls" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002277). PLoS ONE 5 (12): e15175. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...515175F (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PLoSO...515175F). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0015175 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0015175). PMC 3002277 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3002277).PMID 21179521 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21179521).

198.

Brian Hare, Vanessa Woods (8 February 2013), "What Are Dogs Saying When They Bark? [Excerpt]"(http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-are-dogs-saying-when-they-bark/), Scientific America, retrieved17 March 2015

199.

Katherine Sanderson (23 May 2008), "Humans can judge a dog by its growl" (http://www.nature.com/news/2008/080523/full/news.2008.852.html), Nature, doi:10.1038/news.2008.852 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2008.852), retrieved 17 March 2015 research available here (http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/cmvcr/Publications_files/Taylor%20et%20al%202008.pdf)

200.

Coppinger, Ray (2001). Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution. NewYork: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-85530-5.

201.

Rincon, Paul (April 8, 2004), "Claws reveal wolf survival threat" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3602741.stm), BBC News, retrieved December 12, 2014

202.

Pal SK (January 2005). "Parental care in free-ranging dogs, Canis familiaris". Applied Animal Behaviour Science90 (1): 31–47. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2004.08.002 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.applanim.2004.08.002).

203.

Günther Bloch: Die Pizza-Hunde. ISBN 978-3-440-10986-1204.


32 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Eberhard Trumler, Mit dem Hund auf du; Zum Verständnis seines Wesens und Verhaltens; 4. Auflage Januar1996; R. Piper GmbH & Co. KG, München

205.

Frank H; Frank MG (1982). "On the effects of domestication on canine social development and behavior".Applied Animal Ethology 8 (6): 507–525. doi:10.1016/0304-3762(82)90215-2 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0304-3762%2882%2990215-2).

206.

"Are wolves and wolfdog hybrids trainable?" (http://web.archive.org/web/20080615124627/http://www.wolfpark.org/wolfdogs/Poster_section7.html). Wolf Park. Archived from the original(http://www.wolfpark.org/wolfdogs/Poster_section7.html) on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 30 October 2008.

207.

"Wolf Training and Socialisation: Example #1" (http://web.archive.org/web/20080210012443/http://www.wolfpark.org/training/Example-1.html). Wolf Park. Archived from the original (http://www.wolfpark.org/training/Example-1.html) on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 30 October 2008.

208.

Sherman, Josepha (August 2008). Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore. Sharpe Reference.pp. 118–121. ISBN 978-0-7656-8047-1.

209.

"Indian Myth and Legend: Chapter III. Yama, the First Man, and King of the Dead" (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/iml/iml08.htm). Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 4 July 2013.

210.

Fodor's Essential India: with Delhi, Rajasthan, Mumbai, and Kerala (http://books.google.com/?id=p00fjOeA2h4C&pg=PA485&dq=Muthappan+association+with+dogs#v=onepage&q=Muthappan%20association%20with%20dogs&f=false). Random House LLC. 7 May 2013.ISBN 9780891419440. Retrieved 13 May 2014.

211.

Soeren Kern (January 31, 2012). "Muslims Declare Jihad on Dogs in Europe" (http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/2796/muslims-ban-dogs-europe). Gatestone Institute.

212.

"Judaism & The Treatment of Animals" (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/animals.html).Jewish Virtual Library.

213.

Miklósi, Adám (2007). Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition (http://books.google.com/?id=KnVEIrVNGhIC). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295852.001.0001(https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199295852.001.0001).ISBN 978-0-19-929585-2.

De Vito, Dominique (September 1, 2005). World Atlas of Dog Breeds (Print) (6th ed.). Neptune City,NJ Lanham, MD: TFH Publications, Inc. pp. 960 pages. ISBN 0793806569. ISBN 978-0793806560.Wilcox, Bonnie; Walkowicz, Chris (March 1995). Atlas of Dog Breeds of the World (Print) (5th ed.).Neptune City, NJ Lanham, MD: TFH Publications, Inc. Distributed in the U.S. to the Bookstore andlibrary trade by National Book Network. p. 912. ISBN 0793812844. ISBN 9780793812844.

Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography (http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/name/Canis_lupus_familiaris) for Canis lupus familiaris


33 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) – World Canine Organisation (http://www.fci.be/)Dogs in the Ancient World (http://www.ancient.eu.com/article/184/), an article on the history of dogsView the dog genome (http://www.ensembl.org/Canis_familiaris/Info/Index) on Ensembl

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dog&oldid=652957074"

Categories: Domesticated animals Dogs Cosmopolitan animals ScavengersMammals with sequenced genomes Model organisms

This page was last modified on 22 March 2015, at 01:51.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mayapply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registeredtrademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.


34 of 34 22.3.2015. 20:41

Dog - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - unizg.hr · PDF fileDomestic dog Temporal range:...

Documents

Transcript of Dog - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - unizg.hr · PDF fileDomestic dog Temporal range:...