ED 039 346

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VT 010 968

Farm Crop Production Technology: Field and ForageCrop and Fruit and Vine Production Options,. ASuggested 2-Year Post High School Curriculum.Office of Education (DHEW) , Washington, D.C. Div.Vocational and Technical Education.0E-81016Feb 70187p.Superintendent of Documents, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, D.C. 20402(F55.280:81016, $1.50)

EDRS Price MF-$0.75 HC Not Available from EDRS.*Agricultural Education, *Agricultural Production,*Agricultural Technicians, Bibliographies,*Curriculum Guides, Educational Facilities, FarmManagement, Farm Occupations, Field Crops, PostSecondary Education, *Program GuidesForage Crops, Fruit Production, Vine Production

ABSTRACTPrepared by a junior college under contract with the

Office of Education, the curriculum materials are designed to assistschool administrators, advisory committees, supervisors, and teachersin developing or evaluating postsecondary programs in farm cropproduction technology. Information was gathered by visits to theimportant farm regions and to outstanding schools with technicianPrograms, and consultations with teachers, administrators, andrepresentatives of private business and farming. Included in theguide are: (1) suggestrid course outlines with course descriptions andexamples of texts and references, (2) information on the sequence oftechnical education procedure, (3) laboratory layouts with equipmentand cost, (4) discussion of land requirements, (5) sections on thelibrary and its use, the faculty, and student selection and services,(6) a selected list of scientific, trade, and technical societies,(7) summary of costs for the curriculum options, and (8) a

bibliography. Curriculum outlines and course descriptions areprovided for the Field and Forage Crop Production and the Fruit andVine Production options. Course outlines are included for: (1)

Technical Specialty Crops, (2) Auxiliary and Supporting TechnicalCourses, (3) Mathematics and Science Courses, and (4) GeneralCourses. A selected list of professional and technical societies andorganizations concerned with crop and fruit production is appended.(SB)

CT

FARM CROP

0E- 81016

PAV-

PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY:rE

Field and Forage Crop andFruit and VineProduction OptionsA Suggested 2-Year Post High School Curriculum

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION& WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON ORORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OFVIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECES-SARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU.CATION POSITION OR POLICY.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFAREOffice of Education

ROBERT H. FINCH, Secretary`JAMES E. ALLEN, JR., Assistant Secretary and Commissioner of Education

rkr7,7"',

FOREWORD

THIS SUGGESTED curriculum was prepared to aid in planning andinitiating programs in the States to meet the growing need for highly

qualified farm crop production technicians to fulfill present requirements,and to prepare future farmowners and operators to cope with continuedtechnological change.

The guide provides suggested course outlines with examples of textsand references, sequence of technical education procedure, laboratorylayouts with equipment and cost, discussion of land requirements, libraryand its use, faculty, student services, and a selected list of scientific, trade,and technical societies. It is designed to assist school administrators,advisory committees, supervisors, and teachers who will be developing orevaluating programs in farm crop production technology. Although theindicated level of instruction is post high school, the sequence of coursework may well start at any grade level where students have the prerequi-site background and understanding.

This guide was developed in the Program Development Branch of theDivision of Vocational and Technical Education, U.S. Office of Education.The basic materials were prepared by Mount San Antonio Junior Collegeat Walnut, Calif., pursuant to a contract with the Office of Education.

Many useful suggestions were received from special consultants,advisers, owners, and employers in the farm crop production industry, andadministrators and teachers in schools of technology. Although all sugges-tions could not be incorporated, each was considered carefully in the lightof the publication's intended use. In view of this it should not be inferredthat the curriculum is completely endorsed by any one institution, agency,or person. It is a plan for a program; a plan to be modified by adminis-trators and their advisers to meet local, State, and regional needs.

LEON P. MINEARDivision of Vocational and

Technical Education

GRANT VENNAssociate Commissioner for

Adult, Vocational, andLibrary Programs

August 15, 1969

iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

THE U.S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION, Division of Vocational and Tech-nical Education, recognizes the valuable contributions made in the

detailed review of this publication by the following individuals :Stuart Baker, director, Washington Operations, J. I. Case Co., 1000

16th Street NW., Washington, D.C. 20036.Max E. Benitz, Rural Route No. 2, Prosser, Wash. 99350, president,

Washington State Farm Bureau, member, Washington State Coordi-nate Council for Education.

Robert V. Call, Jr., 8113 Lewiston Road, Batavia, N.Y. 10402, presi-dent, New York State Vegetable Growers Association, member ofGovernor Rockefeller's Commission for Preservation of AgricultureLands.

Robert C. Kennedy, supervisor, Plant Science Technician Curriculum,Thompson School of Applied Science, University of New Hampshire,Durham, N.H. 03824.

Hubert V. Kiehl, Malta Bend, Mo. 65339, member of Missouri FarmBureau, Board of Directors, Contract Seed Grower.

Donald F. McMillen, assistant general manager, Sunkist Grower, Inc.,Post Office Box 2706, Terminal Annex, Los Angeles, Calif., ownerand operator, with tenant, of a small Illinois grain farm.

Harold R. Peck, crops instructor, Mount San Antonio College, 1100Grand Avenue, Walnut, Calif. 01789.

Robert F. Reimers, Reimers Seed Farm, Rural Route No. 3, Box N 40,Carrington, N. Dak.; chairman, State Budget Board of North DakotaLegislature.

G. Allen Sherman, dean of Agricultural Science, Mount San AntonioCollege, Walnut, Calif. 91789; project manager for contract for thiscurriculum.

Howard Sidney, chairman of Agricultural Division, Agricultural &Technical College, State University of New York, Cobleskill,12043.

John W. Talbott, director, Farm Crops (California Region) Cargill,inc., West Sacramento, Calif. 95691.

The Office of Education also acknowledges with appreciation the con-

iv

structive criticism by administratorsinstitutions :

Abraham Baldwin AgriculturalCollege

Tifton, Ga. 31794

Agway Inc.Syracuse, N.Y. 13201

Murray State CollegeTishomingo, Okla. 73460

Northeastern Junior CollegeSterling, Colo. 80751

Penta County Vocational Schooland Technical College

Perrysburg, Ohio 43551

Purdue UniversityLafayette, Ind. 47905

and staff members of the following

San Joaquin Delta CollegeStockton, Calif. 95204

State University of New YorkAgricultural and TechnicalCollege

Alfred, N.Y. 14802

State University of New YorkAgricultural and TechnicalCollege

Farmingdale, N.Y. 11735

University of NebraskaCurtis, Nebr. 69025

Wenatchee Valley CollegeWenatchee, Wash. 98801

CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD iiiACKNOWLEDGMENTS ivTHE FARM CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM 1

General Considerations _ 3Occupational Opportunities ...... 4Special Abilities Required of Technicians in General _ 7Activities Performed by Technicians in Farm Crop Technology 7Faculty 8Student Selection and Sery ces 10Textbooks, References, Vie aal Aids 12Library 13Laboratory Equipment and Facilities . ............ 14Advisory Committees and Services 15Scientific and Technical Societies and Trade Associations. 16

THE CURRICULUM 18The Curriculum Outline for Field and Forage Crop

Production Option 19The Curriculum Outline for Fruit and Vine Production Option.... 20Brief Descriptions of Courses for the Field and

Forage Crop Production Option 21Brief Descriptions of Courses Unique to the Fruit

and Vine Production Option 23Curriculum Content and Relationships 23Cooperative Education Plan ....... .......... ...... 25Suggested Continuing Study 26

COURSE OUTLINES 28Technical Specialty Courses 28

Cereal Crops ........... ..-...... ...... ..... ...... 28Deciduous Fruit Production 33Field Crops 36Forage Crops 39Fruit Processing 48Grassland Management 56Plant Diseases and Pests 62Plant Propagation 67Seed Production 71Small Fruit Production ..... ...........OOotesooMOOO........ 78Soil Management ...coo oaaft,corPO .. .00... 85Soil Sciencq .. = .. 90SubtropicalcFruit Production 94TruckCrops ._...-- . .... .... ... . .... ... .... .... - ................ 98

. Weeds and Weed Control _ 101Auxiliary and Supporting Technical Courses___________________ 108

Agricultural Mechanics . omoao on. omOosamocorsoloo onis000sooroot omsoo moo. nom o ola 108110Crop Marketing

FarmMachinery . 000nalocoossUOw-- ------------------------------------------ 112Farm Management .a. mftaria Owls wao$OOOOm= ........ pa ..... o ogoOMIO 115

. 4

Page

Farm Power 118Farm Records aii Reports 120Irrigation and Water Management 123

Mathematics and Science Courses 126Mathematics I 126Mathematics II _... 128Agricultural Chemistry 129Crop Botany . .. 133

General Courses 140Agricultural Economics 140Communications Skills 142Principals of Social Science 151

BUILDINGS, FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND COSTS 156General Planning 156Land Requirements .... 157Building Facilities 157Planning the Laboratories 158Acquisition of Equipment, and Estimated Costs . _ ..... 161Suggested Audiovisual Equipment 163Suggested Laboratory Equipment ...... ........ 163Suggested Shop Equipment .._. ...... . 165

SUMMARY OF COSTS _ ...... ....... - 167Forage and Field Crop Option 167Fruit and Vine Production Option ......... ...... ... __________ 167Both Options .... ... 168

BIBLIOGRAPHY 169APPENDIX

Selected List of Professional and Technical Societies andOrganizations concerned with Crop and Fruit Production__ 175

THE FARM CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM

Figure 1.Mechanized production of stable food crops of which this field of wheat is typical requires atu understanding of modern agricultural tet.hnology.

In ARM CROP production requires over 300million acres of land in the United States

today. An annual income of over $40 billion atthe farm level comes from the sale of thesecrops along with the livestock produced fromthem. The American farmer today representsless than 10 percent of the population, yet pro-dues enough food for himself and 40 Otherpeople. (1969)

This is contrasted with some moderately well-developed countries where often half or moreof the population is engaged in farming, yetproduces barely enough to meet national needs.In some underdeveloped countries, the popula-tion on farms is as high as 80 percent with foodshortages still existing. The American farmerhas learned to make use of the great numberof changes in mechanization and to apply othertechnological advances in order to accomplishthis tremendous production of food and fiber.

Farming in the United States has become ascience, with production involving both life andphysical sciences. This is combined with careful

1

management as well as the use of sound busi-ness principles. Today's farmer is farming onever increasing acreage per farm. This, coupledwith more mechanization, has increased hisneed for capital. Today farmers are spendingsome $30 billion per year to pay the cost of pro-ducing the Nation's abundance of farm pro-ducts. The investment per worker in agricul-ture is over $21,000 compared to about $16,000per worker in most manufacturing industries.The farmer is no longer self-sufficient. He buysmany of his production requirements, such asseed, fertilizer, and equipment. As a result, alarge number of businesses have been estab-lished which are closely allied to farming.

The modern farmer now needs to know morethan ever before about his crop after it leavesthe farm and proceeds through marketing andprocessing channels. In some cases processingstarts on the farm or with a marketing or pro-cessing organization in which the farmer hasan interest. As each crop product goes throughthe marketing processes to the . consumer, it

_11""

*--

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Figures 2.The machinery and equipment shown here for picking dates reflects only some of the specialized technological factors involved in large.scale andefficient production of orchard and vineyard products.

must be tested, graded, transported, processed,packaged, and priced. Each of these activitieshas a direct bearing upon the income receivedby the farmer for his crop. Therefore, he needsto understand these processes.

Statistics show that there has been a de-crease in the number of farmers in recent years.Since over one-third of the farmers in theUnited States today are more than 55 years ofage, probably 30 or 40 percent will retire duringthe next 10 to 15 years. Even though all of the

Figure .S.Farm crop production technicians must learn many technical detailsand techniques associated with applied science in agriculture. This studentselects seeds, identify foreign materials, and discern damage to a grain cropusing modern equipment in a college laboratory.

2

farmers who retire may not be replaced becauseother farmers may buy their land to increasetheir own acreage, there will still be a need forseveral hundred thousand new farmers andfarm managers in the coming decade.

As the size of farms increases with a corn-sponding decrease in the null Baer of farmers,each new generation in farming must be bettereducated to meet the demands of modern farm-ing. In addition, those working with the farmerin the service, supply, marketing, and process-ing businesses r 1st be better educated to do thework required by the increased use of appliedscience and technology to all phases of farmproduction.

For all of these reasons, it has become appar-ent to many who are conedrned with modernagriculture that a high school education is nolonger sufficient for most farmers or for manyworkers in fields closely allied to farming.The problems of modern farming have becomeso technical that at least a 2-year poA highschool technical education program, or itsequivalent, is rapidly becoming a necessity.

In the business of farm crop production,usually involving extensive land and capital, itis imperative that farmers be well educated.It is also imperative in the national interest ifthe United States is to maintain its leadershipin world food production. Despite temporarysurpluses in a few U.S. farm crops, experts onworld food production predict that an increaseof up to 25 percent in this Nation's crop produc-tion will be needed by 1975. To do this on the

meer. ...re...0.0 *00

Figure 4.Much of the work In producing grapes in this modern vineyard ismechanized. The capital investment requires that it be a large.scale operationto bo economical.

available acreage will call for maximum use ofhuman resources in farming for the cominggeneration. This can be brought about by bettereducation for our present and future farm own-ers, operators and workers.

This guide to programs to educate farm cropproduction technicians presents two options,each directed toward a major kind of farm cropproduction. When a program is established, thefacilities and staff are also usually utilized toprovide courses for graduates of the program intheir continuing study, and for farmers andother employed adults who need to update andupgrade their technical knowledge.

Y.

Figure 5.Iko fruit and vineyard crop technician applies many facetsbiological and agricultval science in producing these grapes, 4 poundswhich are required to more 1 pound of raisins.

The field and forage crop option is designedto cover field crops, cereal crops, forage crops,and truck crops. In the areas where little inten-sive farming of row crops takes place, an elec-tive is offered in grassland management. Thispost high school program prepares the studentas a specialist in the production, harvesting,and marketing of these crops and provides himwith a basic understanding in farm mechanicsand basic sciences which are essential to suc-cessful crop production.

The fruit and vine production option is de-signed to cover both deciduous and subtropicalfruits, nuts, berries, and grapes. This option isprovided for those who wish to specialize in theproduction, harvesting, and marketing of thesecrops. The supporting courses in science, plantpropagation, and fruit processing are designedto prepare the student in preproduction andpostharvesting techniques and procedures.

Figure 6.This field of lettuce illustrates how garden and vegetable cropshave now become large field crops for which highly specialized culture pro.ceduros, tiling, and harvesting equipment have been developed.

General Considerations

This guide has been prepared for school ad-ministrators or department heads who are con-sidering whether or not to establish post highschool programs in crop or fruit and vine pro-duction, or who wish to strengthen an existingprogram. The program was formulated afterextensive study including visits to most of theimportant farming regions of the United Statesand to outstanding schools which provide .pro-

of grams to educate technicians in these fields.of Consultations with teachers, administrators,

3

and representatives of private business andfarming in each region explored problems,ideas, suggestions, and recommendations onmany pertinent aspects of the program. Allhave shaped the content of this guide.

Institutions which establish programs usingthis guide will find that modifications can bemade to fit the local conditions of their specificarea. School administrators and teachers whowish to add or to delete courses or parts ofcourses should seek the advice of local advisorycommittees so the resulting program will meetlocal or regional needs. A program of this typeshould not be undertaken without most of therecommended facilities and equipment and thenecessary staff. Even with the 'best facilitiesand equipment, highly effective teaching isnecessary to make the program a successfulone.

Those who believe a farm crop productiontechnician program may be needed in their in-stitution should begin with a comprehensiveregional, State, and local study. It should bemade with the help of people acquaintd withthe agricultural needs in the area of crop orfruit production. Such a study is necessary tocatalog the educational needs, to define thecommunity support, to evaluate available stu-dent population, and to form a basis for a de-cision as to whether or not to offer the pro-gram. No program should be undertaken unlessthere is a strong indication that it will be need-ed for at least 10 years.

Some of the courses suggested in this pro-gram can be combined or eliminated entirely inadapting it to the agriculture of the area. Timemade available by such an action may be usedto extend or emphasize course content, or tointroduce special courses to meet local needs.For example, in some States there is consider-able demand for grain elevator managers. Inthose States it may be desirable to add coursesin business and to combine such courses ascereal and field crops. Local advisory commit-tees can be of great assistance in making suchdecisions.

Technical programs are offered in severaltypes of post high school institutions in theUnited States. These are the 2-year communityor junior colleges, technical institutes or col-leges, area vocational and technical schools,

4

.1,...{11.1.

Figure 7.This corn harvester illustrates how machinery has substitutedmechanical power for human and animal energy in the production of majoragriculture! crops.

or in a division of 4-year colleges or universi-ties. The program outlined in this guide couldbe offered in any of these types of institutions.

Questions such as the following should beanswered in the affirmative before the -programshould be undertaken :

(1) Is the program an educational objectivewhich the administration and staff ofthe institution understands and will sup-port with staff, money, and cooperation?

(2) Is the present faculty, if any, qualified;or can such staff be obtained?

(3) Will there be adequate financial supportto provide the program with buildingsand facilities and to maintain it by pro-viding the proper tools, books, instru-ments, and equipment necessary for ahigh quality program?

(4) Will provisions be made for effectiveguidance and placement services ?

(5) Will such a program meet a need in theState or community at a reasonable cost?

Occupational Opportunities

During the years since World War II, therehas been a strong demand for technicallytrained people in agriculture and its relatedindustries. This is the result of the technologi-cal changes which have taken place in agricul-ture. Until recently, most of the technical workhas been done by graduates of the 4-year col-leges. However, the demand for professionallytrained people in agriculture has become sogreat that the 4-year colleges cannot meet allof the demands. The 4-year colleges have re-ported that for every graduate there are five

r,

to seven employment opportunities. The num-ber is much larger in some specialized areas.

Many professional services in agricultureand related fields require education beyond thebachelor's degree. Some colleges of agriculturehave as high as 50 percent of the studentsworking on advanced degrees. Studies of 4-yearcollege graduates show that only a relativelysmall percentage return to the farm.

Today, there is a need for workers who haveenough technical knowledge to work with andto extend the effectiveness of the highly edu-cated professional worker. A worker who cando this is the technician, who has completed ahigh quality post high school preparatory pro-gram in the agricultural technology of hischoice.

The program in this guide is designed forthose who wish to take 2 years of farm produc-tion oriented education beyond the high schooland go directly into farming or a closely re-

Figure 8.Many employment opportunities off the farm are available for well-trained field and forage production technicians. Grain grading and inspectionfor moisture ,content shown here is one example of many inspection andmarketing employment opportunities.

5

lated agricultural business. Experience hasshown that employers in related businesseswant employees who have a good technicalagricultural preparation. For example, in agri-cultural sales, employers indicated that a goodtechnical knowledge of agriculture was moreimportant than sales ability. The nature offarmers as customers makes it desirable for thesalesman to be able to "talk the language" andto show the farmer how the product will benefithis farming program or increase his farm in-come. If the salesman cannot do this, salestraining alone will not make the salesmaneffective.

There are many employment opportunitiesthat graduates of this program may choose inaddition to farming. The list that follows hasbeen checked by educators and by employers.They are in general agreement that these jobsare example's of work that graduates would beprepared to do at the entry level. The titlesdiffer in some areas, and may be subject tochange as work changes and new positions arecreated.

Typical Employment OpportunitiesField and ForageCrop Production Technology

Farm operatorFarm foreman or supervisorCustom farm operatorTechnical farm workerFarm loan assistantSeed processing foremanFarm supply salesmanFarm cooperative employeeHay and forage buyer and sellerFarm machinery foremanPicking crew foremanFieldman, food processing companyFieldman, produce firmPacking shed foremanProduce department managerGrain inspectorSeed inspectorVegetable inspectorSoil conservation aidResearch technician, U. S. Department of

Agriculture

Research technician, seed companyResearch technician, agricultural extension

serviceRodent control assistantPest control assistantPest control equipment specialistPeace Corps workerTechnical assistantTechnician, U.S. Agency for International

Development

Typical Employment OpportunitiesFruit and Vine Production Technology

Fruitgrower, deciduousFruitgrower, subtropicalFruit nursery operatorFruit nursery worker (specialist)Vineyard foremanVineyard worker (specialist)Custom farm operatorSmall fruitgrowerPlant propagatorFieldman, fruit buying organizationFieldman, fruit processing organizationFruit processing plant operations specialistPacking shed foremanPicking crew foremanFruit inspectorWeed control assistantSpray equipment operator and specialistU.S. Department of Agriculture research

assistantResearch assistant, agricultural extension

serviceOrchard equipment salesmanNursery salesmanSpray material salesmanIrrigation equipment salesmanFruit supply salesmanPeace Corps workerTechnical assistantTechnician, U.S. Agency for International

Development

Graduates of this program may be expectedto enter the positions listed at the entry ldvel.It is assumed in most cases they will advanceon the job to higher positions as a result ofexperience and further study. After programs

6

have become established, it is recommendedthat additional courses in applied agriculturalsciences, farm management or finance, businessor agricultural economics be offered. Thereshould be inservice education available to thegraduates and other interested adults in theevening or at times when they can take themwithout interfering with their work.

Some of the employment titles listed, such asfarm worker, may not appear to require techni-cal training. They do not refer to the "old time"hired hand but are examples of the increasingnumber of workers who may be called uponto do and/or to be responsible for specializedjobs in irrigation, fertilization, or pest controlin today's farm crop production work.

Figure 9.Modern citrus orchards such as this one are cultivated and cul-tured like field crops. Some of the orchard care operations may be contractedby the owners and performed by specialized agricultural service contractorswho must be technically competent in their field.

This program is intended to provide the edu-cation of specialized personnel who are capableof performing many tasks requiring specialskills, and who are confident in their abilities,education, competence and judgment.

Administrators planning to initiate such aprogram should be aware of the special abili-ties required of technicians and the nature ofthe tasks they may be called upon to perform.

Special Abilities Requiredof Technicians in Generale

Technicians must have the following specialabilities :

(1) Proficiency in the use of the disciplinedand objective scientific method in prac-tical application of the basic principles,concepts, and laws of physics and chem-istry, and/or the biological sciences asthey comprise the scientific base for theindividual's field of technology.

(2) Facility with mathematics : Ability touse algebra and trigonometry as tools inthe development, definition, or quantifi-cation of scientific phenomena orprinciples ; and, when needed an under-standing of, though not necessarily fa-cility with, higher mathematics throughanalytical geometry, calculus, and differ-ential equations, according to the re-quirements of the technology.A thorough understanding and facilityin use of the materials, processes, ap-paratus, procedures, equipment, meth-ods, and techniques commonly used inthe technology.

(4) An extensive knowledge of a field of spe-cialization with an understanding of theapplication of the underlying physical orbiological sciences as they relate to theengineering, health, agricultural, or in-dustrial processing or research activi-ties that distinguish the technology ofthe field. The degree of competency andthe depth of understanding should besufficient to enable the individual to es-tablish effective rapport with the scien-tists, doctors, manager, researchers, orengineers with whom he works and toenable him to perform a variety of de-tailed scientific or technical work asoutlined by general procedures or in-structions; but requiring individualjudgment, initiative, and resourceful-

!

ness in the use of techniques, handbook

(3)

1 Adapted from U.S. Department of Xealth, Education, and Wel-fare, Office of Education. Occupational Criteria and PreparatoryCurriculum. Patterns in Technical Education Programs. 0E-80016Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1002, p. 5.

7

information, and recorded scientificdata.

(5) Communication skills that include theability to record, analyze, interpret, andtransmit facts and ideas with. completeobjectivity orally, graphically, and inwriting.

Alt

Figure 10. Programs to educate farm crop production technicians requirewell quipped laboratories in which to teach special techniques and use ofmodern scientific equipment used in the technology.

Activities Performed byTechnicians inFarm Crop Technology2

(1) Applies knowledge of science and math-ematics extensively in rendering directtechnical assistance to agricultural sci-entists engaged in scientific research orexperimentation. He may help conductfield studies in developing new crop orfruit varieties, mechanized equipment,or uses for agricultural chemicals.

(2) Designs, develops, or plans modifica-tions of new products, procedures, tech-niques, processes, or applications onhis own or under the supervision of anagricultural scientist in applied re-search, design, and development.

(3) Plans, supervises, or assists in installa-tion or assembling complex apparatus

Ibid., pp 6-8.

or equipment and control systems usedin agricultural industry or on thefarm.

(4) Advises or supervises the purchase, op-eration, maintenance, and repair ofcomplex apparatus or farm equipmentto obtain maximum operating efficiency.

(5) Plans production or operations as amember of the management unit or asthe person responsible for efficient useof manpower, materials, money, andmachines used in agricultural produc-tion. or processing.

(6) Advises, plans, and estimates costs as afield representative of a manufactureror distributor of technical apparatus,equipment, services, or product. Or hemay need to advise, plan, or estimatecosts on production budgets and crop-ping plans using statistical data.Performs determinations, analysesand/or tests on agricultural productson the farm or in the laboratory. Hemay prepare appropriate technical re-ports covering the tests or make man-agement decisions as a result of them.

(8) Prepares or interprets drawings orsketches of buildings, equipment, orcropping plans and writes detailedspecifications or instructions to accom-pany them.Reads, selects, compiles, and uses tech-nical information from references suchas farm chemical manuals, agriculturalcodes, operation manuals handbooks,and scientific journals.

(10) Analyzes and interprets information onmaturity and grade standards obtainedfrom tests on agricultural products us-ing precision nrieasuring and recordinginstruments.

(11) Analyzes and diagnoses technical prob-lems that involve independent deci-sions. His judgment may require tech-nical ability and practical experience toarrive at decisions.

(12) Deals with a variety of technical prob-lems involving many factors and vari-ables which require an understandingof several technical fields. He mustknow how to go about solving a new

(7)

(9)

8

problem, including sources of pertinentinformation. This versatility is a char-acteristic that relates to breadthof applied scienthic and technical un-derstandingthe antithesis of narrowspecialization.

A 2-year program must concentrate on pri-mary or fundvmental needs if it is to prepareindividuals for responsible technical positionsin or related to modern farm production. Itmust be realistic and pragmatic in its ap-proach. The program suggested in this guidehas been designed to provide maximum techni-cal instruction in the time that is scheduled.

To those who are not familiar with this typeof educational service (or with the goals andinterests of students who elect it), the techni-cal program often appears to be inordinatelyrigid and restrictive. While modifications maybe necessary in individual institutions to meetregional or local needs, the basic structure,content, level, and rigor of this program shouldbe maintained.

The specialized technical courses in agricul-tural production are laboratory oriented. Theyprovide application of the scientific principlesconcurrently being learned in the courses inmathematics, chemistry, and crop botany. Forthis reason, mathematics and science coursesmust be coordinated carefully with technicalcourses at all stages of the program. This co-ordination is accomplished by scheduling math-ematics, science, and technical courses con-currently during the first two terms. Generaleducation courses constitute a relatively smallpart of the total program. It has been foundthat students who enter a technical programdo so because of the depth in the field of spe-cialization that the program provides.

FacultyThe effectiveness of a program of this type

depends largely upon the competence and en-thusiasm of the teaching staff. It is important,therefore, that the administrator responsiblefor faculty selection be aware of the specializedcompetencies that are required of the teacherdue to the nature of the curriculum.

The technical teacher needs more technicalknowledge than the high school teacher, but isusually less specialized than instructors ofgraduate courses at the university. He must beteaching oriented in contrast to research ori-ented in his work. He should be a master of theskills in his specialty, have a practical knowl-edge, and yet have the academic background tounderstand and interpret related technicalknowledge. To be successful, he must also un-derstand the special education philosophy fortechnical education.

Instructors who teach this technical curric-ulum may be one of two types. The first is thefull-time professional teacher. He is profession-ally prepared, including at least a minimum ofteacher education courses at the universitylevel, and devotes full time to the technical pro-gram. In selecting this kind of teacher, the ad-ministrator should look for former studentswho have completed a university program,former vocational agriculture teachers whohave had work experience and have strength-ened this technical preparation, or teacherswho have interned in technical programs.Teachers from these sources who have the tech-nical and professional ability are more likely toknow and understand the philosophy of tech-nical education.

The other type of teacher may be a part-timeteacher from an agricultural industry closelyrelated to the technical program. Part-timeteachers from industry may be employed toteach courses requiring special skills or knowl-edge. They may be prospective emplvers cf thestudents or former students working in ir.dus-try. Sometimes it is possible to obtain peoplewho have had teaching experience prior togoing into industry.

Both types of instructors may be used tomake up the staff. Those from industry maybring needed technical knowledge not possessedby the others. The full-time teachers may bebetter able to know and counsel the studentsand to help with teaching methods and class-room management. Full-time instructionalstaff should comprise the large majority of thefaculty for this program.

In all technical programs there should be ateam approach to teaching, with close liaisonmaintained between the various staff mem-

9

bers. Coordination of classes should be dis-cussed at staff meetings. Concepts taught inbasic science classes should be reinforced inother classes by practical examples and applica-tion. This close liaison should also be main-tained with the teachers of general educationsubjects. Student weaknesses in communica-tions should be as much the concern of the tech-nical teachers as it is of the language teacher.

Another member of the team should be thelibrarian. The librarian responsible for tech-nical education should be included in staffmeetings and curriculum discussions wheneverpossible. This important two-way communica-tion will apprise the librarian of what materialsare needed, and the teachers of what new mat-erials are available.

The philosphy of the team approach is toemphasize the integrity of the program. Theaims and objectives are: immediate employ-ment, advancement on the job, social competen-cy, and citizenship. They can best be accomp-lished by an educational program that combinestechnical knowledge, skills, and general educa-tion in a meaningful program.

Faculty members should be encouraged todevelop technically and professionally. This canbe accomplished by offering released time andfinancial assistance for inservice training. Theinservice training program should be developedto strengthen individual weaknesses. One teach-er may profit more from summer employmentin industry, while another should attend formalclasses.

Inservice teacher training is very importantin schools which are changing from vocationalprograms to technical programs while using thesame staff. It is also necessary in schools whereuniversity staffs who are accustomed to teach-ing in the 4-year program teach part time orfull time in a technical program. In each case,the aims and objectives, subject matter present-ation, and philosophy are different. The admin-istrator should be certain that staff is orientedto these important differences and that individ-ual staff members are allowed time to preparefor the new teaching role.

All technical teachers should be encouragedto maintain close liaison with professional andtechnical societies related to their teachingspeciality. Attendance at society or organiza-

tion meetings provides opportunities for theteacher to keep abreast of new developments.This is important also for placing graduates insuitable employment.

The workload of the technical teacher shouldpreferably be less than 15 and not more than20 hours per week. Due to the mixed lecture andlaboratory schedule, it is sometimes difficult tocompare this teaching load with that of non-technical teachers in the same school. A com-parison is sometimes made by counting lecturehours as one teaching unit and a 3-hour labora-tory period as two teaching units. However,these comparisons are difficult to make. Thetime required to adequately prepare for a lab-oratory period and do the required followupwork, may exceed that needed for a lecturehour.

The size of lecture classes will vary with thesubject matter being taught. In classes wheredemonstrations or specimens are used, the sizeof class should be limited to the number thatcan readily observe what is being shown. Lab-oratory classes should be limited to 20 to 24students. This allows students to see the labora-tory materials and for the teacher to give moreindividual instruction. In some classes it maybe possible to have 40 to 50 students in the lec-ture, and then to divide the laboratory into twosections of 20 to 25 each or three sections of 15to 18 each.

Good laboratory classes require much time inthe preparation of materials and equipment.Whenever possible, it is desirable to use labora-tory assistants to help the instructor with lab-oratory preparation and procedure.

The curriculum outlined in this guide will re-quire a minimum staff of four agricultureinstructors, including the department headteaching at least part time, if only a single op-tion is offered. If both options are offered,then a minimum of five agriculture instructorswill be required.

A staff of this size provides instructors withthe required specialization in the technical sub-ject and permits instructors and the departmenthead to spend some time in job placement.

In addition, those planning the program mustprovide the required instructional staff for themathematics, science, communications (lan-guage skills), and social sciences.

10

When admitting classes into the program, itis desirable to plan in multiples of 18 to 24students. This allows for laboratory sectionswhich will consist of 18 to 24 students and lec-ture classes of 36 to 48 students.

IMP

Figure 11.TMs laboratory scale grain threshing unit makes it possible forstudents to analyze threshing operations outside of the normal harvestingseason and without fullscalo field equipment. Principles of threshing, grainseparation, imptaity eliminelion, and avoiding grain damage can bedemonstrated.

Student Selection and Services

In order to produce high quality graduates,it is important to have some standards for stu-dent selection. Many post high school institu-tions have an open door policy, wherein allhigh school graduates are eligible for admis-sion to the school. The open-door policy hasmerit in that any high school graduate is giventhe opportunity to enter post high school edu-cation. However, the open-door policy shouldnot be interpreted to mean that all who enterthe institution can expect to succeed in a rig-orous technical program. The importance ofsome system of selection of students who have

a reasonable expectation of succeeding in theprogram cannot be overemphasized. Schoolswhich are changing from vocational to techni-cal programs must have new curriculums whichexhibit the rigor of the technical level. Newschools offering a technical program must se-lect students who can master a high level oftechnical instruction from the beginning.

In cases where unqualified students are al-lowed to enroll, the students will usually fail orthe level of instruction may be lowered. If thelevel of instruction is lowered, high-qualitytechnicians with the depth and breadth ofpreparation required for employment are notavailable. In either case, students or employ-ers soon become disillusioned and the wholeprogram will fail.

Another reason for setting selection stan-dards for students is that it adds strength andpotential quality to the program. Students andtheir parents find the technician objective at-tractive when they appreciate that it is a spa-cial objective which requires high scholasticstandards. As it has been pointed out in thesection on Special Abilities and Activities ofTechnicians, the technician does need specialskills and abilities that challenge the best ef-forts as well as the deepest interest of manystudents. The fact that student selection doestake place and that students must do good workto enter and to remain in the program is an im-portant feature in representing the program tostudent, parents, and prospective employers.

For these reasons, a good counseling andguidance program is necessary. This shouldstart before the Student enrolls, preferably atthe high school level. Brochures or catalogswhich show the program and the pretechnicaltraining required should be distributed to highschool counselors. They should also be madeavailable to counselors who may be advisingolder students or adults.

This program is designed for students withparticular interests and abilities in plant andsoil science. In addition, they will need to un-derstand basic economics and to have certainmechanical abilities. The recruitment and ad-missions program should be designed to selectstudents with these interests and abilities.

The program should be open to students whohave not had vocational agriculture courses in

high school. The entering student should havecompleted 2 years of high school mathematics,including 1 year of algebra and 1 year of geom-etry ; 1 year of biology, and 1 year of chemistryincluding laboratory experience, or their equiv-alcnt. For those students who have not com-pleted the equivalent of these courses, manypost high school institutions offering technicalprograms offer a pretechnical program.3 Thepretechnical program, which includes up to ayear's work, gives promising but unpreparedstudents an opportunity to prepare and toprove that they are ready for a technical pro-gram.

Most post high school institutions administersome type of achievement tests to all incomingstudents. Tests can be used as an indicationof verbal and mathematical ability, and to somedegree, mechanical ability ; but should not beused as major criteria for student selection.Many of the most promising students may nothave developed the abstract tools of language,numbers and science required to do well intests, but can use the tools as needed to servetheir vocational interests.

The school admissions officer should have athis disposal the high school transcript showingsubjects taken and grades received, varioustest scores, and grades in pretechnical courses,if taken. In addition, it is recommended that apersonal interview be held wit% each appli-cant. Such an interview can be of value to de-termine seriousness of purpose and motivation.Motivation is difficult to measure, but is neces-sary for success in the program.

For a student out of high school for a periodof time working, it is desirable to get a letter ofrecommendation from his employer. Such a let-ter will aid in evaluating the student's matu-rity, seriousness of purpose, and work habits.Qualified women applicants should be fully ad-vised about the career potential of the technol-ogy and encouraged if they desire strongly toenter the program.

A student-counseling problem which may beencountered is the student who is still unde-cided. The uncommitted student should be ad-

3 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office ofEducation. Pretechnical Post High School Programs, A SuggestedGuide, OE-80040. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,1007.

vised to enter the pretechnical program and totake some of the beginning technical specialtycourses to help him determine whether he wantsto pursue the technical program.

Effective guidance and counseling is essen-tial. In addition to each student having a regu-lar counselor, it is desirable to have a memberof the agricultural faculty available for guid-ance as an adviser. Students often develop aclose relationship with the agricultural facultyadvisor and he can help the student with manyof his problems. The faculty adviser can be ofspecial value during times of personal or aca-demic problems or during registration time.

Some type of orientation program for newstudents is desirable. This can be done beforeschool starts or at the beginning of the term.The orientation program should include cam-pus 'wars to acquaint students with the campusplus talks by administrators and student per-sonnel representatives regarding campus rulesand regulations. A library orientation to ac-quaint students with the use of library facili-ties is a very important part of the orientationprogram.

Placement and followup are also a vital partof the counseling program. Placement of gradu-ates gives meaning to the whole program. Agood record of placement helps motivate cur-rent students and helps attract new students.

It is desirable that students be placed in sum-mer employment between the first and secondyear of the program. The jobs should fit theoccupational objective of the student to allowhim to have real work experience before gradu-ation. The placement of students in suitableand attractive employment upon graduation is,probably the most important part of theprogram.

Job placement can be managed in variousways. Experience has shown that individual in-structors can do much of the placement work.During visits to farms, agricultural indus-tries, or advisory committee meetings, thC Ifiem-ber of the instructional staff should alwayskeep placement in mird and be prepared tomake recommendations when employers ask forhelp.

Periodic followup studies of previous gradu-ates should be made. This can be done by ques-tionnaires through the mail or by personal vis-

12

its to places of employment. A check on theprogress of graduates offers a good means ofcurriculum evaluation and can be used as abasis for improvement of the program.

Another part of the student service programis the sponsoring of a departmental student or-ganization. Student club activities offer a goodmedia to utilize important speakers, to showgood films of general interest and to teachgroup dynamics and parliamentary procedure.Student organizations can be helpful in spon-soring field days or opdn house for guests fromlocal high schools or agricultural industry. Stu-dent club organizations have been found to beimportant as a medium for the development ofleadership qualities in students.

Each student should be given the opportunityto become acquainted with members of techni-cal societies or farm groups in his area of spe-cialization. Many technical societies offer stu-dent membership rates. Contacts with thesegroups help the student become acquainted withpeople active in the field and with trade publi-cations. Such contacts may eventually help thestudent in finding employment, and they pro-vide a future source of technical information.

Some type of degree or certificate should beconferred by the institution to indicate the stu-dent's successful completion of the program.These may be presented at graduation or somesimilar ceremony held to recognize achieve-ment. Outstanding individual achievement alsomay be recognized at this time or at a banquetor meeting of the student organization.

Textbooks, References, Visual Aids

Textbooks, references, and visual aids mustbe reviewed constantly in light of new develop-ments in science, agriculture, and teachingmethods. The impact of developments in scienceapplied to agriculture is demanding fresh text-books, ardulGz, a_ ournals, and teachingmaterials.

Departures from teaching the traditionalcollege course in various subjects also are creat-ing a need for new and different books and ref-erences. In many courses, it will be necessaryfor the teacher to develop his own teachingmaterials. It also may be necessary for students

to read from many different sources in thelibrary rather than to have one assigned text.

Students should be encouraged to use the li-brary to look up materials and to becomeacquainted with sources of information. In achanging technology, knowing how to find in-formation is as important as knowing facts.Class assignments in the library are necessaryto. familiarize the student with its use. Tech-nicians should be encouraged to use the libraryso that it becomes an important tool in thelearning process. The growth and success of thegraduate technician will depend in large mea-sure on his ability to keep abreast of changesin his field. Libraries are information sourceswith trained personnel who classify source dataand assist those seeking it to find pertinentinformation quickly.

The teacher should familiarize himself withthe available books before selecting that bestsuited to the particular needs of the studentsas a text.

Visual aids may be a great help to the teach-er when they are pertinent to his teachingobjective. Only a few have been listed in thisguide because of changing techniques and pro-cedures which tend to make films obsolete ina relatively short time. The teachers should pre-view any visual aids before use in order to de-termine whether they will fit into the teachingsituation. At tit-, only part of a film might beused to dern1 n,11,rate a point. If so, the filmshould be set up in the pnjector before class toeliminate waste of time.

New types of visual aids are being developedand should be considered whenever possible. Insome new schools the buildings are being plan-ned for educational television. Video tapes ofdemonstrations or procedures can be producednow for about $1 per minute or approximately$50 for a class period. Video tapes can be usedin the library for individual study by students.

Administrators and teachers should checkwith the local telephone zompany in regard toamplified phone conversations in classrooms.In courses such as agricultural economics orfarm management, it is possible to have pre-arranged phone conversations with experts inany part of the country for a relatively smallcharge.

Many new audiovisual devices are available

23

now, and new ones, including teaching ma-chines, are gaining more general acceptance.All such teaching aids should be thoroughlystudied by teachers and administrators beforeinvesting money and time in them. Staff mem-bers need to be adequately prepared in the useof equipment or materials before effectivepresentation can be made to the students. Theunit cost in relation to educational effective-ness should be a prime consideration beforepurchase.

LibraryA central library under the direction of a

professional librarian is important to the suecess of the teaching of technology curriculums.Most instructors have private libraries in theiroffices from which they may select books ofspecial interest in their personal conferenceswith students and thereby stimulate interest inrelated liteeature. However, a central library,headed by a professional librarian, insures theacquisition and cataloging of the library con-tent according to an accepted library practiceand provides the mechanics for locatit, of ref-erence materials by the use of systematic cardfiles. It also provides the mechanics for lendingbooks to students in a controlled and orderlymanner typical of libraries which they mightencounter after leaving school.

Study space with suitable lighting and free-dom from outside distraction should be pro-vided in the library for short-term study of ref-erence data, and provisions for checking out ofreference materials for out-of-library useshould be systematic and efficient.

The content of a library must adequately pro-vide the literature containing the knowledge en-compassed by all subjects in a curriculum andextending somewhat beyond the degree of corn-plexity or depth encountered in classroom ac-tivities. Literature dealing with highly special-ized aspects of subject may be acquired asneeded or may be borrowed by the librarianfrom more comprehensive libraries.

The teaching staff and the library staffshould actively cooperate with one another. Theteaching staff must cooperate with the librarystaff on materials to be acquired and should be

responsible for the final selection of materialsthat support their technical courses. It musttake the initiative in recommending new librirycontent to keep it current, pertinent, and useful.In addition to reference books on all importantaspects of crop, fruit, and vine production, thelibrary should contain current magazines per-taining to crops, soils, and farm management,bulletins and information from the local exten-sion service, and a wealth of trade and com-mercial literature.

The library staff should periodically supplythe teaching staff with a list of recent acquisi-tions complete with call numbers. Technical,trade, and association journals should either becirculated to the teaching staff or be placed ina staff reserve area for a short time beforethey are made available for general library use.

In addition to reference materials, journals,and trade publications, a library should havematerial of an encyclopedic nature available forquick reference, and should maintain referenceindex material.

Visual aid matters may be centered in the li-brary. Visual aids should be reviewed and eval-uated by both the librarian and a member ofthe teaching staff as they become available.This procedure will insure that appropriatevisual aids are acquired by the library andshould familiarize members of the teachingstaff with exactly what is available and wherethese aids may best be used in the technicalprograms. Visual aids should always be pre-viewed and analyzed for timeliness and per-tinency before being used in a teachingsituation.

More and more libraries are becoming com-prehensive learning centers with individualstudent carrels multimedia learning materials,and programed learning materials for a vari-ety of subjects.

Each instructor should be encouraged tobuild up a collection of colored slides illustrat-ing farming practices in other areas and farm-ing operations at different seasons when theactual operation cannot be observed. These maybe kept in the library.

A well-equipped, modern library should havesome type of duplicating service available sothat copies of library materials may be ob-tained easily by students and staff. This service

14

allows both students and staff to build up-to-date files of current articles appropriate to thecourses in a curriculum. This service should beavailable to the students at minimum cost and,within reasonable limits, free of personal costto the staff.

A list of suggested texts and references maybe found at the end of each course outline. Inorder to have a current list, few books over 10years old have been included. In cases wherebooks over 10 years old are still considered cur-rent, a notation to that effect has been made. Itshould be possible to select suitable texts orreferences from the lists presented. However,it should not be assumed that unlisted booksare not suitable. There are, no doubt, otherswhich are excellent.

One source of references which has beenpurposely omitted is the university and experi-ment station circulars and bulletins. These arepublished on a wide variety of subjects, toonumerous to include in this guide. In addition,materials published in each state are usuallybest suited to the state where they are pub-lished and may not be of general interest inother parts of the country. The teacher shouldcontact the university publications office in hisState for a list of available publications.

Laboratory Equipmentand Facilities

A well-equipped laboratory is necessary toprovide for valid laboratory experience, basicin nature, broad in variety, and intensive inpractical experience. The technician programshould include equipment that illustrates prin-ciples used in grading, testing, processing,weighing, and measuring agricultural products,soils, or equipment.

Variety and quality of equipment are moreimportant than quantity. Each piece of labora-tory equipment should be considered carefullybefore purchase. A study of types of equipmentused on farms and in laboratories in the localarea should be made. The ways in which thisequipment might be used in laboratory experi-ences should be considered. Study may showthat laboratory models of certain large expen-sive machines can be purchased and used toillustrate principles.

7-,

Figure 12.Judicious selection of testing equipment for agricultural productsmakes it possible to teach various principles of farm crop production in thelaboratory.

The laboratory equipment recommended inthis guide has been carefully considered. Itsmain use is to teach students the various prin-ciples of testing or grading agricultural prod-ucts. In addition, some of the equipment is ex-cellent for teaching critical thinking and prop-er laboratory procedures. The economic impor-tance to the farmer of testing is stressed as theequipment is used.

The equipment has been selected to illustrateprinciples or concepts. Even though the ma-chines will change, if the student learns theprinciples and concepts of a testing procedurehe can adapt to new or improved machines.

A list of the various kinds of equipmentneeded to teach this curriculum is included ina later section. It may seem rather extensive,but it is considered vital to the program, andthe curriculum should not be attempted with-out it.

In addition to the equipment for th labora-tories, it will be necessary to have greenhousesand a plot of ground for a school farm, labora-tory. In established schools where ornamentalhorticulture is also being taught, the green-houses can be used in conjunction with thatprogram. However, the greenhouses are usedfor soils, botany, plant propagation, weeds andweed control, seed production, and the otherplant production classes. For this reason, ade-quate space under glass should be considered.This is even more important for schools locat-ed in regions with a cold climate making out-side work difficult.

15

The size of the plot of ground for a schoolfarm laboratory will vary with the size of theprogram. In schools which offer other techni-cal programs, the plots must be larger. Forcrops and fruit and vine production, adequateacreage should be obtained for test plots ofgrains and forages, row crops, and a fruitorchard. Careful consideration should also begiven to irrigation facilities for at least part ofthe plot.

The school farm laboratory can be used asdemonstration plots for various agriculturalchemicals, irrigation methods, and equipment-use when it is difficult to use local farms forsuch purposes. In addition, many of the plantspecimens for use in the laboratory can begrown in the greenhouse or on the school farm.The farm plot ideally should be located nearthe school. If possible it should be owned by theinstitution; if not owned, it should be availableunder a long-term leasing arrangement. (Seefurther discussion under land requirements.)

gura 13.ln equipping farm crop production laboratories, sufficient high.quality equipment must be available to permit each student to use the equip.ment. Hare a student is performing a test to determine the sedimentationqualities of wheat, en important test to determine the baking quality ofthe wheat.

Advisory Committees and Services

The success of technician education pro-grams depends to a great extent on the formaland informal support of advisory committees.

When an institution decides to consider the ad-visability of initiating a particular technologi-cal program, the chief administrator or deanshould appoint the advisory committee.

The special advisory committee for the farmcrop production technology program should becomprised of representatives of employers andpublic employment services, scientific or tech-nical societies and associations in the field, andknowledgeable civic leaders who meet with andadvise the specialists on the school's staff. Suchmembers serve without pay as interested citi-zens. They have no legal status but provideinvaluable assistance. The committee normallyconsists of about 12 members (but may varyfrom six to 20), who generally serve for a 1to 2year period. The head of the institution orthe department head of the technology is or-dinarily chairman. It should be rememberedthat such people are always busy ; therefore,meetings should be called only when commit-tee action can best handle a specific task orproblem.

The committee assists in surveying and de-fining the need for the technicians : the knowl-edge and skills they will require ; employmentopportunities ; available student population ;curriculum, faculty, laboratory facilities andequipment ; cost and financing of the program.When the studies indicate that a programshould be initiated, the committee's help inplanning and implementing it is invaluable.

Frequently the committee gives substantialhelp to school administrators in obtaining localfunds and securing State and Federal supportfor the program. When the students or gradu-ates .seek summer or permanent employment,the committee aids in placing them and in eval-uating their performance. These evaluationsoften will result in minor modifications, whichmore closely relate the program to employmentrequirements.

The advisory committee can use this guide,designed primarily for planning and develop-ment of full-time preparatory programs in posthigh school institutions, as a starting point,modifying it to meet local needs. The programcan also form the basis for courses to meet therequirements of employed adults who wish toupgrade or update their skills and technicalcapabilities. In this way the school administra-

16

tion, with the help of the committee and spe-cial consultants, can effectively initiate theneeded program, quickly develop it to a highlevel of excellence, and maintain its timeliness.

It is strongly recommended that an advisorycommittee be provided for this technology.Members can be appointed for regular terms,subject to reappointment, and membershipshould rotate so some experienced advisors arepresent with some new ones each term.

Scientific and Technical Societiesand Trade Associations

Scientific and technical societies4 and tradeassociations are an important source for facultymembers of instructional materials and otherbenefits for themselves and students. Suchsocieties provide, through their publicationsand meetings, immediate reports and continu-ing discussion of new concepts, processes, tech-niques, and equipment in the physical sciencesand related technologies. Their presentatitTn ofscientific and technical discoveries and theirinterpretation of them explain the relationshipof the theoretical scientist's work to the appliedscience practitioner's requirements. They arean invaluable aid in keeping abreast of new de-velopments in a particular phase of science.

Less conspicuous but extremely important isthe support which societies may give (1) inhelping to develop evidence of need for a train-ing program ; (2) in helping to promote theprogram; (3) in enlisting members' support forthe program ; (4) in helping to provide workexperience for students; and (5) in helpingwith the placement of graduates.

Associations and societies may supply re-source people to speak to classes. They also mayserve as hosts to student groups on field tripsto study specific phases of the industry.

Instructors should be encouraged to becomeactive members in these societies so that theymay learn quickly of new technological develop-ments. Membership will also enable them tomeet people in the community who are most

4 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office ofEducation. Scientific and Technical Societies Pertinent to the Educa-tion of Technicians. 0E-80027. Washington: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1965.

actively interested in the field. Some educa-tional institutions pay all, or part, of the costsof membership dues and attendance at local ornational meetings in order to encourage staffparticipation in selected societies.

Early in their studies students should be re-quired to become acquainted with the literatureand services of scientific, technical, and engi-neering societies. They should also be encour-aged to join those which offer students affiliatememberships.

The following is a selected listing of some ofthe organizations and associations which arepertinent and relate to crop, fruit and vine pro-duction. Additional data, including the address,purpose, and publication, if any, of each associ-ation, are listed in the appendix.

Agricultural AircraftAgricultural Research InstituteAmericanAmericanAmericanAmericanAmericanAmericanAmerican,AmericanAmericanAmericanAmericanAmerican

Entomological SocietyFarm Research AssociationHorticultural SocietyMushroom InstitutePomological SocietyPotash InstituteRice Growers Cooperative AssociationSociety for Horticultural ScienceSociety of AgronomySoci ..ty of EnologistsSoybean AssociationSugar Cane League of the U.S.A.

Association of Official Seed AnalystsBeet Sugar Development FoundationCalavo Growers of California (Avocado)California Almond Growers' ExchangeCalifornia Date Growers' AssociationCalifornia Fig InstituteCalifornia Fruit ExchangeCalifornia Grape and Tree Fruit LeagueCalifornia Raisin Advisory BoardCalifornia Strawberry Advisory BoardCherry Growers' and Industries' FoundationCouncil for Agricultural and Chemurgic ResearchCranberry InstituteCrop Protection Institute

Crop Quality CouncilCrop Science Society of AmericaDate Administrative CommitteeDate Growers' InstituteDiamond Walnut GrowersEntomological Society of AmericaFarm Equipment InstituteFarm Equipment Manufacturers AssociationFarm Film Foundation (Motion Picture)Federated Pecan Growers' Associations of the

United States'Pk _Ada Citrus MutualFlorida Fresh Citrus Shippers AssociationFlorida Lychee Growers' AssociationFlorida Mango ForumHawaiian Sugar Planters' AssociationInternational Cotton Advisory CommitteeInternational Crop Improvement Association (Seed)International Plant Propagators' SocietyLemon Administrative CommitteeNational Agricultural Chemicals AssociationNational Association of Greenhouse Vegetable GrowersNational Association of Produce Market ManagersNational Association of Wheat GrowersNational Container CommitteeNational Council of Commercial Plant BreedersNational Fertilizer Solutions AssociationNational Junior Vegetable Growers' AssociationNational Plant Food Institute (Fertilizers)National Soybean Crop Improvement CouncilNorth American Blueberry CouncilNorthern Nut Growers' AssociationPan American Tung Research and Development LeaguePotato Association of AmericaProduce Packaging AssociationResearch and Development Associates, Food and

Container InstituteSeed Pea GroupSoil Conservation Society of AmericaSoil Science Society of AmericaSugar Research FoundationSunkist Growers (Fruit)Tobacco InstituteUnited Fresh Fruit and Vegetable AssociationU.S. National Committee, International Commission

on Irrigation and DrainageVegetable Growers' Association of AmericaWeed Society of AmericaWestern Agricultural Chemicals AssociationWestern Growers' Association (Vegetables)

17

THE CURRICULUM

Functional competence in a field as broad asfarm crop production or fruit and vine produc-tion has at least three components aroundwhich a curriculum must be designed :

(1) Training should prepare the graduate tobe a productive employee in a job at theentry level.

(2) The broad technical training, togetherwith a reasonable amount of experience,should enable the graduate to advance topositions of increasing responsibility.The foundations provided by the train-ing must be broad enough that the grad-uate can do further study within his field.This further study may be the readingof journals, new text materials, or for-mal course work.

(3)

The curriculum shown here is designed tomeet the three requirements. No curriculumcan be considered terminal in the sense that thestudent stops learning. The curriculum is de-signed to help the student acquire as many ofthe special abilities needed for entry level aswell as to provide the tools needed for furtherstudy.

This curriculum is intended as a guide forprogram planning and development primarilyin post high school institutions. Adaptationscan be made to suit various situations in severalkinds of schools. The level of instruction repre-

10

sents a consensus on the level of proficiencyrequired for success in occupations in whichmanpower is in short supply today and threat-ens to be even more so in the future. The curric-ulum is a product of the efforts of manypeopleeducators, scientists, farm operatorsand other employers, and the staff of the U.S.Office of Education.

The curriculum is organized as 17-weekcollege semesters rather than as college quar-ters because it is usually easier to convert a pro-gram from semesters to quarters.

Each semester is considered to be 17 weeks inlength. The curriculum and course outlinesshow a 16-week semester schedule. It will benoted that no examinations are scheduled inthe course outlines which follow later. It is in-tended that part of the additional week be usedfor examinations.

Outside study is a significant part of thestudents' total program. In this curriculum 2hours of outside study time have been suggest-ed for each hour of scheduled class time. Atypical weekly work schedule for a student inthe first semester of this curriculum would be :Class attendance, 13 hours ; laboratory, 15hours ; outside study, 26 hoursmaking a totalof 54 hours per week. This is a full schedule,but not excessive for this type of program. Thestudent will benefit from a careful budgetingof time.

71, 7,47.-rmic

The Curriculum Outline for Field and Forage Crop Production Option

First Semester

Mathematics ICrop BotanyAgricultural ChemistryCommunications SkillsField Crops

Total

Labora-Class tory Outside Total

Courses hours hours study hours

Second SemesterMathematics IIAgricultural EconomicsAgricultural MechanicsSoil ScienceForage CropsPlant Diseases and Pests

Total

Summer Occupational Experience

Third SemesterFarm Records and ReportsFarm PowerIrrigation and Water ManagementWeeds and Weed Control.Cereal CropsElective 1

Total

Fourth SemesterFarm ManagementFarm MachineryCrop MarketingSeed ProductionSoil ManaoxmentPrinciples of Social Science

Total1 ElectivesTruck Crops or Grassland Management

19

3 0 62 3 42 6 44 3 82 3 4

13 15 26

3 0 63 0 62 3 42 3 42 3 42 3 4

14 12 28

2 0 42 3 42 3 42 3 42 3 42 3 4

U 15 24

2 4 3 41 3 23 0 62 3 42 3 43 0 6

13 12 26

99

12159

a

999999

r4

699999

61.

969999

Ti.

The Curriculum Outline for Fruit and Vine Production Option

First SemesterLabora-

Class tory Outside TotalCourses hours hours study hoursMathematics I 3 0 6 9Crop Botany 2 3 4 9Agricultural Chemistry 2 6 4 12Communications Skills 4 3 8 15Small Fruit Production 2 3 4 9

Total 18 15 26 54

Second SemesterMathematics II 3 0 6 9Agricultural Economics. 3 0 6 9Agricultural Mechanics 2 3 4 9Soil Science 2 3 4 9Subtropical Fruit Production 2 3 4 9Plant Propagation 2 3 4 9

Total 14 12 28 81

Summer Occupational Experience

Third SemesterPlant Diseases and Pests 2 3 4 9Farm Power 2 3 4 9Irrigation and Water Management 2 3 4 9Deciduous Fruit Production 2 3 4 9Weeds and Weed Control. 2 3 4 9Farm Records and Reports 2 0 4 6

Total 12 15 24 ff.

Fourth SemesterFarm Management 2 3 4 9Farm Machinery 1 3 2 6Crop Marketing 3 0 6 9Fruit Processing 2 3 4 9Soil Management 2 3 4 9Principles of Social Science 3 0 6 9

TotaliTg 12 26 51

20

Brief Descriptions of Coursesfor the Field and Forage CropProduction Option

First Semester

Mathematics IA course offering a basic mathematical pro-gram accenting the fundamental concepts ofour number system, involving whole numbers,decimals, and fractions. The course developsthe principles of algebra and the use of alge-braic formulas. Basic ideas on the use of theslide rule are introduced, especially for thesolution of problems involving ratio, propor-tion, and percentage.

Crop BotanyA course designed to provide the student witha working knowledge of the fundamental struc-tures and processes of plants. Topics includedare plant anatomy, physiology, morphology, re-production, and genetics as they relate to cropproduction. In the laboratory the student willconduct experiments to better understand basicplant structures and processes.

Agricultural ChemistryA basic course in the composition of matterand physical and chemical changes fundamen-tal laws and principles. The properties of thecommon elements and their compounds, withtheir application to agriculture, are studied.Laboratory sessions are designed to give prac-tical application of the theory expressed inlectures.

Communication SkillsA course in oral and written communications.The course is designed to promote greater com-petency in recording, talking, writing, and lis-tening. The laboratory period provides practicein the various skills using teaching machines,programed learning and other instructionalaids.

Field CropsA study of the characteristics of field crops andtheir response to environmental conditionswith emphasis on the problems concerned withtheir production and marketing. Laboratory pe-riods include work in identification, grading,and evaluation of crop products.

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Second Semester

Mathematics IIA course offering a program of algebra, basiclogarithms, and numerical trigonometry. Prac-tical problems in agriculture are developed andsolved by means of the use of the slide ruleand mathematical tables as much as possible.Areas, volumes, ratios, percentages, propor-tions, and simple compound interest are cov-ered.

Agricultural EconomicsA course in the economic development of mod-ern agriculture, including problems of agricul-tural production and marketing. The changingrole of modern agriculture and its social andpolitical implications are emphasized.

Agricultural MechanicsA course in the basic mechanical concepts usedon a modern farm. The use of safety and goodwork habits are emphasized. Print reading,sketching and drafting, carpentry, workingwith concrete, plumbing, painting, electrical,welding, and hot and cold metal work are thesubjects of study. The laboratory includespractical applications and the development oflimited skills associated with the studies, withpractice in their use as time allows.

Soil ScienceA course in the physical and chemical proper-ties of soils as influenced by climate, the parentmaterial from which they were formed, thetopography of the area, organisms in the soil,and time. The laboratory period includes mapreading, moisture determinations, chemicalanalyses and study of approved soil practicesin the area.

Forage CropsA course in the adaptation, utilization and cul-ture of those crops grown for pasture, hay,silage, and soilage. During the laboratory, thestudent will learn to identify the various spe-cies of forage and to evaluate those charac-teristics associated with their feeding value.

Plant Diseases and PestsA course of the principles involved in control-ling plant diseases and pests ; primarily in-sects. The control of certain rodents and largeranimals is included. Laboratory work will in-

dude identification of pests and setting up pestcontrol programs.

Third Semester

Farm Records and ReportsA course to provide the student with an under-standing of how to keep and use the records ofthe farm business. Written reports on variousfarm operations are required as part of thecourse work.

Farm PowerAn elementary course in the fundamental me-chanical principles of engines and their com-ponents in order to supply power for the mod-ern farm. The laboratory period includestesting, adjustment, maintenance, and study ofengines and power transfer.

Irrigation and Water ManagementA course in the principles and practices of ir-rigation including soil, water, and plant rela-tions and water sources, quality, methods ofdistribution, and measurement methods andstructures. Irrigation methods and structures,field preparation and water measurement areincluded in the laboratory work.

Weeds and Weed ControlA study of the identification, growth charac-teristics, and control of those weeds which aredetrimental to cultivated crops and grasslands.During the laboratory period the student willlearn to identify the important species of weedsand to make actual applications of herbicides.

Cereal CropsA comprehensive course in the growth charac-teristics, cultural practices, and the marketingof cereal crops. Special emphasis is placed onthe relationship of cultural practices and envi-ronment to market quality. In the laboratory,the student is given an opportunity to gainactual experience in identifying, grading, anddetermining the market quality of cereals andcereal products. Comprehensive use will bemade of quality testing devices and seed han-dling machines. In addition, provision is madefor visits to marketing agencies and process-ing plants.

Truck CropsA course designed to provide the student with

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insight into the specialized problems of truckcrop production. The course includes culturalpractices, vegetable storage, transportation,and marketing. Laboratory experiences will beprovided to demonstrate the practical applica-tion of principles emphasized in lecture.

Grassland ManagementA study of conditions affecting grasslands andthe manipulation of those factors which willenhance soil conservation and livestock graz-ing capacity. Laboratory periods include iden-tifying the grassland species, charting, map-ping, inventorying the range and evaluatingvegetation.

Fourth Semester

Farm ManagementA course in the selection, organization, and op-eration of the modern farm. The laboratory pe-riod is to provide time for observing andpracticing activities associated with operationsand management.

Farm MachineryA course in the selection, operation, servicing,adjustment, and maintenance of machinery andequipment. The laboratory will include cali-bration, adjustment, and evaluation of per-formance of tillage, planting, weed control,harvesting, and processing machinery.

Crop MarketingA course in the principles and practices of mar-keting crop products emphasizing problems indistribution and normal channels of trade.Marketing problems for specific crops are in-cluded.

Seed ProductionA course in the reproductive processes, prin-ciples of breeding, environmental response, andthe harvesting and processing of seed crops.In the laboratory the student will gain actualexperience in test plot work, seed processing,and seed testing.

Soil ManagementA study of those management practices thatare effective in maintaining soils in a highlyproductive condition. Laboratory assignmentswill parallel lecture topics including conserva-tion, fertilization, and tillage practices.

Principles of Social ScienceA course in the principles of social science asthey apply to man and hi's place in society.Individual and group behavior as they affecthuman relations will be studied.

Brief Descriptions of coursesUnique to the Fruit and VineProduction Option

First Semester

Small Fruit ProductionThis course is designed to acquaint the studentwith various phases of producing grapes, bush-berries, and strawberries. The course willcover all cultural practices including designof the planting area, establishing young plants,fertilization, irrigation, pest control and har-vesting.

Second Semester

Subtropical Fruit ProductionA course in the production of subtropical fruits,including avocados, citrus, dates, and olives. Astudy of fundamental information relating tocommercial orchard management of thesefruits. Laboratory work parallels lectures withemphasis on various cultural practices.

Plant PropagationA course designed to acquaint the student withcommercial methods followed in the propaga-tion of crop plants and fruits. Reproduction ofthese plants by seeds, cuttings, grafts, layers,runners, and division are covered. Laboratorysessions are planned to give the student prac-tice in plant propagation.

Third Semester

Deciduous Fruit ProductionA study of the principles and practices involvedin production of deciduous fruits. Emphasis isgiven to the selection of the orchard, culturaloperations, fruit handling and marketing. Lab-oratory periods provide time for practice andobservation of various cultural and manage-ment operations.

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Fourth SemesterFruit ProcessingAn elementary course in techniques of fruitprocessing and how these relate to selection ofraw material used and the quality of productobtained. Laboratory periods will be devoted totesting and evaluating fresh and processedfruits.

Curriculum Content andRelationthiin

Curriculum content and organization are in-fluenced by the special occupational needs of thegraduates, the limited time available to teachthe curriculum, and new methods or techniqueswhich seem imminent in the field of crop,fruit, and vine production. The technician is ex-pected to know how to perform the manualskills required in a job, so that more emphasisis placed on this than might be done in a similarBaccalaureate program. The student is alsotaught the special mental skills required in anoccupation. It is assumed that some transfer oftraining will take place to prepare the studentfor new situations as they may arise on the job.

Due to the limited time available, great carehas been exercised in selecting and arrangingthe subject matter in this curriculum. Theteaching of concepts is important when time islimited. It is not possible to include all of thechemistry, mathematics, botany, and biologythat is found in a 4-year program. The conceptswhich are most important to agric'ulture andtheir application to farm crop production aretherefore stressed. The production courses aredesigned to reinforce the concepts which arelearned in chemistry, crop botany, and mathe-matics. For these reasons, the sequence ofcourses shown in the curriculum is important.

The relationship between laboratory time andclass lecture or theoretical study time is ofgreat importance in a technical education cur-ricultIm. Skills, techniques, and applied princi-ples needed by the technician can be taught inthe laboratory. Organized and related ideas,concepts, and factual information can be taughtin "theory" classes and judiciously illustratedby demonstration and other visual aids, employ-ing selected texts and references, and requir-

ing regular and systematic outside study on thepart of the student. Group teaching usuallymakes more efficient use of the instructor'stime in a theory ass than in a laboratory. Ittends to emphasize and develop the student'sskills in obtaining knowledge from print-ed sources. Thus, there must be a special rela-tionship between the amount of the scientificand technical specialty taught in the theoryclasses and that taught in the laboratory.

In technical curriculums it is mandatory thatspecialized technical course work be introducedin the first semester. Def erring this introduc-tion even for one term imposes serious limita-tions on the effectiveness of the total curric-ulum. Two of the important advantages thatoccur from an early introduction of the tech-nical specialty follow

(1) The student who enrolled in school tostudy farm crop production technologystarts his training immediately in thisspecialty. If his first semester consistsentirely of general subjectsmathemat-ics, English, social studieshe mightlose interest.

(2) By introducing the technical specialty inthe first semester it is possible to achievegreater depth of understanding in spe-cialized subjects in the later stages of the2-year program.

Safety and careful workmanship are stressedthroughout the course of study. There arepotential dangers involved in a technician'swork. By learning to use careful procedures insuch operations as the use of chemicals andmachinery and by observing the normal safetypractices, many dangers can be avoided. Theimportance of protecting human life and limbis paramount, but students also need to learngood work habits and to develop a pride inworkmanship. On the job the technician will beworking with expensive equipment and delicateplants. A slight mistake in calibrating a sprayrig, a fertilizer, or seed drill can result in loss oftime, money, or even life. Teaching proper careof expensive equipment is more important thanhow to repair it as a result of negligence.

Discipline and intellectual honesty are an im-portant part of the training. Students should

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learn to be accurate in laboratory work and hon-est in reporting. The instructor's responsibil-ity is to see that each student does his own workand roports it in his notebook. If an experimentdoes not produce the expected results, the stu-dent must try to determine why.

The basic and beginning courses in crop pro-duction in either option, the science courses,communications skills and mathematics are in-cluded in the first and second semesters. Thishelpki provide an educational balance of coursesand helps the student see a relationshipbetween these courses. It also establishes thebread th of base in science and mathematics per-mitted by the limited time for the curriculumand provides the foundation for study of thespecialties in greater depth during the third andfourth semesters.

This curriculum provides a substantialamount of time for laboratory work in the var-bus courses. In the first semester the studentis learning laboratory skills in chemistry andcrop botany as well as principles he will use insoils, irrigation and soil management. In fieldcrops courses in the first semester he is learn-ing to apply the scientific principle of botanyto growing crops. As soon as the underlyingtheory is developed and understood, it is appliedin the laboratory work with each succeedingcourse adding experience in greater depth.

The courses in farm management, marketing,and seed production have been included in thelast semester to tie together and apply theprinciples and practices taught in the earlierscience, production, and agricultural economicscourses, and to provide a basis for coping withtechnical changes in the future.

New and improved methods of farming arebeing developed to enable farmers to becomeeconomically effective on higher priced and/oron submarginal land brought into use by theeconomic pressure of population growth. Newcitrus plantings are being tried on drainedswamp land in the southeast. Raw desert landrequiring reclamation, irrigation, and new vari-eties of crops is being utilized in the west. Inthe Midwest, low spots with poor drainage taketheir toll on crops when rain is excessive orcrops dry up when rainfall is short. Herbicidesfor weeds are not effective unless moisture can

be controlled. All of these require technicalknow-how.

For these reasons, courses such as irrigationand water management, weeds and weed con-trol, and soil management have been included.These topics are found in very few curriculumsat the present time, yet appear to be needed inall agricultural areas.

Employers want technicians who can do notonly their daily tasks but who are able to com-municate in writing and speaking, to figure,and to get along with other people. General ed-ucation courses in this curriculum are designedto accomplish this objective.

The communication skills course is providedin the first semester to facilitate the student'suse of language throughout the entire program.It includes both writing and speaking. In addi-tion, instructors in other classes should assignpapers or reports and insist upon proper usageof English including spelling, grammar, andsentence structure. Additional training in speak-ing can be given by means of oral reports inclasses or through the work of the departmentalclub.

Principles of economics, including our Amer-ican economic system, are taught in agricul-tural economics, farm management, and thevarious marketing courses.

The Social science course is designed to helpthe/student see himself as a member of societyand to see how his society functions. Relation-ships with other people are stressed in thecourse, both from the standpoint of the work-er and the employer. The content of the socialscience course is related to the work the stu-dent has had in economics, marketing, andfarm management. The general education re-quirements vary considerably from state tostate. For that reason the general educationcontent of this curriculum has been designed tomeet the minimum needs of the students takingit.

Summer working experience in some type ofcrop production is recommended between thefirst and second years of study. This should bea mandatory requirement, especially for stu-dents without previous farm work experience.The principle objective of the work period isto familiarize the student with some of the

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many aspects of farm crop production. Practi-cal application of the many principles dis-cussed permits the student to obtain a greaterrealization and appreciation of the technicalrequirements of farming.

When this working experience can be ar-ranged, the student should receive the prevail-ing wage. It is desirable that his time be spentin one operation so those in charge may cometo know his qualifications and character. Astudent should make his own arrangements foremployment providing they meet the approvalof the farm crop production technology staff.Or, he can be assigned a position by the staff.Exceptional cases that might justify waiver ofthis requirement should be approved by thefarm crop production technology staff.

Since the work period is designed to meet aneducational objective, it is desirable to havethe employer make any special arrangementspossible to provide the student with a greaterunderstanding of the operations performed andof the necessary technological aspects of work.A planned and arranged system of job rotationexperiences is a helpful training procedure.

Some institutions may organize employmentexperience as a part of a cooperative work-study plan.

Cooperative Education Plan

This technology is adaptable to a cooperativearrangement: a plan which offers importantadvantages to students, the school and to em-ployers of technicians. A cooperative educationprogram is a plan for student learning throughcoordinated study and employment experience.Students alternate periods of attendance at theinstitution with periods of employment in busi-ness or industry. The employment constitutesan essential element in the educational process.The student's employment should be related asclosely as possible to some phase of the field ofstudy in which he is engaged.

When a student tests his academic theory ina work situation, study becomes more meaning-ful. The co-op student learns not only the ap-plied essentials of his technology, but also theimportance of reliability, cooperation, and judg-ment as an employed worker in his chosen field.

The co-op student's career choice is stimu-lated and shaped by his work experiences.Should he find satisfaction in his work, he re-turns to the classroom stimulated to learn asmuch as possible about his future career.Should he find through his work experiencethat he is not fitted to a specific area of work,he may decide to change his major field ofstudy when he returns to the college. This de-cision may prevent him from wasting his timeand money on a misguided choice of study.

A class of students in cooperative technicalprograms usually spends the first semester orthe first two quarters in school ; then the classis divided so that half have a semester or quar-ter-semester of employment experience whilethe other half continues to study. During thenext semester or quarter the half which workedreturns to its formal studies at school whilethe other half of the class is employed. Stu-dents usually alternate again so each studenthas two semesters or at least two quarters ofwork experience in his program. The student'stechnical program is lengthened beyond thecurriculum outlined in this document by anamount of time equal to the total length of theemployment experience.

Specific employment is obtained, as circum-stances permit, by the educational institutionwith the cooperation of the student. The insti-tution regards the work-experience programas an integral part of the technician educat-ing program as a whole. It is not to be regardedprimarily as an earning opportunity althoughall students while working are paid at the pre-vailing wage scale for the job they hold. Workreports by both the student and the employerare submitted to the school work programcoordinator.

The cooperative work-experience program isan opportunity to gain directly related experi-ence which makes the student more desirableas an employee. Many students, as a result oftheir work-experience with a particular estab-lishment, have been offered permanent posi-tions with that organization upon completion oftheir schooling. Cooperating establishmentsagree, however, not to make offers of employ-ment which become effective before the comple-tion of the technician educating program.

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Cooperative programs provide special oppor-tunities for the educational institution to main-tain close contact with employers in their vari-ous programs. This contact becomes a valuabletwo-way 3hannel of communication whichhelps the educational institution to keep itsknowledge of specific employer needs in eachtechnical field up-to.date and at the same timekeeps employers acquainted with and involvedin the program of the institution.

Suggested Continuing Study

It has been pointed out that this curriculumis not intended to make the individual proficientin all duties he may be asked to perform. Pro-ficiency comes only with experience, practice,and further study of specialized problems thatmay arise on the job. It is also impossible topredict changes that may arise due to ourchanging economy and technology. Some formof continuation of study for graduates of tech-nology programs is therefore mandatory.

By reading current literature related to thetechnology, the student can keep abreast oftechnical developments of his special field, butthis tends only to build on the organized tech-nological base provided by the curriculum hestudied.

Continuation of the educational process pro-vides the most efficient and practical means forthe graduate technician to add important re-lated areas of knowledge and skill to his initialeducation. Supplementary courses have the ad-vantages of systematic organization of subjectmatter, disciplined and competent teaching,class discussion, and scheduling on evening orSaturday hours outside of the graduate stu-dent's working day.

If the majority of the graduates return tofarming, then it is recommended that addition-al farm management be offered. Recommendedcourses would be farm cost analysis and labor-management relations.

If students are going into such jobs as agri-cultural sales or elevator operation, additionalstudy in sales and merchandising, business or-ganization and management, and agriculturalchemicals is recommended.

Students seeking employment with public orprivate organizations doing research shouldhave the opportunity to take additional studiesin plant breeding, agricultural chemicals, ad-vanced crop botany, and plant diseases.

Other students may wish to take additionalstudy in other subjects, such as journalism orreligion in preparation for a career as an agri-

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cultural journalist or an agricultural mission-ary. In special cases, such as elevator operationwhere the business is also engaged in feedsales, it may be desirable to combine this cur-riculum with some studies in animal husbandryor poultry. Courses in feeds and feeding orlivestock, dairy, or poultry production wouldbe desirable for such an occupation.

COURSE

The courses which follow are intended to sug-gest the content which might be taught in thecurriculum. The materials suggested provide apractical and attainable coverage of the fieldand have been reveiwed by experienced instruc-tors in successful crop and fruit productiontechnical education programs and by expertsrepresenting employers of these technicalgraduates.

It is expected that these materials will bemodified in some measure to fill the needs de-fined by local advisory committees and to takeadvantage of special interests and capabilitiesof the teaching staff in any particular insti-tution ; but the implied level, quality, and com-pleteness of the program should not be com-promised.

At the end of each course is a list of text andreference materials. Each should be analyzedfor its content and pertinency ; new and moresuitable ones should be substituted if they areavailable. The information needed to cover aparticular course in technician educating cur-riculums, particularly the technical specialtycourses, are almost never available in one text-book ; hence the multiple listing of references.They usually should be considerably augmentedby the current materials from manufacturers,trade journals, technical societies and suppliersof apparatus and services in the special fieldof applied science being studied.

Suggested visual aids are listed for manycourses. Each should be used when pertinentand when its use will teach more efficiently thanany other method. Excessive showing of filmsat the expense of well prepared lectures anddemonstrations is to be avoided. The suggestedoutside study periods may well be used insteadof class lecture time for the showing of somefilms. All visual aids should be examined bythe instructor before they are shown. Thoselisted after courses show name and address ofsupplier, size in mm., minutes required for

OUTLINES

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showing, and whether they are sound or silent.This provides the necessary information forselection to fit projection equipment.

It is expected that the experienced instructorwill make liberal use of charts, slides, models,samples, and specimens which illustrate specialtechnical aspects of the subject. These usuallyare accumulated from the experience of previ-ous laboratory or lecture preparations of theinstructor, and should be updated regularlywhen new developments require it. They are toospecific for any attempt to be made to list themin this suggested guide.

The laboratory sessions suggested in thecurriculum outline and course descriptions arenot necessarily intended to be a single session,but rather as total hours of laboratory perweek, to be scheduled in reasonable and effec-tive increments. For example, a 6-hour labora-tory total per week for a course might be sched-uled as three 2-hour sessions or two 3-hoursessions, or any other divisions of laboratorytime that seems appropriate.

Technical Specialty Courses

Cereal CropsHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Course DescriptionA comprehensive course in the growth char-

acteristics, cultural practices, and the market-ing of cereal crops. Special emphasis is placedon the relationship of cultural practices and en-vironment to market quality. In the laboratory,the student will be given an opportunity to gainactual experience in identifying, grading, anddetermining the market quality of cereals andcereal products. Comprehensive use will bemade of quality testing devices and seed hand-

ling machines. In addition, provision is madefor visits to marketing agencies and processingplants.

The student is assigned related readingswhich correspond with current class discus-sions. This material will serve as a supplementto class lectures, allowing the material to becovered in greater detail. A syllabus containingthese related readings and laboratory assign-ments will be provided the student at the begin-ning of the semester.

Demonstration plots are maintained so thestudent is able to observe the growth habits ofthe different varieties of cereals and how theyrespond to various cultural practices andenvironmental conditions.

Major Divisions

I. Importance of Cereal CropsII. Botanical Characteristics

of CerealsIII. Environment and Growth of

Cereal CropsIV. Corn ProductionV. Wheat Production

VI. Oat ProductionVII. Barley Production

VIII. Grain Sorghum ProductionIX. Rice ProductionX. Rye Production

XI. Marketing of GrainTotal

Class hours2

6

4

44222222

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Units of InstructionI. Importance of Cereal Crops

A. Utilization as a world food supply1. Geography of production2. Consumption

a. Nutritient compositionb. Geographic distribution of con-

sumption3. World trade in cereals

B. Use as animal food1. Grain crops2. Forage crops

a. Hayb. Pasturec. Silaged. Soilage

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C. Relationship of the various crop belts toanimal production

D. Nonfood uses1. Industrial2. Crop rotations

a. Cash cropsb. Feed crops

II. Botanical Characteristics of CerealsA. Roots

1. Types of rootsa. Primary rootsb. Coronal rootsc. Aerial roots

2. Length of root systems3. Water and nutrient absorptionStems1. Structure2. Functions3. Tillering

a. Effect of weatherb. Effect of mowing and grazing

4. Changes occurring during growth5. Lodging

a. Relationship to morphological char-acteristics

b. Relationship to lightc. Relationship to nutritiond. Relationship to moisturee. Relationship to stem pests

C. Leaves1. Structure2. Function

a. Photosynthesisb. Storagec. Transpiration

3. Effect of leaf reduction on growth4. Effect of foliar disease and pests on

growthD. Inflorescence

1. Structurea. Spikes and paniclesb. Spikeletsc. Florets

2. Unisexual flowers3. Pollination

a. Self pollinationb. Cross pollination

E. Seeds1. Structure of cereal seeds2. Germination3. Conditions affecting germination

B.

4. Dormancy5. Longevity

III. Environment and Growth of Cereal CropsA. Cycle of plant growth

1. Germination2. Seedling growth3. Active or developmental growth4. Reproduction5. Maturation6. Dormancy

B. Environmental factors influencing growth1. Soil

a. Fertilityb. pHc. Structure

2. Moisturea. Requirements of cerealsb. Distribution of rainfall

3. Temperaturea. Warm season cerealsb. Cool season cerealsc. Length of growing season

4. Humiditya. Relationship to transpirationb. Relationship to plant diseases

5. Light interval and intensity6. Wind

a. Cross pollinationb. Lodging

IV. Corn ProductionA. Geographical distribution of productionB. Uses of corn

1. Animal feed use2. Corn in the human diet3. Industrial uses

C. Characteristics of the different typescorn1. Sweet corn2. Pop corn3. Flint corn4. 'Dent corn5. Flour corn6. Pod corn

D. Varieties1. Open pollinated2. Hybrids

E. Adaptation1. Temperature2. Moisture3. Length of growing season

4. Light5. Soil

F. Cultural practices1. Seedbed preparation2. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Ratesc. Dates

3. Fertilizationa. Manures and fertilizers

b. Fertilizer practicesc. Effect on yieldsd. Deficiencies

4. Irrigationa. Applicationsb. Intervalsc. Cultivation for water penetration

5. Weed controlG. Harvesting

1. Methodsa. Picker-shellersb. Corn combines

2. Determining when to harvest3. Drying high moisture corn

H. Insect pests of corn1. Soil inhabiting pests2. Leaf, stalk, and ear insects

I. Corn diseasesJ. Costs of production

V. Wheat ProductionA. Geographical distribution of production

1. Spring wheat areas2. Winter wheat areas

B. Uses of wheat1. Human food

of 2. Livestock feed3. Industrial uses

C. Types of wheat1. Common2. Club3. Durum wheat4. Poulard5. Polish6. Emmer7. Einkorn8. Spelt

D. Adaptation1. Temperature

a. Winter hardinessb. Lack of winter hardiness

2. Vernalization3. Moisture4. Light5. Soil

E. Cultural practices1. Seedbed preparation2. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Ratesc. Dates

3. Fertilizationa. Fertilizer practicesb. Effect on yieldsc. Effect on milling qualityd. Relationship to lodging

4. Growing wheat under irrigation5. Fallowing

a. Methods of fallowingb. Effect on nutrient buildupC. Effect on water conservation

6. Weed controlF. Harvesting

1. Method2. Determining when to harvest

G. Insect pests of wheatH. Wheat diseasesI. Classes of wheat (characteristics, geogra-

phy of production and milling qualities)1. Hard red winter2. Hard red spring3. Soft red spring4. White5. Durum

J. VarietiesK. Costs of productionL. Milling of wheat

1. Selecting milling wheat2. Processes in milling3. Factors affecting milling quality

VI. Oat ProductionA. Geographical distribution of productionB. Uses of oats

1. Livestock feed2. Human food3. Industrial uses

C. Adaptation1. Temperature2. Moisture3. Soil4. Photoperiodic response

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D. Cultivated oat species1. Avena byzantina2. Avena sativa spp. diffusa

E. Noncultivated oat species1. Avena barbata2. Avena fatua

F. Cultural practices1. Seedbed preparation2. Seeding

a. Fall sown oatsb. Spring sown oats

3. Fertilization4. Growing oats under irrigation5. Weed control

G. HarvestingH. Insect pests of oatsI. Oat diseasesJ. VarietiesK. Costs of production

VII. Barley ProductionA. Geographical distribution of productionB. Uses of barley

1. Human food2. Animal feed3. Industrial uses

C. Adaptation1. Temperature2. Moisture3. Light4. Soil

D. Types of barley1. Hordeum vulgare2. Hordeum distichum3. Hordeum irregular

E. Cultural practices1. Seedbed preparation2. Seeding3. Fertilization4. Growing barley under irrigation

F. HarvestingG. Insect pests of barleyH. Barley diseasesI. VarietiesJ. Costs of productionK. Malting barley

1. Areas of production2. Conditions necessary for production3. Characteristics of malt barley4. Effect of environment on malting

quality

5. Malting process

VIII. Grain Sorghum ProductionA. Geographical distribution of productionB. Adaptation

1. Corn vs. sorghum growing2. Length of growing season3. Temperature4. Humidity5. Moisture6. Soil

C. Sorghum types1. Grain sorghums2. Forage sorghums3. Grass sorghums4. Broomcorn

D. Grain sorghums1. Kaffir2. Hegari3. Milo4. Feterita5. Durra6. Shallu7. Kaoliang

E. Cultural practices1. Crop rotations2. Seedbed preparation3. Seeding4. Fertilization5. Growing sorghums under irrigation6. Weed control

F. HarvestingG. Insect pests of sorghumsH. Sorghum diseasesI. Sorghum varietiesJ. Costs of production

IX. Rice ProductionA. Geographical distribution of productionB. Adaptation

1. Temperature2. Photoperiodic response3. Water

a. Submerged riceb. Nonsubmerged ricec. Amountd. Quality

4. Soil5. Length of growing season

C. Rice types1. Short grain types

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2. Medium grain types3. Long grain types

D. Cultural practices1. Using rice to reclaim alkali soils2. Crop rotations3. Seedbed preparation4. Seeding5. Supplying water6. Fertilization7. Weed control

E. HarvestingF. Insect pests of riceG. Rice diseasesH. VarietiesI Costs of productionJ. Milling of rice

X. Rye ProductionA. Geographical distributionB. Adaptations

1. Temperature2. Moisture3. Soil

C. Cultural practices1. Seedbed preparation2. Seeding3. Harvesting

D. VarietiesE. DiseasesF. Insect pestsG. Milling of rye

XI. Marketing of GrainA. Storage

1. Facilities2. Drying high moisture grains

a. Temperatureb. Timec. Effect on quality

3. Spoilage in storagea. Relationship of moisture to spoilageb. Relationship of temperature to spoil-

agec. Relationship of molds and fungi to

spoilaged. Relationship of fat content to spoil-

age4. Preventing spoilage

a. Maintaining proper moisture levelb. Aerationc. Stored grain pest controld. Use of inert gases

B. Marketing facilities1. Elevators

a. Cooperativesb. Independentc. Commercial lined. Mill

2. Brokers or commission houses3. Terminal markets

C. Marketing methods1. Cash2. Futures3. Hedging

Suggested Laboratory Projects (t9 hours)

1. Study the botanical characteristics andidentify the small grains. (3 hours)

2. Study the morphological characteristics ofthe wheat classes and identify the varie-ties. (3 hours)

3. Study the morphological characteristicsand identify the varieties of barley. (3

hours)4. Study the morphological characteristics

and identify the sorghum types. (3 hours)5. Visit a grain exchange. (3 hours)6. Test the milling and baking quality of

wheat. (3 hours)7. Determine the moisture content of grain.

(3 hours)8. Determine the holding ability of grain. (3

hours)9. Grade corn. (3 hours)

10. Grade wheat. (3 hours)11. Grade barley. (3 hours)12. Identify and determine insect infestations

of grain and grain products. (3 hours)13. Calibrate a grain drill and plant cereal

plots. (3 hours)14. Visit a grain elevator (3 hours)15. Treat cereal plots with herbicides. (3

hours)16. Identify corn types and judge ear corn. (3

hours)

Texts and References

ALDRICH and 'LEND, Modern Corn ProdictionDELORIT and AHLGREN, Crop ProductionHUGHES and HENSON, Crop Production Principles and

PracticesLEONARD and MARTIN, Cereal CropsPEARSON, Principles of Agronomy

33

),1

Figure 14.One of the most important operations in raising deciducius fruitis pruning. Here a student is learning the correct cutting procedures.

Deciduous Fruit ProductionHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A study of the principles and practices in-volved in the production of deciduous fruits.Emphasis is given to the selection of theorchard, cultural operations, fruit handling andmarketing. Laboratory periods provide time forpractice and observation of various cultural andmanagement operations.

A one-semester course does not allow muchtime to consider all species, varieties, and theirproduction problems. The instructor must eval-uate his local conditions and determine whichmaterial is pertinent. The course may beoffered in either the fall or spring semester.Local conditions will be the determining factor.The various topics will be discussed in a differ-ent order depending upon the semester inwhich the course is offered. Where productionis specialized, more time may be provided byeliminating the more general information.

Laboratory periods provide time for practiceand observation of various cultural and man-agement operations.

Where it is not possible to demonstrate prac-

tices in the school orchard, more time will haveto be spent in the laboratory using audio andvisual aids. Fruitwood, fruit, and other plantmaterials may be saved and stored for futureuse.

Major Divisionsrs

I. The Fruit IndustryClass hours

2II. Fruit Handling and Marketing 4

III. Selection of Production Unit 4IV. Fruiting Habits 4V. Soil Management Practices 6

VI. Tree Care 8VII. Problems of the Industry 4

Total 32

Units of InstructionI. The Fruit Industry

A. Species consideredB. Areas of production

1. National2. Regional3. Local

C. Local area1. Importance2. Adaptation

a. Advantagesb. Disadvantages

D. Economics1. Production costs2. Labor

a. Requirementsb. Supply

E. Trends and changes1. National2. Regional3. Local

II. Fruit Handling and MarketingA. Uses

1. Fresh2. Canned8. Dried4. Frozen5. By-products

B. Market outlets1. Cash buyers2. Cooperatives3. Consignment4. Retail

3ar

C. Factors affecting quality1. Varieties2. Climate3. Size4. Maturity5. Condition

a. Diseasesb. Insect damagec. Physiological defects

D. Orchard practices1. Picking2. Hauling3. Labor Management

E. Packing house1. Processing2. Storage

a. Temperatureb. Atmosphere

3. CostsF. Sales

1. Methods2. Distribution

III. Selection of Production UnitA. Site

1. Climate2. Topography3. Soil

a. Typeb. Fertilityc. Erosiond. Management practices required

4. Water supplya. Amountb. Qualityc. Availabilityd. Cost

B. Establishing the orchard1. Planting systems2. Selection of trees

a. Varietyb. Rootstockc. Cost

8. Economicsa. Close plantingb. Intercropping

4. Training young trees5. Cost

C. Established orchard1. System of planting2. Soil conditions

a. Erosionb. Fertilityc. Weedsd. Compactione. Irrigation system

3. Condition of treesa. Varietyb. Agec. Uniformityd. Productivitye. Healthf. Estimated productive life

4. Management practicesa. Currentb. Recommended

5. Price

IV. Fruiting HabitsA. Species concernedB. Bearing habits

1. Types of wood2. Location of buds3. Fruit and formation

a. Seasonb. Tree condition

C. Pollination1. Season of bloom2. Use of bees3. Cross pollination

D. Fruit morphologyE. Relationship to management practices

1. Pruning2. Fertilizing3. Thinning4. Spraying5. Frost protection

V. Soil Management PracticesA. Cultivation

1. Value2. Methods

B. Fertilization1. Nutrient requirement2. Materials used3. Methods of application4. Green manure crops5. Cost

C. Irrigation1. Requirements2. Soil characteristics3. Methods of application4. Frost protection

35

5. Moisture testing6. Cost

D. Soil protection1. Cover cropping2. Irrigation control3. Weed control

VI. Tree CareA. Pruning

1. Responses2. Systems3. Labor requirement4. Cost

B. Insects and Diseases1. Diseases

a. Economic importanceb. Spray programs

2. Insectsa. Economic importanceb. Spray programsc. Integrated control (mites, pear

psylla)d. Sterilized males

3. Orchard sanitation4. Chemical residues on crops

C. Thinning1. Value2. Season3. Methods

a. Handb. Relation to pruningc. Chemical

D. Propagation1. Replacement trees2. Top-working

a. Varietiesb. Methodsc. Subsequent care

E. Frost protection1. Losses2. Methods3. Cost

VII. Problems of the IndustryA. ConsumerB. Competition

1. Local2. Industry3. Labor

C. Sales methodsD. Mechanization

1. Cultural operations2. Effect on labor

E. Cost of production

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)1. Make a study of species and varieties and

an evaluation of quality as related to cul-tural operations. (3 hours)

2. Judge the fruit of various species. (3hours)

3. Take a field trip to observe harvesting andfruit handling. (3 hours)

4. Take a field trip to a local packing house.(3 hours)

5. Lay out an orchard and plant trees. (3hours)

6. Study fruit wood, bud formation, and fruitmorphology. (3 hours)

7. Apply fertilizers and lay out test plots. (3hours)

8. Take a field trip to observe effects of cul-tivation, cover cropping, and irrigation onerosion. (3 hours)

9. Study soil management, moisture testing,soil compaction, and water penetration. (3hours)

10. Study the mechanics of pruning. (3 hours)11. Practice pruning. (3 hours)12. Study mixing and application of materials

used in pest control. (3 hours)13. Practice top-working old trees. (3 hours)14. Test thermometers and practice operating

frost control equipment. (3 hours)15. Analyze cost of production studies. (3

hours)16. Practice orchard judging. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesCHANDLER, Deciduous OrchardsEDMOND and others, Fundamentals of HorticultureJANICK, Horticultural ScienceSCHEER and JUERGENSON) Approved Practices In Fruit

ProductionSCHNEIDER and SCARBOROUGH) Fruit Growing

Field CropsHours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course DescriptionA study of the characteristics of field crops

36

and their response to environmental conditionswith emphasis on production and marketingproblems. Laboratory periods include field tripsto commercial farms and processing plants inaddition to work in identification, grading, andevaluation of crop products.

This course is designed to impart a workingknowledge of the fundamentals of the growthof crop plants. Emphasis will be placed uponthe relationship of environment to the yieldand quality of field crops of major importance.The selection of the proper crops to grow andthe manipulation of environment to enhancecrop yields will be studied.

Since this is a basic course which will de-velop a background of information the studentwill utilize in future classes, the application ofprinciples will be stressed. Class discussionswill emphasize the practical application of in-formation in recognizing and dealing with cropproduction problems.

Laboratory problems will provide the studentwith an opportunity to study the morphologicalcharacteristics and adaptation of the variousfield crops. Also, laboratory exercises willstress the importance of producing a crop ofhigh market value. Students will develop aworking knowledge of market quality and itsrelationship to environmental and culturalpractices.

Note.Examples of crops to be studied shouldbe selected to suit local or regional interests.

I.Ir.

IV.

V.VI.

VII.VIII.

Major DivisionsClass hours

Classification of Crop Plants _ 2Plant Structure and Function_ . 2Response of Crops to Environment 4Crop Rotation Practices ..... 2Seeds and Seeding . _ 2Cultural Practices a _ ......_......_ 2Harvesting Field Crops __ 2Production of Specific Field Crops 16

Total_______ .01=11......13.04.111=C10 32

Units of InstructionL Classification of Crop Plants

A. Botanical classification1. Binomial system.2. Major field crop families

a. Gramineae

b. Leguminosaec. Chenopodiaceaed. Malvaceaee. Linaceaef. Solanaceaeg. Composita

B. Agronomic classification1. Cereal crops2. Large seeded legumes3. Forage crops4. Seed crops5. Fiber crops6. Sugar crops7. Oil crops8. Stimulant and medicinal crops

C. Special use classification1. Emergency crops2. Companion crops3. Green manure crops4. Cover crops5. Soiling crops6. Silage crops

D. Life span classification1. Annuals2. Biennials3. Perennials

E. Thermo classification1. Warm season crops2. Cool season crops

II. Plant Structure and FunctionA. Roots

1. Kind of roots2. Structure of roots3. Distribution of roots4. Absorption of water and nutrients5. Conduction of water and nutrients6. Storage of food

B. Stems1. Kinds of stems2. Structure of stems3. Modified stems4. Conduction of water and nutrients5. Storage of food

C. Leaves1. Kinds of leaves2. Structure of leaf3. Photosynthesis4. Transpiration

D. Flowers1. Kinds of flowers

37

2. Structure of the typical flower3. Sexual reproduction

E. Seeds1. Kinds of seeds (Monocotyledons-

Dicotyledons)2. Structure of the seed3. Physiological processes of seeds4. Germination5. Dormancy

III. Response of Crops to EnvironmentA. Response to climatic conditions

1. Temperature2. Moisture3. Day length and light intensity4. Length of growing season5. Air movements

B. Response of crops to soil conditions1. Structure2. Fertility3. Soil pH

C. Response of crops to production hazards1. Insect pests2. Disease3. Competitive plant growth

D. Crop adaptationE. Effect of fallowing on plant growth

IV. Crop Rotation PracticesA. Factors affecting crop rotation

1. Maintaining productive soils2. Offsetting production hazards3. Utilizing land, labor, and capital4. Spreading risk and balancing income

B. Cropping systems and soil conservation1. Soil building crops2. Soil protecting crops3. Soil exposing crops

C. Crop sequences1. Grass-legume crops2. Green manure crops3. Handling crop residues4. Increasing yields of cash crops5. Length of crop rotations

D. Green manure crops1. Importance of organic matter2. Crops used3. Decomposition of crop residue4. Effect on subsequent crops

V. Seeds and SeedingA. Enhancing germination through seedbed

preparation

..,,,,:«7

1. Getting rid of crop residues2. Mellowing and firming3. Irrigation

B. Methods of planting1. Broadcast planting2. Planting with grain drill and grassland

seeders3. Planting with row crop planters4. Banding

C. Depth of planting1. Kind of crop2. Soil moisture3. Soil type

D. Seeding rates1. Kind of crop2. Crop use3. Crop quality4. Seed quality5. Condition of seedbed6. Soil productivity7. Soil moisture8. Production hazards

E. Seeding dates1. Soil conditions2. Climatic conditions3. Production hazards4. Marketing considerations

F. Characteristics of good seed1. Purity2. Germination3. Free from damage4. Free from detrimental characteristics5. Adaptablility

VI. Cultural PracticesA. Aiding plants in getting established

1. Preemergence cultivation2. Preemergence application of herbicides

and insecticidesB. Stimulating crop growth

1. Conservation of moisture2. Tillage for root growth3. Drainage of excess moisture4. Reducing plant populations to an

optimum level5. Irrigation6. Fertilization7. Weed control8. Insect control

VII. Harvesting Field CropsA. Timing the harvest

38

1. Yield2. Quality

B. Harvesting methods1. Seed crops2. Forage crops3. Fiber crops4. Root and tuber crops

C. Post harvest care of crops1. Curing2. Preventing contamination3. Protecting from damage4. Preventing shrinkage losses5. 'Transportation

VIII. Production of Specific Field CropsA. Oil crops (soybeans, safflower, flax,

castorbeans, sunflower)1. Production areas2. Adaptation3. Varieties4. Cultural practices5. Harvesting6. Cost of production7. Marketing

B. Fiber crops (cotton)1. Production areas2. Adaptation3. Varieties4. Cultural practices5. Harvesting6. Costs of production7. Marketing

C. Sugar crops (sugar beets-sugar cane)1. Production areas2. Adaptation3. Varieties4. Cultural practices5. Harvesting6. Costs of production7. Marketing

D. Field beans1. Production areas2. Adaptation3. Varieties4. Cultural practices5. Harvesting6. Cost of production7. Marketing

E. Potatoes1. Production areas2. Adaptation

3. Varieties4. Cultural practices5. Harvesting6. Costs of production7. Marketing

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)NoteVisits should be made to points of in-

terest which reflect area or regional practice,and which provide experiences equivalent tothe following suggested exercises :1. Study and identify the morphological char-

acteristics of the major field crops. (6hours)

2. Practice classing, ginning, and determiningthe percent lint of cotton. (3 hours)

3. Visit a cotton gin. (3 hours)4. Extract vegetable oils and analyze their

market quality. (3 hours)5. Identify types and varieties of oil bearing

seeds and determine their grade. (3 hours)6. Visit a vegetable oil mill. (3 hours)7. Identify and grade field beans. (3 hours)8. Visit a farm growing dry beans and a bean

processing house. (3 hours)9. Visit a sugar mill. (3 hours)

10. Visit a farm growing potatoes and a potatoprocessing shed. (3 hours)

11. Identify common green manure crops. (3hours)

12. Identify the pests of stored field crops. (3hours)

13. Identify the common diseases of field crops.(3 hours)

14. Determine the effect of fertilizers on testplots of field crops. (6 hours)

Texts and ReferencesALLARD and others, Manual of California Field CropsDELORIT and AHLOREN, Crop ProductionMARTIN and LEONARD, Principles of Field Crop

ProductionPEARSON, Principles of Agronomy

Forage CropsHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in the adaptation, utilization, andculture of those crops grown for pasture, hay,

39

Filage and soilage. During the laboratory pe-riods, students will learn to identify the vari-ous species of forage and to evaluate thosecharacteristics associated with their feedingvalue.

The student will be assigned periodic relatedreadings which correspond to the current unitof instruction. These assignments along withthe laboratory exercises will be given the stu-dent in the form of a syllabus upon his en-trance into the class.

The student will make field visits to pasturesto determine their carrying capacity and quali-ty and to learn how cultural practices affectthese factors.

A plant collection of the important foragegrown in the local area or region is requiredof all students.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Distribution and Importanceof Forages

II. Considerations in Planninga Forage Program 8

III. Irrigating Forage Crops . 4IV. Alfalfa Production 3V. Permanent Pastures 4

VI. The Use of Sorghums for Forage._ 2VII. Legumes for Rotation, Temporary,

and Permanent Pastures 4VIII. Grasses for Rotation, Temporary,

and Permanent Pastures___ 4IX. Hay and Haymaking 4X. Silage -- .. 2

Total 82

Units of Instruction

I. Distribution and Importance of ForagesA. Types of forage

1. Native pastures2. Tame pastures3. Hay crops4. Silage crops5. Soilage crops6. Succulage

E. Distribution1. Hay belt2. Grain belt3. Uncultivated pasture and grazing

lands

C. Importance1. Amount in animal diets2. Utilization of marginal land3. Crop rotation4. Soil conservation

a. Soil protectionb. Soil drainagec. Organic matterd. Soil microorganisms

II. Considerations in Planning a ForageProgramA. Climatic factors

1. Temperature2. Rainfall and moisture3. Humidity

a. Evapotranspirationb. Disease

4. Light5. Length of growing season

B. Animal factors1. Forage requirements of animals

a. Beef cattleb. Dairy cattlec. Sheepd. Horsese. Hogsf. Chickens and turkeys

2. Purpose for which livestock is beingf eda. Maintenanceb. Breeding stockc. Fat stockd. Lactating animals

3. Feed conversion and growth rates4. Factors affecting intake5. Grazing habits

C. Plant factors1. Palatability2. Response to grazing3. Response to climatic environment4. Response to soil environment5. Yielding ability6. Digestibility7. Nutritional value8. Detrimental aspects

a. Toxic effectsb. Bloat problemsc. Aggressiveness

9. Growth habitsa. Growing season

40

b. Annuals, biennials, perennialsc. Longevity of production during the

growing season10. Adaptability to varying forage uses \\11. Suitability to various curing and stor-

age methodsD. Environmental factors

1. Thermatic conditions2. Moisture conditions3. Soil environment4. Topography5. Length of growing season -

6. Duration and intensity of light periodsE. Suitability to the farming program

1. Adaptability to varying farm uses2. Cash crop v. feed crop3. Labor requirements4. Equipment requirements5. Utilization of land6. Effect on soil conservation7. Costs of production in relation to re-

turns8. Special cultural problems,

III. Irrigating Forage CropsA. Methods of applying water

1. Wild/floodinga. Description of methodb. Advantagesc. Limitationsd. Land preparation

2. Contour checka. Description of method

b. Advantagesc. Limitationsd. Land preparation

3. Border checka. Description of methodb. Advantages .c. Limitationsd. Land preparation

4. Sprinklersa. Descriptionb. Advantagesc. Limitationsd. Land preparation

B. Selecting the best method1. Soil type2. Topography3. Water costs4. Labor costs

5. Alkalinity of water and soil6. Water supply

a. Method of Supplyingb. Amount availablec. Water quality

7. Crop to be grown8. Maintenance and depreciation of the

systemC. Constructing the system

1. Sprinkler installationsa. Number, type, and size of sprinklersb. Spacing the sprinklersc. Pump and supply lines

2. Supply lines and ditches for floodingmethods of irrigationa. Temporary linesb. Permanent linesc. Dirt ditchesd. Concrete ditchese. Plastic lined ditchesf. Turn out structures

3. Determining the size of checks forflood irrigationa. Length of runb. Width of runc. Soil typesd. Percent slope ,

e. Volume of waterf. Crop to be grown

4. Pumpsa. Typesb. Sizec. Power requirements

5. Laying out the field for flooding meth-odsa. Equipmentb. Levelingc. Establishing bordersd. Providing for drainage of excess

waterD. Applying water

1. Determining the amounta. Field capacity of the soilb. Time of the yearc. Stage of growthd. Reaction of the crop

2. Calculating the amount of water need-eda. Acre inchesb. Miners inchesc. Gallons per minute

41

3. Reuse of tail water4. Controlling the flow of water5. Costs of irrigating

E. Special problems in applying water1. Salt content of water2. Alkalinity problems of the soil3. Burrowing rodents4. Disease problems5. High and low spots6. Drainage

a. Hardpans and claypansb. Tiling

7. Soil temperature8. Leaching9. Applying fertilizers in water

IV. Alfalfa ProductionA. Distribution and adaptation

1. Geographic distribution2. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soilc. Water

B. Seeds and Seeding1. Time of seeding2. Method of seeding3. Depth of seeding4. Rate of seeding5. Use of a nurse crop

C. Fertilizer requirements1. Phosphorous2. Sulphur3. Potassium4. Nitrogen5. Use of manures

D. Soil conditions and related problems1. Alkali2. Plowsoles3. Hardpans and Claypans4. Unproductive areas5. Longevity of stands6. Interseeding companion crops7. Plowing under old stands

E. Types and varieties1. Alfalfa groups

a. Common groupb. Variegated groupc. Turkistan groupd. Nonhardy groupe. Hybrid alfalfaf. Rhizornatous alfalfa

2. Varietiesa. Growth habitsb. Disease, insect, and nematode resis-

tancec. Feed qualityd. Yields

F. Harvesting procedures1. Pasturing2. Haying3. Ensiling4. Soiling

G. Alfalfa quality1. Stage of maturity

a. Determining 10 percent bloomb. Chemical composition at various

stages2. Quality in relationship to cutting3. Quality in relationship to curing meth-

ods4. Effect of season on quality5..Effect of variety on quality6: Comparison of harvesting methods7. Comparison of conditioned and non-

conditioned hayH. Production problems

1. Insect pests2. Diseases3. Weeds

I. Inoculation of alfalfa and other legumes1. Symbiosis

a. Nitrogen fixing bacteriab. Mutual cooperation between plant

and bacteria2. Inoculation groups

a. Alfalfa groupb. Clover groupc. -Pea and vetch groupd. Bean groupe. Soybean groupf. Cowpea groupg. Lupine grouph. Specific plant groups

3. Commercial inoculationa. Jelly or agar basesb. Liquidsc. Humus or peatd. Noculized seed

4. Reasons for inoculatinga. Prevention of nitrogen starvationb. Lessens nitrogen demandc. Increase crop yield

42

d. Improves crop qualitye. Insures rich green manures

5. Effect of pH on nitrogen fixation

V. Permanent PasturesA. Types of permanent pastures

1. Native pastures2. Tame pastures3. Irrigated permanent pastures4. Dry farmed permanent pastures5. Annual reseeding pastures6. Perennial pastures

B. Adaptation of permanent pastures1. Climatic adaptations

a. Rainfallb. Soilc. Temperature

2: Soil adaptationsa. Soil typeb. Soil profilec. Soil fertilityd. Soil pH

C. Cultural practices.1. Seedbed preparation2. Seeding procedures

a. Rates and datesb. Methods and depth

3. Irrigationa. Timing applicationsb. Frequency of applicationsc. Amount of waterd. Seasonal requirementse. Irrigation methodsf. Relationship to other management

practices4. Weed control5. Preventing clumping

a. Harrowingb. Clippingc. Grazing

6. Fertilizationa. Effect on yieldsb. Effect on nutritional qualityc. Effect on animal intaked. Determining plant needse. Timing' applicationsf. maimingg. Using animal manures

7. Mowinga. Coarse growing grassesb. Winter feed

D. Grazing practices1. Estimating carrying capacity2. Grazing methods3. Frequency of grazing4. Stage of growth

a. New pasturesb. Established pastures

5. Quality in relation to grazing6. Trampling7. Selective grazing8. Grazing habits of animals9. Intensity of grazing

10. Duration of grazing period11. Mixed grazing12, Controlling bloat13. Poisoning problems

a. Ergot poisoningb. Molybdenum poisoning

14. Supplemental feeds15. ,Annual animal unit yield

E. Special problems1. Alkali spots2. Animal parasites and diseases3. Leaching4. Mosquito control

F. Permanent pasture mixes1. Advantages

a. Lengthens the feeding periodb. Balanced rationc. Bloat controld. Competitive weed control

2. Planning the mixturea. Grazing habits of animalb. Food preferences of animalc. Nutritional value of plantd. Adaptation to climate conditionse. Growth habits of plantsf. Soil conditions

G. Reseeding and renovation1. Methods of renovating2. Seeding in established stands3. Plowing under old stands

H. Costs1. Cost of preparing land

a. Surveyingb. Land gradingc. Pump and welld. Distribution system

2. Establishing the standa. Labor

43

b. Equipmentc. Materials

VI. The Use of Sorghums for ForageA. Distribution and adaptation

1. Geographic distribution of production2. Adaptation

a. Temperatureb. Moisturec. Soild. Length of growing season

B. Types and varieties1. Forage types

a. Utilizationb. Varieties

2. Hybrid sorghums for pasture, hay,and silage

C. Cultural practices1. Seedbed preparation2. Seeding

a. Dates and ratesb. Drilling with grain drillsc. Planting in rowsd. Broadcastinge. Effect on forage quality

3. Weed control4. Fertilizing5. Irrigation

a. Timing and frequencyb. Amount

D. Grazing1. Stage of maturity2. Frequency3. Quality of forage4. Animal unit yield

E. Haymaking1. Quality of sudan hay2. Yields3. Procedures

a. Stage of maturityb. Mowingc. Windrowingd. Baling

4. CostsF. Sorgos for silage

1. Quality2. Yields3. Procedures

G. Prussic acid poisoning1. Causes2. Preventing poisoning problems

a. Selection of proper variety. b. Timing planting dates

c. Deferred grazingd. Early fall removal of livestock

VII. Legumes for Rotation, Temporary, andPermanent PasturesA. The true clovers

1. Botanical characteristics2. The important pasture clovers3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties5. Seeding practices

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates of seeding

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseasesb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

7. Pasturing8. Use for hay, silage and soilage9. Mixtures

10. Seed productionB. The sweetclovers

1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of important sweetclovers3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties5. Seeding practices

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseasesb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

7. Pasturing8. Sweetclover poisoning9. Use for hay and silage

10. Mixtures11. Seed production

C. Birdsfoot trefoil1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of birdsfoot trefoil3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties

44

5. Seeding practicesa. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

7. Pasturing8. Use for hay and silage9. Mixtures

10. Seed productionD. Lespedeza

1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of lespedeza3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties5. Seeding practices

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

7. Pasturing8. Use for hay and silage9. Seed production

E. Soybeans1. Botanical characteristics2. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

3. Varieties4. Seeding practices

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

5. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

6. Pasturing7. Use for hay and silage8. Mixtures9. Seed production

F. Vetches1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of vetch3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Seeding practicesa. Methodsb. Dates and rates

5. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Rotations

6. Use for hay and soilage7. Mixtures8. Seed production

VIII. Grasses for Rotation, Temporary, andPermanent PasturesA. Bluegrass

1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of bluegrass used for forage3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties5. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

7. Utilization as a forage crop8. Mixtures9. Seed production

B. Bromegrass1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of bromegrass used for forage3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties5. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

7. Utilization as a forage crop8. Mixtures9. Seed production

C. Fescues1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of fescue used for forage3. Adaptation

45

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties5. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertiliza don

7. Utilization as a forage crop8. Mixtures9. Seed production

D. Ryegrasses1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of ryegrass used for 2orage3. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

4. Varieties5. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigation

7. Utilization as a forage crop8. Mixtures9. Seed production

E. Orchard grasses1. Botanical characteristics2. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

3. Varieties4 Seeding

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

5. Cultural practicesa. Contrcl rft-,-.3ts and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

6. Utilization as a forage crop7. Mixtures8. Seed production

F. Timothy1. Botanical characteristics2. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

3. Varieties

4. Seedinga. Methodsb. Dotes and rates

5. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

6. Utilization as a forage crop7. Mixtures8. Seed production

G. Bermuda1. Botanical characteristics2. Adaptation

a. Climateb. Soil

3. Varieties4. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

5. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

6. Utilization as a forage crop7. Mixtures8. Seed production

H. Cereals1. Botanical characteristics2. Species of cereals used for forage

a. Wheatb. Ryec. Bailey

3. Adaptationa. Climateb. Soil *

4. Varieties5. Seeding

a. Methodsb. Dates and rates

6. Cultural practicesa. Control of pests and diseaseb. Irrigationc. Fertilization

7. Utilization as a forage crop8. Mixtures

IX. Hay and HaymakingA. Haying equipment

1. Mowers2. Conditioners3. Rakes

46

4. Balers5. Loaders

B. Characteristics of good hay1. Leafiness2. Leaf retention3. Fineness of stem4. Color5. Aroma6. Amount of foreign material7. Palatability8. Pliable texture

C. Grading hay1. Classes of hay2. Grades of hay3. Special grades of hay

D. Factors affecting hay quality1. Soil

a. Soil nutrientsb. Water holding capacityc. Effect of fertilization on nutrient

composition2. Sat e of growth

a. Relationship to yieldsb. Relationship to quality

3. Growing conditionsa. Relationship to yieldsb. Relationship to egialityc. Weather in relation to curing

4. Species of forage grown5. Diseases and insects6. Contaminants

a. Undesirable plantsb. Other foreign materials

7. Storing and curingE. Field cured hay

1. Mowing2. Wilting and conditioning3. Windrowing4. Baling5. Hauling and stacking6. Costs

F. Mow cured hays1. Types of mow cured hays

a. Long hayb. Chopped hayce Baled hay

2. Advantages of mow curinga. Mechanical handlingb. Reduction of nutrient lossc. Maximum utilization of storage

capacity

3. tarn mow installationa. Basic requirementsb. Building the main ductc. Fan installationd. Auxiliary heate. Cost of installation

4. Mow curing haya, Moisture content of forageb. Filling the mowc. Air circulationd. Use of auxiliary heat

5. Costs of mow curingG. Cubes, wafers, and pellets

1. Advantages of waferinga. Handling and storageb. Retention of nutrients

2. Feeding values of wafers3. Considerations in wafering

a. Moisture content of raw materialb. Windrow preparationc. Mechanics of waferingd. Storage of the producte. Handling equipmentf. Costs of wafering

X. SilageA. Advantages of silage

1. Conservation of nutrients2. Emergency feed3. Utilization of crop by-products

B. Silage curing1. Respiration2. Enzyme activity3. Mold, yeast, and bacterial activity4. Anaerobic bacterial action5. Importance of low pH

C. Factors affecting silage making1. Moisture content

a. Forage too moistb. Forage too dry

2. Length of chop.3. Exposure to air4. Additives

a. Carbohydratesb. Inorganic acidsc. Urea

d. Crops used for silage and problems re-lated to them (stage of maturity, qualityof silage, and special problems)1. Corn2. Sorghums

47

3. Grass silage4. Sunflower5. Potatoes6. Sugarbeet pulp and tops7. Pea and bean vines

E. Silos1. Type

a. Uprightb. Trenchc. Stackd. Bunkere., Pit

2. Constructiona. Preventing seepageb. Protecting from air

3. Size and capacity of silosF. American Dairy Science Association stan-

dards for judging silage1. Very good2. Good3. Fair4. Poor

G. Losses occurring during ensiling1. Dry matter losses2. Protein losses3. Carbohydrate losses4. Carotene losses5. Spoilage losses

H. Making silage1. Harvesting at proper maturity2. Wilting3. Chopping4. Filling the silo

a. Distribution of green materialb. Packingc. Adding preservatived. Settling

5. Capping and sealingI. Silage quality

1. Quality of raw material2. Type of forage used3. Effect of storage facilities

a. Exclusion of airb. Seepage

J. Methods of making silage1. Direct cut silage

a. Use of preservatives to lower pHb. Use of preservatives to lower mois-

ture2. Wilted silage3. Haylage

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

4. Plant a variety of forage plots (3 hours)2. Compare the botanical characteristics of

grasses and legumes. (3 hours)3. Study grass morphology. (3 hours)4. Identify the grasses. (3 hours)5. Identify the legume genera. (3 hours)6. Identify the true clovers. (3 hours)7. Identify the medicago species and sweet-

clovers. (3 hours)8. Identify the vetches, field peas, soybeans,

and lespedeza. (3 hours)9. Grade hay. (3 hours)

10. Study pasture management practices. (9

hours)11. Judge silage quality. (3 hours)12. Study haymaking procedures. (3 hours)13. Identify poisonous plants. (3 hours)14. Test the quality of alfalfa hay. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesDELORIT and AHLGREN, Crop ProductionHUGHES and others, ForagesLEONARD and REEVES, General Field Crops Laboratory

Manual'MARTIN and LEONARD, Principles of Field Crop' Production

Fruit ProcessingHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Coursq DescriptionAn elementary course in the techniques of

fruit processing and how these relate to the se-lection of the raw material used and the qualityof product obtained. Laboratory periods will bedevoted to testing and evaluating fresh and pro-cessed fruits.

The importance of varietal selection, environ-ment, cultural practices, harvesting, transport-ing and storing fruit for processing will beemphasized. Particular attention will be givento those handling, processing and storing tech-niques that may be done at the farm level.Sanitation from field harvest through process-ing will be stressed.

Laboratory periods will introduce students tothe problems related to the deterioration of thequality of fresh and processed fruits. Students

48

.1.6011.,

A

1111.111irs-s... *Si

0-11--,...

Figure 15. Fruit crop processing Involves many factors. These grapes aredried for 2 weeks or longer in the sun to make raisins. The farmers pick thegrapes In accordance with weather bureau raisin drying forecasts.

will be able to gain actual experience in grading,identifying filth and contamination, and mea-suring the quality of both fresh and processedfruit. Also students utilize equipment andtechniques commonly used by the processor inquality control work.

in{

Figure !S.Scientific testing of moisture In agricultural products Is Importantfor many crops. Here a student learns one method or principle in the laboratory.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Importance and Utilizationof Processed Fruit 2

II. Processing Procedures 6

III. Micro-organisms in Relationto Fruit Processing 4

IV. Sanitation in Processing 4V. Storage of Fresh Fruit 2

VI. Fresh Fruit Quality 3

VII. Fruit Processing Equipment 2

VIII. Container and Packaging ........ 2

IX. Grading and QualityMeasurement 5

X. Legal Aspects of Fruit Processing 2

Total 32

Units of Instruction

I. Importance and Utilization of ProcessedFruitA. Role of on-the-farm processing

1. Importancea. Labor utilizationb. Flexibility of operationc. Increased returns

2. TrendsB. Geographic distribution

1. Commercial processing plants2. Farm processing plants

C. Production factors affecting processedfruit

1. Labor2. Mechanization3. Costs of production4. Urbanization

D. Utilization of processed fruit1. Fresh

-- 2. Canned3. Dehydrated4. Frozen5. Juice6. Pickled7. Fermented8. Concentrated

. Factors determining the use to be made offruit1. Production area

a. Transportationb. Storage facilitiesc. Climatic c6nditionsd. Market outlets

49

2. Yield3. Quality4. Price5. Consumer preferences

II. Processing Proceduresa. Principles of fruit preservation

1. Asepsis2. Low temperatures3. Pasteurization4. Exclusion of air5. Sterilization6. Preservation by antiseptics and other

additives7. Drying8. Fermentation9. Radiation

B. Preparing the raw material for processing1. Washing

a, Soakingb. Agitationc. Spraying

2. Scalding and blanchinga. Temperatureb. Time

3. Peeling, cutting, and pittinga. Hand peelingb. Use of heat in peelingc. Mechanical peelingd. Lye solutions used for peelinge. Cutting and pitting

4. Sorting fruitsa. Weight separationsb. Size separationsc. Color separationsd. Separating by specific gravity

C. Processing methods1. Canning

a. Sirups used in canningb. Brine solutions used in canningc. Filling the cansd. Sirupinge. Exhaustingf. Sealingg. Sterilizingh. Cooling

2. Bottling and canning fruit juicesa. Extraction of juiceb. Pasteurizationc. Other methods of preservation

4

d. Filtratione. Clarification

3. By-products of the canning industryd. Freezing fruits and fruit products

1. Principles involved in freezing2. Controlling microbiological spoilage3. Controlling enzyme activity

a. Maturityb. Exclusion of oxygenc. Addition of sugar or sirupd. Addition of acidse. Use of antioxidants or reducing

agents4. Nonenzymatic chemical changes5. Physical changes during freezing

and thawinga. Volumeb. Weightc. Texture

6. Heat transfer determinantsa. Type of fruitb. Sugar content of fruit and sirupc. Container

7. Storage conditions8. Frozen fruit products

E. Sun-drying and dehydration1. Farm use of this method2. Washing trays and boxes3. Drying yard requirements

a. Sizeb. Sanitation requirementsc. Physical arrangement

4. Cutting and dipping shed5. Harvesting and preparing the fruit6. Sulfuring7. Spreading and drying

a. Spreadingb. Stackingc. Turningd. Removal from trays

8. Treating rain damaged fruit9; Sorting and boxing

10. YieldsF. Dehydration

1. Types of dehydratersa. Natural draftb. Distillationc. Vacuumd. Forced drafte. Freeze drying

50

2. Condition of dehydration chambera. Air circulationb. Relative humidity

3. Proceduresa. Sortingb. Trimmingc. Dippingd. Sulfuringe. Drying temperaturef. Drying timeg. Turning the fruith. Yield

G. Use of additives1. Definition2. Labeling3. Amounts4. Use

a. Antioxidantsb. Antibrowningc. Firmingd. Waxing

5. Other chemical additivesa. Artificial flavoringb. Artificial coloringc. Flavor intensifiersd. Bufferse. Neutralizing agentsf. Stabilizersg. Emulsifiers

H. Farm packing shed1. Farm packaged fruits2. Types of operations3. Facilities

a. Receivingb. Sanitizing and waxingc. Gradingd. Packinge. Storingf. Auxiliary

IL Micro-organisms in Relation to FruitProcessingA. Introduction to microbesB. Kinds of microbiological life

1. Protozoa2. Bacteria3. Molds4. Yeasts5. Rickettsia6. Virus

C. Importance

1. Beneficial aspectsa. Food and beverage uses

(1) Alcohol fermentation(2) Acid fermentation

b. Industrial usesc. Medical and scientific uses

2. Detrimental aspectsa. Diseases of fruitsb. Food spoilage

D. Micro-organisms important to fruitprocessing1. Bacteria

a. Morphologyb. Growth and developmentc. Reproductiond. Gross morphologye. Production of chemical substancesf. Beneficial aspects of bacteriag. Detrimental aspects of bacteria

2. Yeastsa. Morphologyb. Growth and developmentc. Reproductiond. Gross morphologye. Production of chemical substancesf. Beneficial aspectsg. Detrimental aspects

3. Moldsa. Morphologyb. Growth and developmentc. Reproductiond. Gross morphologye. Production of chemical substances1. Beneficial aspectsg. Detrimental aspects

E. Effect of environment on micro-organisms1. Physical

a. Temperatureb. Moisturec. Osmotic changesd. Lighte. Radiation

2. Chemicala. pHb. Germicides

F. Prevention and control1. Methoas

a. Destroyb. Removec. Inhibit

51

2. Determining contaminationa. Kindb. Number

3. Cleanlinessa. Smooth resistant surfacesb. Removal of mediac. Establishing an undersirable

environment4. Inhibiting toolsa. Refrigerationb. Drynesse. Exclusion of aird. Chemicals

5. Tools for destructiona. Dry heatb. Steam and hot waterc. Chemicalsd. Ionizing radiationse. Ozone

G. Encouraging favorable micro-organisms1. Proper media2. Optimum temperature3. Proper pH4. Proper chemical environment5. Inhibit enemies

IV. Sanitation in ProcessingA. Necessity

1. Legal requirements2. Moral obligation3. Reduction of losses

B. Plant location1. Water supply2. Solid waste disposal3. Liquid waste disposal4. Area free of dust

C. Plant layout1. Easy cleaning2. Streamlined flow of product3. Sloped floors4. Adequate drains5. Sufficient space around machines6. Adequate lighting7. Proper screening )f building

D. Rodent control1. Troublesome species

a. Ratsb. Mice

2. Evidence of infestation3. Types of damage4. Prevention of infestation

a. Elimination of harboragesb. Elimination of points of ingress

5. Controlsa. Trappingb. Poisoningc. Fumigation

e. Insect control1. Troublesome species

a. Fliesb. Cockroachesc. Cricketsd. Antse. Wasps and bees

2. Types of damage by insects3. Insect control measures

a. Removal of breeding mediab. Removal of feeding materialc. General sanitationd. Screeninge. Use of insecticides

f. Micro-organisms : physical control1. Cleaning

a. Cleaning crewsb. Cleanup procedures

2. Form of equipmenta. Rounded openingsb. Smooth surfacesc. Noncorroding material

3. Sterilizing equipmentG. Micro-organisms : chemical control

1. Destruction of microbe by disinfec-tantsa. Oxidationb. Reductionc. Protein coagulationd. Plasmolysise. Depression of surface tension

2. Factors affecting germicidal actiona. Nature of the germicideb. Concentrationc. Rate of applicationd. Temperaturee. Presence of foreign materials

3. Types of disinfectantsa. Metallic saltsb. Chlorine and similar compoundsc. Phenolsd. Fumigantse. Antibiotic agentsf. Other organic substances

4. Phenol coefficients

52

H. General considerations1. Uniforms2. First aid supplies3. Rest room facilities4. Drinking fountains5. Ventilation6. Sanitation rules and regulations for

workersI. Disposal of wastes

1. Classes of pollutiona. Contaminationb. Pollutionc. Nuisance

2. Proceduresa. Separation of solids from liquidsb. Disposal of solids

(1) Dehydration(2) Composting(3) Livestock feed(4) Organic manure(5) Cut and fill dumps

c. Disposal of liquid waste(1) Sewage systems(2) Lagoons(3) Soil infiltration

J. Sanitation in fresh fruit handling1. Picking

a. Personnelb. Equipmentc. Field containers

2. Field packing3. Transporting

V. Storage of Fresh FruitA. Biological processes of stored fruit

1. Respirationa. Amount of sugars availableb. Number of living cellsc. Water contents of tissued. Temperaturee. Oxygencarbon dioxide levelf. Liberation of heatg. Relative humidityh. Age of fruit

2. Transpirationa. Water content of tissueb. Outer cover of fruitc. Temperatured. Relative humidity

3. Enzyme activitya. After ripening

b. Cellular breakdownB. Temperature control of storage facility

1. Nonrefrigerateda. Temperatureb. Humidity controlc. Air exchange

2. Refrigerateda. Temperatureb. Humidity control

3. Freezersa. Mechanics of freezingb. Freezing agentsc. Temperature controlsd. Humidity controle. Defrosting

C. Precooling practices1. Value2. Methods used

D. Fruit treatment1. Ripening agents2. Coloring agents3. Applying spoilage inhibitors4. Waxing

E. Effects of storage on quality1. Wilting2. Flavor and odor3. Loss of color4. Freezing and cold storage injury5. Diseases6. Molds and rot7. After ripening

F. On-the-farm storage1. Types of farm storage

a. Long term storageb. Temporary storage

2. Facilitiesa. Construction requirementsb. Operation and maintenance

3. Costsa. Costs of operating storage facilitiesb. Shrinkage losses

VI. Fresh Fruit QualityA. Production

1. Climate2. Soil3. Varietal adaptation4. Cultural operations

a. Irrigationb. Fertilizationc. Thinning

53

d. Pruninge. Frost protectionf. Pest control

B. Effect of harvest and post harvest opera-tions1. Harvest

a. Picking proceduresb. Fill of containers

2. Transportinga. Refrigerated transporationb. Nonrefrigerated transportation

C. Selection of fruit for processing1. Variety

a. Product producedb. Yield

2. Maturitya. Uniformityb. Sugar-acid ratioc. Colord. Sizee. Shape

3. Condition of fruita. Insect damageb. Diseasec. Rodent and bird damaged. Mechanical damagee. Frost damage

4. Economic factors affecting selectiona. Market outletb. Demandc. Supplyd. Cost of processing

D. Reasons for deterioration of quality1. Natural aging2. Improper handling3. Improper storage environment

a. Macroenvironmentb. Microenvironment

4. Incorrect stage of maturitya. Lack of uniformityb. Lack of maturityc. Too ripe

5. Contaminationa. Birds and animalsb. Micro-organismsc. Inert materials

VII. Fruit Processing EquipmentA. Physical wld chemical principles involved

1. Solutions2. Specific gravity

3. Heat transfer4. Evaporation5. Air movement

B. Fruit characteristics affecting equip-ment1. Size2. Shape3. Weight4. Condition

a. Maturityb. Spray residuec. Fruit damage

C. Types of equipment used1. Scales

a. Selection of unitb. Locationc. Ease of maintenance

2. Conveyorsa. Typesb. Use

3. Dumpsa. Typesb. Other unloading methods

4. Washersa. Methodsb. Water supplyc. Agents usedd. Temperatures

5. Bleaching equipmenta. Agents usedb. Bleaching containersc. Operation procedures

6. Dehydratorsa. Principles involvedb. Methods of removing moisturec. Source of heatd. Temperature control

7. Separatorsa. Typesb. Selection

8. Grading machinerya. Methodsb. Relation to subsequent operations

9. Waxing equipmenta. Materials usedb. Methods of applying

10. Fansa. Principles of air movementb. Amount of air to be movedc. Speedsd. Adjustments

54

11. Packaging equipmenta. Relation to productb. Containers suitablec. Subsequent handling

12 Storage equipmenta. Principlesb. Selection of equipmentc. Materials handling

13. Pasteurizersa. Purpose of pasteurizationb. Methods

14. Boilersa. Requirementsb. Types

D. Sequence of operations1. Smooth flow of product2. Relation to quality of end product3. Effect on total cost of operations

E. Field processing equipment1. Trends2. Types3. Construction and design

VIII. Containers and PackagingA. Importance

1. Merchandizing2. Sanitation3. Efficiency on transporation and

distributionB. Containers

1. Definitions2. Description of material and packages

a. Metal cansb. Glass containersc. Folding boxesd. Waxed paper packagese. Plastic wraps and packagesf. Corrugated shipping containersg. Wood shipping containersh Bulk shipping containers

C. Warehousing and shipping operations1. Storage

a. Coolb. Coldc. Dryd. Warm

2. Handlinga. Bulkb. Boxesc. Tanksd. Fork-lifts

e. Beltsf. Pipes and tubes

3. Marketing functions of packagesa. Sanitationb. Advertisingc. Legal requirements

(1) Size(2) Fill and weight(3) Labeling

4. Filling and sealinga. Legal requirementsb. Equipment design and operation

5. Quality controla. Checking fillsb. Checking sealsc. Checking package conditionsd. Inspection of package decorations

D. Field containers1. Harvesting

a. Picking bagsb. Boxes, flats, baskets, etc.

2. Transport containers

IX. Grading and Quality MeasurementA. Grading

1. Purpose of grading2. Types of grading

a. Shipping pointb. Inspection of raw products to be

processedB. Grading fresh fruit

1. Samplinga. Characteristics of the sampleb. Sampling procedures

2. Factors in grading fresh fruita. Maturityb. Sizec. Shaped. Colore. Injuryf. Damageg. Cleanliness

3. U.S. Department of Agriculture gradesa. U.S. Extra No. 1 gradesb. U.S. No. 1c. U.S. No 2d. Unclassified

4. Tolerances5. Inspection certificates

C. Grading processed fruit1. Sampling

55

2. Factorsa. Sizeb. Colorc. Uniformityd. Freedom from filth and contamina-

tione. Uniformityf. Defects

3. SgizeSsiraund types of containers4. Net weight5. Vacuum6. Brix measurement7. Container condition8. Degree of fill9. U.S. Department of Agriculture grades

a. Grade Ab. Grade Bc. Grade Cd. Sstd

10. Degree of fillD. Measuring the quality of processed fruits

1. Degree of filth and contaminationa. Rodent and bird filthb. Insect fragmentsc. Rot and moldd. Extraneous material

2. Amount of defects and damage3. Bacterial counts4. Uniformity of the processed product5. Degree of maturity of raw product6. Odor and flavor7. Moisture content8. Color9. Soluble solids

10. Specific gravity of sirups and brine 311. Chemical analysis of processed product

X. Legal Aspects of Fruit ProcessingA. Laws

1. Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act2. Miller Pesticide Amendments of 19543. Food Additives Act of 19584. Color Additives Act of 19605. Public Health Service Act of 19446. State laws

a. Cannery operation(1) Public health requirements(2) Dry yard operation

7. County ordinancesa. Zoning

b. Health standards for workers8. City ordinances

a. Zoningb. Waste disposalc. Health requirements

B. Regulatory agencies1. Food and Drug Administration2. U.S. Public Health Service3. U.S, Department of Agriculture4. State agencies5. County and municipal agencies

C. Sources of information1. Local2. State3. National

Recommended Laboratory Projects(48 hours)

1. Study the morphological characteristics ofmicro-organisms. (3 hours)

2. Study the beneficial micro-organisms im-portant in fruit processing. (3 hours)

3. Study the detrimental micro-organisms infruit processing. (3 hours)

4. Determine micro-organism contaminationof processed fruit. (3 hours)

5. Determine the insect filth and contaminartion in processed fruit. (3 hours)

6. Determine the rodent and extraneous mat-erial contamination in processed fruit.(3 hours)

7. Study the effect of storage on fresh andprocessed fruit quality. (6 hours)

8. Determine the sugar content of fruit juicesby the refractive index method. (3 hours)

9. Determine the specific gravity of fruitjuices, sirups, and brines. (3 hours)

10. Determine the moisture contentof processedfruit. (3 hours)

11. Determine the color index of fruit and fruitproducts by using reflectance, transmit-tance, and spinning disk colorimeters.(3 hours)

12. Grade canned, dehydrated and frozen fruit.(6 hours)

13. Study farm processing and storage facili-ties. (3 hours)

14. Visit the quality control laboratory of acannery. (3 hours)

56

Texts and References

ANDERSON, Sanitation for the Food PreservationIndustry

COPLEY and VAN ARSDALE, Food DehydrationCRUESS, Commercial Fruit and Vegetable ProductsFARRALL, Engineering for Dairy and Food ProductsHALL, Processing Equipment for Agricultural ProductsMEYER, Food ChemistryTRESSLER and JOSLYN, Fruit and Vegetable Juice

ProcessingTechnologyU.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,

Food Processing Technology, A Suggested 2 -PearPost High School Curriculum

VAN AnsDEL, Food Dehydration, Vol. I.WOOLHICH, Handbook of Refrigeration Engineering

Grassland ManagementHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A study of the conditions affecting grass-lands and the manipulation of those factorswhich will enhance soil conservation and live-stock grazing capacity. Laboratory periods in-clude identifying the grassland species, chart-ing, mapping, inventorying the range andevaluating vegetation.

This course is designed to impart a workingknowledge of the principles of ecology asapplied to the forage production of grazinglands. Special emphasis will be placed upon therole of soil and water conservation, grazing, andthe response of both plants and animals to en-vironmental conditions. Particular attention isgiven to study of the development of grasslandsto their fullest potential.

During the laboratory period the student willhave an opportunity to learn the techniques ofstudying plant communities and evaluatingrange conditions. Also the student will makefield visits to gain actual experience in map-ping, charting vegetation, and controlling un-dersirable species of plants.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Distribution and Classificationof Grasslands ....... ________ 2

II. Environmental Relationships ...... - 4

...,

III. Ecosystems and GrasslandManagement

IV. Soil and Water Conservationof Grasslands

V. Grazing GrasslandsVI. Nutrition in Relation to Grazing__

VII. Poisonous PlantsVIII. Cultural Aspects of Grassland

ManagementIX. Evaluating Range Condition

Total

2

4444

44

32

Units of InstructionI. Distribution and Classification of Grass-

landsA. Principles of plant distribution

1. Climatic factors2. Physiographic factors3. Edaphic factors4. Biotic factors5. Tolerance theory

B. Factor replaceability in plant distribution1. Elevation substituted for latitude2. Slope angle and direction for latitude3. Parent material compensates for cli-

mate4. Rainfall replaced by fog and dew5. Soil texture for moisture

C. Vegetation regions and their characteris-tics1. Tall grass2. Short grass3. Desert grass4. Bunch grass5. Northern and intermountain shrub6. Southern desert shrub7. Chaparral8. Pinon-Juniper9. Coniferous forest

D. Land uses in the United States1. Land used for grazing2. Land used for farm production3. Ownership of grazing lands in the

United States4. Grazing lands and livestock production

II. Environmental RelationshipsA. Light and plant communities

1. Amount of lighta. Intervalb. Intensity

57

c. Light variations2. Shade tolerance3. Plant adaptation and light requirement4. Effect on size, shape, and orientation

of plant parts5. Effect on stomatal movement

B. Temperature and plant communities1. Temperature and plant response

a. Germinationb. Absorption of waterc. Evaporative loss of waterd. Photosynthesise. Threshold value and thermal unit

responsef. Trans location and storage of sugar

2. Effect of plant populations on atmo-spheric temperatures

3. Temperature in relation to distributionof plants

C. Atmosphere and plant communities1. Atmospheric moisture

a. Humidityb. Dewc. Fog

2. Effect of humidity on transpirationand evaporation

3. Air movementsa. Relationships to temperatureb. As a transport for seedsc. Role in pollinationd. Effect on soile. Prevailing winds and air pockets

D. Soil and plant communities1. Soil pH2. Soil fertility3. Soil texture4. Soil profile5. Soil-water relationships6. Soil color as influencing absorption of

heatE. Plant populations as modifiers of microen-

vironment1. Temperature2. Canopy effect3. Wind movements and velocities4. Mulch

a. Effect on heavingb. Lowering of evaporation and dessi-

cation lossesF. Influencing the microenvironment

1. Cutting trees

2. Planting shelter belts3. Soil conservation4. Irrigation5. Fertilization

G. Problems in grasslands related to climaticenvironment1. Variability %," water supply2. Maintenance ox enrage species3. Soil erosion

III. Ecosystems and Grasslands ManagementA. Types of components in ecosystems

1. Autotrophic components2. Heterotrophic components

B. Components of ecosystems1, Abiotic substances2. Producer organisms3. Decomposer organisms

C. Nitrogen cycleD. Carbon cycleE. Biotic relationships in grasslands commu-

nities1. Competition of species

a. Parasitesb. Epiphytesc, Symbiosis

2. Stratification of speciesa. Dominant speciesb. Subordinate species

3. DependenceF. Animals as biotic factors

1. Soil microfauna2. Insects3. Small herbivores4. Large herbivores5. Predators6. Man

IV. Soil and Water Conservation of GrasslandsA. Hydrological cycle

1. Evaporation2. Transpiration3. Condensation4. Precipitation

B. Factors affecting evapotranspiration1. Atmospheric conditions2. Soil conditions3. Type of vegetation4. Volume of vegetation5. Land management

C. Factors affecting infiltration of water1. Soil texture

58

2. Soil structure3. Soil moisture content4. Duration of application

D. Causes of erosion1. Geologic erosion2. Accelerated erosion

a. Waterb. Wind

E. Role of grass in soil and water conserva-tion1. Complementary benefits between

plants2. Benefits derived from grasses

a. Canopy interceptionb. Loosening of soilc. Sod formingd. Provider of humuse. Soil buildingf. Decreases velocity of surface runoffg. Decreases amount of sedimentation

in streamsF. Types of plants and their relationships to

water conservation1. Hydrophytes2. Mesophytes3. Xerophytes

G. Control of erosion1. Grassland farming2. Grassed waterways3. Catch basins

a. Runoff controlb. Dispersement of cattle

4. Importance of dense ground cover

V. Grazing GrasslandsA. Plant succession and grazing

1. Concept of plant successiona. Constant changeb. Similar habitats support similar

communitiesc. Contrasting habitats result in differ-

ent sequenced. Changes follow a definite pattern

2. Causes of plant successiona. Physiogramic changes modify envi-

ronmentb. Community changes result in envi-

ronmental changes3. Climax communities

a. Priseresb. Subseres

B. Effect of grazing on plant communities1. Progressive succession2. Retrogressive succession

a. Physiological disturbance of climaxplants

b. Composition changesc. Invasion of new speciesd. Disappearance of climax plants

C. Plant physiology in relation to grazing1. Effect of foliar removal on plants

a. Food synthesisb. Root reservesc. Seed production

2. Nutrient composition of plantsD. Grazing and soil conservation

1. Soil compaction2. Soil humus3. Amount of cover

a. Soil coverageb. Weight of total coverc. Forage densityd. Average heighte. Effective weight index

E. Practical considerations in grazing1. Utilization of forage as affected by

preferencea. Selectivity of animalsb. Type of plantsc. Stage of growthd. Growing conditions

2. Season of grazinga. Condition of plantb. Trampling of plants and soilc. Spring and fall deferred grazingd. Growing conditions

3. Duration of grazing perioda. Type of plantsb. Density of plant populationc. Rotation grazing

4. Grazing habits of animalsa. Terrainb. Closeness of grazing

5. Seasonal migrations of animalsF. Facilitating or enabling practices

1. Water supply2. Mineral supply3. Protection of new seedlings4. Supplemental feeding

VI. Nutrition in Relation to GrazingA. Nutritional requirements of livestock

59

1. Cattlea. Maintenanceb. Growth and fatteningc. Reproduction

2. Sheepa. Maintenanceb. Growth and fatteningc. Wool productiond. Reproduction

B. Nutritional value of forage1. Season and forage value

a. Change in nutrient compositionb. Changes in leaf-stem ratioc. Changes in range composition

2. Nutrient composition and stage ofgrowtha. Early leaf stageb. Just before floweringc. Full bloomd. Seeds in dough stagee. Plants mature s4 dds castf. Herbage dry and weathered

3. Type of plant and forage valuea. Legumesb. Grassesc. Forbsd. Browse plants

4. Climate and forage valuea. Amount and distributionb. Temperaturec. Length of growing season

5. Soils and forage valuea. Mineral compositionb. Protein content

6. Digestibilitya. Immature v. mature plantsb. Effect of seasonc. Mixed range v. pure stand of

grassd. Crude fiber and lignine. Degree of grazing

7. Leaching of nutrientsa. Nitrogen-free-extractb. Proteinc. Calcium and phosphorousd. Effect on palatabilitye. Effect of late rains

8. Factors affecting losses of energyin digestiona. Level of intakeb. Nutrient balance

9. Deficiencies likely to occur in foragesa. Proteinb. Mineralsc. Energyd. Vitamin A

VII. Poisonous PlantsA. Importance of poisonous plants

1. Occurrence of toxic plants2. Difficulties in defining the poisoning

problem3. Economic losses from toxic plants

B. Poisoning properties of plants1. Chemical properties of toxic plants

a. Alkaloidsb. Glucosidesc. Resinoidsd. Phytotoxinse. Oxalic acidf. Other compounds

2. Plants causing mechanical injury3. Physiological action of toxins

a. Blood poisonsb. Neurotoxinsc. Neuromuscular toxinsd. Muscular toxinse. Irritants

4. Special poisoning problemsa. Nitrate posioningb. Selenium poisoningc. Molybdenum poisoningd. Fluorine poisoninge. Grass tetanyf. Phlaris staggers

C. Contributory causes in poisoning1. Season

a. Lack of good forageb. Variation in toxic properties with

progressive plant changesc. Delayed effect in poisoningd. Weather and poisoning problems

2. Variation in susceptibility of animalsto toxins

3. Grazing hazardsa. Availability of toxic plantsb. Scarcity of good foragec. TJndersaltingd. Plants that attract livestocke. Trailing through poisonous plantsf. Saline water

4. Forage poisoning problems

60

a. Toxic plants mixed in foragesb. Moldy feedc. Spoiled sweetcloverd. Ergot poisoninge. Cornstalk diseasef. Algae

D. Preventing plant poisoning problems1. Proper grazing

a. Timing the grazing periodb. Proper degree of grazingc. Proper type of livestock

2. Distributing livestock over the range3. Adequate supplies of minerals4. Supplemental feeding5. Controlling poisonous plants6. Isolating infested areas

E. Important livestock poisoning species1. Pingue2. Burroweed and jimmyweed3. Locos and poisonvetches4. Waterhemlock5. Larkspurs6. Sneezeweeds7. Lupines8. Crazyweeds9. Podgrasses and arrowgrasses

10. Deathcamases

VIII. Cultural aspects of GrasslandManagement

A. Mechanical removal of sagebrush1. Repeated cutting or defoliation

a. Heavy duty mowersb. Heavy duty brush sawsc. Cutting followed by grazing

2. Digging or grubbing8. Cabling, chaining, and railing4. Brush beaters5. Brushland plows6 Girdling

B. Chemical control of sagebrush1. Foliage sprays

a. Application equipmentb. Methods of applyingc. Timing applications

2. Bark treatmentsa. Broadcast bark treatmentb. Basal bark treatment

3. Trunk woundsa. Frill treatmentb. Notching

c. Cut-over stumps4. Root applications

a. Methods of treatingia . Timing for effective kill

5. Specific chemicals for brush controla. 2, 4Db. 2, 4, 5Tc. Silvexd. Amino Triazolee. Ammonium Sulfamatef. Tordon ,

6. Special problems in chemical brushcontrola. Followup treatmentsb. Erosion in control areasc. Annual (orbs and grassesd. Costs

C. Burning as a method of sagebrushcontrol1. Burning as a factor of succession2. Factors favoring burning as a control

measurea. Dense sagebrushb. Terrain and vegetation favoring

containmentc. Fire resistant grassesd. Range used principally b livestocke. Burn not favorable to undesired

speciesf. Burn not conducive to erosion

3. Burning proceduresa. Determining when to burnb. Preparing the area forburningc. Center firingd. Strip firinge. Edge burning

4. Safety in sagebrush, burning5. Federal, State, and county fire laws6. Management after burning

a. Spot treatmentsb. Deferred grazingc. Eradication of fire resistant

plantsD. Seeding rangelands

1. Selecting the proper speciesa. Introduced speciesb. Ecotypes

2. Methods of plantinga. Broadcastingb. Airplane broadcastingc. Heavy duty range drills

61

d. Grassland seeders3. Seeding

a. Factors influencing depthb. Avoiding plant compet!tionc. Timing for favorable conditionsd. Burned over landse. Seeding in mulches

4. Mixturesa. Compensation for variations in

environmentb. Utilization of moisture and

nutrientsc. Uniform productiond. Forage qualitye. Complementation between plants

5, Grazing practices6. Costs of burning7. Use of fuel breaks on ranges

a. Eradication of brushb. Revegetation

E. Range fertilization1. Selecting the proper fertilizer

a. Effect on yieldsb. Effect on palatabilityc. Sustaining the desired species

2. Timing the application3. Methods of applying4. Limiting factors

IX. Evaluating Range ConditionA. Use factor

1. Definition of use factor2. Variability in the use factor

a. Associated speciesb. Type of livestockc. Season and use factord. Yeare. Past grazing usef. Local conditions

3. Value of the use factor4. Methods`of estimating utilization

a. Weight determinationsb. Ocular appraisalc. Indicator speciesd. Indicator areas

B. Range inventory1, Quantitative methods of analysis

a. Number of individualsb. Weight of vegetative materialc. Area occupiedd. Species present

2, Qualitative methods of analysisa. Sociabilityb. Dispersionc. Vitalityd. Stratificatione. Periodicity

3. Range condition classificationa. Excellent condition rangesb. Good condition rangesc. Fair condition rangesd. Poor condition ranges

C. Use of plots1. Types of quadrats

a. List quadratb. List-count quadratc. Chart quadrat

2. Distribution of quadratsa. Selected samplingb. Random sampling

3. Shape of quadrats4. Size and number of quadrats5. Transects

D. Use of fenced areas1. Protected areas2. Grazed areas3. Partially protected areas4. Size and location of areas

E. Mapping range areas1. Mapping techniques

a. Photographic mapsb. Planometric maps

2. Plotting vegetation3. Inclusion of improvements

Suggested Laboratory Projects(48 hours)

1. Study the morphological characteristics ofrange grasses. (3 hours)

2. Identify the grass tribes. (3 hours)3. Identify and evaluate the range grasses.

(6 hours)4. Identify and evaluate the range legumes.

(3 hours)5. Identify and evaluate the browse plants.

(3 hours)6. Identify the poisonous plants of the range.

(3 hours)7. Identify the undersired species on the

range. (3 hours)8. Estimate vegetation on range area. (3

hours)

62

9. Map and chart vegetation onbrange area.(6 hours)

10. Inventory wildlife on range area. (3hours)

11. Classify conditions on range area. (9 hours)12. Establish brush control plots. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesThere are few up-to-date books adapted to the specific

units of instruction of this class. Therefore, some ofthe suggested references listed below will be somewhatdated, but the information they contain is still quiteusable. Because of -the absence of current books onthis subject, it is suggested that timely reading as-signments be selected from the Journal of RangeManagement. Instructors should search recent publi-cations for pertinent references.

HITCHCOCK, Manual of the Grasses of the United StatesKINGSBURY, Poisonous Plants of the United States and

Canada

Plant Diseases and Pests

Hours RequiredClass, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in the principles involved in controll-ing plant diseases and pests, primarily insects.The control of certain rodents and larger ani-mals is included in the course. Laboratory workwill include work in the identification of pestsand setting up pest control programs.

The first 5 weeks of the course are devoted toplant diseases ; these include : bacteria, fungi,viruses, and nematodes. This will include studyof the casual organism, host plants, symptomsand signs, the life cycle, epiphytotics and theircauses, and economic controls for the severalorganisms considered.

The next 8 weeks include a selected unit cov-ering primarily insects of economic importanceto agriculture. This will encompass developmentand metamorphosis, anatomy, types of mouthparts, and a brief review of classification of theinsects in the 10 most important economicorders. This course lends itself to the use ofaudiovisual aids. Lectures should be supple-mented with deomonstrations using specimensand exhibits whenever possible.

In the final unit of 3 weeks, disease andinsect controls and animal pests and controls

Figure 17.Scientific selection,application, and timing of the use of pest

control materials is vital to the production of fruit crops. Here is a citrus

orchard being sprayed.

are considered together with safety rules and

laws.The laboratory sessions develop intensive

work on bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodescausing plant diseases. Specimens of the dis-

eases are brought in, Riker mounts secured, andprepared microscope slides used for actual ob-

servation of the organisms. Several motion

pictures and 2- by 2-inch slides are used to make

the work more meaningful to the student.Symptoms and signs, life cycles, epiphytology,and economic controls of the basic types listed

are studied in considerable detail.In entomology, much the same plan in follow-

ed with work on actual specimens. This includes

the dissection of a grasshopper as a typical in-

sect. The mouthparts of various types are ob-

served under the microscope ; this is fromactual specimens and prepared microscopeslides of the grasshopper, beetle, house fly, but-terfly, and thrips. This is concluded by study ofimportant specimens of the significant insectorders. An insect collection is made by each stu-dent as a part of the course. After due consider-ation to the proper control of plant diseases andinsects, a laboratory session is devoted to thecontrol of larger animal pests, and one periodis devoted to safety considerations and legalrequirements.

63

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Plant Diseases Due to Bacteria__ 2

II. Plant Diseases Due to Fungi. 4III. Plant Diseases Due to Viruses 2

IV. Plant Diseases Due to Nematodes 2

V. Insects : Development, Metamor-phosis, Anatomy, Mouthparts,Orders 6

VI. Insects : Study of Selected Orders._ 10

VII. Disease and Insect Control 2

VIII. Animal Pests and Control 2

IX. Safety Precautions, Laws 2Total 32

Units of Instruction

I. Plant Diseases Due to BacteriaA. Introduction

1. Bacteriology2. Pathology3. Control

B. Bacterial canker of tomatoes1. Seed2. Symptoms3. Control

C. Crown gall1. Symptoms2. Etiology and epiphytology3. Control

a. Sanitationb. Chemicals

D. Alfalfa wilt1. Vascular disease2. Symptoms3. Internal structures4. Control

IL Plant Diseases Due to FungiA. Introduction

1. Structure2. Nutrition3. Infection4. Types of parasitism

B. Stem rust of grains and grasses1. Host plants2. Symptoms and signs3. Life cycle

a. Grainb. Barberry

4. OutbreaksC. Seedling infection smuts

5. Control1. Bunt of wheat2. Hosts3. Symptoms and signs4. Life cycle5. Epiphytology6. Control

D. Blossom infection : loose bunt of wheat1. Host plant2. Symptoms and signs3. Life cycle4. Epiphytology5. Control6. Life cycle

E. Local infection1. Host plants2. Symptoms and signs3. Epiphytology4. Life cycle5. Control

F. Shoestring root rot (armillaria)1. Host plants2. Symptoms and signs3. Epiphytology4. Life cycle5. Control

G. Powdery mildew of cereals1. Host plants2. Symptoms and signs3. Epiphytology4. Life cycle5. Control

III. Plant diseases due to VirusesA. Introduction

1. Significance2. Symptoms3. Properties4. Transmission5. Host ranges6. Resistance7. Nomenclature

B. Tobacco (tomato) mosaic1. Host plants2. Symptoms3. Etiology4. Control

C. Virus diseases of potatoes1. Fourteen viruses

a. Latent mosaic virusb. Vein-banding virus

64

c. Mild mosaic virusd. Spindle tuber viruse. Leaf roll virus

2. Control of potato virusesa. Virus-free tubersb. Seed inspectionc. Field practicesd. Resistant varieties

IV. Plant Diseases Due to NematodesA. Root knot

1. Host plants, 1400+2. Symptoms, signs3. Etiology4. Epiphytology5. Control

a. Field cropb. Fruit orchardsc. Vegetablesd, Nurseriese. Greenhouses

B.' Other nematodes1. Hosts2. Symptoms, signs3. Etiology4. Epiphytology5. Control

V. Insects: Development, Metamorphosis,Anatomy, Mouthparts, Orders

A. Phylum ArthropodaB. Development

1. Without metamorphosis2. Gradual metamorphosis3. Complete metamorphosis

C. Morphology1. External anatomy2. Internal anatomy

D. Mouthparts1. Biting and chewing2. Piercing and sucking

E. Classification : about 20 orders1. With wings2. Without wings

F. Springtail orderG. Grasshopper order

1. Cockroaches2. Grasshoppers3. Crickets

H. Termite orderI. Earwig orderJ. Thrips order

K. Dragonfly orderL. Anoplura order

1. Biting lice suborder2. Sucking lice suborder

M. "True Bug" orderN. Homoptera suborder

1. Leaf hoppers2. Scale insects3. Aphids

O. Moths and butterfliesP. The beetles

1. Dominant order of insects2. Harmful in adult and larval stages

Q. The fliesR. The fleasS. Hymenoptera order

1. Bees2. Wasps3. Ants

VI. Insects : Study of Selected OrdersA. The Collembola (Springtails)

1. Wingless2. Slight metamorphosis

B. The Odonata (Dragonflies)1. Predaceous2. Long abdomen3. Eat harmful insects

C. The Orthoptera (Grasshoppers, etc.)1. Biting mouthparts2. Crop eaters3. Control

D. The Isoptera (Termites)1. Social insect2. Destroy wood products3. Control

E. The Dermaptera (Earwigs)1. Leathery front wings2. Destroys crops, flowers3. Control

F. The Order Anoplura1. Suborder Mallophaga (biting lice)

a. External parasitesb. Control

2. Suborder Siphunculata (sucking lice)a. External parasitesb. Transmit diseasesc. Control

G. The Thysanoptera (Thrips)1. Winged or wingless2. Piercing mouthparts

65

3. Suck plant sap4. Cause crop damage5. Control

H. The Order Hemiptera (the bugs)1. Suborder Heteroptera (chinch bugs,

assassin bugs, etc.)a. Crop damage types ; bedbugsb. Control

2. Suborder Homoptera (scale insects,plant lice, etc.)a. Severe crop damage typesb. Control

I. The Coleoptera (the beetles)1. Probably the dominant order of insects2. Majority are vegetarian in adults and

larvae3. Severe crop damage types4. Control

J. The Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths)1. One of largest orders of insects2. Many important as plant pollinators3. Most caterpillars are vegetarian-

plant damagers4. Control

K. The Siphonaptera (the fleas)1. External parasites2. Control

L. The Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants, etc.)1. Large order2. Many bees are crop pollinators3. Social insects in many cases4. Control

VII. Disease and Insect ControlA. LegislativeB. Artificial

1. Physical2. Cultural3. Pesticides

a. Contactb. Stomach poisons

4. Sprays, dusts, and surfactantsfumigants

5. Formulations6. Resistance

C. Equipment1. Hand powered2. Machine powered

a. Groundb. Aircraft

D. Biological

....-.*

1. Insect parasites2. Other organisms-micro-organisms

VIII. Animal Pests and ControlsA. Mammals

1. Opossums2. Skunks3. Field mice4. Rats5. Ground squirrels6. Rabbits7. Pocket gophers8. Deer

B. Control1. Poison baits2. Trapping3. Shooting4. Fencing5. Natural enemies

IX. Safety Precautions, LawsA. Safety

1. Many compounds extremely toxic2. Sanitation3. Read the label4. Follow directions

B. Precautions1. Destroy poison containers after use2. Keep poisons locked up

C. Laws1. Federal legislation2. State laws

a. On DDT, etc.b. Some compounds handled only by

State licensed personriel3. County ordinances

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)1. Identify fire blight of pear and crown gall.

(3 hours)2. Diagnose rusts and smuts. (3 hours)3. Apply knowledge of armillaria rot and

sweet potato soft rot. (3 hours)4. Differentiate among tomato mosaic, aster

yellows, and curly top of sugar beet. (3hours)

5. Evaluate root knot, nematode problems. (3hours)

6. Make a study of insect development andmetamorphosis. (3 hours)

7. Study anatomy of the grasshopper. (3hours)

66

8. Find the differences in the mouthparts ofinsects, and classification. (3 hours)

9. Identify silver fish, dragonflies, grasshop-pers. (3 hours)

10. Study termites, earwigs, flies. (3 hours)11. Identify thrips, true bugs, aphids, scales.

(3 hours)12. Study beetles, butterflies, moths, flies. (3

hours)13. Identify ants, wasps, bees. (3 hours)14. Apply disease and insect control methods.

(3 hours)15. Evaluate control of animal pests. (3 hours)16. Consider safety, laws, quarantines. (3

hours)

Texts and References

BORROR and DELONG, An Introduction to The Study ofInsects

HELLYER, Garden Pests and DiseasesMcSw AN and POWELSON, Oregon Plant Disease Control

HandbookMETCALF and FLINT, Destructive and Useful Insects:

Their Habits and ControlPFADT, Fundamentals of Applied EntomologySHURTLEFF, How To Control Plant Disease in Home

and GardenWEsTcorr, Gardener's Bug BookWESTCOTT, Plant Disease Handbook

Visual Aids

Chevron Chemical Co., 200 Bush Street, San Francisco,Calif. 94120

World of Insects, 16mm., sound, color, 22 minutesEncyclopedia Britannica Films, 1150 Wilmette Avenue,

Wilmette, Ill. 60091Bacteria, 16mm., sound, color, 19 minutes

Sterling Movies U.S.A., Inc., 43 South 61st Street, NewYork, N.Y. 10023

The Enemy Below, 16mm., sound, color, 20 minutesThe Venard Organization, 113 North Madison Avenue,

Peoria, Ill. 61602Stop Rats Forever, 16mm., sound, color, 141 /2 minutes

Union Pacific Railroad, Motion Picture Bureau, 1416Dodge Street, Omaha, Nebr. 68102

Wheat Smut Control, 16mm., sound, color, 10 minutes

Filmstrips:Encyclopedia Britannica Films, 1150 Wilmette Avenue,

Wilmette, Ill. 60091Insects: How They Live and Grow, 35mm., 42 frames,

colorInsects: What They Are, 35mm., 42 frames, colorInsects, Their Life Cycles, 35mm., 42 frames, colorHelpful and Harmful Insects, 35mm., 42 frames, color

Insect Life Cycles:Beetles and Life Cycles, 35mm., 33 frames, colorThe Grasshopper, 35mm., 33 frames, color

The Insects:What Is An Insect? 35mm., 50 frames, colorInsects That Live In Societies, 35mm., 50 frames, colorThe Life Cycle of Insects, 35mm., 50 frames, color

Orders of Insects:(All: 35mm., 45 frames, color)

Some Primitive InsectsGrasshopper and RelativesAnts, Bees, WaspsBugs and RelativesMoths and ButterfliesBeetlesFlies and MosquitoesTermites and Minor Orders

Charts and Pictures:Nasco, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 53538Riker Mount of Harmful InsectsRiker Mount of BeetlesRiker Mount of Beneficial InsectsRiker Mount of Ten Orders of InsectsRiker Mount of MetamorphosisGeneral Biological Supply House, Inc., 8200 South

Hoyne Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 60620Microscopic slides of insectsMicroscopic slides of plant diseasesWard's Natural Science Establishment, Inc., .

Post Office Box 1712, Rochester, 'N.Y. 14603Microscopic slides of insectsMicroscopic slides of plant diseases

Plant PropagationHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course designed to acquaint the studentwith the commercial methods followed in thepropagation of crop plants and fruits. The re-production of these plants by seeds, cutting,grafts, layers, runners, and divisions are cov-ered. Laboratory sessions are planned to givethe student practice in plant propagation. Suf-ficient practice is given to enable him to de-velop the skills required to propagate by thevarious methods.

The instructor will cover the main sectionsof the course: structures, media, seed growingfrom germination to transplanting the largeplant. This will be continued with the asexualmethods of propagation: the various kinds of

67

cuttings, grafting, and budding. Then layer-ing, specialized roots and stems, and propaga-tion of specific fruits, nuts, and some ornamen-tals of commercial importance will be studied.To supplement the lecture, demonstrations, anddiscussion groups, motion pictures on specificitems, 2- by 2-inch and color slides should beused.

The laboratory periods emphasize in morepractical detail the subjects taken up in thelecture-discussion sessions. The laboratorystarts with the seed : Structure, germinationfactors, viability tests conducted by the stu-dents, and the practical seeding of actualcrops. Later the instructor has students trans-plant seedlings and set them out in the field.Students make cuttings of hardwood, semihard-wood, and softwood for the first sessions ofvegetative propagation. Asexual propagationcontinues with grafting done by the studentsdemonstrated first by the instructor as in thesections aboveof root, crown, whip, cleft, side,saw, keft, and bark methods. Some attention isgiven by the group to repair grafting by thebridge, inarching, and brace methods. Followingdemonstrations by the instructor using modelsand actual materials, the students make bud-dings of plants by the "T" chip, patch, and"I" methods.

Along with the above operations at the prop-er times, the instructor shows students con-struction, heating, cooling, and operations offorcing structures. As part of the laboratorywork, students gain proficiency in using thegreenhouses by actually performing the neces-sary operations. Some work is given in layoutof orchard and nursery plots.

Demonstrations are given by the instructorof propagation by layers, suckers, runners, sep-aration, and division of some specific plants.

To better enable students to realize the eco-nomics of the industry, a field trip is scheduledthrough a large commercial nursery so thatstudents will acquire an appreciation of thescope of the operation, capital needed, and theimportance of the timing of operations, to-gether with the botanical aspects of the field.

Laboratory sessions enable students to learnof the various operations in the field of plantpropagation ; practice in the jobs will enable

them, under supervision of the instructor, todevelop the skills required.

Major DivisionsClass hours

tainer stock1. Soil2. Sand3. Peat4. Sphagnum moss

I. Importance and Use of 5. VermiculitePropagation 2 6. Perlite

IL Propagating Structure, Media,Containers 2

7. Leaf mold8. Sawdust, shavings

III. Seeds : Development, Selection,Production, Propagation

C. MixturesD. Sterilization

Techniques 8 1. HeatIV. Asexual Propagation : General 2. Chemicals

Aspects 2 E. FertilizersV. Cuttings 4 F. Containers for young plants

VI. Techniques of Grafting 1. Flatsand Budding 8 2. Clay pots

VII. Layering 2 3. Plastic pots, traysVIII. Specialized Roots and Stems 2 4. Peat fiber pots

IX. Propagation of Fruits and Nuts 2 5. Plant bandsTotal. 32 G. Handling containers

Units of Instruction

I. Importance and Use of PropagationA. Objectives

1. Technical skills2. Knowledge of plant growth, structure3, Specific plants and methods used

B. Basic reproduction types1. Sexual2. Asexual

C. Plant Nomenclature1. Botanical classification2. Classification of cultivated plants

a. Genusb. Speciesc. Cultivar

IL Propagating Structures, .Media, ContainersA. Propagating structures

1. Glasshousesa. Formsb. Heatingc. Coolingd. Humidity

2. Plastic greenhouses3. Hotbeds4. Coldframes5. Lathhouses6. Clothhouses

B. Media for propagating and growing con-

68

III. Seeds : Development, Selection, Production,Propagation TechniquesA. Development of flowerB. FertilizationC. ApomixisD. Morphology

1. Embryo2. Food storage tissues3. Covering

E. Seed selection1. Uses of seedlings2. Pollination requirements of plants

a. Self-pollinatedb. Cross-pollinated

3. Maintaining puritya. Isolationb. Roguingc. Certification

(1) Breeder's seed(2) Foundation seed(3) Registered seed(4) Certified seed

4. Hybrid seed production5. Seed selection of woody perennials6. Mother trees

F. Seed production and handling1. Sources of seed

a. Commercial seed productionb. Seed collecting

c. Fruit processing industries2. Harvesting and handling seeds3. Factors affecting storage of seeds

a. Temperatureb. Moisturec. Storage atmosphere

4. Types of seed storagea. Dry, without temperature controlb. Cold, dryc. Cold, moist

G. Seed propagation1. Germination process2. Viability3. Measurement of germination4. Seed dormancy

a. Coveringsb. Internal factors

5. External factors affecting germinationa. Waterb. Temperaturec. Oxygend. Light

6. Seed testinga. Samplingb. Purityc. Viability

7. Pregermination treatments to stimu-late germinationa. Mechanicalb. Soakingc. Acid scarificationd. Cold scarification

8. Timing planting9. Disease and soil treatment

10. Germinating media11. Aseptic culture12. Fiele direct seeding13. Transplanting

IV. Asexual Propagation General AspectsA. Nature and importance

1. The clone2. Reasons for using asexual propagation

a. Perpetuation of a cloneb. Impossibility of seed propagationc. Ease of propagation

B. Genetic variation1. Mutations2. Chimeras

C. Plant patent law

69

V. CuttingsA. Anatomical development of roots in cut-

tings1. Stem2. Leaf3. Root

B. Physiological basis of root initiation incuttings1. Hormones2. Auxins3. Calines

C. Selection of cutting material1. Nutrition of stock plant2. Age of stock plant3. Type of wood selected4. Time of year

D. Treatment of cuttings1. Presence of buds and leaves2. Polarity3. Wounding4. Growth regulators

E. Environmental conditions during rooting1. Humidity2. Mist propagation3. Temperature4. Light5. Rooting medium

F. Practical techniques of making cuttings1. Stem

a. Hardwoodb. Semihardwoodc. Softwoodd. Herbaceous

2. Leaf cuttings3. Leaf-bud cuttings4. Root cuttings5. Rooting media6. Wounding7. Growth regulators

a. Materialsb. Concentrations : dip, dry

8. Mist systems9. Hardening off

10. Care

VI. Techniques of Grafting and BuddingA. Theoretical aspects

1. Reasons for use2. Formation of graft union3. Factors influencing healing of graft or

bud union

a. Incompatibilityb. Temperature and humidityc. Chemicalsd. Polarity

4. Limits of grafting5. Effects of x ootstock on scion variety6, Effects of scion variety on rootstock

B. Practical techniques of grafting1. Definition of terms

a. Scionb. Stockc. Cambiumd. Calluse. Stion

2. Points for success in grafting3. Methods of grafting

a. Whip or tongueb. Side graftc. Cleft graftd. Saw kerf (notch) graftf. Approach graftingg. Inarchingh. Bridge grafti. Bracing

4. Tools and accessoriesa. Knivesb. Waxesc. Tying and wrapping materialsd. Grafting machinese. Proper sharpening techniques

5. Selection of scion wood and storage6. Grafting by placement

a. Root graftingb. Crown graftingc. Double-workingd. Top-working

C. Techniques of budding1. Time of budding

a. Fallb. Springc, June

2. Methods of buddinga. "T" (shield)b. Inverted "T"c. Patchd. Flutee. Ring or annularf. "I" buddingg. Chiph. Top

70

VII. LayeringA. Factors affectingB. Characteristics and uses of layeringC. Procedures in layering

1. Tip2. Simple3. Compound or serpentine4. Air5. Mound (stool)6. Trench

D. Plant modifications giving natural layering1. Runners2. Stolons3. Offsets4. Suckers5. Crowns

VIII. Specialized Roots and StemsA. Bulbs

1. Offsets2. Bulblet formation3. Stem cuttings4. Leaf cuttings

B. CormsC. TubersD. TuberclesE. Tuberous rootsF. RhizomesG. PseudobulbsH. Back bulbs, green bulbs

IX. Propagation Of Fruits and NutsA. AlmondB. AppleC. ApricotD. AvocadoE. CherryF. ChestnutG. CitrusH. FigI. GrapeJ. Nectarine and peachK. OliveL. PearM. PecanN. PersimmonO. PomegranateP. PlumQ. QuinceR. Walnut

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Determine seed structure. (3 hours)2. Study germination factors. (3 hours)3. Make viability tests. (3 hours)4. Plant seeds in flats. (3 hours)5. Make cuttings of hardwood. (3 hours)6. Graft by root, crown, whip (tongue) meth-

ods. (3 hours)7. Top graft by cleft, whip, side, saw kerf,

bark methods. (3 hours)8. Transplant seedlings. (3 hours)9. Practice repair grafting: bridge, March-

ing brace grafting. (3 hours)10. Use forcing structures. Potting, shifting,

balling plants or laying out nursery grow-ing grounds or laying out an orchard ;planting trees. (3 hours)

11. Do budding by "T" (shield) method. (3hours)

12. Practice budding by chip, patch, "I" meth-ods. (3 hours)

13. Multiply plants by cuttings : semihardwood,softwood, stem, leaf, root methods. (3

hours)14. Propagate plants by layers, suckers, run-

ners. (3 hours)15. Increase plants by separation and by divi-

sion. (3 hours)16. Take a field trip to a commercial nursery to

study production methods. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesALLARD, Principles of Plant BreedingMAYER and POLJAKOFF- MAYBER, Germination of Seeds

Visual AidsAllis-Chalmer Manufacturing Co.,

Tractor Photographic Group,Milwaukee, Wis. 53201

Hybrid Corn, 16mm., sound, color, 15 minutesEncyclopedia Britannica Films, 1150 Wilmette Avenue,

Wilmette, Ill. 60091The Growth of Plants, 16mm., sound, color, 21 minutesSeed Germination, 16mm., sound, color, 15 minutes

Nasco, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 53538Types of Grafting (chart)How to Bridge Graft (chart)Grafting Materials (chart)Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Inc.,

Post Office Box 1712, Rochester, N.Y. 14603

Model of Plant CellModel of Typical FlowerModel of Fruit and Seed (wheat grain)Model of Stem

71

General Biological Supply House, Inc., 8200 SouthHoyne Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 60620

Model of Corn StemModel of Dicot StemModel of Generalized Dicot Flower

Seed ProductionHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in the reproductive processes, prin-ciples of breeding, environmental response, andthe harvesting and processing of seed crops.In the laboratory, the student will gain actualexperience in test plot work, seed processing,and seed testing.

Since the specific principles of crop produc-tion are to be covered in other courses, thisclass will emphasize applied theories and prac-tices of seed production. Class discussions willstress the practical aspects of plant structures,genetics, breeding principles and plant re-sponse to environment as related to producingseed crops. Applied techniques in the harvest-ing, storing, processing and testing of seed willbe covered. Also the student will have an op-portunity to familiarize himself with the class-es of seed, seed laws and the various agenciesinvolved in the seed trade.

During the laboratory period extensive usewill be made of demonstration plots for study-ing plot technique and breeding methods uti-lized with selected crops. In the classroom lab-oratory the student will have an opportunityto gain actual experience in using seed germi-nators, seed blowers, vitascopes and other de-vices and techniques to evaluate seed quality.Comprehensive use will be made of seed clean-ers, samplers, plot threshing machines, scarifi-ers, and other seed handling and processingequipment. Also field trips to seed producersand processors will allow student observationof commercial operations.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Distribution and Importanceof Seed Crops 2

IL Reproductive Processes ofCrop Plants 4

ill. Environment and Seed ProductionIV. Genetics of Crop PlantsV. Fundamental Plant Breeding

Techniques _VI. Hybridization as a Method

of Plant Breeding... ........VII. Certified Seed Production ....

VIII. Harvesting, Transporting,Storing Seeds ...... ......

IX. Seed ProcessingX. Germination and Its Relationship

to Seed Quality _XL Testing of Agricultural Seeds

XII. Laws Relating to SeedsTotal

Units of Instruction

I. Distribution and Importance of Seed CropsA. Importance

1. Uses of seeda. Seed stocksb. Human foodc. Animal feedd. Industrial uses

2. Economic value of seed crops3. Foreign trade in seed4. Reservoirs of germ plasm5. Perpetuators of undesired species

B. Geographical areas of production1. Areas of production of specific seed

crops2. Interstate movements of seed

C. History of seeds1. Importation of foreign stocks2. Exportation of American stocks

D. Statistics and trends1. Forecast and estimates2. Trends in seed production

IL Reproductive Processes of Crop PlantsA. Sexual reproduction of crop plants

1. Types of flowersa. Completeb. Incompletec. Perfectd. Imperfect

2. Types of plantsa. Monoeciousb. Dioecious

3. Reproductive structuresa. Calyx

4 b. Corolla2 c. Stamen

d. Pistil2 4. Processes leading to seed development

a. Formation of stamens and pistils4 b. Sexual maturity2 c. Pollination

d. Fertilization4 e. Growth of the fertilized egg2 f. Maturation of the seed

5. Self- and cross-pollinated plants2 a. Naturally self-pollinated2 b. Often cross-pollinated2 c. Naturally cross-pollinated

32 6. Factors affecting natural selfing andcrossinga. Variety of strainb. Seasonal conditionsc. Floral arrangementsd. Incompatibilitye. Maturity of pollen and stigma

B. Asexual propagation of crops1. Methods of propagating crop plants

vegetativelya. Separation and divisionb. Cuttingsc. Layerage

2. Use of clones in plant breeding3. Apomixis

72

III. Environment and Seed ProductionA. Photoperiodic response

1. Short day plants2. Long day plants3. Day-neutral plants4. Photoperiodic induction5, Amount of light required for photo-

periodic response6. Light quality and photoperiodic

response7, Color spectrum and photoperiodic

response8. Sequence of processes in photo-

periodism9. Photoperiodism and vegetative growth

10. Artificial lightB. Response to thermatic conditions

1. Relationship to photoperiodic response2. VernalizationB. Effect on pollination and fertilization

C. Effect of wind velocity and direction onseed production1. Beneficial aspects2. Detrimental aspects

D. Effect of seasonal conditions on seedproduction

E. Effect of insect populations on seed pro-duction1. Crops pollinated by insects

a. Leguminosaeb. Cruciferaec. Alliumd. Umbelliferaee. Curcurbitaceaef. Cottong. Tomato

2. Use of bees in pollinating crops3. Detrimental insects (seed attacking in-

sects)a. Lygus bugsb. Chalcidsc. Stink bugsd. Midgese. Seed weevilsf. Corn borerg. Corn earwormsh. Sorghum webwormi. Er glish grain aphidj. Chinch bugs

4. Other detrimental aspects of insectsF. Effect of soil fertility and pH on seed

productionG. Relationship of moisture to seed

productionH. Effect of cultural practices on seed

quality1. Planting procedures2. Irrigation3. Fertilization4. Insect pest control5. Weed control6. Harvesting

IV. Genetics of Crop PlantsA. Determiners of hereditary variations

1. Chromosomesa. Meiosisb. Fertilization

2. Genes3. Significance of variation

a. Environmental variation

73

. - .

b. Genetic variationB. Inheritance of characters

1. Law of segregationa. Gene locusb. Allelesc. Homozygous and heterozygous genes

2. Law of dominancea. Dominanceb. Recessivenessc. Incomplete dominance

3. Law of independent assortmenta. Phenotypic ratiosb. Geneotypic ratiosc. Linkaged. Crossing over

4. Gene interactionsa. Complementary actionb. Modifying actionc. Inhibiting actiond. Masking actione. Duplicate actionf. Additive effect

5. Mutationsa. Causes of mutationsb. Occurrence of mutationsc. Methods of initiating mutations

6. Polyploidya. Types of polyploidyb. Methods of initiating polyploidy

V. Fundamental Plan t Breeding TechniquesA. Introduction

1. Acclimatization2. Testing3. Development of ecotypes4. Commercial varieties emerging from

introductionsa. Grow the introduction en masseb. Selection of desirable strains of

introductionsc. Use of introductions as parental

lines in crossingB. Selection

1. Mass selectiona. Definition of techniqueb. Weaknesses of mass selectionc. Selection of phenotypesd. Use of mass selection in plant

breeding2. Pure line selection

a. Pure line theory

b. Procedure for making purelineselections

c. Genetic stability of purelinesd. Use of multiline varietiese. Progeny testingf. Natural selectiong. Use of pureline selection in plant

breeding3. Recurrent selection

C. Hybridization1. Hybrid vigor or heterosis

a. Definition of hybrid vigorb. Theories of hybrid vigorc. Utilization of hybrid vigor in plant

breeding2. Use of male sterility in producing

hybrids3. Interspecific hybridization

a. Crosses of cross-fertile speciesb. Crosses which lead to doubling of

the chromosome numberc. Crosses of species with different

chromosome numbers4. Intergeneric crosses5. Selection procedures and hybridization

a. Pedigree selectionb. Bulk population

6. Backcross method of producinghybridsa. Objectives of backcrossingb. Recurrent parentc. Nonrecurrent parent

VI. Hybridization as a Method of PlantBreeding

A. Selfing and crossing1. Emasculation practices

a. Removal of anthersb. Killing pollen by physical or chem-

ical methodsc. Use of self-incompatible linesd. Use of male sterility

2. Pollination practicesa. Collection of pollenb. Storage of pollenc. Pollinating by handd. Using insectse. Pollination problems

3. Control of floweringa. Temperature controlb. Light regulation

74

c. Vernalization4. Factors to consider in evaluating

hybridsa. Region of productionb. Number of plants per acrec. Environmental conditionsd. Cultural practices

B. Methods of producing commercialhybrids1. Production of inbred lines2. Single cross hybrids3. Double cross hybrids4. Threeway cross hybrids5. Multiple cross hybrids6. Top crossing

C. Production of hybrid corn1. Process of producing corn hybrids

a. Producing and selecting inbredlines

b. Crossing inbred lines and evaluatingtheir progeny

2. Hybrid vigor in corn3. Techniques utilized in crossing

a. Detasselingb. Use of male sterile seed plantsc. Use of cytoplasmic sterile female

plantsd. Ratio of male to female plants

4. Evaluating corn hybridsa. Yieldsb. Adaptability to environmentc. Insect resistanced. Disease resistancee. Lodging resistancef. Resistance to ear droppingg. Suitability to mechanical harvest-

ingh. Quality

5. Hybrids v. open pollinated varietiesD. Production of hybrid sorghums

1. Production of inbred lines2. Crossing of inbred lines

a. Use of Day male sterilityb. Use of cytoplasmic male sterility

3. Interspecific crosses4. Hybrid vigor in sorghums5. Evaluating sorghum hybrids

a. Yieldsb. Adaptability to environmentc. Early maturityd. Insect resistance

e. Disease resistancef. Qualityg. Suitability to mechanical harvest-

ingh. Resistance to lodging and shatter-

ing6. Hybrids v. open pollinated varieties

VII. Certified Seed ProductionA. The certification system

1. Definition of certified seed2. Agencies involved in breeding and

certifying seedsa. International Crop Improvement

Associationb. Agricultural Experiment Stationsc. Agricultural Extension Serviced. State crop improvement associa-

tionse. State departments of agriculturef. U.S. Department of Agricultureg. Private organizations

3. Types of seeds eligible for certificationB. Classes of seed

1. Breeder seed2. Foundation seed3. Registered seed4. Certified seed

C. Certification requirements1. Isolation

a. Boundariesb. Cross pollinating cropsc. Certifying part of a field

2. Field free of undesirable plantsa. Noxious weedsb. Volunteer plants of same cropc. Roguing

3. Seed treatmentD. Certification process

1. Application2. Field inspection

a. Datesb. Standards for field inspectionc. Diseasesd. Weeds

3. Harvestinga. Standards in harvestingb. Inspection of harvesterc. Grower number

4. Intercounty movement of unpro-cessed seed

75

5. Processinga. Supervisionb. Requirements

6. Sampling and testing7. Final certification, sealing, and

tagging8. Fees involved in certification

E. National Foundation seed project1. Purposes of the project2. Distribution of seed stocks

VIII. Harvestin, Transporting, Storing SeedsA. Harvesting seed crops

1. Factors to consider in harvestinga. Variations in physical characteris-

tics of seedb. Type of plantc. Size of plantd. Maturity of seede. Time of harvest

2. Harvesting equipmenta. Conventional combinesb. Combines with special modificationsc. Seed strippersd. Grain binderse. Headersf. Threshing machinesg. Melon combinesh. Vacuum seed reclaimersi. Windrowers

3. Harvesting practicesa. Determine when to harvestb. Curing methodsc. Use of defoliantsd. Combining or threshinge. Harvesting losses

B. Transportation of seed1. Railroad shipments2. Motor carriers

a. Exempt carriersb. Nonexempt carriers

3. Responsibility of shipper and carrier4. Protecting seed from damage in

transitC. Storage of seed

1. Storage facilitiesa. Warehousesb. Conditioned storage roomsc. Bulk binsd. Conveying systemse. Packaging equipment

2. Storage conditionsa. Protecting from adulterationb. Protecting from deteriorationc. Protecting from damage

3. Spoilage of seed in storagea. Insect and rodent damageb. Molds and fungic. Heatingd. Oxidation and hydrolysis of fats

4. Storage problemsa. Relationship of insects to fungib. Relationship of molds and fungi to

seed qualityc. Relationship of moisture and tem-

perature to seed qualityd. Relationship of seed respiration

to seed quality5. Treating stored seed

a. Fumigationb. Applications of insecticidesc. Use of controlled heatd. Use of inert gasese. Aeration

6. Insects of stored graina. Rice weevilb. Granary weevilc. Lesser grain borerd. Angoumois grain mothe. Dermestidsf. Saw toothed grain beetleg. Flat grain beetleh. Flour beetlesi. Cade llej. Bean and pea weevilsk. Indian metal moth (Indian meal

moth)I. Khapra beetle

D. Post harvest drying of seeds1. Methods

a. Forced unheated airb. Heated air

2. Airflowa. Recommended airflowb. Static pressuresc. Reverse airflow drying

3. Drying with heated aira. Temperatureb. Heater, an and vent arrangementsc. Specialized drying processes for

specific seeds4. Costs of drying seeds

76

5. Effect of drying on seeda. Holding qualitiesb. Seed quality

IX. Seed ProcessingA. Seed cleaning

1. Seed separating equipmenta. Air screen cleanersb. Specific gravity separatorsc. Indent cylinder separatorsd. Indent disk separatorse. Pneumatic and aspirator separatorsf. Spiral and inclined drapersg. Magnetic separatorsh. Velvet roll separatori. Electronic separatorsj. Color separators

2. Precleaning operationsa. Debeardingb. Hullingc. Scalpingd. Scarifying

3. Common adulterantsa. Inert materialb. Weed seedc. Other crop seed

4. Sequence of cleaning operationsB. Special processing

1. Scarifyinga: Methods utilized in scarifyingb. Seeds needing scarification

2. Grading3. Delinting cotton seed

a. Flame processb. Chemical delinting

4. Decortication5. Irradiation6. Blending7. Pelleting

C. Cost of cleaning seed1. Cash costs2. Shrinkage

D. Inoculation1. Methods of inoculating2. Inoculating equipment

E. Treating seed to control disease1. Mechanical methods of treating2. Physical methods of treating

a. Hot water and water soakb. Irradiation

3. Chemical treatments

a. Chemical compoundsb. Slurry and quick wet methods of

applying4. Specific treatments of seed

a. Cereal grainsb. Field cropsc. Small seeded forage legumesd. Vegetablese. Large seed legumes

X. Germination and Its Relationship to SeedQuality

A. Factors essential for germination1. Temperature

a. Threshold temperatureb. Optimumc. Maximumd. Relationship of temperature to

molds and fungi2. Moisture3. Oxygen4. Light

a. Requirementsb. Response to color spectrum

B. Process of Germination1. Absorption of water2. Softening of seed coat and swelling

of seed3. Hydrolysis and utilization of starch

a. Starch to maltoseb. Maltose to glucosec. Trans location of glucosed. Synthesis of carbohydrate materials

from glucose4. Nitrogen metabolism

a. Hydrolysis of protein into amidesand amino acids

b. Resynthesis of proteins5. Fat breakdown and synthesis

a. Fats to fatty acids and glycerolb. Fatty acids and glycerol to sugarc. Synthesis of carbohydrates and fats

from sugar6. Growth of the embryo

a. Epigeal germinationb. Hypogeal germination

C. Dormancy1. Causes of dormancy

a. Seed coats inhibiting water intakeb. Seed coats inhibiting oxygen intakec. Immature embryos

77

d. Chemical inhibitors2. Overcoming dormancy

a. Aging of seedb. Temperature treatmentsc. Reduction of moisture contentd. Breaking of seed coat

3. Secondary dormancyD. Longevity of seed

1. Storage life of seeds2. Effect of microenvironment on

longevityE. Conditions affecting germination

1. Mechanical injury2. Fungi and bacteria3. Storage conditions4. Fumigation5. Artificial drying6. Storage temperature

XI. Testing of Agricultural SeedsA. Sampling

1. Equipment for sampling2. Sampling procedure3. Splitting the sample

B. Purity1. Equipment2. Evaluation of damaged seed3. Formulas in calculating adulteration4. Weed seed5. Sterile florets of grass seed6. Evaluation of pure viable seed7. Special tests for purity

C. Germination1. Standard germination procedures

a. ele.-mb,0toi^sb. Temperature, humidity, substratac. Interval of timed. Cold teste. Hard seedf. Special treatmentsg. Evaluating germination tests

2. Tetrazolium testing for germinationa. Theory of tetrazolium testingb. Testing equipmentc. Testing techniquesd. Evaluating tetrazolium tests

D. Methods of testing seeds for moisture1. Air oven2. Vacuum oven3. Toluene distillation4. Brown-Duvel distillation

5. Dessicants6. Electric moisture testers7. Vapor pressure methods

E. Seed testing agencies1. Federal-State cooperative laboratories2. Private laboratories

XII. Laws Relating to SeedsA. Federal Seed Act

1. Backgrounda. Basic purposesb. Historical development

2. Provisions of the Federal Seed Act :Importation of Seeda. Seeds covered by actb. Prohibitions and procedures re-

lating to importationsc. Exemptionsd. Declarations of purpose and label-

inge. Seed unfit for seeding purposesf. Staining of certain imported seeds

g. Misbranded seedh. Mixing seedi. Exportation or destruction of

rejected seedj. Prohibition of certain actsk. Trademarks and patents

3. Provisions of the Federal Seed Act :Interstate Commercea. Prohibitionsb. Exemptionsc. Disclaimers and nonwarranteesd. False advertising

4. Records required by the Federal SeedActa. Lot numbersb. Receiving recordsc. Growers declarationsd. Processing recordse. Disposition recordsf. Test recordsg. Labeling recordsh. File samples

B. State seed laws1. Federal-State cooperation

a. State enforcementb. Referral of violation to U.S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture2. State quarantine laws

a. Noxious weeds and other adul-

78

terantsb. Insect pests

C. Exportation of seed

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Study the reproductive structures of cropplants. (3 hours)

2. Study experimental plot technique and lay-out several test plots. (3 hours)

3. Identify crop seed. (3 hours)4. Identify noxious weed seed and other adul-

terants. (3 hours)5. Judge crop seed. (3 hours)6. Identify seedborne diseases. (3 hours)7. Study seed inoculation procedures and in-

oculate legume seeds. (3 hours)8. Identify insects that are detrimental to

seeds. (3 hours)9. Practice hybridization of small grains. (3

hours)10. Visit a local seed house. (3 hours)11. Clean the seed of selected crops. (6 hours)12. Test the seed of selected crops. (6 hours)13. Visit a seed testing laboratory. (3 hours)14. Visit the experimental breeder plots of a

commercial seed organization. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesMARTIN and BARKLEY, Seed Identification ManualU.S. Department of Agriculture, Manual For Testing

Agricultural and Vegetable Seeds

Small Fruit Production

Hours RequiredClass, 2: Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

This course is designed to acquaint the stu-dent with the various' phases of producinggrapes, bushberries, and strawberries. Thecourse will cover all cultural practices includ-ing design of the planting area, establishingyoung plants, fertilization, irrigation, pest con-trol, and harvesting.

The instructor will devote the lecture time tothose small fruits of his general geographicalarea or of major economic significance to thelocal market. Costs of production and trendswill be emphasized.

Laboratory exercises are designed to give thestudent the basic information and skills neces-sary for the production of small fruits. Consid-erable laboratory time is devoted to study ofgrowing conditions and the practice of manipu-lative skills in the small fruit area of the schoolfarm.

Students will have an opportunity to conducttests and demonstrations in the school vine-yard and berrygrowing area.

Major Divisions

I. Geographical DistributionII. Suitable Soil and

Climatic ConditionsIII. Designing and Planning the

Orchard or Vineyard.Plant PropagationSoil Preparation and PlantingIrrigationWeed Control, Cultivation,

Erosion ControlVIII. Fertilization and pH

IX. Diseases of Small FruitsX. Insects, Nematodes, Other Pests__

XI. Grape Growing : Special ProblemsXII. Strawberry Production : Special

ProblemsXIII. Bushberry Production: Special

ProblemsXIV. Miscellaneous Fruits and Berries :

Special ProblemsTotal

IV.V.

VI.VII.

Class hours2

Units of InstructionI. Geographical Distribution

A. NationalB. RegionalC. Local

1. Important species2. Trends3. Adaptation

a. Annual climateb. Disadvantagesc. Major local advantages

4. Labor sources5. General topography

II. Suitable Soil and Climatic ConditionsA. Soil

1. Adaptation : types, depth

lm,14 im aiM1S

2

2222

B.

2. Water table3. pH and salts4. Nutrients5. Organic matterClimate1. Winter chill

a. Length below 45° Fb. Actual temperature : year studyc. Frosts : spring and fall

ummera. Maximum temperaturesb. Degree days required for economic

crops3. Winds4. Humidity5. Precipitation

a. Amountb. Frequency

2.

III. Designing and Planning the Orchardor' Vineyard

A. Factors to consider2 1. Type of planting2 a. Rectangular system3 b. Contour system3 c. Triangle system4 d. Hedge system

2. Field size and shape2 3. Slope and conservation practices

4. Irrigation methods, soil type2 5. Drainage facilities

6. Equipment, tractor sizes2 7. Harvest operations

32 8. Residence9. Wind direction

10. General topography11. Supporting structures

B. Sources of professional help1. Farm advisors2. Surveying companies3. Visit local successful growers4. Soil conservation district5. Local watershed district

IV. Plant PropagationA. Sexual

1. Problems of maintaining character-istics

2. Stratification requirements3. Development of new strains and

varietiesB. Asexual

79

1. Definition and advantages2. Cuttings

a. Leaf-bud: blueberryb. Root : blackberriesc. Stem: grape, cranberriesd. Root hormonese. Physical equipment and supplies

3. Layeringa. Definitionb. When to use

(1) When variety is poorly prop-agated by cuttings

(2) Easy to replace occasionalmissing plant in establishedvineyard

4. Graftinga. Whipb. Machine graftingc. Cleftd. Budding

5. Runners (specialized stems) ; straw-berries

6. Suckers (stems arising from adven-titious bud on a root) ; raspberries

7. Division

V. Soil Preparation and PlantingA. Factors to consider in soil preparation

1. Planting methoda. Rowsb. Hillsc. Bog

2. Stage of growth when planted3. Fertility and organic matter of soil4. Condition of soil

a. Moistureb. Tilth

5. Topography6. Irrigation system7. Drainage program8. Stubble or recent crop residue con-

ditionB. Planting

1. Selection of plantsa. Sourcesb. Stage of growthc. General healthd. Time of year

2. Care of planting stock before planting:heeling and cold storage

3. Analysis of planting systems.

80

VI.A

a. Plant spacingb. Habit of growthc. Cultural practices, tractor spacing,

harvest methods, etc.d. Trellis system and training programe. Irrigation systemf. Intercropping

Irrigation. System description and analysis

1. Cranberry bogs2. Furrow: advantages and disadvan-

tages3. Sprinkler: advantages and disadvan-

tagesSpecial problems1. Maintenance of high moisture through

long picking season2. Cranberry and high moisture require-

ments3. Strawberry, daily irrigations4. Excessive moisture: blueberries and

raspberries5. Drainage6. Grapes

a. Moisture: sugar acid relationshipsb. Bunch rot and sprinkler irrigation

Quantity of moisture needed by majorsmall fruits per seasonTime and frequency of irrigationQuantity of water required for anirrigation1. Soil type2. Root zone depthWater quality

B.

C.

D.E.

F.

VII. Weed Control, Cultivation, ErosionControl

A. Purpose and frequency of cultivation1. Destroy weeds2. Facilitate irrigation3. Facilitate harvest and drying4. Incorporate cover crops5. Pest control6. Promote water absorption

B. Tillage implements for cultivation1. Noble and French or "Kirpy" plows2. Disc3. Various drags4. Various cultivators and harrows

a. Chisel-toothb. Revolving harrows

c. Spring-tooth harrowd. Sweeps and shovels

C. Weed control with chemicals and oil1. Oil2. Diuron3. Monuron4. Simazine5. Atrazine6. 2, 4-D amine7. Dalapon

D. Other methods of weed control1. Mulch2. Geese3. Flamethrowers

E. Soil erosion control1. Wind breaks2. Contour plantings3. Cover crops4. Grass slope collecting ditches5. Strip cropping6. Mulch

VIII. Fertilization and pHA. The primary soil nutrients

1. Nitrogena. Determining need for N (nitrogen)b. Form to usec. Where and when to applyd. Cover cropse. Use by each acre per year

2. Potassiuma. Determining need for K

(potassium)b. Form to usec. Where and when to applyd. Use per acre per year

3. Phosphorusa. Determining need for P (phos-

phorus)b. Where and when to applyc. Use per acre per year

B. Other nutrients and small fruit production1. Calcium2. Boron3. Magnesium4. Iron5. Sodium6. Zinc7. Sulfur8. Copper9. Manganese

81

10. MolybdenumC. Fruiting and the carbohydrate nitrogen

ratioD. Manures and commercial fertilizersE. pH

1. Definition and neutral concept2. Buffers and agents to neutralize

a. Sulfur, sulfuric acidb. Limec. Gypsum and water

3. Blueberries and acid soils, 4 to 5.5

IX. Diseases of Small FruitsA. Strawberry diseases (causes, symptoms,

damage, and control)1. Root and crown diseases

a. Verticillium wiltb. Red stelec. Black root rotd. Armillaria root and crown rote. Other crown rots

2. Virus diseasesa. Yellowsb. Crinklec. Aster yellows

3. Foliage diseasesa. Leaf spot, blotch, and scorchb. June, transient or Blakemore

yellowsc. Tip burnd. Powdery mildew

4. Fruit diseasesa. Fruit deformity (cat face)b. Gray mold rotc. Other rots

(1) Phizoctonia (species)(2) Rhizopus (species)(3) Phytophthora (species)(4) Sclerotium (species)

13. Grape diseases (cause, symptoms, damagecontrol)

1. Fungi attacking both vine and fruita. Powdery mildewb. Anthracnosec. Black rotd. Downy mildewe Dead armf. Black measles

2. Fungi attacking the fruita. Blue-mold rotb. Black-mold rot

c. Rhizopus rotd. Botrytis (gray mold) rote. Bunch rot

3. Fungi attacking rootsa. Oak root fungusb. Ozonium root rotc. Demotophora root rotd. Root rot by pythium and phytoph-

thorae. Collar rot

4. Bacterial diseasesa. Blightb. Crown gall

5. Virus and virus like diseasesa. Pierce's diseaseb. Fan leafc. Yellow mosaicd. Yellow veine. Leaf roll

C. Diseases of brambles and other small fruit(causes, symptoms, damage, and control)1. Fungus diseases

a. Anthracnoseb. Cane blightc. Cane and leaf spotd. Fruit moldse. Oak fungusf. Orange rustg. Powdery mildewh. Raspberry leaf rusti. Spur blightj. Verticillium wilt

2. Bacterial diseasesa. Crown gallb. Blight

3. Virus diseasesa. Dwarf or rosetteb. Yellowsc. Mosaics

X. Insects, Nematodes, Other PestsA. Insects and grape growing

1. Phylloxeraa. Historyb. Life cyclec. Spreadd. Damagee. Controlf. Resistant root stocks

2. Grape leaf hopper3. Grape leaf folder or roller

82

4. Western grape skeletonizer5. False chinch bug6. Grasshoppers7. Grape mealy bug8. Thrips9. Consperse stink bug

10. Grape-berry moth11. Mediterranean fruit fly12. Drosophila13. Cutworms14. Grape mud beetle15. Click beetle16. Aphids17. Cane or twig borers18. Scale insects

B. Insects attacking strawberries, bush ber-ries, and other small fruit1. Chewing insects : identification,

damage, and controla. Grasshopperb. Japanese beetlec. Cutwormsd. Raspberry leaf sawflye. Currant borerf. Orange tortrixg. Raspberry cane maggoth. Raspberry horntail

2. Sucking pests : identification, damage,and controla. Aphidb. Leaf hoppersc. Spittlebugsd. Mites

(1) Red spider mite(2) Blackberry mite

3. Insects with rasping mouth parts :identification, damage and controlmany thrips

C. Spider mites1. General description2. Damage and mode of infestation3. Control measures

a. Kelthaneb. Demetoxc Trithiond. Parathione. T. E. P. P.f. Sulfur

4. Mites affecting bush berriesa. Red spider miteb. Blackberry mite

5. Mites affecting grapesa. Pacific miteb. Willamette mitec. Grape rust mited. Erineum mite

D. Nematodes1. General description and damage2. General control methods3. Specific nematodes causing damage to

small fruitsa. Root knot nematodeb. Root lesion nematodec. Dagger nematoded. Sting nematodee. Northern root knot nematode

E. Other pests1. Birds

a. Shotgun blasts or noise makersb. Scarecrows and devices which

involve motionc. Use of captive predator birdsd. Poison

2. Deer and rabbitsa. Fencingb. Poisonc. Trapsd. Repellents and dogs

3. Gophers, moles, and other rodents4. Trespassers

XL Grape Growing: Speciz i ProblemsA. Training the young vine

1. Forming heads, or spur-pruned vinesa. Planting and care the first summerb. First winter pruningc. Second summer treatmentd. Second winter pruninge. Third summer treatmentf. Completing the head

2. Forming cane-pruned vines3. Forming cordon : pruned vines4. Training grapevines on arbors and

wallsB. Pruning

1. Purposes of pruning2. Response to pruning and crop3. Principles of pruning4. Suckering5. Systems of pruning

a. Head pruningb. Cordon pruning

83

c. Cane pruningd. Pruning grapevines on arbors

C. Thinning1. Flower cluster thinning2. Cluster thinning3. Berry thinning

D. Girdling1. Objectives2. Methods

E. Application of growth regulators1. 4-Chloronhenoxyacetic acid2. Benzothiazol-2-Oxyacetic acid3. Gibberellin

F. Supports for vines1. Headtrained, spur-pruned vines2. Cane pruned vines3. American grapevines4. Cordon pruned vines5. Table grapes, cane pruned6. Trellises7. Arbors and pergolas8. Machine harvested vines

G. Frost protection1. Wind machines2. Heaters3. Water applications4. Others

H. Harvesting1. Wine grapes

a. Samplingb. Criteria for harvesting

(1) Sugar content(2) Balling-acid ratio(3) Acidity(4) pH

c. Care in harvesting and handling2. Table grapes

a. Standards for maturityb. Harvesting, selecting clusters

(1) Appearance of berries(2) Color and condition of cluster

stems(3) Taste(4) Picking and trimming

c. Packing(1) Place(2) Containers(3) Arrangement in containers

d. Maintaining quality of harvestedgrape(1) Bruising

(2) Trimming(3) Speed(4) Precooling and shipping

I. Raisins1. Types of grapes used2. Quality factors in raisins

a. Food valueb. Attractivenessc. Seeds, stems, texture, etc.

3. Picking and drying methodsa. Yieldsb. Composition of mature grape and

drying effects(1) Moisture(2) Acid(3) Sugar(4) Water insoluble materials(5) Minerals

c. When to harvestd. Paper trayse. Turning the traysf. Rolling the trays

4. Handling raisins after dryinga. Curingb. Storing

J. Handling of table grapes after harvest1. Precooling2. Fumigation

a. Absorption of sulfur dioxideb. Precautions

3. Cold storagea. Systemsb. Deteriorationc. Predicting decay

4. Transportation

XII. Strawberry Production: Special Problems

A. Planting and training systems1. Hill system2. Matted: row system3. Spaced row system4. Flat bed systems

B. Frost protectionI. Mulch, synthetic or straw2. V-shaped troughs3. Paper, muslin, cheesecloth4. Spray irrigation5. Heaters6. Wind machines

C. Removal of blossomsD. Care and setting runners

84

E. PruningF. Harvesting and handling

1. The problem-metabolic rate higha. Temperatureb. Humidityc. Fruit

(1) Removal of all decayed fruitfrom plant

(2) Put only sound fruit in basket(3) Use fungicides in field and stor-

age(4) Rapid cooling as soon as pos-

sible after picking2. Harvesting

a. Supervisionb. Stage of ripeness to pickc. Method of snapping fruit without

breaking cap or bruising berryd. Method of placing berry in crate

3. Field handling and haulinga. Shadeb. Temperaturesc. Humidityd. Cooling

4. Shippinga. Coolingb. Holdingc. Loadingd. Transportation

XIII. Bushberry Production: Special Problems

A. Pruning1. At planting2. Annual pruning3. Trailing blackberries

a. Placement of canes on trellisb. Location of fruitc. Pruning systemsd. Removal or pruning

4. Erect blackberries and dewberries5. Red raspberries6. Black and purple raspberries7. Currants and gooseberries8. Blueberries

B. Trellis types1. Supporting posts2. Two-wire trellis3. Three-wire trellis4. Four-wire trellis5. Separate stake and wire hoop systems

C. Harvesting

1. Supervision2. Stage of ripeness to pick3. Equipment

a. Baskets and cratesb. Shade shedsc. Carriersd. Pallets

D. Storage and shipping1. Cooling and humidity control2. Loading3. Transportation

XIV. Miscellaneous Fruit and Berries: SpecialProblems

A. CranberriesB. LycheesC. LingonberryD. ElderberryE. WonderberryF. SalalG. Salmonberry

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Classify and judge small fruits. (3 hours)2. Identify quality factors in soils for small

fruit production. (3 hours)3. Plan and lay out a vineyard and berry plant-

ing. (3 hours)4. Propagate plants by cuttings. (3 hours)5. Propagate plants by budding, grafting, lay-

ering. (3 hours)6. Plant and set out new stock. (3 hours)7. Experiment with root depth and efficiency

of irrigation. (3 hours)8. Take field trip, observe soil conservation

practices. (3 hours)9. Measure pH in soils of various plantings ;

measure effects of buffers. (3 hours)10. Identify and treat for diseases of strawber-

ries and grapes. (3 hours)11. Identify and treat for diseases and insects

of bushberries. (3 hours)12. Identify and treat for insects and pests of

strawberric, and grapes. (3 hours)13. Prune and train grapes. (3 hours)14. Plant strawberries. (3 hours)15. Construct a trellis system for grapes and

berries. (3 hours)16. Prune and train bush berries. (3 hours)

85

Texts and ReferencesDARROW, Strawberry: History, Breeding,

PhysiologySHOEMAKER, Small Fruit CultureWINKLER, General Viticulture

Visual AidsArthur Barr Productions,

1029 North Allen Avenue,Pasadena, Calif. 93271

Grapes, 16mm., color, 11 minutesU.S. Department of Agriculture Motion Pictures Ser-

vices, Washington, D.C. 20250Raisins You Buy, 16mm., color, 5 minutes

and

Soil ManagementHours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A study of those management principles andpractices that are effective in maintaining soilin a highly productive condition. Laboratoryassignment of experiments and demonstrationsparallel lecture discussions as far as possible.

This course considers the effect of the var-ious cultural operations upon the physical,chemical, and biological properties of the soil.Laboratory experiments and observations willemphasize proper soil conditions. Field studyand observation will determine what the effectof the use of cultivation has been. Students willdevelop the ability to maintain soils in a produc-tive state and learn methods of reclaiming thosesoils which have been damaged or are problemsoils.

The community becomes the laboratory forthe class. Farmers, soil conservation agencies,implement dealers, and fertilizer companies canprovide useful information.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. The Field of Soil Management 2IL Physical Makeup of Soils. 2

III. Soil Surveys and Land Layout . 2IV. Nutrient Requirements of

Plant Growth 2V. Fertilization Practices . - 6

VI. Tillage . _ _ _ 2VII. Soil and Water Relationships _ _ 2

VIII. Use of Lime _ 2

IX. Soil Protection Practices 4 1. Crop land

X. Soil Reclamation 6 2. Idle landXI, Conservation Programs 2 3. Pasture land

Total 32 4. Woodland

Units of Instruction5. Brushland

E. Land capability classesI. The Field of Soil Management

A. Serves both farmer and consumerB. Importance

1. Definition2. The agricultural revolution3. Soil management applied to farming

C. Rewards and dangers1. Improved standard of living2. Difficult for inefficient farmer to sur-

vive

II. Physical Makeup of SoilsA. Origin

1. Soil orders2. Materials and processes of soil devel-

opmenta. Rockb. Organicc. Transported parent material-N.\d. Soil profilee. Factors describing soil: color, tel,,

ture, structureB. Great soil groups of, the United States

1. The pedalfers2. The pedocals

III. Soil Surveys and Land LayoutA. Soil survey methods

1. Inventory of the soil : a record ofphysical features

2. Land capability classesa. On basis of susceptibility to erosionb. Climate, slope, erosion effectsc. Used to develop long range plans

B. Soil mapping units1. Effective depth, texture, permeability

of subsoil2. Also included are available moisture

capacity, reaction, drainageC. Associated land features

1. Slope2. Erosion3. Salinity4. Frequency of overflow

D. Mapping present land use

86

1. Suited for cultivationa. Class I: very goodb. Class II: moderate limitationsc. Class III: severe limitations in used. Class IV : very sever permanent

limitation if used for cropland2. Unsuited for cultivation

a. Class V : kept in permanent vegeta-tion

b. Class VI: grazing and forestryc. Class VII: severe limitations when

used for grazing and forestryd. Class VIII: rough for woodland

and grazing best for recreation,wildlife

F. Effect of field size and shape1. Cultivation2. Irrigation3. Fencing

IV. Nutrient Requirements of Plant GrowthA. Plant cellsB. Life processes of plantsC. Functions of rootsD. Functions of stemsE. Elements essential to plant growth

1. From air and water2. From soil3. Microamounts

F. Colloidal clay, crystalsG. Organic soil colloids, humusH. Cationic exchange

1. Mechanism2. Measurement of soil fertility

I. Absorption and exchange of anionsJ. Soil reaction : acidity and alkalinity

1. Ionization2. Expressed as pH values3. Active and reserve acidity4. Buffering5. Soil reaction and plant growth6. Soil testing reaction

a. Dye methodsb. Electric pH meter

K. Importance of organic matter

1. Definition2. Humus3. Soil nitrogen content4. Soil tilth

L. Maintaining and increasing organic matter1. Grassland farming2. Cropland farming3. Carbon-nitrogen ratio4. Compost

M. Buffer capacity of soilsN. Determining nutritional needs

1. Soil and plant tissue analysisa. Reliabilityb. Past experiencec. Specialized helpd. Other factors : weeds, diseases, in-

sect pests2. Tests for phosphorus

a. Several extracting solutionsb. Standard color chart comparison

3. Tests for K (potassium)a. Exchangeable formb. Standard color chart comparison

4. Tests for N (nitrogen)a. Indicator solutionsb. Electrometric methods

0. Laboratory soil tests1. Obtaining representative samples

a. Many locations in fieldb. Remove surface litterc. Recording soil samplesd. Prior history of use of field

2. Commercial testing laboratoriesa. Testing methodsb. Interpreting tests

3. Soil testing kits4. Hunger signs in crops

P. Fertilizer field trials1. Most reliable2. Accurately recorded3. Residual effect

V. Fertilization PracticesA. Commercial fertilizers

1. Definition2. Kinds and source

a. Nitrogenb. Phosphatec. Potashd. Mixede. Effect upon soil

87

3. Economicsa. Crop requirementsb. Basis of purchasec. Costs

4. Applicationa. Formsb. Methodsc. Placementd. Timee. Trends in mechanizationf. Effect of equipmentg. Relation to other operations

B. Animal manures1. Analysis

a. Nutrientb. Organic matter

2. Methods of handling3. Methods of applying4. Fortification5. Conservation and storage6. Costs

C. Green manure and cover crops1. Value to the roil2. Species and varieties3. Cultural operations

a. Season of plantingb. Limitations

4. CostsD. Soil amendments

1. Kinds2. Value

VI. TillageA. Objectives

1. Weed control2. Seedbed preparation3. Planting4. Facilitates

a. Water intakeb. Air movement

5. Incorporating crop residues andmanures

B. Tillage equipment and its functions1. Moldboard plows2. Disk plows3. Disk tiller or one-ways4. Disk harrows5. Rotary tillers6. Spring-tooth harrows7. Spike-tooth harrows8. Cultipackers

9. Rod weeders10. Blade or shovel tillers11. Subsurface tillers

C. Effect on the soil1. Compaction2. Water penetration3. Root growth4. When to cultivate

D. Combination with other operations1. Planting2. Fertilization

VII. Soil and Water RelationshipsA. Water relations

1. Soil types and water entry2. Soil water movement and storage

a. Adhesionb. Cohesion

3. Classification of soil watera. Hygroscopicb. Capillaryc. Gravitational

4. Amount of water held in soils5. Determining soil moisture content

a. Tensiometerb. Electrical conductivityc. Gravimetric

B. Soil moisture and crop growth1. Water as a nutrient2. Water as a solvent of plant foods3. Water as a plant constituent4. Transpiration

a. Amountb. Factors affecting

C. Irrigation1. Water

a. Crop requirementb. Availabilityc. Qualityd. Cost

2. Soila. Textureb. Slopec. Penetrationd. Plowsole

3. Methods of applicationa. Floodingb. Furrowc. Sprinklersd. Subirrigation

4. Combination with fertilizers

88

5. Frost protection6. Effect on soil

a. Leachingb. Erosionc. Waterlogging

VIII. Use of LimeA. NeedB. Materials

1. Quicklime2. Hydrated lime3. Limestone4. Byproducts

C. Calcium equivalents of lime materials1. Calculating2. Quality

D. TimingE. Methods of applicationF. Amount applied

1. Determined bya. Soil acidityb. Buffer capacityc. Subsoil acidityd. Cropse. Purity of materials

2. Over liminga. Amountsb. Symptoms

G. Relationship to other nutrients

IX. Soil Protection PracticesA. Managing wastelands

1. Check gulliesa. Damsb. Seeded with grass or treesc. Rodent controld. Fire protection

2. Recreational facilitiesa. Birdsb. Mammals

3. Tree farminga. Shelter belts, woodlotsb. Contour plantingc. Thinningd. Other dangerse. Returns

B. Rangelands1. Water control

a. Gulliesb. Pondsc. Dams

2. Management 2. Alkalinea. Reseeding a. Neutralize excess alkalinityb. Renovation b. Replace sodium with calciumc. Fertilization c. Improve physical propertiesd. Weed and brush growth I. d. Leachinge. Animal control e. Cropping programf. Wildlife E. Tiling

C. Croplands 1. Soil conditions1. Crop rotation 2. Design

a. Value 3. Layingb. Crops used 4. Outletsc. Sequence 5. Use of pumpsd. Time 6. Surface water

2. Terracing 7. Ultimate disposala. Design 8. Maintenanceb. Construction 9. Costc. Maintenance 10. Cropping programsd. Cost 11. Governmental programs

3. Tiling F. Eroded soilsa. Advantages 1. Control methodsb. Cost (More detailed under X) 2. Cropping programs

4. Soil cover G. Nutrient deprived soilsa. Water penetration 1. Determine nutrientsb. Run of control 2. Application of fertilizersc. Wind erosion control 3. Cropping programsd. Organic mattere. Weed control XI. Conservation Programs

5. Managing problem soils A. Historicala. Hardpan B. Currentb. Plowpan 1. Nationwide soil conservation districtsc. Arid a. Federal and State aidd. Leached b. Organization of local agencye. Eroded 2. Private organizations

a. Izaak Walton LeagueX. Soil Reclamation b. The Friends of The Land

A. Use of land c. National Association of Conserva.1. Increased irrigation tion Districts2. Fertilization d. National Reclamation Association3. Tillage 3. Business concerns4. Development of new agricultural areas a. Timber operators

B. Soil solutions b. Public utilities1. Saline c. Farm equipment manufacturers2. Alkaline 4. Newer concept of conservation3. Saline-alkaline C. Results4. Formation 1. Flood prevention5. Crop injury 2. Water

C. Testing procedures a. IrrigationD. Soil treatment b. Domestic use

1. Saline c. Recreationa. Leaching d. Transportationb. Cropping program e. Industry

89

3. Increased usable land4. Benefits to American citizens

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Locate sources and make use of informationin the library on soil management. (3

hours)2. Identify the physical properties of soils in-

cluding texture, structure, and parent ma-terials. (3 hours)

3. Map a farm layout with special referenceto soil characteristics and use. (3 hours)

4. Initiate pot culture trials and lay out fertil-izer test plots. (3 hours)

5. Identify fertilizers, their properties anduse. (3 hours)

6. Operate tillage equipment and observe till-age practices. (3 hours)

7. Make an evaluation of the effect of soilconditions upon irrigation practices ; testfor soil moisture. (3 hours)

8. Make calculations on water measurement,rate of flow, application. (3 hours)

9. Determine the pH of a soil solution andstudy buffering effects. (3 hours)

10. Test soils for solutes. (3 hours)11. Test plant tissue. (3 hours)12. Summarize findings of pot culture studies

and feitilizer plots. (3 hours)13. Demonstrate effect of soil conditions upon

erosion. (3 hours)14. Make a field trip to observe commercial

fertilizer application or to see local conser-vation practices. (3 hours)

15. Practice judging land. (3 hours)16. Analyze and evaluate a farm soil manage-

ment program. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesBERGER, Introductory SoilsDONAHUE, Our Soils and Their ManagementKNUTI and others, Profitable Soil ManagementTISDALE and NELSON, Soil Fertility and Fertilizers

Visual Aids and ModelsPhillips Petroleum Co., Bartlesville, Okla. 74003

On The Other Side of the Fence; 16mm., sound, color,22 minutes

Soil Conservation Service, Regional Office, Fort Worth,Tex.; Lincoln, Nebr.; Portland, Oreg.; and UpperDarby, Pa.

For A Permanent Agriculture; 16 mm., sound, color,12 minutes

Rai ?.drops and Soil Erosion; 16 mm., sound, color,

90

131/2 minutesSterling Movies, U.S.A., Inc., 43 West 61st Street, New

York, N.Y. 10023Soil, 16mm., sound, 30 minutes

Encyclopedia Britannica Films, 1150 Wilmette Avenue,Wilmette, Ill. 60091

Conservation of Natural Resources; 16mm., sound,black and white, 11 minutes

Look To The Land; 16mm., sound, black and write, 21minutes

Our Soil Resources; 16mm., sound, black and white,11 minutes

Yours Is The Land; 16mm., sound, color, 21 minutesNasco, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 53538

Soil and Conservation Kit (Model)

Soil Science

Hours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in the physical and chemical prop-erties of soils as influenced by climate, theparent material from which they were formed,topography of the area, organisms in the soil,and time. The laboratory period includes mapreading, moisture determinations, chemicalanalysis and study of approved soil practicesin the area.

4A 4

40-Lt

Figuro 18.A wellequIpped soli laboratory must have acidresistant sinks andsafety equipment such as the eye washing fountain shown in the background.

it

This course is a systematic introductorystudy of soil science in the lecture and relatedlaboratory periods. It is designed to present thebasic principles of physical characteristics,chemical properties, the life in the soil, soil wa-ter and nutrition. Lectures should be supple-mented from time to time by demonstrations ofspecific principles, motion pictures, andmodels. In Addition to teaching the underlyingprinciples of soil, the instructor should stressthe scientific attitude by constantly weighingnew findings in terms of past experiences.

The laboratory periods enable the student toconduct elementary experiments on the impor-tant phases of the living soil. Sessions are in-

Figure 19.This portable soil storage bin was designed to fit under the worktable along the wall of the laboratory whore it is out of sight, but where thesoil cm be kept in good condition and can be easily available when neededfor study.

rlICrar.,Itsr.

91

eluded on physical properties, chemical prop-erties, and organic matter, coordinated withthe lectures. Soil surveys, organic matter, andwater also are considered. By performing actu-al experiments in the laboratory the studentwill acquire, with the instructor's help, a facil-ity for handling laboratory equipment, someknowledge of laboratory methods and the basicfacts of soil science.

I.II.

IV.V.

VI.VII.

VIII.IX.X.

XI.

XII.XIII.XIV.XV.

XVI.

Major DivisionsClass hours

Physical Properties of SoilsParent Materials of Soils 2Soil Formation and Classification... 2Soil Surveys and Their Use 2Chemical and Colloidal Properties 2Life In the Soil 2Soil Organic Matter 2Soil Water 2Plant Nutrition 2Lime and Liming 2Fertilizers and Their

Characteristics 2Tillage 2Water Conservation 2Soil Conservation 2Irrigation Practices 2Drainage Systems, Soil

and Plant Diagnosis 2Total 32

Units of InstructionI. Physical Properties of Soils

A. Mechanical analyses1. Pipette methods2. Bouyoucos method

B. Soil separates1. Size range2. Soil texture3. Soil structure

C. Organic soils1. Peat2. Muck

D. Particle density1. Definition2. Average

E. Bulk density1. Definition2. Pore space3. Formula

F. Soil consistence1. Wet2. Dry

G. Soil color1. Hue2. Value3. Chroma

II. Parent Materials of SoilsA. Residual material

1. Igneous2. Sedimentary3. Metamorphic

B. Transported material1. Water

a. Alluvialb. Lacustrinec. Marine

2. Winda. Eolianb. Loess

3. Icea. Moraineb. Till plainc. Outwash plain

C. Cumulose material1. Peat2. Muck

D. Physical weathering1. Freezing, thawing2. Heating, cooling3. Wetting, drying4. Erosion5. Action of plants, animals, man

E. Chemical weathering and chemical de-composition1. Carbonation2. Hydration3. Hydrolysis4. Solution5. Reduction6. Oxidation

2. Intrazonal soils3. Azonal soils

IV. Soil Surveys and Their UseA. UseB. National cooperative soil surveyC. Legend : series, types, phasesD. Soil profileE. Soil survey reportF. Land capability classification

V. Chemical and Colloidal PropertiesA. Colloidal clayB. Soil colloidsC. Cationic exchangeD. Exchange capacityE. Absorption and exchange of anionsF. Soil pHG. Buffer capacityH. Fixation of elements

VI. Life In the SoilA. Microflora and soil structureB. Plant rootsC. Soil mammalsD. EarthwormsE. Arthropods ; gastropodsF. Protozoa ; nematodesG. Distribution of mierofiora

VII. Soil Organic MatterA. FunctionsB. Chemical propertiesC. Biological propertiesD. Maintenance in humid regionsE. Maintenance in semiarid regions

VIII. Soil WaterA. Functions-B. InfiltrationC. PercolationD. PermeabilityE. Soil water classifiedF. Measuring soil moisture

III. Soil Formation and Classification G. Leaching lossesA. ClimateB. Parent material IX. Plant NutritionC. Relief A. Essential elementsD. Biosphere B. Nutrient uptakeE. Time C. Foliar nutritionF. Soil groups D. Plant nutrition and soil physical

1. Zonal conditions

92

X. Lime and LimingA. Its consumptionB. Cause of soil acidityC. What lime does in soilD. Crop response to limeE. Liming materialsF. Chemical guaranteesG. Physical guaranteesH. Crop lime requirementI. Nutrient availability and pHJ. ApplyingK. Over limingL. Lime loss from soil

XI. Fertilizers and Their CharacteristicsA. The industryB. Nitrogen materialsC. Phosphorous materialsD. Potassium materialsE. Secondary materialsF. Micronutrient elementsG. Formulation of mixed fertilizersH. Basicity or acidity of fertilizersI. Nutrients removed by cropsJ. Time of applicationK. PlacementL. Profit from use

XII. TillageA. Tillage and plant growthB. ChiselingC. Insect controlD. Tillage and organic matterD. Tillage and organic matterE. Soil moisture and tillageF. Pan formationG. Tillage pans and infiltration ratesH. Soil structure and cropping systems

XIII. Water ConservationA. Hydrologic cycle

1. Surface runoff2. Leaching3. Evaporation4. Plant use

B. PrecipitationC. RunoffD. Water storage in soilE. Water storage in pondsF. Water storage in ground waterG. Terracing

H. Contour tillage

XIV. Soil ConservationA. Water erosion

1. Splash2. Surface flow3. Channelized flow

B. Water erosion is selectiveC. Topsoil depth versus crop yieldD. Soil conservation districtsE. Preferred cropping systemsF. Terraces for erosion controlG. Wind erosion

XV. Irrigation PracticesA. DefinedB. Soils of arid, semiarid regionsC. Reclamation of saline, alkaline soilsD. Salt tolerance of cropsE. Water qualityF. Crop consumptive useG. Soil water-holding capacityH. Irrigation depth for cropsI. Frequency of irrigationJ. Increasing infiltration rate of soils

XVI. Drainage Systems, Soil and,Plant.Diagnosis

A. Benefits of drainageB. Soils requiring drainageC. Drainage capacityD. Methods of drainage

1. Surface2. Tile

E. Representative soil sample for testingF. Soil testingG. Tissue testingH. Deficiency symptomsI. Correcting deficiencies

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Find minerals and rocks important in soilformation. (3 hours)

2. Make a mechanical analysis of soil by theBouyoucos method. (3 hours)

8. Classify soils. (8 hours)4. Study soil surveys : initiate pot cultures. (3

hours)5. Analyze soil properties related to texture.

(3 hours)

93

6. Make field study of local soils or initiate alaboratory study of soil life. (3 hours)

7. Determine soil moisture by gravimetric,tensiometer, and electronic methods. (3

hours)8. Ascertain organic matter and humus con-

tent of soil. (3 hours)9. Determine pH of several samples of soil.

(3 hours)10. Learn lime characteristics find estimated

lime needs of crops. (3 hours)11. Determine the cost relationship and eco-

nomics of fertilizer use. (3 hours)12. Measure plant decomposition determine

pot culture results. (3 hours)13. Find out the advantages of reinforced

barnyard manure. (3 hours)14. 1. Make a field trip to a local soil conser-

vation district; (3 hours) or2. Study practical conservation methods in

the laboratory.15. Determine the temperature relationship of

soils. (3 hours)16. Analyze soil and determine plant needs. (3

hours)

Texts and ReferencesARCIIER, Soil ConservationBERGER, Introductory SoilsBUCKMAN and BRADY, Nature and Properties of SoilsCHAPMAN and PRATT, Methods of Analysis for Soils,

Plants, and WatersDONAIIIIE, Soils: An Introduction To Soils and Plant

GrowthMILLAR and others, Fundamentals of Soil ScienceTISDAIX and NELSON, Soil Fertility and Fertilizers

Visual Aids

Encyclopedia I3ritannica Films, 1150 Wilmette Avenue,Wilmette, Ill. 60091

Face of The Earth, 16mm., sound, color, 12 minutesGeological Work of Ice, 16mm., sound, color, 11 min-

utesGround Water, 16mm., sound, color, 11 minutesThe Work of Rivers, 16mm., sound, black and white,

11 minutesNational Plant Food institute, Film Department, 1700

K Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006The Big Test, 16mm., sound, color, 15% minutes

Soil Conservation Service, Regional Offices: Fort Worth,Tex.; Lincoln, Nebr.; Portland, Ore.; or UpperDarby, Pa.

Birth of the Soil, 16mm., sound, color, 11 minutesErosion, 16mm., sound, 10 minutes

94

Union Pacific Railroad, Motion Picture Division, 1416Dodge Street, Omaha, Nebr. 68102

Gift From The Clouds, 16mm., sound, color, 26 min-utes

It's Time To Irrigate, 16mm., sound, color, 10 minutes

Charts and Pictures:Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Inc., Post Of-

fice Box 1712, Rochester, N.Y. 14603

1 set of pictures of soilsModels:Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Inc., Post Of-

fice Box 1712, Rochester, N.Y. 14603

1 set Soil Formation Collection1 set Soil Types Collection1 set Earth Science Mineral and Rock Collection

Nasco, Fort Atkinson, Wis. 535381 set Soil Separates1 set Soil Formation Display1 set Soil Classes1 set Fertilizer Samples1 Residual Soil Collection1 Nasco Rock Collection

Subtropical Fruit Production

Hours Required

Class, 2 Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in the production of subtropicalfruits, including avocados, citrus, dates, andolives. A study of the fundamental informationrelating to the commercial orchard manage-ment of these fruits. The laboratory work par-allels the lectures with emphasis on the vari-ous cultural practices.

In the first part of the course the instructorreviews environment, nutrition, and propaga-tion as they relate to subtropical fruit produc-tion. A brief consideration is given to prun-ing principles, cultivation and noncultivationmethods, pest control and frost protection. Em-phasis should be given to rootstocks and vari-eties of citrus, avocados, olives, and dates. Abrief synopsis is given in the lectures of mis-cellaneous subtropical fruits. Harvesting andmarketing are also covered.

The laboratory section offers practical workin the various aspects of production by on-the-

j ob training in cultivation, fertilizers, prun-ing, and propagation. The instructor will dem-onstrate, then have students practice the skillsenough to develop the required proficiency in

subjects such as grafting in plant propagation.While presenting the basic principles in the"laboratory, the instructor should illustratethem with the latest methods for doing thetasks in the industry at the current time.

Major Divisions

IV.V.

VI.VII.

VIII.IX.X.

XI.XII.

XIII.

Class hoursSoil, Climate, WaterIrrigation, Fertilization Practices 2Propagation : Seed Planting,

Nursery Management, PlantGrowth Regulators 2

Pruning, Cultivation Methods 2Mechanical, Biological Pest

Control 2Diseases 2Frost Protection 2Citrus Rootstocks and Varieties._ 4Avocado Rootstocks and Varieties 4Olive, Date, Fig 2Miscellaneous Subtropical Fruits._ 2

Harvesting and Marketing 4Mechanization and Automation__ 2

Total 32

Units of Instruction

I. Soil, climate, WaterA. Soils

I. Adaptation, types2. Water tables3. Salinity content4. Nutrients

B. ClimateI. Temperature

a. Highb. Low

2. Humidity3. Wind

a. Prevailingb. Strength

C. Water1. Quantity2. Quality

a. Salinity contentb. Salt accumulationc. Plow-sole elimination

II. Irrigation, Fertilization PracticesA. Irrigation

1. Most important factor2. Soils vary in water holding capacity

95

a. Sandb. Clayc. Loams

3. Fundamentalsa. Saturationb. Water holding capacityc. Permanent wilting pointd. Available moisturee. Evaporation

4. Methodsa. Furrowsb. Sprinklersc. Basins

5. Measurement of waterB. Fertilization

1. Nutrition2. Major elements : N (nitrogen), P

(phosphorus) , K (potassium)3. Microelements4. Deficiency symptoms5. Time of application6. Method of application

a. Broadcastb. Irrigation waterc. Spraysd. Systemics

7. Sources of nutrientsa. Organicb. Inorganic

8. Requirements of tree9. Effects on fruit quality

10. pH of soils11. Soil analysis12. Leaf (tissue) analysis13. Cost per unit

III. Propagation : Seed Planting, Nursery Man-agement, Plant Growth Regulators

A. Propagation1. Own-root trees

a. Growing seedlingsb. Cuttingsc. Layers

2. Graftagea. Rootstockb. Scionc. Advantagesd. Disadvantagese. Methodsf. Cleftg. Whip and tongue

h. Whip grafti. Side graftj. Inarchingk. Top working

3. Buddinga. Form of graftingb. Advantages, disadvantagesc. Methods

(1) "T" or shield(2) Inverted "T"(3) Patch

4. Grafting waxes5. Effects of stock and scion6. Intermediate piece or "sandwich"7. Care after grafting

B. Nursery management1. Layout2. Labor use3. Operations

a. Cultivation, weed controlb. Irrigationc. Propagationd. Harvestinge. Ball and burlapf. Seed planting

4. TimingC. Plant growth regulators

1. Rooting of cuttings2. Hormones to aid fruit set3. Cut mature fruit drop4. Increasing fruit sizes5. Increasing storage life of fruit6. Chemical production of new varieties7. Chemicals used-concentrations

IV. Pruning, Cultivation MethodsA. Pruning

1. Fruiting habits of trees2. Age of trees

a. Matureb. Young trees

3. Care in pruning; proper cuts4. Care after pruning ; tree paint

B. Cultivation1. To control weed growth2. Plow-sole danger

C. Noncultivation1. Weed control by herbicides2. Improved water penetration3. Erosion minimized4. Organic mulchers

96

V. Mechanical, Biological Pest ControlA. Mechanical

1. Fumigation ; caution2. Oil sprays3. Equipment4. Timing5. New materials6. Soil fumigants7. The pests : scales, mites, worms, mealy

bugs, beetles, snails8. Laws ; regulations

B. Biological1. Cottony cushion scale ; historical (Ve-

dalia lady bird beetle)2. Present status of introduced parasites3. Ant control

VI. DiseasesA. Citrus

1. Brown rot gummosis2. Brown rot3. Decline and collapse4. Scaly bark (virus)5. Shell bark (lemons)6. Quick decline7. Water spot of navels8. Oak root fungus9. Septoria rot

B. Avocados1. Dieback2. Root knot nematode3. Trunk canker4. Root rot5. Zinc deficiency

C. Olive1. Bacterial knot2. Verticillium wilt

D. Fig1. Fusarium wilt2. Sooty mold3. Souring

VII. Frost ProtectionA. TemperatureB. Freezing injury

1. How freezing kills2. Cause of frost resistance3. Surface influences3. Atmospheric conditions and damage5. Orchard site

C. Frost control

1. Wind machines2. Orchard heaters3. Combination of above4. Blowers5. Flooding

D. Specific fruits1. Critical temperatures2. Treatment of trees after frost

VIII. Citrus Rootstocks and VarietiesA. General considerationsB. Lemon

1. Rootstocksa. Sour orangeb. Sweet orangec. Rough lemond. Cleopatra mandarine. Sampson tangelof. Certain citranges

2. Varietiesa. Eurekab. Lisbonc. VillafrancaMeyer lemon-dwarf

C. Orange1. Sour orange ; root stock2. Sweet orange

a. Rootstocks(1) Sour orange(2) Sweet orange(3) Rough lemon(4) Sweet lime(5) Grapefruit(6) Cleopatra mandarin(7) Trifoliate orange(8) Sampson tangelo(9) Citranges

b. Varieties(1) Washington navel(2) Valencia(3) Hamlin(4) Parson Brown(5) Pineapple(6) Homosassa(7) Jaffa

D. Limes1. Rootstocks2. Varieties

E. Grapefruit1. Rootstocks2. Varieties

97

F. Mandarin orangesG. Orange hybrids

IX. Avocado Rootstocks and VarietiesA. Rootstocks

1. Mexican2. Guatemalan3. West Indian

B. Varieties1. Fuerte2. Lula3. Hass4. Ryan5. Anaheim6. Dickinson7. Pollock8. Fuchsia

X. Olive, Date, FigA. Olive

1. General considerations2. Varieties

a. Missionb. Manzanilloc. Sevillanod. Ascolano

B. Date1. The tree, environment2. Flowers and fruit setting3. Mature fruit4. Varieties

a. Deglet Noorb. Halawyc. Khadrawyd. Maktoom, Kustawy

C. Fig1. General consideration2. Flowers, fruit setting3. Mature fruit4. Varieties

a. Missionb. Calimyrnac. Brown turkey

xr. Miscellaneous Subtropical FruitsA. PapayaB. CherimoyaC. Common guavaD. FeijoaE. Sapodilla

F. LoquatG. MangoH. MacadamiaI. Banana

XII. Harvesting and MarketingA. Harvesting

1. Maturity2. Standards by law3. Methods of harvesting

B. Marketing1. Independent2. Cooperatives3. Direct4. Integrated

XIII. Mechanization and AutomationA. Labor

1. Primary factor2. Accelerated by economic factors3. Process advances

a. Labor assistance equipmentb. Partial labor replacement equip-

mentc. Complete labor replacement equip-

ment4. Operations

a. Preparationb. Plantingc. Pruningd. Harvestinge. Packingf. Sales and transportation

B. Time-Motion (efficiency) studies1. Problem2. Steps3. Possible solutions4. Application of best one5. Cost accounting and data processing

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Make soil analyses. (3 hours)2. Irrigation methods, soil moisture determi-

nation. 3 hours)3. Lay out fertilizer plots and problems. (3

hours)4. Do nursery and orchard layout, manage-

ment, and seeding. (3 hours)5. Evaluate plant growth regulators. (3

hours)6. Prune and sucker citrus and avocado trees.

(3 hours)

98

7. Apply chemical pest control. (3 hours)8. Take a field trip to insectary. (3 hours)9. Practice disease identification and control.

(3 hours)10. Operate orchard heaters and wind ma-

chines. (3 hours)11. Practice grafting citrus trees. (3 hours)12. Practice grafting avocado trees. (3 hours)13. Study mechanization, packing plant design,

cultivation, and non-cultivation. (3 hours)14. Practice budding avocados trees. (3 hours)15. Practice budding citrus trees. (3 hours)16. Take a field trip to central market or by-

products plant or fruit packing plant. (3hours)

Texts and ReferencesANDUS, Plant Growth SubstancesCHANDLER, Evergreen OrchardsKLOTZ, Color Handbook of Citrus DiseasesLEOPOLD, Plant Growth and DevelopmentMORTENSEN and BULLARD, Handbook of Tropical and

Subtropical HorticultureSINCLAIR, The Orange: Its Biochemistry and Physiology

Truck CropsHours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course DescriptionA study of the vegetable industry and the

problems involved in truck crops production.Laboratory periods will include practical ex-perience in the cultural operations of growingvegetable crops.

The instructor should spend most of the lec-ture time on the specific practices of the vege-tables of major economic significance to thelocal area. Emphasis should be placed uponthose aspects of production which enhanceboth yields and market quality. Students willbe given periodic reading assignments in cur-rent literature to keep them abreast with cur-rent trends.

Laboratory periods will provide studentswith opportunities to apply those principles of

production emphasized in the lecture. Theschool farm will be utilized to demonstrate thevarious cultural practices and to provide plantmaterials for classroom study.

Students will have an opportunity to conductvarious demonstration projects on the schoolfarm.

Major Divisions

Class hoursI. Introduction to Classificationsof Vegetables

Geographic Production AreasSoils and Climatic RegionsSeeds and Seed PropagationCultural Practices : IrrigationCultural Practices : FertilizationCultural Practices : Insects

and PestsVIII. Cultural Practices : Disease

ControlIX. Food ValuesX. Cool Season Crops

XI. Warm Season CropsXII. Marketing

Total

222222

2

22662

32

Units of InstructionI. Introduction to Classifications of Vegetables

A. History and types of truck crop produc-tion

B. History and method of botanical classifica-tion1. Flower parts2. Latin terminology

C. Other methods of classification1. Part eaten2. Number of seasons plant may live3. Optimum growing temperatures (ther-

m° classification)a. Cool season crops

(1) Those intolerant of freezing(2) Those tolerant of freezing

b. Warm season crops4. Cultural methods

II. Geographic Production AreasA. California

1. Central valleys2. Salinas Valley3. Imperial Valley

B. Western States1. Arizona2. Idaho3. Colorado4. Washington, Oregon5. Utah, Montana6. New Mexico, Nevada, Wyoming

C. Mexico

99

D. MidwestE. EastF. South, including FloridaG. Foreign

1. Western Europe2. Russia3. Far East4. South America

III. Soils and Climatic RegionsA. Introduction to Soils

1. Types and characteristics ; stress pH2. Function and importance3. Desirable characteristics of vegetable

,toils4. Selection of vegetables to meet var-

ious soil characteristics5. Cultural practices to develop more

desirable vegetable soils6. Organic matter

B. Climatic factors and their effect1. Temperature2. Precipitation3. Photo period4. Smog5. Wind

C. Erosion control

IV. Seeds and Seed PropagationA. Seeds

1. Dicots2. Monocots3. Factors affecting viability4. Anatomy5. Germination ; stress moisture and

temperature6. Coating and seed treatment

B. Seed production1. Requirements and problems2. Areas of production3. Inheritance and production of hybrids

C. Propagation of seeds1. Field methods2. Flat, cold frame, hot beds, etc.3. Planting rates4. Planting dates5. Planting depths

D. Hardening and transplantingE. Propagation by asexual means

1. Bulbs2. Tubers3. Runners, division, etc.

V. Cultural Practices : IrrigationA. Introduction to plant moisture

1. Field capacity2. Moisture equivalent3. Permanent wilting percentage

B. Moisture requirements and various root-ing depths by crops

C. Methods of irrigation ; stress planning1. Furrow or surface

a. Slopeb. Length of run

2. Sprinkler3. Subirrigation

D. Water quality

VI. Cultural Practices : FertilizationA. Introduction to primary nutrients

1. N (Nitrogen)2. P (Phosphorous)3. K (Potassium)

B. Minor elements and mixed fertilizersC. Quantity to useD. Methods of application

1. Broadcasting2. Bands3. Top dressing4. Irrigation water

E. Manure and organic matterF. Soil amendments to change pH or im-

prove water penetration1. Lime2. Gypsum3. Sulfur4. Certain fertilizer

G. Suggested rotations

VII. Cultural Practices : Insects and PestsA. Important vegetable insects (character-

istics, primary food, control)1. Cutworms2. Blister beetles3. Wireworms4. Aphid5. European corn borer6. Japanese beetle7. Tomal hornworm

B. Important vegetable pests (character-istics, primary food, control)1. Nematodes2. Mites3. Gophers

100

4. Rabbits5. Slugs and snails

C. Weed control1. Chemicals2. Rotations3. Cultivation practices

VIII. Cultural Practices : Disease ControlA. Introduction to vegetable diseases

1. Cost and importance2. Damage3. Micro-organisms causing disease

B. Important vegetable diseases (character-istics, important costs, control)

1. Crown gall2. Damping off3. Bacterial soft rot4. Sclerotinia rot (cottony mold)5. Rhizoctonia6. Curly top7. Fusarium wilt8. Mosaic9. Spotted and verticillium wilt

IX. Food ValuesA. Introduction to nutrition

1. Nutrients and function2. Minimum daily requirement

B. Composition of vegetables ; stages ofmaturity1. Leafy green2. Yellow "fruit" vegetables3. Root crops4. Others

C. Processing and preparation ; effect onfood value1. Canning2. Cooking3. Freezing4. Drying5. Aging

X. Cool Season CropsA. Temperature adaptationB. Crops

1. Majora. Cabbageb. Spinachc. Broccoli

2. Minor cropsa. Beets, radish, turnip, parsnip

b. Kale and collardsc. Kohlrabi, brussels sprouts

d. Rhubarb, watercresse. Horsebeans

C. Damage done by adverse weather

D. Cultural practices1. Planting2. Spacing3. Harvesting

E. Storage requirements

XL Warm Season CropsA. Species and varieties involved

B. Adaptation to temperatures1. Intolerant of frost

a. Sweet cornb. Snap beansc. Lima beand. Tomatoe. Pepperf. Squash, pumpking. Cucumberh. Cantaloupe

2. Require continuous warm weather

a. Watermelonb. Sweet potatoc. Eggplant, okra, hot peppers

C. Damage done by adverse weather

D. Cultural practices1. Propagation2. Planting3. Harvesting

E. Storage requirements

XII. MarketingA. Transportation and cost analysis

B. Preparation for marketing1. Grading2. Packaging3. Washintg, etc.

C. Field trip to central market

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Classify and identify vegetable crops. (3

hours)2. Plan and lay out a field. (3 hours)

3. Propagate truck crop plants by seeds.

(3 hours)4. Propagate truck crop plants by methods

other than seeds. (3 hours)

5. Transplant truck crop seedlings. (3 hours)

101

6. Thin an established stand of truck crop

plants. (3 hours)7. Study protective practices for young plants.

(3 hours)8. Study soil mulching. (3 hours)

9. Construct supporting structures for vege-

tables. (3 hours)10. Study maturity indications, standards, and

grades for vegetables. (3 hours)

11. Take a field trip to a truck farm study

harvesting methods and equipment. (3

hours)12. Study nutritive value and chemical com-

position of vegetables. (3 hours)

13. Test and evaluate the quality of vegetable

products. (3 hours)14. Take a field trip to a vegetable processing

plant. (3 hours)15. Study preservation and processing of vege-

table crops. (3 hours)16. Take a field, trip to a wholesale vegetable

market. (3 hours)

Texts and References

JONES and MANN, Onions and Their Allies

KNOTT, Handbook for Vegetable Growers

MACGILLIVRAY,Vegetable Production

MACGILLIVRAY and STEVENS, Agricultural Labor and Its

Effective UseTHOMPSON and KELLEY, Vegetable Crops

WHITAKER and DAVIS, Cucurbits

U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletins

Commercial Growing of Sweet Corn, Farmers' Bulle-

tin No. 2042Lettuce and Its Production, Agriculture Handbook

No. 221Muskmellon Culture, Agriculture Handbook No. 218

Commercial Growing of Carrots, Leaflet No. 353

Fresh Cabbage, Marketing Bulletin No. 2

Commercial Production of Tomatoes, Farmers' Bulle-

tin No. 2045Cauliflower and BroccoliVarieties and Culture,

Farmers' Bulletin No. 1957

Weeds and Weed ControlHours Required

Class, 2 Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A study of identification, growth character-

istics, and control of those weeds detrimental to

cultivated crops and grasslands. During the

laboratory period students will learn to identi-

Figure 20.Weed control courses for farm crop production technicians includea study of equipment, techniques, and scientific use of cultivating and weedcontrolling machinery such as the cultivator shown here in a soybean field.

fy the important species of weeds and to makeapplications of herbicides.

During class discussions students will be ableto familiarize themselves with the physiologicalresponse of weeds to the various control treat-ments. Integration of chemical and cultural pro-cedures into an effective weed control programwill be stressed. Special attention will be givento characteristics, formulations, and safe ap-plication of the various herbicides.

In the laboratory students will learn to recog-nize the various weed species by observing theirhabitats, studying herbarium specimens and bymaking herbarium collections. They will alsohave an opportunity to gain experience in cali-brating spray rigs and in applying herbicides.Students will be required to maintain notebookson the phytotoxic properties of the herbicideswhich they have applied.

Term projects are assigned requiring eachstudent to select a local farm and to outline andcomplete a weed control program for thecropped and noncropped areas of the farm.

Major DivisionsClass hours

23

I. Importance of WeedsII. Reproduction of Weeds.

III. Characteristics of theWeedy Species

IV. Cultural and BiologicalControl of Weeds

2

6

102.

V. General Principles ofChemical Weed Control 5

VI. Safe Handling of HerbicidalMaterials 2

VII. Selective Herbicides 3VIII. Nonselective Herbicides 3

IX. Control of Weeds in Specific Crops 3X. Application Methods and

Equipment 3Total 32

Units of Instruction

I. Importance of WeedsA. Definition of a weedB. Economic losses resulting from weeds

1. Cost of weeds2. Types of loss

a. Increased costs of productionb. Reduction in yieldsc. Reduction in quality of crops and

crop productsd. Reduction in quality of animal prod-

uctse. Loss of animals due to poisonous

plantsf. Detrimental to human healthg. Clogging of waterways and irriga-

tion ditchesh. Undermining of roadways and

structuresi. Detracts from aesthetic value of

landscapej. Fire hazardsk. Harbor pests and plant diseases

3. Losses in agricultural areasa. Grain cropsb. Field cropsc. Forage cropsd. Vegetable cropse. Orchardsf. Vineyards

C. Beneficial aspects of weeds1. Soil indicators

a. Soil pHb. Soil fertilityc. Soil drainage

2. Provide feed for livestock3. Soil and water conservation4. Food and cover for wildlife

IL Reproduction of WeedsA. Reproduction by seed

1. Seed structures, spread by winda. Saccate fruitsb. Parachute fruitsc. Comate fruitsd. Winged fruitse. Plumed fruits

2. Seed structures, spread by mechanicalmeansa. Fleshy fruitsb. Sticky seedsc. Rough seed coatd. Floating seedse. Bristles, burs, thornsf. Gelatinous seeds

3. Plant structures contributing tospreada. Tumbling weedsb. Shooting seed pods

4. Disseminating agents of seeda. Farm tillage and harvesting equip.

mentb. Adulterated crop seedc. Adulterated crop productsd. Animal feede. Screeningsf. Farm livestockg. Adulterated horticultural productsh. Wateri. Fill dirt

5. Germinationa. Conditions influencing germinationb. Dormancy, naturalc. Dormancy, inducedd. Dormancy, role of inhibitors

6. Effect of various treatments upon theviability of seeda. Harvesting when immatureb. Storagec.. Herbicidal treatmentd. Burninge. Submerging in waterf. Burying in soilg. Ensilingh. Passage through animalsi. Grinding

B. Vegetative reproduction1. Type of root systems2. Size of root system3. Root cuttings

103

aworsamove-.4141-we

4. Stolons5. Regrowth capacity of perennials

III. Characteristics of the Weedy SpeciesA. Grow and reproduce under marginal con-

ditions1. Soil2. Climate3. Short growing seasons

B. Ability to reproduce by seed1. Production of large numbers of seed2. Effective dissemination of seed3. Dormancy of seed4. Longevity of seed

C. Ability to propagate vegetatively1. Naturally2. Under cultivated conditions3. Regrowth after loss of foliation

D. Repel grazing1. Unpalatable2. Rapid recovery

E. Resistant to weed chemicalsF. Competitive growth with other pants

IV. Cultural and Biological Control of Weeds

A. HoeingB. Tillage

1. Principles of controla. Fallowingb. Clean tilled cropsc. Rotations of tilled and nontilled

crops2. Frequency of tillage3. Relationship to other cultural prac-

tices4. Effect on perennials5. Costs of tillage6. Tillage equipment

a. Plows, harrows, discsb. Duckfoot cultivatorsc. Rotary hoes and thinner-weedersd. Rod weeder

7. Combining with chemical weed control

C. Mowing1. Areas of use2. Relationship to soil conservation3. Effect on the growth habits of weeds4. Combining with other cultural prac-

ticesD. Flooding

1. Principles of control

2. Effect on growth and development ofweeds

3. Effect on weed seed4. Effect on soil

E. Flaming1. Principles of flaming

a. Heat tolerant plantsb. Regrowth of treated plantsc. Length of flaming timed. Temperature of flame

2. Effect on crop plants3. Methods of flaming

a. Parallel flamingb. Cross flaming

4. Flaming equipment5. Calibrating pressure settings and

speed of travel6. Nonselective flaming7. Selective flaming

a. Cropsb. Effects on yield and quality

8. CostsF. Smothering

1. Principles of smothering2. Materials used3. Crops on which this method can be

usedG. Competitive crops

1. Principles in growing competitivecrops

2. Crops grown competitivelya. Foragi topsb. Cereal cropsc. Large seeded legumes

3. Characteristics of competing plantsa. Ready and uniform germinationb. Rapid development of an extensive

foliar areac. Large number of stomatad. Early development of an extensive

root systeme. Primary and secondary roots

4. Effect of competition on cropsa, Yieldb. Quality

5. Crop rotations6. Combining with other control methods

H. Biological control of weeds1. Definition of biological control2. Conditions necessary for success using

insects

104

a. Highly specialized feedersb. Limited to a specific habitatc. Limited to host plant onlyd. Introduced free of predators and

diseasese. Not subjected to new predators

3. Attaining an equilibrium4. Species controlled biologically

a. Prickly pearb. Klamath weedc. Lantanad. Nutgrasse. Puncture vinef. Gorseg. Wild blackberryh. Tansy ragwort

5. Relationship to cultural practices

V. General Principles of Chemical Weed Con-trol

A. Definitions1. Selective herbicides2. Nonselective herbicides3. Root applications4. Foliar applications5. Preemergence applications6. Postemergence applications7. Contact herbicides8. Trans located herbicides9. Carrier

10. Solvent11. Toxicant12. Filming agent13. Wetting agent14. Emulsion15. Invert emulsion16. Acute toxicity17. Chronic toxicity

B. Plant processes and their relationshipto herbicides1. Photosynthesis2. Respiration3. Production of enzymes, hormones, etc.4. Cell division, elongation, differen-

tiation5. Transpiration6. Trans location of water and food7. Synthesis and storage of food8. Reproduction (vegetative and sexual)9. Turgor

10. Abcission

C. Penetration and translocation1. Stomatal absorption2. Cuticular penetration3. Xylem translocation4. Phloem translocation5. Intercellular translocation

D. Factors affecting the effectiveness ofchemicals1. Plant species

a. Stage of growthb. Growth habitsc. Morphological charactersd. Plant microenvironmente. Physiological characteristics

2. Characteristics of the herbicidea. Formulationb. Concentrationc. Volatilizationd. Spreading ability

3. Mechanics of applicationa. Complete coverageb. Size and density of particlesc. Combinations with other materials

E. Surfactants1. Definition2. Types of surfactants

a. Anionicb. Cationicc. Nonionicd. Amphoteric

3. Selecting the proper surfactanta. Concentration and typeb. Herbicidec. Plant speciesd. Cost

VI. Safe Handling of Herbicidal MaterialsA. Personal safety devices

1. Protective clothing2. Protective mechanical devices

B. Safe practices1. Skin care2. Care of clothing3. First aid4. Storage of injurious materials5. Labeling6. Decontamination of equipment7. Neutralization and disposal of unused

materials8. Disposal of empty containers9. Mixing chemicals

105

10. Understanding the toxicological pro-perties of herbicides

11. Personnel educationC. Applications of herbicides

1. Climatic conditions2. Timing applications3. Avoiding drift4. Food crops5. Toxicity of. herbicides to livestock and

wildlifeD. Residues in crops

1. Safe tolerances2. Cumulative effect3. Carryover effect

E. Laws relating to herbicides1. Legal tolerances2. Personnel safety3. Damage to neighboring crops4. Purchasing and applying herbicides

VII. Selective HerbicidesA. Principles of selectivity

1. Differential wettinga. Waxy leaf surfacesb. Corrugated leaf surfacesc. Foliar aread. Position and arrangement of leaves

2. Location of growing parts3. Difference in plant tolerances4. Selective herbicidal placement5. Differences in growth habits

a. Dormancyb. Deep rooted cropsc. Perennial cropsd. Habitat differencese. Stage of growth

B. Factors affecting selectivity1. Type of crop2. Botanical characteristics of the weed

species3. Environmental conditions4. Concentration and dosage of herbicide5. Formulation of herbicide6. Retention of herbicide by the soil7. Size and age of weed species8. Metabolic condition of plant

C. Selective-foliar contact herbicides1. Types of herbicides

a. Dinitrophenolsb. Metal organic saltsc. Selective oils

2. Modes of actionD. Selective-translocated foliar applications

1. Types of herbicidesa. Hormone-like compoundsb. Carbamatesc. Arsenicals

2. Modes of action3. Advantages and limitations

E. Selective herbicides : root applications1. Types of herbicides

a. Substituted areasb. Phenoxy compoundsc. Carbamatesd. Aliphatic acidse; Simazine and triazine compoundsf. Dinitrophenols

2. Modes of action3. Selectivity and soil retention of herbi-

cides4. Advantages and limitations

VIII. Nonselective HerbicidesA. Foliar applications

1. Areas of use2. Types of herbicides

a. Water soluble chemicalsb. Oilsc. Oil-water emulsionsd. Chlorinated benzenes and aromat-

ic solventse. Quaternary ammonium compounds

3. Modes of action4. Preemergence applications5. Advantages and limitations of non-

selectivesB. Translocated foliar applications

1. Factors affecting translocationa. Time of applicationb. Soil moisturec. Concentration of herbicided. Rainfalle. Temperature

2. Types of herbicidesa. Arsenicalsb. Chlorate compoundsc. Acidified copper sulfated. Thiocyanates

3. Modes of actionC. Root applications, temporary soil sterilants

1. Volatile chemicalsa. Types of materials

106

b. Modes of actionc. Factors affecting movement in soild. Season of applicatione. Effect on soilf. Methods of applyingg. Response of weedsh. Secondary benefits

2. Other materialsa. Types of chemicalsb. Modes of actionc. Effects on the soild. Timing the applicatione. Methods of applying

D. Root applications, long lasting sterilants1. Areas of use2. Types of materials

a. Chlorate compoundsb. Boron compoundsc. Arsenicalsd. Substituted urease. Heterocyclic nitrogen derivatives

3. Movement in the soil4. Factors affecting longevity

a. Soil moistureb. Soil temperaturec. Soil typed. Concentration and dosage of herbi-

cidee. Weed speciesf. Fertility and pH of soilg. Photodecompositionh. Microbiological activity

5. Advantages and limitations of soilsterilants

IX. Control of Weeds in Specific Crops (Ratesof Application, Timing the Application,Methods of Applying, Precautions inApplying)

A. Forage and cereal crops1. DNBP2. 2, 4D3. MC4. Dalapon5. CIPC6. Diuron7. EPTC8. Barban9. MCPA

10. Atrazine11. Proponil

12. TrifluralinB. Field crops

1. EPTC2. 2, 4D3. Monuron4. Diuron5. Dalapon6. CIPC7. Endothal8. PEBC9. MCPA

10. IPCC. Vegetable crops

1. CDEC2. 2, 4D3. Selective oils4. Dalapon5. EPTC6. Atrazine7. CIPC8. IPC9. KOCN

10. PEBCD. Orchard and vineyard crops

1. Simazine2. Monuron3. Diuron4. Weed Oils

6. Pressure regulators7. Nozzles

a. Spray patternsb. Size

8. Hoses9. Agitators

a. Mechanical stirringb. Hydraulic

10. Preventing drifta. Timing the applicationb. Thickened spraysc. Nozzle sized. Pressure regulation

C. Soil injection equipmentD. Dusting

1. Advantages2. Disadvantages

E. Granular materials1. Methods of applying

a. Broadcastingb. Banding

2. Application equipmenta. Broadcasters and drillsb. Soil incorporating

3. Advantages4. Disadvantages

F. Calibrating equipmentG. Decontamination of equipment

1. Materials toxic to plantsX. Application Methods and Equipment a. Water soluble materials

A. Requirements of application equipment b. Insoluble materials1. Applies material at a controllable rate c. Hormone-like materials2. Applies material evenly 2. Materials toxic to man3. Rate can be predetermined 3. Corrosive materials

B. Spraying Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)1. Types of sprayers

a. Large ground rigs 1. Study the morphological characteristics

b. Aircraft sprayers and key the various weed families. (6

c. Logarithmic sprayers hours)2. Pumps 2. Survey the weed control problems of the

a. Gear local farm community. (3 hours)b. Centrifugal 3. Apply soil sterilants to selected weed con-

c. Impeller trol plots. (3 hours)d. Diaphragm 4. Apply selective and nonselective herbicides

e. Piston to selected weed control plots. (3 hours)

3. Power supply. 5. Identify the noxious weeds and weed seeds.

a. Power takeoff (3 hours)b. Self contained 6. Study weed control equipment. (3 hours)c. Traction wheel drive 7. Calibrate spray rigs. (3 hours)

4. Strainers 8. Study and observe herbicidal applications.

5. Booms (3 hours)

107

9. Collect, identify, and make herbariummounts of the important species of weeds.(21 hours)

Texts and ReferencesCRAFTS, The Chemistry and Mode of Action of Herbi-

cidesCRAFTS and ROBBINS, Weed ControlKLINGMAN, Weed Control: As A ScienceU.S. Department of Agriculture, Summary of Regis-

tered Pesticide Chemical Uses

Auxiliary and SupportingTechnical Courses

Agricultural MechanicsHours Required

Class, 2 Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in the basic mechanical concepts

used on a modern farm. Safety and good workhabits are emphasized. Blueprint reading,sketching and drafting, carpentry, concrete,welding, hot and cold metal, plumbing, painting,and electrical work are the subjects of study.

The laboratory will include practical applicationand use of the skills associated with the studies.

The course is designed to give studentsknowledge, understanding, and application ofthe tools and materials in everyday workaround the farm. Students will be involved inplanning, sketching, drafting, print reading,material and cost estimating for the variousmechanical requirements on a modern farm.The study includes selection, construction, oper-ation, maintenance, and repair of buildings,structures, equipment, and machines and meth-ods used for better farm operation. The tools,

materials, and equipment needed to accomplishthe work in the particular subject must be un-derstood and skill developed in their use andselection.

Students will study welding to learn the pro-cedure and methods, since there will be littletime to develop skill in welding. They may useadditional practice to develop some skill whentime is available during other laboratoryactivities.

Students will have the opportunity to puttheir ideas and knowledge to practical use with

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laboratory work. They will construct and repairprojects that are used on the modern farm.

Major DivisionsClass haws

I. Shop Rules, Procedures, andSafety Practices 2

II. Sketching, Drafting, BlueprintReading 6

III. Building and Carpentry 4

IV. Concrete 2

V. Welding 6

VI. Metalwork 5

VII. Plumbing 1

VIII. Protection of Machineryand Buildings 2

IX. Electricity 4

Total 32

Units of Instruction

I. Shop Rules, Procedures, and Safety Prac-ticesA. Safety,B. Operation of equipment and power tools in

shop1. Woodworking2. Metalworking

II. Sketching, Drafting, Blueprint ReadingA. Lines

1. Alphabet of lines2. The working drawing$. Views

B. DimensionsC. Sketching

1. Making a working sketch2. Sketching shapes3. Projections

D. Reading and applying blueprints1. Abbreviations and symbols2. Detail and assembly prints

III. Building and CarpentryA. Shop layoutB. Bill of materialsC. Cost estimatingD. Tool identificatiori, use, care

IV. ConcreteA. Ingredients

1. Material selecting2. Silt testing

3. Water4. Proportions

B. Form construction and reenforcing con-

creteC. Detf rmining quantities of materials

1. Fiz:if-mixed2. Ready-mixed

D. Placing and finishing1. In forms2. In slabs

E. Curing1. Moisture2. Effect of weather3. Form removal4. Watertight concrete

V. WeldingA. Metallurgy

1. Structure of metal2. Effect of welding3. Properties of metal4. Classifications of metals

B. Machines, supplies, and accessories for

electric arc welding1. Terms2. AC-DC equipment3. Personal needs4. Shop requirements5. Electrodes and welding rods

C. Electric arc welding1. Four essentials of arc welding

2. Fusion welding3. The crater4. Electrode patterns5. Types of welds6. Position welding7. Safety

D. Machines, supplies, and accessories for

oxyacetylene welding1. Oxy-acetylene cylinders2. Regulators3. Hoses, connections4. The torch

E. Ox5;.-acetylene welding1. Preparing to weld

a. Setting up the unitei----b. Testing for leaksc. Selecting the correct tip

2. Lighting and operating the torch

a. Welding tipb. Cutting tip

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3. Flame control1. Flame characteristics2. Controlling backfire and flashback

3. Shutting off the torch4. Running a bead5. Position welding6. Safety

F. Drafting and drawing for welding and

welding symbols

VI. MetalworkA. Sheet metal

1. Soldering2. Folding and forming

B. Cold metal1. Identifying metals2. Cutting and filing3. Drilling, tapping, threading

C. Hot metal1. Blacksmithing2. Welding

VII. PlumbingA. Pipe fitting

1. Cutting and measuring pipe

2. InstallationB. Copper, plastic, and other

VIII. Protection of Machinery and Buildings

A. PaintingB. GlazingC. Protecting surfaces

1. Coatings2. Plastics3. Storage

IX. ElectricityA. What it is how it works

1.. Sources of electricity2. Work a nonelectrician can do

3. Electrical terms4. Materials used

B. Circuits1. Planning the wiring system

2. Calculating loads3. Methods of wiring

(a) wiring fundamentals(b) splices and connections

4. Maintaining the system(a) Repairs to wire(b) Repairs to fixtures

C. Electric motors1. Selecting the motor

(a) size and mounting(b) types

2. Installing the motor3. Maintaining the motor

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)1. Take a field trip to a local farm ; visit shop

and storage facilities. Note arrangement oftciols, power equipment, storage and workareas ; check for safety practices. (Thistrip can be used for information to drawshop plans) (3 hours)

2. Introduce students to facilities. Tour theshop, demonstrating operation of equip-ment, safety rules, and practices in theiruse. Show placement, care and safe opera-tion of hand and portable tools. Give asafety test written and practical. (3 hours)

3. Have students do complete plates includ-ing printing, sketching, and drawing. Be-ginning use of drafting machines. (3hours)

4. From blueprints or drawings have studentsmake bills of material, order lists and esti-mate cost of construction for a project ; orconstruct a project drawn by student suchas sawhorses, gate, feed trough. (3 hours)

5. Do a concrete job by mixing, pouring, test-ing, and calculating materials. (3 hours)

6. Construct some useful project from sheetmetal, such as a guard for a pulley, bolt orpipe carrier ; or repair a damaged sheetmetal part from a piece of machinery. (3hours)

7. Demonstrate and have students practice as-sembling onyacetylene equipment, lightingand adjusting the flame, running a bead,and cutting techniques. Have studentspractice cutting and welding in various po-sitions according to individual ability. (3hours)

8. Demonstrate methods of metal identifica-tion, operation of electric arc machines,striking an arc, and running a bead. Havestudents practice welding in the variouspositions according to individual ability(6 hours)

9. Demonstrate and have students practicespecial methods and applications such as

110

welding, alloys and castings, hardf acing,brazing, and controlling distortion. (3hours)

10. Have students cut, file, fit, drill, and tap ametal block. Students should then cutthreads on a round stock to fit the tappedhole, shaping an eye on the other end ofthe round stock. They should hotcut andform metal on the anvil. Projects might in-clude making a screwdriver or cold chiseland heat treat or harden it. (3 hours)

11. Do plumbing projects ; include cutting,reaming, and threading metal pipe, silversoldering a copper fitting or joint, and mak-ing a pvc plastic joint. 3 hours)

12. Take a field trip to a paint dealer or manu-facturer for paint quality evaluation dem-onstration of application methods andmethods of paint selection. (3 hours)

13. Draw an electric circuit, hook up a shortdistance unit, and measure currents. (6hours)

14. Test and service electric motors: single andthree phase. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferenceDAVIS, Welding and BrazingFARRALL, Engineering for Dairy and Food ProductsGIACHINO and others, Welding Skills and PracticesPARKER, Farm WeldingPHIPPS, Mechanics in Agriculture

Crop MarketingHours Required

Class, 3 ; Laboratory, 0.

Course Description

A course in the principles and practices ofmarketing crop products, emphasizing prob-lems in distribution and normal channels oftrade. Marketing problems for specific cropsare included.

This course is designed to give students in-sight into the marketing process for fruits andother crops. The first part of the course dealswith general aspects of marketing that wouldapply to all products but can be illustrated us-ing examples with crops.

The course should be devoted to the mainproblems of the state in which it is taught, butshould not be limited to these. The latter part

of the course allows some time to discusscific crops that are important locally.

Major Divisions

spe-

Class hoursI. The Marketing Framework 12

II. Marketing Functions 18III. Cooperative Marketing 6IV. Marketing Various Crops 12

Total 48

Units of InstructionI. The Marketing Framework

A. The marketing problem1. Define marketing2. Historical development3. Characteristics of agricultural produc-

tionB. Consumers of agricultural products

1. Distribution of people2. Effect of income3. Effect of population growth4. Regional differences5. Religious differences6. Foreign markets

C. Costs of marketing1. The market basket2. The farmer's share3. Marketing bill for various commodities4. Marketing costs : jobs5. Marketing costs : functions6. Methods of reducing costs

II. Marketing FunctionsA. The exchange function

1. Supply2. Demand3. Elasticity4. Equilibrium5. Cost-price relationships6. Effects on prices

B. Risk bearing and futures1. Marketing risks2. The futures market3. Operation of the Board of Trade4. Futures contracts5. Speculators6. Commodities sold in futures trading

C. Transportation and storage1. Truck transportation2. Rail transportation

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3. Air transportation4. Freight rates5. Effects on prices6. Types of storage7. Commodities stored8. Storage costs

D. Wholesaling and retailing1. Types and sizes of wholesalers2. Changes in wholesaling structure3. Types of retailers4. Changes in retailing5. Vertical and horizontal integration6. Effects of chains

E. Standardization and grading1. Importance of standards and grades2. Development of standards and grades3. Determination4. Criteria for various crops5. Health regulations

F. Market news service1. Need for market 'Jews2. Development of market news service3. Collection of market information

HI. Cooperative MarketingA. History and development

1. Historical development2. Types of cooperatives defined3. Organization

B. Special characteristicsC. Operation and managementD. Laws affecting cooperativesE. Agencies serving cooperatives

IV. Marketing Various CropsA. Grain marketing

1. Effects of production2. Production areas3. Transportation4. Storage5. Country elevators6. Terminal markets7. Grading8. Futures market9. Government programs

B. Fruit and vegetable marketing1. Special problems2. Fresh v. processed3. Transportation and storage4. Production areas5. Exports and imports

C. Marketing cotton1. Marketing structure2. Production areas3. Grades and standards4. Byproducts5. Export market6. Marketing problems7. Government programs

D. Tobacco marketing1. Production areas2. Marketing methods3. Classification4. Government programs

Texts and ReferencesDARRAH, Food MarketingKoms, Marketing of Agricultural ProductsTHOMSEN, Agricultural MarketingU.S. Department of Agriculture Yearbooks:

Consumers All 1965Protecting Our Food 1966

Periodicals:U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural

keting

Farm MachineryHours Required

Class, 1 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in the selection, operation, servic-ing, adjustment, and maintenance of farm ma-chinery and equipment. The laboratory will in-clude calibration, adjustment, and evaluationof performance of tillage, planting, weed con-trol, harvesting and processing machinery.

Class discussions will give students knowl-

Mar-

Figure 2r.:--A study of farm machinery must be a part of a farm crop pro-duction technology program. The producer of this forage crop must know howto operate and maintain the self-propelled hay-baler shown here, and he mustalso know when his crop has dried to the optimum moisture content for baling.

112

edge needed for working with machinery andequipment in the laboratory. Students willlearn the basic mechanics and theories of oper-ation of farm machinery. They will obtain aknowledge of the basic machine types andclasses and those factors governing the wiseselection of machinery for various farm opera-tions. They will learn to repair, adjust, operate,and evaluate the efficiency of farm machinery.

In the laboratory, study and testing will 'bedone on the pulling forces required, hitchingmethods, and their effect on the machine. Meth-ods of attaching and adjusting the machinesfor varying conditions of soil, topography, andplants will be studied and tested. Seedingequipment, fertilizer applicators, spray rigs,and dusters will be calibrated.

Emphasis is placed on safety while workingwith the machines. Students are expected tounderstand the selection, care, maintenance,proper storage, and operation of each piece ofmachinery.

Tests will be given throughout the courseand reports made for each machine understudy.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Shop Rules, Procedures,Safety Practices 1

II. Development of Farm Machinery_ 1

III. Primary Tillage 2IV. Secondary Tillage 2V. Planting and Seeding Machines 1

VI. Fertilizing and Cultivating 2VII. Crop Protection 2

VIII. Harvesting 4IX. Special Equipment 1

Total 16

Units of InstructionI. Shop Rules, Procedures, Safety Practices

A. Review of shop proceduresB. Review of shop safety considerations

II. Development of Farm MachineryA. History

1. Need for machinery on a modem farm2. Mechanical progress3. Size determination4. Quantity's and quality's part in

mechanical farming

5. Machinery is a necessary part of pro-duction, not a service to production

B. Selecting farm machinery1. Defining a machine2. Basic calculation

a. Force, work, powerb. Pulleys and gearsc. Capacity of farm implement

C. Company trade names and trademarks1. Define trade name and trademark2. Manufacturer differences

a. Modelsb. Designc. Ease of operationd. Ease of maintenance, adjustment,

and repairs3. Ability to do the work under varying

conditions4. Operator control and comfort5. The machines' adaptability and ma-

neuverability6. Safety

a. Needb. How to use machinery safely

III. Primary TillageA. Factors affecting primary tillag' imple-

ments, selection and operationB. Purpose of tillageC. Methods of tillageD. Moldboard plow

1. Parts of plow2. Types of bottoms3. Shares4. Materials of construction5. Coulter, jointers, and other attach-

mentsE. Disk plow

1. Parts of plow2. Types of plows3. Design and operation principles4. Attachments

F. Subsurface and speciality plows1. Rotary plows2. Chisels3. Subsoilers

IV. Secondary TillageA. Disk harrows

1. Types and parts2. Uses

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1

.........c,...-..--....-.....--..-.......

3. Parts and accessoriesB. Spike tooth and spring tooth harrows

1. Types and operation2. Uses

C. Land rollers and packers1. Types and operation2. Uses

D. Subsurface tillage1. Types and operation2. Uses

E. Specialty tillage implements1. Types and operation2. Uses

V. Planting and Seeding MachinesA. Planting purpose, value, and requirementsB. HistoryC. Classification of planters, mounting,

power requirements, feeding mechanism,soil opening mechanism covering devices,and accessories1. Broadcasters2. Drills3. Row crop planters

a. Cornb. Cottonc. Vegetabled. Others

4. Potato planters5. Transplanters

D. Fertilizing attachments

VI. Fertilizing and CultivatingA. Manure spreader

1. Construction2. Operation3. Maintenance4. Accessories

B. Granular fertilizers1. Construction2. Operation3. Maintenance4. Accessories

C. Liquid and gas fertilizers

VII. Crop ProtectionA. Spraying

1. Purpose2. History3. Types

B. Dusters

1. Purpose2. History3. Types

VIII. HarvestingA. Hay harvesting

1. Mowers2. Rakes3. Balers

B. Row crop harvesting1. Forage harvesters2. Corn pickers3. Cotton pickers4. Combine5. Potato6. Vegetable

C. Grain harvesting1. Combines2. Specialty items

D. Fruit and nut harvestersE. Beet harvesterF. Other specialized harvesters

IX. SA.

B.C.D.E.

pecial EquipmentProcessing equipment1. Crop residue disposal2. Rotary mowers3. Shellers4. Mills, hammer5. GrindersFeed mixersCrop and hay dryersSilage equipmentElevators, loaders, wagons, hoists, andother devices

F. Cultivators1. Purpose2. History3. Mounting4. Shovels and sweeps5. Operation

G. Rotary hoe1. Construction2. Operation3. Use

H. Flame cultivation1. Construction2. Operations3. Use and limitations

I. Chemical cultivation

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1. Preemergence application2. Postemergence application

a. Constructionb. Operationc. Use

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

Note.-Select machines which are used in thearea for special study.

1. Tour lab facilities ; have students determineoperating condition of machines ; discussmaintenance and its relation to operation ofa machine. Explain rules and regulation forwork in the lab. (The evaluation section canbe done with a field trip or on students'home farms. Emphasis on safety). (3 hours)

2. Give students practice in the selection of amachine for a given job. Include safetyfactors. (3 hours)

3. Study of hitching, pulling, and operationsof plows and tillage. Set up a plow withstrings showing pulling force lines. Testpower requirements for pulling a plow. (3hours)

4. Study of secondary tillage, evaluating workdepth and efficiency in varying conditions,and testing power requirements. (3 hours)

5. Test accuracy and precision of planterswith oil belt test in lab. (3 hours)

6. Calibrate a planting machine. (3 hours)7. Set up and adjust a cultivator. (3 hours)8. Calibrate a fertilizer applicator. (3 hours)9. Calibrate a manure spreader. (3 hours)

10. Calibrate a spraying or dusting unit. (3

hours)11. Set the register and lead on a mower. (3

hours)12. Do an off-season renovation on a hay bal-

er. (3 hours)13. Set, adjust, and test a corn picker or cot-

ton picker. (3 hours)14. Set, adjust, and test a combine. (3 hours)15. Set, adjust, and test a specialty harvester

used locally. (3 hours)16. Take a field trip to dealer for review and

new developments. (3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesHAnnzs, Farm MachineryHUNT, Farm Power and Machinery Management

RICHEY and others, Agricultural Engineers' HandbookSHIPPEN and TURNER, Basic Farm Machinery, Vol. IISMITH, Farm Machinery and Equipment

Farm ManagementHours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.Course Description

A course in the selection, organization, and

operation of the modern farm. The laboratoryperiod provides time for observing and prac-ticing farm operations and management.

This course emphasizes the basic economicand agricultural principles upon which the farmbusiness is organized and operated.

Examples of farms with good and poor farm-ing practices are used to emphasize the value ofselection and planning. Enterprises are ana-lyzed as to their adaptability and efficiency.Such problems as labor and mechanization areconsidered as they affect farm operation.

The laboratory period of the course in FarmManagement can assume many patterns de-pending upon the community, the farm back-

ground of students, and facilities available.

Class work should include "doing" activities aswell as observation and evaluation of practicescarried out in actual situations.

The suggested program makes use of class-room facilities, shop and outside areas, thefarm, and related agricultural business agencies

of the community. Many assignments may be

completed on the college farm. Class assign-ments should be related to improving the ef-ficiency and income of the farm.

Emphasis should be placed on farm costs,labor, material, and supplies. The value of main-

tenance should be stressed.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Field of Management 2

II. Selection of a Farm 2

Obtaining a Farm _._ _ 4

IV. Layout of a Farm ... 2

V. Farm Resources . ..... 2

VI. Enterprises at. 2.

VII. Labor and Mechanization ___ 4

VIII. Calendar of Operations 4

IX. Reorganization of a 2

115

X. Farm Law and Codes 4XI. Economic Principles 4

Total 32

Units of Instruction

I. Field of ManagementA. DefinitionB. Need

1. Changing conditions2. Labor3. Competition4. Mechanization5. Capital6. Increased expenses

C. Tools1. Records2. Reports3. Budgets4. Decisionmaking process5. Ecor ,mic principles

D. Manager1. Ability2. Flexibility3. Responsibility4. Information

II. Selection of a farmA. Area

1. Agriculture2. Trend3. Location4. Transportation5. Agri- services6. Place to live

B. Farm1. Enterprises2. Scope3. Condition4. Utilities5. Soil6. "Water7. Topography8. History9. Production capacity

10. Cost

III. Obtaining a FarmA. Ownership v. renting

1. When to purchase2. When to rent

B. Ownership

1. Typea. Individual proprietorb. Partnershipc. Corporation

2. Appraisal3. Capital4. Use of credit

a. Sourceb. Timec. Rated. Payments

C. Renting1. Basis2. Agreements3. Opportunity to purchase

D. Contracting

IV. Layout of a FarmA. Legal descriptionB. AcreageC. Farmstead

1. Location2. Utilities3. Relation to fields4. Buildings5. Service area

D. Field1. Topography2. Soil3. Shape4. Accessibility5. Fencing6. Erosion

V. Farm ResourcesA. Land

1. Amount2. Use3. Condition4. Possibilities

B. Buildings1. Kind2. Condition3. Adaptability

C. Stock1. Kind2. Amount

D. Equipment1. Kind2. Amount3. Condition

- 116

1

E. Labor1. Need2. Available

a. Hiredb. Family

F. Management1. Experience2. Other sources

G. Operating capital1. Amount2. Availability

a. Currentb. Intermediatec. Long term

VI. EnterprisesA. Of area

1. Kind2. Adaptability3. Scope4. Status

B. Relationship1. Complementary2. Supplementary3. Joint product4. Competitive5. Antagonistic

C. Combinations1. Scope2. Income3. Problems4. Possibilities

D. Changes1. Economic2. Cultural

VII. Labor and MechanizationA. Agricultural changes

1. Number of units2. Size3. Increased costs4'.' Increased production5. Specialization

B. Farm labor1. Nature2. Supply3. Costs4. Management

a. Selectionb. Work schedulesc. Housing

d. Pay schedulee. Incentives

5. Work simplificationC. Mechanization

1. Trends2. Labor costs3. Capital investment4. Costs of operation

D. Job instruction training1. Individual2. Group

E. Other instructional programs

VIII. Calendar of OperationsA. Crops

1. Labor2. Machinery3. Land use4. Relation to livestock

a. Supplyb. When needed

5. ProgramsB. Livestock

1. Labor2. Machinery3. Relation to crops

a. Needb. Supplyc. Cost

IX. Reorganization of a FarmA. Use of resources

1. Capital2. Labor3. Management

B. Efficiency1. Farm2. Related to area

C. Risk and uncertaintyD. Changes

1. Enterprise2. Cultural3. Financial

X. Farm Law and CodesA. Responsibility

1. Land2. Water and mineral3. Workman's Compensation4. Social Security5. Labor laws

117

B. Contracts and agreements.C. Agricultural codes

1. Provisions2. Authority3. Compliance

D. Use of legal advice

XL Economic PrinciplesA. Diminishing returnsB. SubstitutionC. Opportunity costD. Comparative costE. Marginal utility

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Study the arrangement of farmstead facil-ities and farm areas using scaled modelbuildings. (3 hours)

2. Take a field trip to a local farm to studyfacilities and setups. Obtain breakdown ofinvestment in various categories for futureuse. (3 hours)

3. Establish a legal description for the farm.(3 hours)

4. Analyze a farm to evaluate enterprises,cultural operations, and land utilization.(6 hours)

5. Analyze a farm to evaluate labor andmachinery costs. (6 hours)

6. Practice filling out forms for loans, con-sideration of the appraisal process, secu-rity, and budgets. This assignment may bea cooperative effort with a bank or lendingagency. (3 hours)

7. Study and practice job instruction training(6 hours)

8. Make time and motion studies on a farm.(3 hours)

9. Analyze and practice handling labor prob-lems. (6 hours)

10. Have visit with agricultural inspector re-garding inspection procedures and laws.(3 hours)

11. Evaluate a farm program in view of mate-rial considered during course. (3 hours)

12. Prepare a formal written report on a farmwith commendations and/or recommenda-tions to increase efficiency and income.(3 hours)

Texts and ReferencesBRYANT and HAMILTON, Profitable Farm ManagementCASE and others, Principles of Farm ManagementCASTLE and BECKER, Farm Business ManagementCIIASTAIN, YAEGER, and McGRAw, Farm Business Man-

agementHALL and MORTENSON, The Farm Management Hand-

bookHEDGES, Farm Management DecisionsMACGILLIVRAY and STEVENS, Agricultural Labor and Its

Effective UseROY, Contract Farming U.S.A.WALLACE and BENKE, Managing the Tenant-Operated

Farm

Farm PowerHours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

An elementary course in the fundamentalmechanical principles of engines and their com-ponents in order to supply power for the modernfarm. The laboratory period includes testing,adjusting, maintenance, and study of enginesand power transfer.

The course is designed to give students anunderstanding of how an engine works to con-vert energy to productive use, to give them theknowledge to evaluate, select, and use powerunits and their transmitting components. Thecourse includes the study of internal combus-tion engine, power transmission, lubricants,fuel, hydraulics, bearings, and hitches.

The study will give students the ability toanalyze reports on efficiency of power unitsand determine the need for, and type of, repairsand maintenance necessary to the equipment.They will learn how to best use and get the de-sired results from the various power units.

Students will be able to hitch and use tractorpower units to the best advantage. They willstudy how to set up and use belt horsepower,drawbar horsepower, power-take-off horse-power, hydraulic horsepower, and the mechan-ical methods of applying tractor power. Theywill learn the parts of the tractor and their usesin the engine ; why and how to carry on a pro-per maintenance program to increase life andefficiency of the power units. This includes anunderstanding of the internal workings and

118

principles of the internal combustion engine aswell as the tractor as a whole.

Figure 22.Some of the most sophisticated agricultural production machineryis harvesting equipment, an example of which is shown here. This is a specialharvester for cutting and threshing grain :?rghum, an important crop in Texas,Kansas, and Oklahoma and many other States.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Shop Rules, Procedures,Safety Practices 1

IL History and Development ofPower Farming 1

III. Mechanics and Power Calculations 2IV. Materials of Construction 1V. Nomenclature 1

VI. Power Transmission 2VII. Hydraulics 2

VIII. Lubrication, Lubricants, Fuels 4IX. Internal Combustion Engine 6X. The Tractor 8

XI. Hitches and Power Measurement_ 2XII. Other Power Engines 2

Total 32

Units of InstructionI. Shop Rules, Procedures, Safety Practices

II. History and Development of Power FarmingA. The purpose of power farmingB. The growth of mechanical power

1. Man and animal2. External combustion3. Internal combustion4. Today's and tomorrow's power sources

C. History of farm power

III. Mechanics and Power CalculationsA. Energy

1. Mechanical energy2. Electrical energy3. Chemical energy4. Kinetic energy

5. Potential energyB. Force, work, powerC. Machines

1. Simple machines2. Torque-speed3. Power efficiency

IV. Materials of ConstructionA. Need for different materials

1. Stress and strain2. Characteristics of the materials3. Bonding methods

B. Metals1. Ferrous

a. Ironb. Steel

, 2. Nonferrous metalsC. Nonmetalic materials

1. Plastic2. Ribber3. Wood4. Others

D. Treatment and bonding of materials1. Special use (soft center steel)2. Hardening and finishing surfaces3. Bonding methods

V. NomenclatureA. ToolsB. EnginesC. Parts of machines

VI. Power TransmissionA. Direct driveB. ClutchesC. GearsD. Shafts and universal jointsE. Pulleys and beltsF. Chain and sprocketsG. Flexible shaftH. Remote

1. Electrical2. Hydraulic3. Others

VII. HydraulicsA. Fundamentals of liquids underB. Pumps

1. Positive displacementa. Gearb. Vanec. Piston

pressure

119

2. Constant pressureC. Cylinders

1. Single acting2. Double acting

D. Fluid transmissionE. Valves

1. Master control2. Selective control

F. The tractor systemG. Special applications

VIII. Lubrication, Lubricants, FuelsA. Need for lubricationB. Principles of lubricationC. Lubrication systems

1. Internal2. External3. Filter4. Breathers5. Pumps and reservoir

D. Lubricants1. Fluid oils2. Semisolids3. Solids

E. Classification and identification oflubricants1. American Petroleum Institute2. Society of Automobile Engineers3. Viscosity4. Additives

F. Fuels1. Diesel2. Gasoline3. Others

G. Classification and identification of fuels

IX. Internal Combustion EngineA. The engine

1. Interal v. external combustiona. Four-strokeb. Two-stroke

2. Spark v. compression ignitionB. Timing of the engineC. The fuel system

1. Combustion and fuelsa. How fuels burnb. Difference in gasoline and diesel

combustion2. Carburetion and injection

a. Fuel flow and meteringb. The venturi principle

c. Volitizing the fuels3. The air cleaner4. Maintenance of the fuel system

D. The electrical system1. Ignition system

a. Batteryb. Coilc. Distributord. Spark plugse. Meters, switches, controls

2. Glow plugs and heating units3. Lighting4. Starting motor and generator5. Regulators, relays, other accessories

E. Cooling and lubricating systemF. Engine performance

1. Type differences2. Design features3. Exhaust system effect

X. The TractorA. Types of tractorsB. Transmission system

1. Clutch2. Gear box3. Automatic and power amplifiers4. Differential and final drive

C. BrakesD. Wheels and tires

1. Traction factor2. Compaction factor

E. Power takeoff and pulleysF. Operator's comfort, convenience, safetyG. Operating the tractor

XL Hitches and Power MeasurementA. Hitching for safetyB. Point of pullC. Lines of forceD. Tractor tests and performanceE. Cost estimating

XII. Other Power Engines

Recommended Laboratory Projects(48 hours)

1. Introduction to laboratory facilities andand power units. Have students makesafety chart and take safety test. (3 hours)

2. Have engine and power unit componentsand parts; let students identify them and

120

explain function. Using cutaways, let stu-dent cross-check demonstrations. (3 hours)

3. Demonstrate simple machines and a poweroutput test of an engine. Have studentscalculate results and do other problems.(3 hours)

4. Using cutaways or other visual aids, havestudent draw and label various methods ofpower transmission. (3 hours)

5. Run tests on principles of hydraulics andcomplete hydraulic systems with writtenreports accompanying test results. (6hours)

6. Visit a supplier or have representativescome to class and give demonstration onlubrication and fuels. (3 hours)

7. The student will run various tests andstudy problem solving on the variousaspects of the internal combustion engine :evaluating, trouble shooting, and reportingresults using drawings and written and oralreports. (9 hours)

8. Run tests, make evaluation of performanceof tractor components and the unit as awhole. Include dynamometer, traction, andcompaction tests. (12 hours)

9. Demonstrate hitching, and hitching andpulling safely,, Run pulling force tests onstraight, side, and around corner pulls.(6 hours)

Texts and ReferencesBARGER, Tractors and Their Power UnitsBROWN and MORRISON, Farm Tractor MaintenanceHUNT, Farm Power and Machinery ManagementJONES, Farm Gas Engines and TractorsPIPE, Small Gasoline Engines Training ManualPROMERSEERGER and BISHOP, Modern Farm PowerRAU, Solo. EnergyRICHEY and others, Agricultural Engineers' HandbookSHEPHERD, Introduction to the Gas TurbineSHIPPEN and TURNER, Basic Farm Machinery, Vol LSOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERS, Engineering Know-

How in Engine DesignTAYLOR, The Internal Combustion Engine

Farm Records and Reports}lours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 0.

Course Description

A course to provide an understanding of howto keep and use the records of the farm busi-

ness. Written reports on various farm opera-tions are required as part of the course work.

This course is designed to give students anunderstanding of the principles and practicesused in determining farm returns. By means ofexamples and problems, students will becomeacquainted with accounting principles. Theywill learn what records must be kept, how theinformation is to be recorded, and how such in-formation is summarized for use.

Keeping of a set of records for a represen-tative farm of the area should be included inthe course. Such records should cover the pe-riod of a '?":!Pndar year and include severalenterprises.

There are many farm record books available.To these the instructor may add those formsthat he feels necessary.

Writing various types of reports is includedin this course. This is done to develop skillsthat can be used to explain and interpret in-formation which is available only as a resultof keeping accurate records.

I.II.

III.IV.V.

VI.VII.

VIII.IX.X.

XLXII.

Major Divisions

Farm RecordsMethods of Measuring

Farm Income ..... .......Diary and Reports ......Financial StatementInventoriesFarm ExpensesFarm ReceiptsUse of JournalBudgets ............. _-Written ReportsProduction Records .........Summarization and Future

Use of RecordsTotal

Class hours2

Units of Instruction

I. Farm RecordsA. Records organize information

1. Making decisions2. Determine income3. Credit use4. Tax forms

B. Necessity of records1. Planning

2224222262

4

a. Budgetsb. Calendar of operationsc. Crop program

2. Financiala. Diaryb. Inventoryc. Financial statementd. Journal

3. Analysisa. Cost of productionb. Productionc. Enterprised. Farm

C. Devising needed forms1. Time cards2. Equipment use3. Current inventories

D. Tool of farm management

IL Methods of Measuring Farm IncomeA. Methods

1. Net cash income2. Net farm income3. Operator's labor income4. Operator's labor earnings5. Percentage return of investments

B. Terminology1. Assets2. Liabilities3. Income4. Expense5. Inventory6. Capital investment7. Interest8. Depreciation9. Prerequisite

10. Equity11. Financial statement

C. Practice exercises

32 III. E Lary and ReportsA. Record

1. Labor2. Sales3. Expenses4. Farm activities

B. Emphasis on1. Neatness2. Accuracy3. Completeness

C. Forms

121

1. General2. Specific

D. Written reports ; farm happenings

IV. Financial StatementA. Assets and liabilities

1. Anytime2. Ownership3. Net worth4. Use for credit

B. Status1. Current2. Intermediate3. Long term

C. Calculation of net worth

V. InventoriesA. Record of ownership

1. Capital investment2. Farm supplies

B. Value1. Net selling price2. Cost less depreciation3. Cost or market price4. Replacement cost less depreciation5. Income capitalization

C. Use1. Net farm income2. Net farm worth

D. Depreciation1. Methods

a. Straight lineb. Declining balancec. Sum of digits.

2. Calculations

VI. Farm ExpensesA. Kinds

1. Capital2. Production

a. Farmb. Enterprise

3. Change in inventoryB. Forms

1. Columns needed2. Arrangement

C. Making entries1. Accurate2. Complete3. Proper columns

D. Writing checks

122

E. Practice exercises

VII. Farm ReceiptsA. How recorded

1. Capital2. Enterprise3. Miscellaneous

B. Writing receiptsC. Practice exercises

VIII. Use of JournalA. Setting up

1. Relationa. Receiptsb. Itemsc. Expenses

2. Columns neededa. Entire farmb. Detailed accountsc. Provisions

B. Making entriesC. Transfer to enterpriseD. Reconciling bank statementsE. Practice exercises

IX. BudgetsA. Planning recordB. Concern

1. Farm2. Enterprise

C. Cash and noncashD.. Comparison with actualE. Practice exercises

X. Written ReportsA. Requirements

1. Accurate2. Specific3. Organized4. Grammatically correct

B. Types1. Descriptive2. Reports3. Legal

C. Practice exercises

XI. Production RecordsA. Purpose of Production Records

1. Figuring yield per unit2. Figuring cost per unit3. Figuring income per unit

4. Providing quality dataB. Need special formsC. Devise

1. Maps2. Tree charts3. Barn sheets

D. Summarization1. Information2. Value

XII. Summarization and Future Use of RecordsA. Information

1. Current operation2. Future budgets

B. Efficiency of production1. Capital2. Labor

C. Value of recordsD. Basis of comparison

1. Enterprises2. Fields3. Years4. Operator5. Methods

E. Computers1. Value to farmer2. Information required3. Use of information obtained. (Have lo-

cal farmer using computer service oroperator of such service as speaker)

Texts and ReferencesHOPKINS and HEADY, Farm Records and AccountingSHEFF, Bookkeeping Made EasyU.S. Department of Agriculture, Financial Calculations

and Physical Measurements

Irrigation and Water ManagementHours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course. DescriptionA course in the principles and practices of

irrigation, including soil, water, and plant re-lations ; and water sources, quality, methods ofdistribution, and measurement. Irrigation ap-plication methods and structures, field prepa-ration, and water measurement are included inthe laboratory work.

Students will study the influence on irriga-tion practices of movement of water throughsoil, different crops, climate, land topography,

123

and water supply. Emphasis is placed on means .

of improving irrigation efficiency for the con-servation of water and the optimum produc-tion of quality crops. A survey is made of wa-ter requirements of various crops and the in-fluence of climate and soil on these require-ments. Various methods of water measurementand soil moisture determination are used.

A detailed study of each method of irriga-tion is made to determine its advantages andrelationship to the crop and soil. Students willmake field studies of land preparation and thestructures used in water conveyance, develop-ment, and storage. Problems in crop culturewhich result from irrigation are considered.

Laboratory periods are used to test and eval-uate the various irrigation equipment and in-struments. Every effort is made to give actualpractice in as many of the techniques and prob-lems involved in irrigation for improved cropproduction.

0

Figure 23.irrigation is becoming more and more important to fgrm cropproduction, The application of fertilizers in irrigation water introduces furtherscientific and technoiogical problems which the successful producer mustunderstand,

Major DivisionsClass hoursI. Irrigation, Value and Use 2

IL Soil, Water, Plant Relations 5III. Water Sources, Distribution,

MeasurementIV. Determining Water Use

and NeedsV. Application Methods and

StructuresLegal and Administrative AspectsFarm Ponds

VI.VII.

VIII. Water EfficiencyTotal

Units of InstructionI. Irrigation, Value, Use

A. Define irrigationB. Importance of irrigationC. Trends in water useD. Relationship of precipitation to irrigation

IL Soil, Water, Plant RelationsA. Soil

1. Texture, structure, porosity2. Gravity

B. Soil moisture and its movement1. Types of soil moisture2. Movement of moisture through soil

C. Plant functions1. Availability of soil water2. Plant use and pickup methods

D. Measurement of soil moisture1. Soil sampling2. Instruments for sail moisture measure-

mentE. Effects of introducing irrigation

1. Beneficiala. Added variety of cropsb. Greater yieldsc. Better control of harvestd. More effective use of chemicals

2. Possible adverse responsesa. New weed problemsb. New pest problemsc. New plant disease problemsd. Effects of chemistry of water on

irrigation equipment

M. Water Sources, Distribution, MeasurementA. Water sources

1. Water cycle2. Ground water3. Methods of storage

a. Farm pondsb. Conservation damsc. Reservoirs

B. Pumping and transporting water1. Pumps and pumping2. Deep well pumping3. Canals and ditches4. Flumes and culverts5. Diversion devices

C. Water measurement1. Units of flow and measurement2. Waterhead and flow

124

3. Contracted weirs4. Parshall flumes5. Other measuring devices

D. Water quality1. Soluble salts2. Insoluble salts3. Sediment4. Pollutants

a. Organicb. Inorganic

IV. Determining Water Use and NeedsA. Factors affecting water use

1. Evaporation2. Transpiration3. Soil Porosity4. Organic content5. Nutrient Composition6. pH

B. Determining water needs1. Use of instruments2. Plants as indicators3. Cultural practices4. Crop grown5. Chemical relatioAships6. Applicatiori methods

V. Application Methods and StructuresA. Surface

1. Flooding2. Furrow3. Borders, checks, basins

B. Subsurface1. Controlled2. Uncontrolled

C. Overhead1. Portable and semiportable

a. Line setsb. Solid sets

2. Permanent (special use in pastures, or-chards and other low tillage crops)

D. Land preparation and structures.1. Land leveling2. Construction equipment3. Maintenance equipment

VI. Legal and Administrative AspectsA. Irrigation water rights

1. Surface2. Ground

B. Administering water

1. Private2. Quasi-public enterprises3. Public enterprises

VII. Farm PondsA. Use

1. Water conservation2. Irrigation3. Lagoons for manure disposal4. Recreation5. Reuse of waste water

B-Site selection1. Soil type2. Soil profile3. Topography4. Amount of runoff

C. SizeD. Construction requirements

1. Legal and programs2. Safety

a. Waterb. Dam site and construction

. 3. Capacity and placementE. Maintenance

1. Seepage2. Silting3. Weed and algae control

F. Financing1. Construction costs2. Government programs

VIII. Water EfficiencyA. StorageB. ConveyanceC. Comparative costsD. Preventing water losses

1. Transpiration lossesa. Timing applicationsb. Proper amountc. Controlling hydrophytes

2. Evaporation lossesa. Proper applicationb. Surface coating ponds and

reservoirs3. Seepage losses

a. Liningb. Earth materialsc. Sedimentationd. Concretee. Shotcretef. Asphalt

Am

125

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)

1. Plan and make a tour of laboratory andfacilities. Have a safety discussion andtest. Look at and discuss class or groupprojects. (3 hours)

2. Take a field trip and evaluate the quality ofsoil for irrigation. (3 hours)

3. Test the water-soil relationship : water in-filtration, holding capacities, and availablemoisture. Place tensiometer, soil blocks,etc. for reading throughout semester. (3hours)

4. Make collections of water samples fromirrigation sources and perform analysis ofcontent for its value to crops for irrigation.(3 hours)

5. Test and calculate water use and departurefrom soil. Determine rate of movement andreplacement time and quality. (6 hours)

6. Make a study of surface irrigation meth-ods, evaluating time, flow, infiltration rateat various points in a run. Continue with asimilar check study on subsurface andoverhead. (9 hours)

7., Take a field trip to a sprinkler company tostudy design, use, and evaluation of sys-tems. (3 hours)

8. Do a land preparation study. Learn theoperation of a level, laying out a grid sys-

tem for contouring, and processing of smalldam construction. (6 hours)

9. Put a contour system in a plot of land. Thiscan be done to enable application of waterand/or for drainge. (3 hours)

10. Take a field trip to a well ; test for pumpand water management study. (3 hours)

11. Take a field trip to an irrigation district tounderstand water supply. (3 hours)

12. Take a field trip to a soil conservation dis-trict to evaluate drainage problems. (3hours)

Texts and ReferencesDRUBBER, Getting Started in Irrigation FarmingLAVERTON, Irrigation, Its Profitable U80 for Agricul-

tural and Horticultural Crops°Limn, Irrigation and Climate: New Aids to Engineer-

ing Planning and Development of Water ResourcesRUBEY, Supplemental Irrigation for Eastern United

StatesRUTTAN, Economic Demand for Irrigated AcreageZIMMERIVIAN, Irrigation

Mathematics and Science CoursesMathematics I

Hours RequiredClass, 3 ; Laboratory, 0.

Course DescriptionA course offering a basic mathematical pro-

gram accenting the fundamental concepts ofour number system, involving whole numbers,decimals, and fractions. These concepts arecarried through elementary algebra to developthe principles of algebra and the use of alge-braic formulas. Basic ideas on the use of theslide rule are introduced, especially for the so-lution of problems involving ratio, proportion,and percentage.

The objective of this course is to develop agreater understanding of our number systemand its practical application to the problems in-volved in agriculture based upon his mathemat-ical backgrounu in high school. An effort ismade to transcend the meaning of numbers to apractical use which students can apply andunderstand. By developing mathematical con-cepts within the understanding of students, itis believed that sufficient motivation and inter-est can be created so that they can carry onthese concepts through the use of directednumbers and the solving of problems in alge-bra. The course is more than a review of pre-vious work and stresses the use of mathematicsthrough pictorial and graphical representationand elementary statistics.

With the association of these mathematicalconcepts in practical problems, and the "busy"work eliminated with the use of the slide ruleand Mathematical Tables Handbook, studentswill have more incentive to use and strengthentheir understanding of the mathematical ap-proach to problems.

The use of a Demonstration Slide Rule inclass, the chalk board, participation of eachstudent, and homework assignments all tend tocorrelate the development of the mathematicalconcepts of the student in agriculture.

Major Divisions

I. Review of Basic MathematicalClass hours

Concepts 3

126

II. Introduction to Slide Rule 3III. Percentage Problems :

Sales and Costs 3Units of Measure 9Applications in Use of Slide Rule.. 3Review of Algebra Fundamentals ._ 3Linear Equations and SystemsAlgebraic Fractions and

Fractional EquationsIX. Elementary Statistics 3X. Applications in Agriculture

Involving Literal Equationsand Graphing 6

Total

IV.V.

VI.VII.

VIII.

Units of InstructionI. Review of Basic Mathematical Concepts

A. Fundamental operations ; integersB. Mixed :numbers and fractionsC. Decimal numbers

II. Introduction to Slide RuleA. Fundamental operations

1. Multiplication2. Division3. Square roots4. Cube roots5. Ratios and proportions

B. Meaning of various scales1. C, D, CI, DI, A, B, K scales2. Relationship of scales to each other

III. Percentage Problems : Sales and CostsA. Meaning and use of percentageB. Sales and costs

1. Percentage based on sales price2. Percentage based on cost price

C. Applications1. Fertilizer rates and costs2. Figuring seed mixtures3. Mixing and applying agricultural

chemicals4. Shrinkage losses

IV. Units of MeasureA. Lengths, areas, volumesB. Formulas for general plane figures and

solidsC. Simple machines and leversD. Ratio and proportion proceduresE. Types of measuring instruments

1. Rulers, scales, protractors2. Calipers and micrometers3. Planimeters and verniers4. Balances and metering devices

F. Problems involving measurement1. Mixing concrete2. Measuring lumber3. Estimating hay quantities4. Measuring land areas5. Weighing solid materials6. Metering liquid materials

G. Use of metric system in length, area,volume, weight

V. Applications in Use of Slide RuleA. Ratio and proportion problems

1. Mixing concrete2. Measuring and cutting lumber3. Pearson square4. Figuring gear ratios5. Figuring pulley advanb Tes6. Fulcrum and levers7. Use of C and D scales

B. Square and cube roots1. Capacity of storage bins or tanks2. Estimating acreage3. Farm structures4. Use of A and B scales

C. Reciprocals1. Decimal equivalents2. Percentage3. Use of CI and DI scales

VI. Review of Algebra FundamentalsA. Use of directed numbersB. Use of parenthesis, brackets, braces,

vinculumC. Transposing unknown in formulasD. Problems involving formulas

1. Centigrade to Fahrenheit2. Laws of physics3. Laws of chemistry4. Hydraulics

VII. Linear Equations and SystemsA. Equations

1. Operations involved in solving equations2. The degree of an equation3. Transposing an equation

B. Systems of linear equations1. Equations involving two or more

unknowns

127

2. Solutions by addition and subtraction3. Solutions by substitution4. Solutions by multiplication and

division5. Use of determinants

a. Matrix methodb. Basket weave

6. Graphical solutions

VIII. Algebraic Fractions and FractionalEquations

A. Algebraic fractions1. Review method of finding L. C. M.2. Operations involving fractions

a. Multiplication by prime factorsb. D,'vision by prime factors

B. Fractior al equations1. Multiplication2. Division3. Addition4. Finding prime factors in equations

IX. Elementary StatisticsA. Definition of terms

1. Arithmetic and geometric progressions2. Mode3. Median4. Standard Deviation5. Harmonic mean

B. InequalitiesC. Summation techniquesD. Analyzing grouped and ungrouped dataE. Probability (binomial)P. Standard normal distributionG. Prediction from samplesH. Correlation and regressionI. Graphical representation

1. Bar graphs2. Circle graphs3. Line graphs

X. Applications in Agriculture Involving Lit-eral Equations and Graphing

A. Solutions by mathematicsB. Solutions by graphingC. Problems

1. Farm operations2. Production3. Storage

a. capacityb. heating and drying

Texts and ReferencesCHASE, Elementary StatisticsMAY, Foundations of Modern MathematicsMCGEE, Mathematics in AgricultureREES, Principles of MathematicsRICE and KNIGIIT, Technical Mathematics and CalculusSlide Rule with C, D, CI, DI, S, T, ST, A, B, K, and log

scales (Keuffel & Esser, Die4gen, or Lietz)

Mathematics IIHours Required

Class, 3 Lavoratory, 0.Course Description

A course offering a program of algebra, basiclogarithms, and numerical trigonometry. Anintroduction to the concepts in calculus is pro-vided by the introduction to graphical methods.Areas, volumes, ratios, percentages, t .por-tions, and simple and compound interft6 wcovered using trigonometric and logarithmicmethods, together with rates of change andideas concerning maxima and minima.

The objective of this course is to build uponthe fundamental knowledge which studentshave developed through simple algebra, andthe use of the slide rule and mathematical ta-bles. This course involves algebra of higherdegree, the ideas of imaginary numbers andwhat they mean in this electronic age, and thegraphing of problems to obtain solutions. Thebasic ideas of logarithms and numerical trigo-nometry are studied in order that the studentcan solve most problems arising in agriculturalprocesses such as those involving areas, vol-umes, physics, chemistry, and financial obliga-tions of interest, taxation, and mortgages.

The chalk board, demonstration slide rule,homework assignments, and individual partici-pation of students are all considered essentialto the full development of the concepts of thiscourse.

Major DivisionsClass hours

Algebra of Higher Degree_.._ _ 9Introduction to Analytic GeometryExponents and Radicals ^ CA-

LogarithmsNumerical TrigonometryTrigonometric Functions for

Angles in All Four Quadrants._ 3

3366

128

VII. Solution of Oblique Trianglesand Applied Problems 6

VIII. Use of Slide Rule in SolvingProblems involving Loga-rithms and Trigonometry__._______ 6

IX. Introduction to Conceptsof Calculus 3

X. Calculus by GraphicalRepresentation 3Total 48

Units of InstructionI. Algebra of Higher Degree

A. Equations of higher degree1. Factoring (general and special cases)2. Completing the square to create a gen-

eral case3. The solutions by use of the quadratic

formulaB. Simultaneous quadratic Equations

1. Algebraic solutions of quadratic equa-tions

2. Algebraic solutions of equations in onelinear and one quadratic

3. Elimination of constants4. Reduction to simpler systems

II. Introduction to Analytic GeometryA. The meaning of a function in mathematicsB. The rectangular coordinate systemC. Graphs of general equations

1. The parabola2. The hyperbola3. The ellipse4. The circle

D. The point slope formula, ie: y = mx b

III. Exponents and RadicalsA. Review of the rules regarding exponentsB. Numbers in the radical form and exponen-

tial formC. Meaning of complex numbers and the J op-

eratorD. Rate of growth and compound interest lawE. Rationalizing the denominator

IV. LogarithmsA. MeaningB. Numbers to bases other than 10C. Fundamental operations

1. The characteristic and mantissa

2. Fundamental operations of multiply-ing, dividing, raising to a power, andfinding the root of numbers by loga-rithms

3. Exponential equations4. Antilogarithms

V. Numerical TrigonometryA. The theorem of PythagorasB. The basic functions

1. Sine2. Cosine3. Tangent

C. Trigonometric tablesD. Solutions of right trianglesE. The law of sinesF. The law of cosines

VI. Trigonometric Functions for Angles in AllFour QuadrantsA. The sign of the function in each quadrantB. The numerical value of an angle dependent

upon the quadrant in which it liesC. The reciprocal functions as distinguished

from the cofunctions.D. The graphing of trigonometric functionsE. Use of calculators and computers

VII. Solution of Oblique Triangles and AppliedProblemsA. Solution when three sides givenB. Solution when two sides and an angle op-

posite one side are givenC. Solution when two sides and an included

angle are givenD. Applications involving areas of land and

volumes of storage facilities

VIII. Use of Slide Rule in Solving Problems In-volving Logarithms and TrigonometryA. Solutions of right triangle by slide ruleB. Solution of oblique triangle by slide ruleC. Solution by slide rule of problems involving

angles less than 5 degreesD. Logarithmic solution of right trianglesE. Logarithmic computations on a slide rule

IX. Introduction to Concepts of CalculusA. The necessity of knowing the meaning of

calculusB. The delta method

aaal*CON-11.0

. aim, 44-a.a....,aaaaaa,,,aalaaaaa...,......a.araa.a.a.aaaraa a .

129

C. Relationship of rate of change and firstdifferentials to tangents in trigonometry s

D. The meaning of maxia and minimaE. Differentiation and integration defined

X. Calculus by Graphical RepresentationA. Approximate integration

1. Trapezoidal Rule2. Simpson's Rule

B. Differentiation by graphing1. Plotting the slope and rate of change of

the slope2. Determining maxima and minima by

graphing3. Problem solving by graphing a func-

tionTexts and References

LEITHOLD, The CalculusMAY, Foundations of Modern MathematicsMcGEE, Mathematics in AgricultureREES, Principles of MathematicsRICE and KNIGHT, Technical Mathematics and CalculusSlide Rule with C, D, CI, DI, S, T, A, B, K, and log

scales (Keuffel & Esser, Dietzgen, or Lietz)

Agricultural ChemistryHours Required

Class, 2; Laboratory, 6.

Course DescriptionA basic course in the composition of matter

and physical and chemical changes : funda-mental laws and principles. The properties ofthe common elements and their compoundswith their application to agriculture are stud-ied. Laboratory sessions are designed to givepractical application of the theory expressed inlectures.

The teaching of chemistry should be supple-mented by demonstrations, models, and relatedwork in the laboratory.

Laboratory experiments include gas laws,diffusion, separation of liquids and solids, melt-ing and boiling points of compounds, titrationdeterminations, chemical changes, and pH de-terminations. Later on in the course are oxida-tion-reduction reactions, chemistry of water,solutions, colloids, precipitation, and chemicalanalysis. By performing experiments in the lab-oratory, students acquire a facility for han-dling laboratory equipment, laboratory proce-

dure, and an introduction to precise measure-ments.

The instructor will relate the lecture andlaboratory principles to practical applicationwhenever possible. Students should be toldwhere the various tests or measurements areused in industry. Liaison with the instructorsof technical subjects, where chemical princi-ples are reinforced, is desirable to stress thepractical application of chemistry to agricul-ture.

Major DivisionsClass hours

I. Atomic Structure 2II. Periodic Table 2

III. Molecules and Valence 2IV. Oxidation and Reduction 3V. Laws of Gases 3

VI. Chemical Formulas and Equations 4VII. Acid-Base Relationships 4

VIII. Water and the Liquid State 4IX. Solutions 2X. Colloids 2

XI. Organic Compounds 4Total

Units of InstructionL Atomic Structure

A. Matter1. Definition2. Mass, weight, density3. States of matter

a. Solidb. Liquidc. Gas

B. Energy1. Definition2. Forms ofenergy

a. Potentialb. Kinetic

3. Law of conservation of matterenergy

C. Atomic Theory1. The atom

a. Nucleusb. Electrons

2. Mass of the atom3. Atomic number of an atom4. Isotopes5. Atomic weights

and

130

II. Periodic TableA. Classification of elementsB. Determination of atomic numbersC. Arrangement of modern periodic table

1. Period2. Group of family

a. First periodb. Second periodc. Third periodd. Fourth periode. Fifth periodf. Sixth periodg. Seventh period

D. Value of the periodic table

III. Molecules and ValenceA. VocabularyB. Valence

1. Atoms combine to form molecules2. Different combining capacity

C. Definition of valenceD. Cause of valence

1. Types of chemical loadinga. Ionicb. Covalent

E. Atomic structure and chemical loadingF. Structure of crystalline solids

1. Element with several valences2. Radicals

G. Table of valences and radicals

IV. Oxidation and ReductionA. Oxidation definedB. CombustionC. Extinguishing firesD. Spontaneous combustionE. Products of oxidationF. Reduction definedG. Oxidation and reduction occur simulta-

neouslyH. Oxidation numbersI. Oxidizing and reducing agents

V. Laws of GasesA. VocabularyB. Pressure changes affect gas volumes

1. Temperature2. Pressure3. Standard temperature and pressure4. Boyle's Law

C. Temperature changes affect gas volumes

1. Kelvin Temperature Scale2. Charles' Law

D. Gas law formulas1. Combined use of Boyle's and Charles'

Laws2. The behavior of real gases

VI. Chemical Formulas and EquationsA. Chemical composition

1. Significance2. Molecular weight

a. Formula weight of a compoundfrom its formula

b. Finding percentage composition ofa compound

c. Determining empirical formulaof a compound

B. Chemical equations1. Definition2. Factors in equation writing3. Procedure in writing equations4. General types of chemical reactions

a. Composition reactionsb. Decomposition reactions (six

classes)c. Replacement reactions (four

classes)d. Double replacement reactions

5. Many reactions are reversible6. Energy of reactions

a. Energy of activationb. Activity series of the elements

C. Weight relations in chemical reactions1. Gram-atomic weight of element2. Mole of a substance3. Solving weight problems

a. Proportion methodb. Arithmetic methodc. Mole method

D. Molecular composition of gases1. Law of combining volumes of gases2. Gay-Lussac's Law8. Avogadro's Hypothesis4. Molar volume of a gas5. Molecular weight of gases

VII. AcidBase RelationshipsA. VocabularyB. Important acidsC. Modern definition of an acidD. Definition of a base

131

E. Characteristics of hydroxidesF. Standard solutions

1. pH of a solution2. Known molality solution3. Known molarity solution4. Standard of equivalent weights5. Standard solution of known normality

G. Standard solutions and titration1. Method2. Indicators in solution

H. Salts1. Definition2. Reactions which produce salts3. Naming of salts

VIII. Water and the Liquid StateA. Physical propertiesB. Used as a standardC. Chemical behavior of waterD. Composition of water by volume

1. Analysis2. Synthesis

E. Composition of water by weightF. Purification of waterG. Law of multiple proportions

IX. SolutionsA. VocabularyB. Properties of solutionsC. Types of solutionsD. Solution equilibriumE. Effect of pressure on solubilityF. Influence of temperature on solubilityG. Solvents are selectiveH. Freezing and boiling points differ from

those of their solventsI. Molecular weights of solutes3. Crystallization

X. ColloidsA. Suspensoido

1. Characteristics2. Suspensoid preparation8. Precipitation of suspensoids

B. Emulsoids1. Characteristics

a. Common gelsb. Biocolloids

XI. Organic CompoundsA. Fuels

1. Measuring heat content of a fuel2. Solid fuels

a. Woodb. Peatc. Lignited. Coal, coke

3. Liquid fuels4. Gaseous fuels

a. Natural gasb. Coal gasc. Bottled gasd. Explosive range of a gas

B. Petroleum1. Native, origin2. Refining3. Determining a good motor fuel4. Cracking5. Other products

C. Hydrocarbon substitution products1. Halogen substitution products of

methane2. Carbon tetrachloride

D. AlcoholsE. Ethers, aldehydes, ketones, organic

acids, esters1. Products2. Ethers3. Formaldehyde4. Acetone5. Organic acids : acetic, oxalic, tartaric,

citric, salicylic6. Esters : fruit flavors

F. Soap and soapless detergents1. Products2. Saponification3. Soapless detergents and wetting

agents

Suggested Laboratory Projects (96 hours)1. Practice elementary chemistry, laboratory

techniques. (3 hours)2. Experiment with solids and liquids. (6

hours)3. Study Charles' Law of Gases. (6 hours)4. Separate liquids and solids. (6 hours)5. Find melting and boiling points of com-

pounds. (6 hours)6. Evaluate acids and bases. (6 hours)7. Make titrations. (6 hours)8. Perform pH determinations. (3 hours)9. Determine chemical changes such as prep-

132

aration of oxygen and hydrogen, reversiblereactions, and neutralization. (6 hours)

10. Study the chemistry of water such as saltand mineral determination, hardness, pH,hydrolysis, hydration, and synthesis. (9hours)

11. Apply oxidation-reduction reactions. (6hours)

12. Make solutions and demonstrate solubility.(9 hours)

13. Study colloids such as preparation and co-agulation, turbidity of water, osmosis, vis-cosity of oil. (6 hours)

14. Cause a precipitate to form from solutionsrecover and measure the precipitate. (6hours)

15. Practice chemical analysis. (6 hours)16. Perform separating and distilling experi-

ments. (6 hours)

Texts and ReferencesCRAFTS, The Chemistry and Mode of Action of Herbi-

cidesDULL and others, Modern ChemistryFREY, College ChemistryGREGG, Principles of ChemistryHOLUM, Elements of General and Biological Chemistry'sr; -,HAMKIN7 Laboratory Problems Manual of General

ChemistryNITZ, Introductory ChemistryPAULING, College ChemistryQUAGLIANO, ChemistryROUTH, Fundamentals of Inorganic, Organic and Bio-

logical ChemistryRUSSELL, Study Guide for Sienko and Plane ChemistrySANDERSON, Principles of ChemistrySIENKO and PLANE, Chemistry: Principles and Proper-

tiesWOOD and KENNAN, General College Chemistry

Visual AidsAmerican Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073

Metal Crystals in Action, 16mm., sound, color, 30minutes

Encyclopedia Britannica Films, 1150 Wilmette Avenue,Wilmette, Ill. 60091

A series of 160 motion pictures done in cooperationwith the American Chemical Society, all 16mm., sound,color, varying lengths of running time. Included are:Gases and Gas Laws, Acids and Bases, Titration,Equilibrium, pH and Buffering, Thermochemistry,Laboratory Techniques, Organic Chemistry, PeriodicTable, Oxidation and Reduction, Electrolysis, andQualitative Analysis

Modern Talking Pictures, 160 East Grand Avenue,Chicago, Ill. 60611

Valence and Molecular Structure, Pau ling Series, 3films, 16mm., sound, color, 50 minutes

National Bureau of Standards, Office cf Technical In-formation and Publications, Washington, D.C.

20234Trapping of Free Radicals at Low Temperatures,

16mm., sound, color, 131/2 minutesShell Oil Co., Film Library, 149-07 Northern Boulevard,

Flushing, N.Y. 11354Crude Oil Distillation, 16mm, sound, 13 minutes, color

University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52240Atomic Models, Valence, and The Periodic Table,

16mm., sound, color, 44 minutesSterling Movies U.S.A., Inc., 43 West 61st Street, New

York, N.Y. 10036The Lead Matrix, 16mm, sound, color, 27 minutes

U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of PublicInformation, Washington, D.C. 20545

"A" is for Atom, 16 mm, sound, color, 15 minutesWard's Natural Science Establishment, Inc., Post Of-

fice Box 1712, Rochester, N.Y. 14603Periodic Table of the Elements (Wall chart)

E. H. Sargent & Co., 4647 West Foster Avenue, Chi-cago, Ill. 60630

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Predictor (chart)Metric System (chart)

E. H. Sargent & Co., 4647 West Foster Avenue, Chicago,Ill. 60630

Organic Structure (models)

Crop BotanyHours Required

Class, 2 ; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course designed to provide students witha working knowledge of the fundamental struc-tures and processes of plants. Topics includedare plant anatomy, physiology, morphology, re-production, and genetics as they relate to cropproduction. In the laboratory students will con-duct experiments to better understand basicplant structures and processes.

Students are expected to learn the botanicalterminology and function of each plant organand emphasis will be placed upon those physio-logical processes which are of direct economicsignificance to crops.

In the laboratory, students will learn to iden-tify the various anatomical structures and willhave the opportunity to explore the physiolog-ical processes of the plant. Plant materials uti-lized for study will illustrate, as nearly as pos-sible, those aspects of anatomy and physiology

133

which are fundamental to the growth and devel-opment of crop plants.

Major Divisions

I. Utilization, Classification, BasicDesign of Crop Plants 4

II. Plant Structures 8

III. Fundamental Plant Processes 16

IV. Heredity in Crop Plants 2

V. Plant Ecology 2

Total 32

Class hours

Units of Instruction

I. Utilization, Classification, Basic Design ofCrop PlantsA. Utilization of plants by man

1. Fooda. For manb. For livestock and game

2. Fibera. Lumberb. Fuelc. Tobaccod. Others

3. Aesthetic value4. Recreation5. Temperature regulation6. Drugs and stimulants7. Others

B. Plant Classification1. The taxonomic system

a. Historyb. The pattern

(1) Thallophytes(2) Bryophytes(3) Tracheophytes, vascular plants

(aa) Gymnosperms(bb) Angiosperms

2. Important crop familiesa. Monocotyledons

(1) Gramineae(2) Liliaceae

b. Dicotyledons(1) Rosaceae(2) Solanaceae(3) Malvaceae(4) Compositae(5) Leguminosae

3. Other systems of classificationa. Life cycleb. Growth habits : height, etc.

c. Economic significanced. Utilization by mane. Environmental requirements

C. Basic design of crop plants1. Cell structure

a. Cell theoryb. Nucleus and cytoplasmc. Cell surfaced. Types of cells

2. Tissuesa. Meristematicb. Epidermalc. Cortexd. Vasculare. Pith

3. Organsa. Rootsb. Stemsc. Leavesd. Flower parts, fruit, seed

II. Plant structuresA. Stems

1. Functionsa. Supportb. Conductionc. Storaged. Photosynthesis

2. Types of stemsa. Woodyb. Monocotyledonsc. Herbacedus dicotyledonsd. Modified stems

(1) Tubers(2) Twining(3) Rhizomes(4) Stolons(5) Bulbs and corms

3. External anatomya. Buds, types and functions

(1) Flower(2) Leaf(3) Mixed

b. Nodes and internodesc. Leaf scarsd. Lenticelse. Thorns

4. Internal anatomya. Meristematic tissueb. Permanent tissues

(1) Xylem

134

(2) Phloem(3) Epidermis

c. Annual rings(1) Significance of health(2) Abnormalities(3) Rays(4) Knots

B. Roots1. Functions

a. Adsorptionb. Conductionc. Storaged. Anchoragee. Reproduction

2. Root types and extensiveness of rootsystema. Tap rootb. Fibrousc. Adventitiousd. Primary, secondary, rootlets, root

hairs3. Cellular structure of root hairs and

root capsC. Leaves

1. Functionsa. Photosynthesisb. Transpirationc. Protectiond. Storagee. Reproduction

2. Types and persistencea. Dicotyledons v. monocotyledonsb. Gymnosperms of coniferales orderc. Simple v. compoundd. Evergreen v. deciduous

3. Modifications4. Anatomy

a. Epidermis and cuticleb. Stoma and guard cells

(1) Palisade parenchyma(2) Spongy parenchyma

c. Veinsd. Epidermal hairs

D. Flowers1. Function : reproduction2. Types

a. Monocotyledons, grassb. Dicotyledons, legume and compositec. Perfect and imperfectd. Raceme and cyme

3. Flower parts

a. Petalsb. Sepalsc. Stamen

1) Anther, pollen(2) Filament

d. Pistil(1) Ovary, ova(2) Style(3) Stigma

e. ReceptacleE. Fruit

1. Function2. Types and development

a. Simple(1) Pod, legumes(2) Follicle, milkweed(3) Capsule, pigweed(4) Silique, crucifers(5) Achene, composite(6) Caryopsis, grains(7) Samara, elm(8) Schizocarp, carrot(9) Nut, walnut

(10) Drupe, peach(11) Berry, tomato(12) Pome, apple

b. Aggregate, strawberryc, Multiple, fig

F. Seeds1. Function, reproduction2. Dispersal methods and devices

a. Wingsb. Plumed seedsc. Barbedd. Sticky seed coate. Forceful dehiscencef. Floatingg. Consumed and transported by ani-

mals3. Seed anatomy : dicotyledons, bean

a. Embryo(1) Cotyledons(2) Radicle, hypocotyl(3) Epicotyl or plumule

b. Seed coat, testa(1) Hilum(2) Micropyle

c. Endosperm (in castor bean)4. Seed anatomy : monocotyledon, corn

a. Embryo(1) Hypocotyl

135

(2) Plumule(3) Coleoptile(4) Coleorhiza

b. Endospermc. Seed coat

III. Fundamental Plant ProcessesA. Photosynthesis

1. Importance and magnitude2. Mechanism of photosynthesis

a. Hill's reactionb. Equation

3. Efficiency of photosynthesisa. Lightb. Water

4. Factors influencing the ratea. Internal factorsb. External factors

5. Inputs : sources and functiona. Carbon dioxideb. Waterc. Light

6. Chloroplasts7. Enzymes, minerals and structural con-

ditions8. Products

a. Oxygenb. Sugar

9. Measuring photosynthesisB. Transpiration

1. Definition and importance2. The process

a. Stomata, guard cell apparatusb. Evaporationc. Diffusiond. Cohesion theory and "transpiration

pull"3. External factors affecting rate of tran-

spirationa. Atmospheric vapor pressureb. Solar radiationc. Atmospheric temperatured. Air movemente. Available soil moisturef. Soil temperature

4. Internal factors affecting rate of tran-spirationa. Quantity of stomatab. Distribution of stomatac. Position of stomatad. Cuticle

e. Reduction of surface areaf. Epidermal hair

C. Adsorption and root-soil-moisture rela-tions1. Water active adsorption

a. Diffusion pressure deficit relationsb. Physiological mechanism of active

absorptionc. Zones of active absorption

(1) Root hairs (most important)(2) Zone of elongation(3) Zone of root suberization and

lignificationd. Factors inhibiting absorption

(1) Flooded soil(2) Excessive salts in soil solution

e. Guttation2. Water, passive absorption

a. Transpiration pullb. Tension in xylem tissue

3. Draught resistancea. Leaf modificationb. Colloidal gelsc. Root modifications

4. Effects of water deficits on plantprocessesa. Reduction of growthb. Reduction of photosynthesisc. Sugar and amino acid accumula-

tionsd. Assimilation product accumulatione. Increased respirationfi "Hardening"

5. Mineral absorptiona. Diffusion processb. Absorption against diffusion

gradient and energy requiredc. Selectivity and concentrationd. Active adsorption during periods of

no water absorptione. Factors affecting

(1) Oxygen content of microenvir-onment

(2) Enzymelike carriers .

(3) Availability(4) Zone of absorption(5) Age of root or root hairs(6) Respiration rate

D. Conduction: water, solutes, and sugars1. Mechanism of water transport

a. Transpiration

136

b. Xylem-tracheids and vessels andcohesive forces

c. Pressure and turgor pressured. Osmosise. Tension theory vs suction

2. Pathways of water from soil to xylemtissuea. Through cellular membranes and

living cellsb. Through cell walls and intercellular

spaces3. Mechanism of mineral transport

a. Xylem tissueb. Water flow to top of plantc. Mobile minerals

(1) Nitrogen(2) Phosphorus(3) Sulfur

d. Minerals of less mobility(1) Calcium(2) Iron

4. Phloem and sugar transporta. Sieve-tubes, living cellsb. Companion cellsc. Mechanism of transport

(1) Active transport involvingindividual molecules

(2) Flow of entire solution(3', Pressure flow hypothesis

E. Turgor pressure1. Definition and operation

a. Differentially permeable membraneb. Free movement of waterc. Guard cells and all cells

2. Controlling factors for diffusiona. Presence of solute particles in the

waterb. Existence of a turgor pressurec. Temperatured. Presence of water attracting

colloids3. Wilting and plasmolized cells

a. Lack of turgor pressureb. Osmotic water loss to medium mole

concentrated than cellc. Plasmolyzing solutiond. Application to wilting and irriga-

tion of crop plantsF. Growth and development

1. Cell elongationa. Frey-Wyssling theory of bipolar

addition of parallelized microfibrilsb. Factors affecting

(1) Nutrition of cytoplasm(aa) Auxin concentration(bb) Phosphate enzyme

activity(cc) Amino acid concentra-

tions(dd) Nitrogen(ee) Unknown enzyme sys-

tems(2) Respiration rate(3) Stage of development(4) Temperature

2. Cell multiplicationa. Meiosis, reduction divisionb. Mitosis

(1) Precise doubling of chromo-somes

(2) Separation to daughter nuclei(3) Cytoplasmic division

3.cs Cell and tissue differentiationa. Protoderm

(1) Epidermis and cuticle(2) Protection(3) Gas exchange

b. Ground meristem(1) Pith(2) Cortex(3) Pith rays

c. Procambium(1) Phloem

(aa) Sieve tube(bb) Companion cells(cc Fibers(dd) Parenchyma

(2) Vascular cambium(3) Xylem

(aa) Tracheids(bb) Vessel members(cc) Fibers(dd) Parenchyma

4. Plant growth regulatorsa. Plant regulators: promote or inhibitb. Growth regulatorsc. Flowering regulatorsd. Phytohonnones, produced by plante. Growth hormonesf. Flowering hormonesg. Auxinsh. Antiauxins

137

i. Agricultural application of growthregulators(1) Rooting of woody cuttings(2) Production of parthenocrapic

fruit(3) Production of larger fruit

(aa) Flower thinning(bb) Fruit thinning

(4) Preventing sprouting of pota-toes, onions, and nursery stock

(5) Prevention of preharvest fruitdrop

(6) Delay or hastening of fruitmaturity

(7) Induction of flowers (pine-apple)

(8) Herbicides, especially 2, 4DG. Reproduction

1. Pollinationa. Agents of pollinationb. Types of pollination

(1) Self(2) Cross

c. Compatibilityd. Pollen germination

2. Fertilizationa. Growth of pollen tube into embryo

sac.b. Sperm cell enter eggc. Sperm cell enter endospermd. Withering of stigma and style

3. Development of the seeda. Growth and development of the

zygote to form embryob. Development of primary endosperm

cell to form endospermc. Development of the integument to

form seed coatd. Absorption of nucellar tissuee. Development of ovary tissue to

form fruit4. Germination

a. Factors essential for propergermination(1) Viable seed(2) Dormancy overcome(3) Proper environment

(aa) Proper temperature(bb) Oxygen(cc) Moisture(dd) Light on some seeds

b. The process of germination(1) Imbibition of water(2) Swelling and often seed coat

rupture(3) Enzyme activity(4) Respiration increase(5) Trans location of nutrients(6) Cell elongation and multiplica-

tion(7) Radicle emerges

c. Dormant seeds(1) Reasons for dormancy(2) Kinds of dormancy

(aa) External: seed coat im-pervious to gasses ormoisture

(bb) Internal: after ripening,seeds which do not germi-nate when subject toproper environment andlack external dormancy

(3) Methods of overcoming dorman-cy(aa) Scarificatiop(bb) Treatment with acid or

hot water(cc) Light treatment(dd) Stratification(ee) Gas treatment

(4) Kinds of germination(aa) Hypogeal(bb) Epigeal

H. Plant Biosynthesis1. Starch synthesis

a. Glucose-1-phosphate to amyloseb. Glucose-1-phosphate to amylopectinc. Combination of amylose and amylo-

pectic to form starch.d. Enzymes necessarye. Complex intermediate stepsf. Insolubility of starchg. Starch accumulations in crop plants

2. Starch digestiona. Hydrolylic processb. Formation of maltose or glucosec. Amylase enzymes and intermediate

steps3. Fat synthesis and digestion

a. Ratio of hydrogen to oxygenb. Sugar to glycerol and fatty acidc. Combining of glycerol and three fat-

138

ty acids and elimination of 3 mole-miles of water

d. Importance of enzymese. Insolubility of fatf. Digestion of fat to glycerol and fatty

acids with aid of water and enzymesg. Application to oil crops

4. Protein synthesis and digestiona. Amino acids from sugar nitrogen

and often sulfurb. Conversion of amino acids and phos-

phorus to protein, with eliminationof water

c. Complex intermediate stepsd. Importance of enzymese. Resulting products of digestion

(1) Amino acids(2) Phosphorus(3) Organic acids and ammonia(4) Carbon dioxide and water

f. Amino acids resulting from digestionand resynthesis

g. Applications to high protein crops5. Assimilation

a. Definitionb. Location and process of assimilat-

ing(1) Pigments(2) Gums, resins, mucilages(3) Tannins(4) Latex(5) Alkaloids(6) Antibiotics(7) Poisons(8) Phytohormones(9) Vitamins

(10) Enzymesc. Importance and agricultural

cationsI. Respiration

1. Definition2. Enzymes in the reaction8. Mechanism of respiration4. Factors affecting respiration

a. Temperatureb. Carbon dioxide concentrationc. Oxygen concentrationd. Light and nutrition

5. Applications to crop plantsJ. Abscission

1. Definition and occurrence

appli-

a. Leaf fallb. Flower and fruit drops

2. The mechanisma. Cell divisionb. Middle lamella breakdownc. Cell dissolvingd. Cork formatione. Vessel plugging by gums or tyloses

3. Agricultural importancea. Cotton and defoliantsb. Apple and pear dropc. Citrus drop

IV. Heredity in crop plantsA. History and importance of plant geneticsB. Laws of inheritanceC. Review of meiosisD. The monohybrid and dihybrid crosses

1. Dominance and recessiveness2. Homozygous and heterozygous

E. Inbreeding and cross breeding1. Hybrid corn2, Hybrid alfalfa

F. Interactions of genes and modified ratiostios

G. Linkage and crossing overH. Breeding to develop disease or insect re-

sistant strainsc

---- I. Mutations!CMS INCA a/CM.. C.

J. Laws of probability and application tocrop breeding

C. The lithosphere1. Minerals and plant responses

a. Toxic mineralsb. Deficiency responses

(1) Nitrogen(2) Phosphorus(3) Potassium(4) Calcium

c. Selectivity and mineral accumulationby roots

2. Soila. Anchorage potential and reponse

(1) Depth(2) Particle size(3) Tilth

b. Water holding abilityc. Air potentiald. Organic mattere. Color and heat relations

D. The atmosphere1. Temperature2. Light intensity and day length3. Wind4. Contents

a. Pollutantsb. Moisturec. Oxygen cycle-----Irtarbon cycle8. Nitrogen cycle

E. The biosphere1. Plants

a. Symbiosis, disjunctive : plants notin contact with each other(1) Nutritive: one derives food

from others(aa) Antagonistic(bb) Reciprocal

(2) Social(aa) Competition(bb) Beneficial

b. Symbiosis, conjunctive(1) Mutualistic: both plants benefit(2) Commensalistic: one plant ben-

fits, the other not harmed(3) Parasitic: one benefits while

other suffers

V. Plant EcologyA. Importance of ecology

1. Food supply2. Fiber, forest through cotton3. Individual plant, autecology4. Plant communities, synecology

B. The hydrosphere1. The water cycle2. Response of plants

a. Drouthb. Excessive water

3. Thermal properties of VV4 ara. Coolingb. Thermal energy storagec. Heat Absorption

4. Water qualitya. Salt contentb. Mineral content

(1) Boron(2) Selenium

139

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)1. Classify and identify crop plants. (3 hours)2. Classify and identify stem anatomy, includ-

ing buds. (3 hours)

3. Classify and identify root annatomy, micro-scopic work. (3 hours)

4. Classify and identify leaf anatomy micro-scopic work. (3 hours)

5. Classify and identify flowers and fruits.(3 hours)

6. Classify and identify pollen and seeds. (3hours)

7. Determine influences of environment uponphotosynthesis. (3 hours)

8. Measure and experiment with transpira-tion. (3 hours)

9. Experiment with nutrient uptake by roots.(3 hours)

10. Measure speed, quantity, and methods ofconduction. (3 hours

11. Measure and experiment with tugor pres-sure. (3 hours)

12. Experiment with growth regulators on cropplants. (3 hours)

13. Determination of ideal environmental con-ditions for various crop seeds also conductexperiments with seed dormancy. (3 hours)

14. Experiment with respiration and synthesisof complex molecules by plants. (3 hours)

15. Work genetic problems and make micro-scopic studies of abscission. (3 hours))

16. Take a field trip to observe factors in cropecology. (3 hours)

Texts and References

GALiTorr, The Life of the Green PlantSTEWARD, Plants at WorkWEISZ and FULLER, The Science of Botany

Visual Aids

Coronet Films, Coronet Building, Chicago, Ill. 60601Plant Tropisms and other Movements, color, 16mm,11 minutes

Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Encyclopedia Britan-nica Education Corp., 425 North Michigan Avenue,Chicago, Ill. 60611

Seed Dispersal (2nd edition)Plant MotionsRoots, Stems, Leaves, color, 16mm,11 minutesRoots or Plants and edition, black & white, 16mm,11 minutes

The Growth of Plants, color, 16mm, 21 minutesAmerican 1.13.5., McGraw-Hill Text Film Division,880 West 42nd Street, New York, N.Y. 10018Multicellular Plants, color, 16mm, approx. 28 minutesA series of 10 films on plant parts and functions

140

General Courses

Agricultural EconomicsHours Required

Class,3; Laboratory, 0

Course Description

A course in the economic development ofmodern agriculture. The economic problems ofagricultural production and marketing are cov-ered. The changing role of modern agricultureand its social and political implications areemphasized.

The material in this course is designed toacquaint the students with the many "prob-lems" which comprise the so-called "farm prob-lems" in the United States. The course is moremarket oriented than production oriented. Theproblems of farm management are included inother courses.

The instructor must keep abreast of currentstatistics and articles on agricultural economicsso that the information presented in class is ascurrent as possible.

Major Divisions

I. Introduction to AgriculturalEconomics

II. Agricultural ProductionIII. Agricultural PricesIV. Domestic Consumption

and MarketingV. World Consumption and

International TradeVI. Economic Resources

in AgricultureAgricultural ControlEconomics of Local Agriculture__Public Relations in Agriculture__Future Trends in

Agricultural Economics

Class hours

41

VII.VIII.

IX.X.

Total...,...estzaa..1.11.2C.C112 ======= .11.

Units of Instruction

I. Introduction to Agricultural EconomicsA. Definition of terms

1. Agricultural economics2. Economic laws3. Applied v. pure science

666

6

3

3636

S48

B. Size and scope of agriculture1. Farming phase2. Service and supply phase3. Marketing and distribution phase

C. The agricultural revolution1. Relationship to industrial revolution2. Economic developments3. Our present economic system

II. Agricultural ProductionA. Nature of farm production

1. Number of farms2. Definition of a farm3. Farm size and income4. Family vs corporate farms

B. Supply and demand1. Law of supply and demand2. Elasticity3. Law of diminishing returns

III. Agricultural PricesA. Price determination

1. Purpose of pricing2. Cost-price squeeze

B. Attempts at price stabilization1. Effects of wars and depression2. Effects of government programs

IV. Domestic Consumption and MarketingA. Nature of agricultural marketing

1. Problems2. Promotion programs

B. Consumption of agricultural products1. Population growth2. Industrial uses3. Possible ways to increase

V. World Consumption and International TradeA. World consumption

1. Population growth2. Need vs effective demand3. Interaction of domestic and world pro-

ductionB. Agricultural exports

1. Size and scope2. Leading commodities3. Leading importing countries

C. Common market developments1. Europe2. Central America3. Latin America

141

VI. Economic Resources in AgricultureA. Land

1. Acreage in use2. Farm sizes3. Future trends

B. Labor1. Part-time farming2. Age of farm population3. Effects of rural development

C. Capital1. Reasons for increase2, Past, present, and future sources3. Uses of financing

D. Technology1. Means of development2. Adoption by farmers3. New farm philosophy

Agricultural ControlPrivate companies or corporations1. Through integration2. Contract farmingGovernment1. Production controls2. Acreage controls3. Water use4. Taxation policiesFarm groups1. Bargaining associations2. Cooperatives3. Marketing ordersSocial and political implications1. Commercial v. part-time farms2. Relationship of government and farm-

ers

VIII. Economics of Local AgricultureA. Size and scope in state

1. Income2. Commodities

B. Trends in production1. Increasing enterprises2. Decreasing enterprises3. Specialization4. New commodities

IX. Public Relations in AgricultureA. Public relations

1. Definition2. Uses in agriculture8. What city people should know about

farming

B. Implementing a public relations program1. The individual farmer2. Farmer organizations3. Laws affecting agriculture : odors, dust,

etc.4. Interdependence of farm and city5. Agriculture's image in Congress

X. Future Trends in Agricultural EconomicsA. Farming in the future

1. Effects on major enterprisesProblems in production

3. Problems in marketingB. The new farm philosophy

1. The agri-business concept2. Who will be farmers3. Who will control farming

Texts and ReferencesHATHAWAY, Problems of Progress in the Agricultural

EconomyROY, Contract Farming U.S.A.SCHULTZ, Economic Crises in World AgricultureSNODGRASS and WALLACE, Agriculture Economics and

GrowthVINCENT, Economics and Management in Agricultwe

Communications Skills

Course Description

Class, 4; Laboratory, 3.

Course Description

A course in oral and written communicationdesigned to promote greater competency in re-cording, talking, writing, and listening. The lab-oratory period provides practice in the variousskills using teaching machines, programedlearning, and other instructional aids. It alsoincludes some practice by every student inspeaking before the class an exercise usuallybest adaptable to class sections not exeeeding25 or 30 students.

This course may be adapted to large or smalllecture sections. The laboratory should be openall day and evenings too, if school schedulespermit. The laboratory should be staffed witha technical teaching assistant to help studentsoperate the machines, and teachers should beavailable to give individual help. Studentsshould be assigned to at least three hours of lab-oratory per week and should check in and out of

142

the laboratory. Extra use of the laboratory bystudents should also be encouraged.

The laboratory materials are designed to al-low students to progress at their own rate andprovide for periodic testing. The types of teach-ing materials included are only a sample ofthose available and new ones are available daily.The teacher should keep abreast of new mate-rials as they are produced and evaluate themfor inclusion in the course.

Major Divisions

I. Communication and theTechnical Specialist 4

II. Using Resource Materials 4III. Sentence Structure 10IV. Written Expression 20V. Talking and Listening 14

VI. Improving Reading Efficiency 12Total 64

Class hours

Units of InstructionI. Communication and the Technical Specialist

A. Why the technical specialist must be pro-ficient in the art of communication

B. Why written communication is an essentialskill1. Statements and facts2. Expression of ideas3. Technical reporting

a. Formalb. Informa:

4. Use of graphics to illustrate writtencommunications

C. Why oral communication is an essentialskill1. Person-to-person expression of ideas

and thoughts2. Verbal reporting

D. Diagnostic tests

II. Using Resource MaterialsA. Orientation in the use of the library

1. Major systems of classificationa. Dewey decimal system (most

common system)b. Library of Congress system

2. Use of individual learning aids andequipment

B. Aids in using the library1. Call numbers

2. Card catalogue3. Vertical file4. Open stack libraries5. Closed stack libraries6. Parts of a book

C. Examples of reference books1. General reference sources

a. Besterman, World Bibliographiesof Bibliographies

b. Bibliographic Index: A CumulativeBibliography of Bibliographies

2. Cataloguesa. The Booklistb. Publisher's Trade List Annualc. The Reader's Adviser and Book-

man's Manuald. The United States Cataloge. The Cumulative Book Index

3. Indexes to magazines, newspapers,and essaysa. Annual Magazine Subject Indexb. American News-

papers, 1821-1949c. Directory of Newspapers and

Periodicalsd. International Index to Periodical

Literature,1907 to datee. New York Times Indexf. Readers' Guide to Periodical Lit-

erature, 1900 to date4. Encyclopedias

a. Chamber's Encyclopediab. Encyclopedia Americanac. Encyclopedia Britannicad. New International Encyclopedia

5. Biographiesa. Biography Index

b. Current Biographyc. Dictionary of American Biographyd. Dictionary of Canadian Biographye. Dictionary of National Biography

(British)f. Who's Whog. Who Was Who

6. Dictionaries (unabridged)a. A Dictionary of American English

on Historical Principlesb. New Century Dictionaryc. New English Dictionary on His-

torical Principlesd. New Standard Dictionary of the

143

English Language (Funk and Wag-nalls)

e. Webster's New International Dic-tionary of the English Language

7. Yearbooksa. The American Yearbookb. Annual Registerc. Information Please Almanacd. National Catholic Almanace. Statesman's Year Bookf. Whitaker's Almanac

8. Atlases and gazetteersa. Columbia Atlasb. Columbia-Lippencott Gazetteer of

the Worldc. Encyclopedia Britannica World

Atlasd. Hammond's Ambassador World

Atlase. Rand McNally Commercial Atlas

and Marketing Guide9. Guides to pamphlets and bulletins

a. United States Government Publica-tions

b. Subject Guide to United States Gov-ernment Publications

c. A Popular Guide to GovernmentPublications

d. United States Government Publi-cations: Monthly Catalog

e. Catalog of the Public Documentsof Congress and of All Departmentsof the Government of the UnitedStates for the period 1898-1940.

10. Books of quotationsa. Bartlett, Familiar Quotationsb. Benham, Benham's Book of Quota-

tions, Proverbs and HouseholdWords

c. Hoyt, New Cyclopedia of PracticalQuotations

d. Mencken, A New Dictionary of Quo-tations on Historical Principles

11. Agriculturea. Agriculture Indexb. Bailey,Cyclopedia of American Ag-

riculturec. Bailey, Standard Cyclopedia of

Horticultured. Dictionary of Terms Relating to

Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry,etc.

e. Bradley, Index to Publications ofthe United States Department ofAgriculture, 1901-1930

f. Yearbook of Agriculture

III. Sentence Structure: What is a sentence?A. Function words

1. Noun indicators (determiners)2. Auxiliaries3. Intensifiers4. Prepositions5. Coordinating conjunctions (coordi-

nators)6. Subordinating conjunctions (subor-

dinators)a. Adverbial clause markers (subor-

dinators)b. Noun and adjectival clause markers

(relative pronouns)c. Transitional connectors (transi-

tional conjunctions)B. Review of parts of speechC. Sentence patterns

1. Subject-transitive verb-direct object2. Subject-transitive verb-indirect

obj ect- direct object3. Subject-linking verb-predicate

adjective4. Subject-linking verb-predicate noun

or pronoun5. Subject-intransitive verb6. Subject-passive voice verb

D. Finding the subject and verb1. Intervening modifying elements2. Inversions3. Word groups as subject or verb4. Verb and verbals5. Command and request sentences

E. Phrases1. Verbal

a. Infinitiveb. Participlec. Gerund

2. Prepositiona. P-group in the noun cluster and

verb clusterb. Uses of the P-group: noun, adjec-

tive, adverb

144

F. Clauses1. Independent or main clause2. Dependent or subordinating (S-group)

a. S-group as part of noun clusterb. S-group as part of verb cluster

G. Kinds of sentences1. According to function

a. Statement (declarative)b. Question (interrogative)c. Imperatived. Exclamatory

2. According to construction with clausesa. Simpleb. Compoundc. Complexd. Compound-complex

H. Effective sentences1. Unity2. Variety3. Emphasis4. Coherence5. Coordination and subordination6. Loose and periodic sentences7. Balanced sentences8. Conciseness9. Sentence length

10. DictionI. Sentence errors

1. Fragment2. Comma splice and runtogether3. Mixed and illogical constructions4. Faulty coordination5. Faulty subordination6. Choppy sentences7. Passive voice sentences8. Dangling modifiers9. Misplaced modifiers

10. Agreement, reference, case11. Confusion of adjectives and adverbs12. Trouble with verbs

IV. Written ExpressionA. What is a good paragraph?B. Characteristics of a good paragraph

1. Unity2. Completeness3. Coherence4. Emphasis

C. Unity1. Main idea or topic sentence2. Positions of main idea

3. Inferred main ideaD. Completeness

1. When is a paragraph complete?2. Length in word or sentence count3. Length determined by writer fulfilling

his purposeE. Coherence

1. What is coherence?2. Methods of achieving coherence

a. Consistent point of viewb. Using conjunctions and other con-

nectivesc. Pronoun referenced. Repetition of key idease. Parallel structuref. Transitional sentences and para-

graphsF. Emphasis1. Methods of achieving emphasis

. By grammatical rankb. By the end and beginning positionsc. By inversionsd. By moving words out of their

normal positions in a sentencee. By using figures of speechf. By an occasional short sentenceg. By arranging items in a series in or-

der of climaxh. By using words in special waysi. By the periodic sentencej. By repetition of key ideask. By parallel structure

G. Simple orders of development1. General to particular or deductive or-

dera. Repetition of topic sentence at endb. Sentences arranged in question to

answer pattern2. Particular to general or inductive or-

dera. Sentences arranged in order of cli-

maxH. Complex orders of development

1. Comparison, contrast, analogy2. Analysis

a. By classificationb. By partitionc. By processd. By cause and effect

3. Definition4. Narration

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5. Description6. Combination of methods

I. Structuring the outline1. Sentence outline2. Topic outline3. Paragraph outline

J. Written exercises in the paragraphK. Letter writing

1. Business letters2. Personal letters

L. Mechanics1. Capitalization2. Punctuation

a. End punctuation: period, questionmark, exclamation point

b. Commac. Semicolond. Colone. Dashf. Parenthesisg. Bracketsh. Apostrophe

M. Spelling1. Thomas Clark Pollock's Spelling Re-

port: List of words2. Rules

a. Dropping the final eb. Doubling final consonantc. ei or ied. Changing y to i

3. Other aids to analysis of spelling prob-lemsa. Distinguishing prefixes and suffixes

from rootsb. Words with seed soundc. Confusing forms, such as procedure,

proceed, proceededd. Addition of unnecessary letterse. Omission of necessary lettersf. Changing letters aroundg. Confused endingsh. Single and double consonantsi. Words that sound somewhat alike

but spelled differently4. Syllabification5. Visual memorization

N. Problems in usage1. Adjectives and adverbs2. Case of pronouns3. Agreement of subject and verb4. Difficulties with verbs

5. Reference of pronouns6. Effective sentences

a. Subordinationb. Coordinationc. Parallelismd. Dangling modifierse. Misplaced modifiersf. Shifts in constructiong. Comparisonsh. Comma splicei. Runtogether sentences

V. Talking and ListeningA. Characteristics of good speech

1. Worthwhile subject2. Noteworthy purpose3. Good resource materials4. Captures listener's attention and inter-

est5. Effective language and style6. Effective voice and diction7. Effective bodily actions

13. How to select a subject1. Sources2. Purpose3. Limiting the subject

C. Four basic objectives1. Inquiry2. Reporting3. Advocacy4. Evocation

D. Gaining the confidence of the audience1. Confidence2. Tolerance and fair play3. Friendliness4. Sincerity5. Sense of humor6. Dignity

E. Kinds of speeches1. Reading from a manuscript2. Speaking from memory3. Impromptu4. Extemporaneous

F. Outlining the speech1. Kinds of outlines

G. The divisions of speech1. Introduction2. Discussion or body

a. Central ideab. Major supportc. Minor support

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3. Transitions4. Conclusion

H. Effective use of languageI. Developing an adequate speaking voice3. Developing effective body actions

1. Movement of the whole body2. Gestures3. Posture4. Facial expressions

K. Characteristics of good bodily action1. Coordination2. Vitality3. Integration4. Timing5. Variety6. Reserve7. Appropriateness

L. Problems that plague the public speaker1. Getting to the platform2. Where to stand3. Moving around4. What to do with the hands5. Use of the speaker's stand

M. Listening1. Reasons for listening

a. For factsb. To analyze facts and ideasc. To evaluate facts and ideasd. For elaboratione. For entertainmentf. To improve speaking

2. Principles: listening is besta. When listeners have a stake in what

the speaker is sayingb. When speaker has a stake in what

he is sayingc. When listener's motivation is real

rather than artificial3. Basic needs that affect listening

a. Self-preservationb. Propertyc. Social approvald. Integritye. Affectionf. Sentimentg. Tasteh. Pleasure

4. How to listena. Concentrateb. Understand what to listen forc. Critically

d. Use mechanical, aids for listening5. Note-taking as an aid to listening

VI. Improving Reading efficiencyA. Diagnostic testsB. Learning about reading

1. Speed in reading2. Purpose and difficulty3. Flexibility4. Characteristics of a good reader5. Getting rid of bad habits

C. Building a vocabulary1. Types of vocabulary2. Ways of building a vocabulary

a. Context cluesb. Direct explanationc. Indirect explanationd. Similee. Prefixes, suffixes, roots

3. Vocabulary cardsD. Reading the paragraph

1. Locating the main idea2. Ferreting out facts3. Drawing inferences4. Sensing tone5. Noting the structural organization6. Skimming and scanning for specifics7. Following pronoun references8. Making conclusions9. Following the guide words

E. Skimming1. Purpose of skimming2. Skimming the whole3. Skimming an article4. Previewing a book

F. Scanning1. Difference between skimming and

scanning2. Skill of scanning

G. Intensive reading: study type reading1. Using the "SQ3R" method

a. Surveyb. Questionc. Readd. Reviewe. Recall

2. Outlining what is read

Suggested Laboratory Projects (48 hours)1. Practice skills of information discovery

and collection (8 hours)This laboratory is organized around pre-

147

pared projects to give the student an op-portunity to practice the skills of locating,evaluating, and collecting useful informa-tion. In addition, it provides colored slidesfor illustrative purposes and machine pro-grams on library orientation. It includesalso a guided tour of the library for orienta-tion and work in the library on assignedtopics.A. Using resource materials

(1) Orientation in the use of the li-brarya. A planned tour of the library

1. Orientation in the use of thelibrary

2. Instructions in where librarymaterials are placed

b. Teaching machine1. Library orientation program

(films, slides, and other pre-pared materials)

Aids to using the librarya. Teaching machinesb. Prepared materialsc. Independent projectsReference booksa. Independent projectsb. Prepared materials

(4) Tests and exercises2. Practice Skills Involving Sentence Struc-

ture (10 hours)This laboratory is organized around ma-terials with which the student may do in-dependent study. It may be necessary,therefore, for the teacher to create his ownprogram for the teaching machines, al-though there are some programs availableat the present time and there will be manymore programs in the future. The labora-tory program which follows stresses fourkinds of materials: teaching machines in-cluding films) ; autoinstructional pro-gramed books already on the market, suchas English 2600, English 3200, and CorrectWriting; various traditional workbookslike From Sentence to Paragraph by AlbertE. Di Pippo and A Workbook for Writersby Sachs and others; and exercises andtests already published or new materialsprepared especially for the laboratory bythe department or individual teacher.

(2)

(3)

A. Sentence Structure(1) Function words

a. Teaching machineb. Lists prepared by teachers or in

reference books, such as Under-standing English by Paul Rob-erts and Form in Modern Eng-lish

c. Exercises and tests(2) Review of parts of speech

a. By teaching machineb. By autoinstructional texts, such

as: English 3200c. By use of a Workbook for

Writersd. Exercises and tests

(3) Sentence patternsa. Use teaching machinesb. Use autoinstructional texts, such

as: Correct Writingc. Use A Workbook for Writersd. Exercises and tests

(4) Finding the subject and verba. Use teaching machinesb. Use autoinstructional texts,

such as: Correct Writingc. A Workbook for Writersd. Exercises and testsPhrasesa. Use teaching machinesb. Use autoinstructional texts,

such as: Correct Writingc. A Workbook for Writersd. Exercises and tests

(6) Clausesa. Use teaching machinesb. Use autoinstructional texts, such

as: Correct WritingEnglish 3200

c. Use A Workbook for Writersd. Exercises and tests

(7) Kinds of sentencesa. Use teaching machinesb. Exercises and tests

(8) Effective sentences: rhetorical pat-ternsa. Use teaching machinesb. Use autoinstructional texts, such

as: Effective Writing

(5)

148

Correct WritingEnglish 3200

c. Paragraph materials preparedfor the laboratory using over-head projector

(9) Show sentence errorsa. By teaching machinesb. By autoinstructional texts, such

as: Correct WritingEnglish 3200

c. Use A Workbook for Writersd. By prepared sentence and para-

graph materials for overheadprojects

3. Practice skills involving written expres-sion (10 hours)The laboratory is designed primarily to aidthe student in improving his mechanicsand usage including capitalization, punctu-ation, and spelling. At the present timethere are some programs in these areasalready designed for teaching machines.Since most of the materials in parts onethrough 11 will be covered in class lecturesand written assignments, the laboratorymaterials may be used independently by thestudent to help him correct errors in hiswritten work. He may work also with films,texts, and SRA Compositon material.A. Written Expression

(1) Use programed materials, such as:a. Ferster, Programed College

Compositionb. Shurter and Reid, A program for

Effective Writingc. Bergman, Paragraph Rhetoric:

A Program in Composition(2) Use of films(3) Use of SRA contemporary compo-

sition by Peterson(4) Mechanics

a. Teaching machinesla. Practice punctuation pro-

gram2b. Use independently prepared

programsb. Use programed texts, such as:

Palmer, The English Sentence:A Programed Course

Hook and Stevens, Competence

in English: A ProgramedHandbook

Ferster, Programed CollegeComposition,Everett, Dumas and Wall, Cor-

rect WritingBlumenthal English 2600

c. Use workbooks, such as:Sachs and others, A Workbookfor WritersHodges and Laws, HarbraceCollege Workbook

d: Tests and exercises(5) Spelling

a. Use programs prepared forteaching machines

b. Use programed texts, such as:Hook, Spelling 1500: A ProgramSmith, Spelling by Principles

c. Use spelling programs in otherautoinstructional texts, such as:Everett, Dimas and Wall, Cor-rect Writing

d. Spelling testse. Exercises in mechanics and

usage(6) Usage

a. Use programs prepared forteaching machines

b. Assign exercises in programedtexts, such as:Hook and Stevens, Competencein EnglishBlumenthal, English 2600Blumenthal, English 3200Sullivan, Programed GrammarEverett, Dumas and Wall, Cor-rect Writing

c. Exercises and tests4. Practice skills involved in talking and lis-

tening (10 hours) This part of the studyprogram must include actual practice inspeaking before the class. This laboratoryexercise is designed to give the student anopportunity to hear speeches by famouspersons, such as Churchill, Roosevelt, Ken-nedy, and others. In addition, the studentmay tape his own speeches given before theclass as an audience, and play them backfor study purposes. The laboratory should

149

`include also among its reference materialsmany printed copies of famous speeches. Itshould include also films on speaking andlistening. Some recommended films are thefollowing:University of Illinois, Using your VoiceUniversity of Indiana, Movements and Ges-turesUniversity of Indiana, Talking Ourselvesinto TroubleA. Talking and Listening

(1) Study tapes of famous speeches(2) Tape speeches of your own com-

position(3) Tests and exercises on organiza-

tion, outlining, listening5. Practice in improving reading efficiency

(10 hours)The reading laboratory is designed to givethe student an opportunity to practice theskills and techniques of efficient readingwith materials especially designed for read-ing improvement. The laboratory includesreading machines, programed texts, andstandard reading materials. Individual pro-grams should be set up for the students.The laboratory materials below, therefore,are some of the materials in the field; theinstructor will use them as they fit theindividual student needs.A. Improving Reading Efficiency

Diagnostic testsBooks for study and practicea. Canavan and King, Developing

Reading Skillsb. Canavan and Heckman, The Way

to Reading Improvementc. Brown, Efficient Readingd. Carter and others, Effective

Reading for College Studentse. Judson, The Techniques of

Readingf. Leedy, Read with Speed and

Precisiong. Leedy, Reading Improvement

for Adultsh. Sherbourne, Toward Reading

ComprehensionNote: Many of these books areself-teaching since they have the

(1)(2)

answers to all the exercises and testin the appendix. These are but afew of the many excellent readingbooks in the field and may be usedfor independent study and improve-ment.

(3) Vocabulary buildinga. Use programs prepared for

teaching machinesb. Assign materials in standard

textsc. Use programed texts for vo-

cabulary development, such as:Brown, Programed VocabularyEverett, Dumas and Wall, Cor-rect Writing

(4) Make use of individual programs inreading improvement with materi-als, such as:a. Science Research Associates,

Inc., 259 East Erie St., Chicago,Ill. 60611Reading for Understanding byThelma Gwinn ThurstonePilot Library"M SeriesReading Laboratory Series, de-veloped by Don H. ParkerReading Laboratories IVaPower BuildersTMAdvanced Reading Skills Pro-gram, developed by Elizabeth A.SimpsonWords, developed by SusanMeyer Markle

b. Craig Research, Inc., 3410South La Cienega Blvd., LosAngeles, Calif. 90016Advanced Reading Program AReading Program B

Note: These programs are design-ed to accompany the Craig Reader:a machine for use by an individual,not a class.c. Educational Developmental

Laboratories, 75 Prospect St.,Huntington, N.Y. 11743Coast Visual Education Co., 6560Hollywood Blvd., Hollywood,Calif. 900281. KL series for controlled read-

er

150

a. Exercises for KL series2. HsC series

a. Exercises for series3. IJ serie,1

a. Exercises for series4. Manuals and tests for series

The controlled reader may be usedwith a class or by the individualstudent; it is designed for self-learning with a number of completeprograms.Note: There are, of course, otherprograms in the field, the purposein this outline is to suggest the pos-sibilities available for independentreading improvement. The depart-ment, for example, might wish toconsider "Learning 100" a multi-media communication skills system

prepared under the direction ofGeorge D. Spache, Head of ReadingLaboratory and Clinic at the Uni-versity of Florida for EducationalDevelopmental Laboratories, Hunt-ington, N.Y. A Division of Mc-Graw-Hill. See also their "Reading300 Lab". Auto-tutor by WelchCompany has a vocabulary pro-gram.

Textbooks, References, and Visual AidsTo assist those who use this outline, the references for

each of the five suggested laboratory projects (or Sec-tions) have been listed separately as follows:

1. Using Resource Materials:BARTON; Reference Books: A Brief Guide for Students

and Other Users of the LibraryHIRSHBERG, Subject Guide to Reference BooksHUTCHINS, Introduction to Reference WorkSHORES, Basic Reference SourcesWILSON and others, Harbrace Guide to DictionariesWiNcHELL, Guide to Reference Boolcs

2. Sentence Structure: Background and ResourceMaterials, General References

ALBAUGH, English: A Dictionary of Grammar andStructure

ROBERTS, Patterns of EnglishROBERTS, Understanding EnglishTAFT, MCDERMOTT, JENSEN, and KAPLAN, The Tech-

nique of Composition

Programed Materials:BLUMENTHAL, English, 2600BLUMENTHAL, English 3200

EVERETT and others, An Auto-Instructional Text in Cor-rect Writing

FERSTER, Programed College CompositionHooK and STEVENS, Competence in English: A Pro-

gramed HandbookPALMER, The English Sentence: A Programed CourseSHURTER and REID, A Program for Effective WritingSULLIVAN, Programed Grammar

Workbooks:DI PIPPO, From Sentence to ParagraphHODGES and LAWS, Harbrace College WorkbookSACHS and others, A Workbook for WritersWILLis, Structural Grammar and Composition

Films:How We Know What We Know, 29 mins., b & w., sound.

University of Indiana, AudioVisual, Bloomington, Ind.47401

Sentence Variety and Grammar, 30 mins., b & w., sound.University of Indiana, Audio Visual, Bloomington, Ind.

47401

Instructional Materials:Various auto-tutor machines, such as:

Welch Auto-tutor, Welch Scientific Co., 7300 NorthLinder Avenue, Skokie, J.11. 60076

3. Written Expression: Background and ResourceMaterials, General References

BAKER, The Complete StylistBROOKS and WARREN, Modern RhetoricHODGES and LAWS, Harbrace College HandbookMORRIS, Form and Forcus (readings to illustrate types)TAFT and others, The Technique of Composition

Programed Materials:BERGMAN, Paragraph Rhetoric: A Program in Composi-

tionBLUMENTHAL, English 2600BLUMENTHAL, English 8200EVERETT and others, An Auto-Instructional Text in

Correct WritingFERSTER, Programed College CompositionHOOK, Spelling 1500: A ProgramHOOK and STEVENS, Competence in English: A Pro-

gramed HandbookPALMER, The English Sentence: A Programed CourseSHURTER and.REm, A Program for Effective WritingSMITH, A Programed Text: Spelling by PrinciplesSULLIVAN, Programed Grammar

Workbooks:SACHS and others, A Workbook for WritersHODGES and LAWS, Harbrace College WorkbookDi PIPPO, From Sentence to ParagraphWILLIS, Structural Grammar and Composition

Teaching Machines:Autotutor, The Welch Scientific Co., 7300 North Linder

Avenue, Skokie, III. 600764. Improving Reading Efficiency : Background and

Resource Materials

151

Reading Texts:BROWN, Efficient ReadingCANAVAN and HECKMAN, The Way to Reading Improve-

mentCANAVAN and KING, Developing Reading SkillsCARTER and others, Effective Reading for College Stu-

dentsJUDSON, The Techniques of ReadingLEEDY, Read with Speed and PrecisionSHERBOURNE, Toward Reading Comprehension

NoteThese are just a few of the many excellenttexts in the field.VocabularyProgramed MaterialBROWN, Programed VocabularyVocabulary BooksBROWN, Learning Words in ContextDEVITIS and WARNER, Words in ContextGROOM, A Short History of English WordsRICHARDS and ROMINE, Word MasteryPrograms designed for reading machines:Science Research Associates, Inc.Craig Research, Inc.Education Developmental Laboratories

5. Talking And Listening: Background and ResourceMaterials

BAIRD and KNOWER, General SpeechCAPP, How to Communicate OrallyCRANDELL and others, Speech: A Course in FundamentalsFREELEY, Argumentation and DebateMCBURNEY and MILLS, Argumentation and DebateMCCALL and COHEN, Fundamentals of SpeechMONROE, Principles and Types of SpeechOLIVER and others, Communicative Speaking and Listen-

ingROGGE and CHING, Advanced Public Speaking

Principals of Social ScienceHours Required

Class, 3; Laboratory, 0

Course Description

This course consists of a practica: approachto the nature of man and his behavior individu-ally and in groups. The course stresses humanrelations : how man learns and fits into hisgroup, community, culture, and nation.

The first part of the course is intended toacquaint students with the various fields insocial science. The other parts of the courseare intended to go into more depth covering therelationships between people, groups, and soci-eties. The main objective should always be topoint out how the student will fit into eachsituation.

The nature and needs of man including per-sonality, maturity, and motivation should be re-lated to getting along with or supervising peo-ple. The part showing how cultures and socie-ties have developed and are organized shouldbe related to his place and his responsibilitiesin society. How the student can develop respon-sible leadership in helping to bring about de-sired changes should be discussed in relation-ship to social problems.

The section on learning should relate to thestudent personally and to how people may betrained on the job. Actual job situations shouldbe used as examples in class.

The part of the course related to governmentshould be aimed at responsible citizenship. Thestudent should learn what individual rightsand responsibilities he has and how to proper-ly exercise them by responsible political action.

Finally the student should be prepared tofind his starting place in the world of work. Heshould be prepared for problems he will en-

. counter and how to cope with them. His firststep may be an interview for a job. He shouldprepare a brochure of his personal file to sub-mit to employers. It is recommended that simu-lated job interviews be held in class using ad-visory committee members as employers. Afterthe interviews, critiques should be held to dis-cuss strong and weak points in the procedure.

The instructor should encourage students toask questions at any time during class. Thishelps the instructor to know how well the ma-terial is being assimilated by students andwhat their problems may be.

There is not one textbook, at present, whichwould be entirely suitable for this class, so stu-dents should be assigned reading work in thelibrary. Several good references are listed atthe end of the outline. In addition, reprintsfrom Scientific American or other such sourcesshould be used.

Careful consideration should be given tochoosing an instructor to teach this course.The teacher should have a broad backgroundin the social sciences and, in addition, experi-ence in work other than teaching. A teacherwith these qualifications is more likely to havean empathy for the students and understandthe problems they will be facing. These factorsare as important as knowledge of the subject.

152

Major Divisions

Class hoursThe Scope of the Social Sciences__The Nature of ManMan and His Culture.____.Human BehaviorThe Learning Process .. .... ._The Individual's Relationship

to GovernmentVII. The World of Work. ..._... ...........

Total ..... ........ _

66966

69

48

Units of Instruction

I. The Scope of the Social SciencesA. Definition of the social sciences

1. Sociology: the study of the socialstructure of contemporary complex so-cieties.

2. Anthropology: the study of humanvariation

3. Psychology : the study of individualgroup behavior and experiences.

4. Other fieldsa. Political science: the study of poli-

tics and governmentb. Economics and business: the study

of production, distribution, and con-sumption of material goods and ser-vices fulfilling the needs of societies.

B. The scope of sociology1. Human encounters

a. Groups man formsb. Intergroup relationships

2. Social structuresa. Organizations and markets (leader-

ship)b. Social stratification and social mo-

bilityc. The family: function, interaction,

variationsd. Cultures (social problems)

C. The scope of anthropology1. The origin, development, and differenti-

ation of mana. Man and the animalsb. The criteria of human classification

(physical traits)c. Classifying the races of modern man

2. The concept of man's culturea. Culture is man's design for living

which governs the behavior of themembers of that culture

b. Patterns of various cultures, an-cient to present

D. The scope of psychology1. Growth and development of the indi-

viduala. Childhoodb. Adolescencec. Adult years

2. Motivation and emotional behaviora. Motives that make the individualb. The emotions and behavior

3. Learning and thinkinga. I-low man learnsb. Creative thinking and problem solv-

ingc. Testing and evaluating learning

4. Mental health of the individuala. The effect of heredity and environ-

mentb. Personality factorsc. Adjustment to pressures and conflictd. The abnormal individual (psychia-

try)5. Applied psychology

a. Vocational selection and counselingb. Family counselingc. Studying interpersonal relations, at-titudes, opinions, etc.

II. The Nature of ManA. Classification of men and animals

1. Zoological classifiations2. Relationship between men and animals

B. Chronological periods in history1. Archeozoic2. Proterozoic3. Paleozoic4. Mesozoic5. Cenozoic

C. Modern man1. Criteria of human classification

a. Cranial vaultb. Face and lower jawc. Nosed. Eyes, lips, earse. Skin, hair, eye colorf. Hairg. Stature, weight, buildh. Blood groups

153

2. Classification of modern mana. Causacoid, mongoloid, and negroid

racesb. Geographical racesc. Causacoid local racesd. Negroid local racese. Mongoloid local racesf. Indian local racesg. American Indian local racesh. Specialized locali. Emerging hybrid races

D. Needs of man1. Physiological

a. Hungerb. Thirstc. Breathd. Eliminatione. Fatiguef. Temperature regulationg. Pain avoidance

2. Social drivesa. Sexb. Activityc. Maternald. Safety and securitye. Love and belongingf. Esteem and self-esteemg. Social aspects of self-actualization

E. Personality development1. Definition of personality2. Shaping of personality

a. Effect of cultureb. Physique and temperamentc. Intellectuald. Interests and valuese. Social attitudesf. Motivational traitsg. Expression and styleh. Pathological traits

3. Concepts of normality4. Growth and development

a. Early yearsb. Adolescencec. Maturity

5. Mechanisms of defense and masterya. Frustrationsb. Adjustment to environment

6. The motivation processa. Determine objectiveb. Develop empathyc. Communicate

d. Establish relationshipse. Furnish proper tools

III. Man and His CultureA. Nature and meaning of culture

1. Cultural evolutiona. Educationb. Cultural lag

B. Origin of cultures1. Primitive man2. Family groups3. Early political organizations

C. Development of culture1. Religion2. Art3. Language

D. Modern culture1. The family group

a. Social-psychological functionb. The agrarian familyc. The industrial familyd. Marriage and matinge. The changing family role

2. Socializationa. Forming groupsb. The individual and his groups

(1) Characteristics and functions(2) Limits on size and organization(3) Group dynamics(4) Social and Religious values

3. The communitya. Originb. Characteristics and growthc. Rural-urban balanced. Class structuree. Social stratificationf. Social agencies in the communityg. Needed changes

4. Societies and groupsa. Types

(1) Social(2) Labor unions(3) Management

b. Social controlsc. Functions

5. Social controlsa. Formalb. Informal

6. Collective behaviora. Social changesb. Social movements

154

7. Group leadershipa. Innovatorsb. Followers or adaptorsc. Responsibilities

8. Social problemsa. Population growthb. Land usec. Communicationsd. Transportatione. Warsf. Food supplyg. Rural-urban migrationh. Rural developmenti. Poverty and welfare

j. Technological changek. Automation

IV. Human BehaviorA. Background

1. Cultural2. Biological

B. Heredity1. Genetic basis2. Phenotypes and genotypes3. Population genetics4. Heredity in animal behavior5. Physically and mentally handicapped

workersC. Environment

1. Effect on individual2. Overcoming environmental handicaps

D. Behavior of people1. Why people behave as they do2. Relationship to personality develop-

ment3. Factors influencing changing of behav-

ior4. Problems of maturation

E. Leadership1. Followership2. Leadership traits

V. The Learning ProcessA. Intelligence

1. Definition2. How developed

B. Perception1. Motivation2. Action3. Learning and performance

C. Cognition1. Memory

2. Language3. Meaning4. Reasoning5. Problem solving

D. Insight1. Readiness2. Mental set

E. Transfer of training1. Identical components2. Application of principles

F. Memory and retention1. Forgetting2. Over learning3. Repression4. Recognition and recall

G. Practical implications1. Use in training workers2. Use in hiring personnel3. Use in assigning workers at jobs4. Use in evaluating success

VI. The Individual's Relationship to Govern-mentA. Individual and politics

1. Local, State, national2. Political Parties3. Rights4. Responsibilities

B. Voice in Congress1. How attained2. Responsible actions

a. Pressure groupsb. Public opinionc. Propaganda

C. Laws affecting private enterpriseD. Rural-urban interdependence

1. Conflictsa. Socialb. Economic

2. Solutions to problemsE. Public policy formation

1. Individual2. Legislative3. Judicial4. Executive

155

VII. The World of WorkA. Planning your future

1. Physical limitations2. Educational limitations3. Personal traits and job success

B. Selling yourself1. Strong points2. Weak points3. Personal brochures4. Job interview techniques5. Actuai job interviews

C. Assuming responsibility1. Self improvement2. Self management

D. Interpersonal relationships1. Personal problems

a. Stress or conflictb. Troubled personalityc. Emotions

2. Self and projected image3. Race and ethnic relations

E. Supervising others1. Human relations2. Job orientation3. Teamwork4. Job oriented problems5. Personal problems6. Motivating others7. Communication

Texts and ReferencesBAIN, Sociology: Introductory ReadingsBASS, Leadership, Psychology, and Organizational

BehaviorBEALS and HOLIER, An Introduction to AnthropologyBELLOWS, Psychology of Personnel in Business and

IndustryDAVIS, Human Relations at WorkGILMER, Applied PsychologyHATHAWAY, Government and AgricultureHILOARD, Introduction to PsychologyLunn, Psychology of Human BehaviorKRECI1 and others, Individual in SocietyMon, The Organization of SocietySworn% Agricultural SociologyTAYLOR and JONES, Rural Life and Urbanized SocietyWHITE and others, Sources of Information in the Social

Sciences

BUILDINGS, FACILITIES, EQUIPMENT, AND COSTS

O

to

1501-0" 201- 130L0"

Glarshouses Lathhouse Glasshouses

LiHeadhouse

Lecture room Crops laboratory

Walk.inI,E.1 Storagerefrigeratolel rooms

StorageMOMS

Fruits laboratory

Preparationrooms

3Irrigation

testing areaEquipment &

machinery yard

Covered. work area

Irrigation laboratory

Storagerooms

Women'slocker

Men's lockera.

Hall

Power & machinery laboratory

(Ps.... Men'srestroom

..g-;oWomen'srestroom

PlantscieA 5 ncesolls

affSt 1 ,,, laboratoryoffices Conference

MOM.._

PreparatioMOMS

StorageMOMS

Lecture roomto

Staffoffices

Drafting room Agriculturalmechanics

Weldinglaboratory

Figure 24.An example of a plan for facilities for a farm crop production technology program.

A most important part of planning any cur-riculum is the consideration of buildings, facil-ities, equipment, and costs. Administrators,staff, and advisory committees should keep theeducational needs described in this guide inmind when planning facilities. Failure to do socan easily result in facilities that are eitherinadequate or too elaborate to provide optimuminstruction.

General Planning

The guidelines that follow are intended as ageneral guide to groups planning facilities tooffer either option in field and forage crops orfruit and vine production or both. It is assumedthat facilities for general education and chem-istry already exist on the campus. Therefore,the suggestions offered in this guide apply onlyto those facilities and equipment which will beneeded for the technical and supporting coursessuggested in the curriculum.

In addition, this guide is concerned only withthe two options discussed in the first part ofthis study. When planning facilities, seriousconsideration should be given to other agricul-tural programs that may be offered. For exam-ple,th-Ccurriculum in field and forage cropscould combine very well with one in ornamental

156

horticulture or one in agricultural equipmenttechnology. Much of the equipment and labora-tories could be utilized in both or all three cur-riculums. Indeed they should be to justify thecost of the facilities. The same principle mightapply to animal husbandry or grain, feed, seedand farm supply technology programs. Howev-er, those planning any combinations of curricu-lums should bear in mind that even thoughsome equipment can be used for other curricu-lums, the facilities suggested in this guide areneeded for the farm crop production technolo-gy program and some of the facilities requiredfor other curriculums may have to be in addi-tion to these. Additional space might be neededfor demonstration plots and greenhouses, forexample, for an ornamental horticulture pro-gram.

Since some schools may offer only one of theoptions presented in this guide, the breakdownof facilities, equipment, and costs are shownseparately for each option, and what theywould be for both. Some of the recommendedequipment would be common to either option.

The planning of buildings and facilitiesshould always include some provision forgrowth. It is recommended that classroom fa-cilities be close enough to the rest of the cam-pus to be an integral part of it and to allowadequate passing time between classes. If the

campus complex, this can allow demonstrationplots and the shop facility, where equipment isused, to be far endugh away to reduce anynoise disturbance and to allow room for expan-sion. Planning should provide for at least 10years of future growth and development.facility is located on the edge of the main

Land Requirements

In addition to the land needed for the class--room, greenhouse, and shop facilities it is verydesirable that there be 50 to 100 acres pro-vided for orchard and demonstration plots. Atleast 25 acres should be considered a minimum.This should include 5 to 10 acres of land adja-cent to the greenhouses for a nursery plot. Inaddition, about 5 to 10 acres each should beprovided for demonstration orchard and croptest plots.

The allocation of space in the orchard couldvary according to the leading fruit and nutscrops of the area but might be as follows : 3acres of the leading fruit or nut crop of thelocal area, 1 acre of variety plots of fruit andnuts, and 1 acre of grapes, bush berries, or oth-er small fruit. An area of at least this size isneeded to demonstrate cultural practices in-cluding irrigation and weed and pest control.

The crop area may be used for one crop or acombination of rotation of crops according tolocal farming conditions. The combination ofcrop and orchard acreage should be ample toallow for the use of various Rinds of farm ma-chinery.

When selecting the land for the orchards andtest plots, careful consideration should be giv-en to obtaining land that is suitable for demon-stration use including irrigation. The landshould be reasonably level, well drained, andfertile. If the land cannot be purchased, a longterm lease should be explored.

Building FacilitiesThe minimum building facilities needed to

offer both options in field and forage crops andfruit and vine production are as follows :

1 crops laboratory

157

1 fruit laboratory1 soils laboratory1 small lecture room1 large lecture room2 storage and preparation rooms5 offices1 conference room1 headhouse2 glasshouses1 lath house1 shop (including storage shed)1 drafting room1 irrigation laboratory

A plan showing an example of an arrange-ment of facilities is shown in figure 24. If onlyone option is offered, one laboratory and oneclassroom could be omitted as well as one officeand one greenhouse.

It is recommended that some considerationbe given to a building without windows. One ofthis type makes heating and air conditioningand darkening for audiovisual use easier tocontrol and often more economical. Specialplanning should be exercised to make use ofspace most flexible by movable walls and byusing postable equipment whenever possible.

When a building is planned, conduit forclosed circuit television or other types of teach-ing aids which may be used should be included.Even though these teaching aids may be con-templated for future use, it is cheaper to installthe necessary conduit or electrical floor outletsduring initial construction. Air conditioningor suitable environmental control for the cli-mate should be considered in preparation foreventual year-round operation of the school.

There should be special planning for audio-visual equipment such as motion picture, slide,and overhead projectors in classrooms or lab-oratories where they may be used. Convenientlocation of electrical outlets which are the pro-per distance from the screen location is neces-sary. Ceiling height and lighting equipmentshould be high enough to allow for projectionscreens. Switches to control the lights andscreen from the projector location are desirable.In both classrooms and laboratories it is some-times desirable to have students take notesduring the showing of films or slides. Speciallow intensity lighting should be provided forthis purpose.

Lighting in classrooms and laboratoriesshould be a minimum of 50-foot candles at desktop with a minimum of shadow. Several differ-ent types of lighting may be used to attain thisresult.

Any technical program of the type suggestedhere requires many types of small equipment,models, and other teaching aids. For this reasonadequate storage space should be providedwhere equipment is accessible but out of sightwhen not in use. Laboratories are usually plan-ned to serve also as classrooms, so that it is de-sirable to have equipment put away while otherclasses use the room. Storage areas should beplanned with easy access to the outside to facil-itate the delivery of supplies and equipment.

Planning the LaboratoriesHot and cold water and gas are required in

all laboratories in addition to both 110- and 220 -volt electrical service. The necessary require-ments for each laboratory are discussed later.

Outside telephone lines should be included inthe offices, shop, and laboratories with an inter-com system between classrooms.

The HEADHOUSE area should be plannedas a headhouse as well as an enclosed work area(see figure 24). There will be times whenclasses want to work with pesticides, fertilizers,or soils, and it is desirable to move out of theclassroom. The headhouse area serves this pur-pose. The amount of protection from the weath-er should be dictated by the prevailing climateof the region. In addition, at least a part of thearea should be enclosed with fencing for securi-ty purposes. The covered headhouse area shouldalso include storage bins for sand and soilmixes and storage for clay flower pots.

A walk-in deep freeze and refrigerator shouldbe provided in the enclosed area of the head-house. These are desirable for storing plantmaterials and fruits or vegetables for later lab-oratory use.

In the event that only the crop option isoffered, the fruit laboratory and small lectureroom could be deleted from the building plans.In the estimates which follow, costs are givenfor either one or both options.

The CROPS LABORATORY is shown in fig-

158

ures 25, 26, and 27. The laboratory tables pro-vide for 24 student work stations with an elec-trical outlet at each station. One side of the lab-oratory is equipped with sinks and molded sinktops as a work area for using liquids. Gas andelectrical outlets should be available at thisarea. The space under the sink area is equippedwith storage cabinets for equipment.

The crops laboratory should contain a dryingcabinet for plant collections and specimens aswell as a herbarium for plant and seed storage.Mercury lined herbariums are desirable to pre-vent insect infestation.

The student tables should have acid resistant

32

&inks

401- Om

Tack board 11/

' o 'Counter top with storage cabinets

Student laboratory tables

Dryini cabinet

I du. AL.t.

.111101.11

Instructor's tables

Display cabinet Herbarium

Tack board

Figure 25.Crops Laboratory.

as

1

Figure 26.This display case with interchangeable drawers and a glass top isan effective way to display agricultural products in a farm crop laboratory.

dip

Figure 27.Equipment for an agricultural production testing laboratory shouldbe selected to provide maximum mobility whenever possible so it can be broughtto the laboratory tables when needed but placed in storeroom when not in use.

tops but acid sinks and plumbing need not beincluded because they are provided in the plantscience-soils laboratory.

Drawers along the wall between the herbar-ium and drying oven should be of various sizesfor storing seeds and other teaching aids. Thetop may be covered with glass to provide a dis-play area in the top drawers. This allows fordisplays without having the specimens out ontop of the cabinet. If the glass top is used, itshould bp specially lighted to allow specimens tobe seen well. The drawers should be the samesize and interchangeable to permit easy chang-ing of displays.

The instructor's station should consist of twomovable cabinets. One should have drawers andcabinets in it for storage. The other should haveshelves ; it should be small enough to be rolledinto the storage or preparation room where lab-oratory materials are readied. This allows theinstructor to arrange demonstration materialsand put them on the cart in the preparationroom while another class uses the laboratory.He can then roll the cart into the laboratorybefore class begins and have all of his materialsready to use.

By using movable laboratory tables, a de-monstration area can be provided in the labora-tory for demonstrating and using the variouskinds of equipment. If apparatus such as ham-mer mills, seed separators, and equipment ofthat kind is mounted on casters, moving theunits back and forth from storage to classroomis easier.

Space for tackboard and blackboard shouldbe provided. Sliding blackboards over station-ary ones can be used to provide extra black-board space.

The FRUIT LABORATORY can be plannedvery much the same as the crops laboratory.The drying oven and herbarium may be elimin-ated and this space used for storage. (see fig-ure 29)

on

PinksCounter top with storage cabinets

In eiucto r's s ations

Demonstrationarea

Fruit &samplestorage

Student laboratory tobt es

Display cabinetFruit &samplestorage

Figure 28.Fruit laboratory.

401-0s

9MSi

ggr,the

IIANdUsink

1-1

Instructor'sstatior

ave. bablnat

canAcid sinks rt

t`IourValr cab tit

9

PO

40'- 0"

Acid sinks

Student /Monitory tab OS

159

Figure 29. Soils laboratory.

Win owWith

venetianbi nd

Counter

wWitstorage

cabinets

Fumehood

Map

chart

wtoitph Tack

bins

so

O

The PLANT SCIENCE AND SOILS LABORATORY may be planned to serve as a teach-ing laboratory for crop botany, soils, soil man-agement, and some of the irrigation and watermanagement laboratory experiments. (see fig-ure 29)

The tables are arranged differently in thislaboratory and include acid sinks at the end ofeach table. Table tops should be acid resistantbecause most exercises involving the use of acidwill be conducted in this laboratory. Each stu-dent work station should have electricity andgas, in addition to gas and electricity at thesinks in the laboratory tables along the side ofthe room.

Since acid may be used extensively in thislaboratory, it should include a fume hood andsafety equipment. An eye bath and emergencyshower should be provided.'

At least one cabinet in this laboratory shouldinclude chart storage for soil maps. Long flatdrawers which allow the maps to be laid outflat during storage are desirable.

Portable soil bins that resemble the cabinetscan be made to fit under the sinks along theside. These provide a place to store soil samplesout of sight in the classroom. By having themon casters they can be wheeled to the door forease in filling or emptying.

STORAGE AND PREPARATION ROOMS areshown in figures 30, 31 and 32. The prepara-tion rooms can be used by students and instruc-tors. They are located between the laboratoriesor demonstration and lecture room, (see figure24) and are glassed in so that student activ-ities may be observed by the instructor. Vene-tian blinds can be provided so windows can bedarkened.

The preparation rooms should have sinks forcleaning glassware and other laboratory equip-ment. Sinks should contain commercial garbagedisposal units to dispose of plant materials fromthe labs.

The preparation room B, off of the plantscience and soils laboratory, should include anarea for balances. Due to the delicate character-istics of these instruments, a special base forthem should be provided. Ordinary cabinets per-

See Chemical Technology, a Suggested 2 Year Post High SchoolCurriculum, published by the Department of Health, Education andWelfare, OE- 80033, for discussion of laboratories.

160

a.0

201- 0"

I

Storage for equipment on rollers

Shelf cabinet

Shelf cabinet

Fume hood

1

1---1Counter

r

Shelf cabinetDrying rack

Acid sink withgarbage disposal

with sample storage drawers

Microscope cabinet

Figure 30.Storage and preparation room A.

mit too much vibration to provide required ac-curacy in the use of the most precise balances.

A fume hood should be provided in each pre-paration room to insure safety in working withcertain chemicals, (see figure 32). State andlocal safety standards should be followed care-fully.

The storage rooms should open to the outsidefor ease of making, deliveries of supplies andequipment. They should be well lighted andhave a variety of shelf and cabinet sizes.

A storage cabinet which can be kept lockedshould be provided for microscopes. Micro-scopes can be kept in both preparation rooms,but each scope should have a marked storagespace which corresponds with its serial number.

20'- d'

I Ii

Microscope cabinets

Balance tables

Drying rack Fume hood

0CO

I

Storage cabinets

ao

co.c

4oLOn

Figure 31.Storage and preparation room B.

Figure 32.A preparation room where instructors can store and prepare labors.tory materials is very desirable. (See fig. 24.) Note fume hood in foreground,walkIn cooler to right, and chemical storage, shelving and work area In leftbackground.

161

Missing scopes are more easily identified usingthis system.

Figures 33 through 36 show the layout of theshop, drafting laboratory, irrigation laboratory,and greenhouses.

It is highly desirable to have a paved; welldrained area adjacent to the shop building. Thisprovides a place to receive and store heavy ma-terials such as sand, soil, peat moss, fertilizers,pesticides, repair parts, and such supplies aswell as to load and unload equipment. If part ofsuch an area can be roofed so much the better.An outdoor work area with good drainage, asolid work surface, and protected from wind,rain, and sun is particularly useful.

0'-0"

Covered work and storage areaOverhead doors

Office

Hydraulictest unit

Work bench i Parts washer

Overhead CIcrane

ti If

11-1DynamometerLJ

Engine stands El1611114 11111011a

1ml

Jointer

ElectricOverhead doors

Drill

r:press

CI 72 11. OxyacetyleneWoodworking benches

.!00 welding stations

EjPower hacksaw 2I Work bench

Cr0

Radial arm saw

I Arc 'Millar* I

Figure 33.Power and mechanics laboratory and shop.

Acquisition of Equipment,and Estimated Costs

a

The need to have adequate facilities andequipment for Farm Crop Production Technol-ogy programs has already been emphasized. Theinitial cost of facilities and equipment is a ma-

50'- 0"

Blackboard

IMMOws1111

Student's stations

Blackboard

T1

Instructor'sstation

Office

Paper storage

onvolosiormwr.,

Figure 34. Drafting room.

50- 0"

1

Overhead door I

Covered walk am

Pumps

000

I

1

Water sump

1

Flow test trough

Sprinkler test stand1-4

Work bench

Storage room

Women's looker room

Men's locker room

Figure 35.Irr1ration laboratory.

1 I

A ID

0

jor expenditure. The importance of using thecombined expert knowledge of the (a) localadvisory committee which advocates and sup-ports the program, (b) the best available advicefrom consultants who are a part of an existingand successful program, and (c) the technicalknowledge of the head of the Farm Crop Pro-duction Technology program being planned can..not be overemphasized when plans and esti-mates of costs of facilities are made. Each pro-gram and its total facilities will be differentfrom others because of local or regional employ-

162

15' O

Lathedbenches

I I

Airconditioner(Heatingcooling)

1

xo

0

Humidistat

Figura 36.-- Greenhouse.

ment opportunities, climatic differences, andmany other factors.

Specific facilities and equipment for any pro-gram should be acquired only after specialistswho are technically competent in the field havemade exhaustive studies of the plans and po-tential suppliers of materials and services. Thedepartment head who will be responsible forthe program should be deeply involved and car-ry the major responsibility for final planningand acquisition of facilities and equipment.This will avoid costly mistakes which often re-sult if non-technical personnel attempt to planand equip technical program facilities.

There are many sources of equipment that

should be explored in an effort to equip the pro-

gram with up-to-date, adequate machinery and

apparatus at a minimum cost. Surplus equip-

ment, from either private or public organiza-

tions, can be an important source of good ma-

terials and hardware for equipping laborato-

ries. Government surplus property may often

be an especially attractive source of either

standard or specialized units, apparatus, in-

struments, and equipment; the cost of which

usually is only a small fraction of the costwhen new. Educational institutions are high

on the priority list of agencies to which govern-

ment surplus property is made available.

Distribution of surplus property within the

States is made through State agencies for sur-

plus property. Most such State agencies main-

tain one or more distribution centers at which

authorized representatives of eligible schools

or school systems select materials for educa-

tional use. The Director of Vocational and

Technical Education in each State can provide

specific information on the location of the gov-

ernment surplus property distributing agency

in his State.Experience has shown that it is important to

exercise the same elements of judgment and

care in acquiring surplus ,3quipment as is used

buying new equipment. Specific plans for the

use, and sound justification for the need should

clearly be established for any price of surplusequipment; a careful analysis should be made

of its total effectiveness in the program ; its

cost including initial cost, transportation,

space required, cost of installation, repair or

tune-up (if incomplete), and maintenance, and

its pertinence in terms of obsolescence.

Only technically competent, responsible, and

imaginative persons should select surplus

equipment, and then only after a thorough on-

site inspection. This practice avoids the temp-

tation to acquire attractive but obsolete, irrele-

vant, or excessive amounts of equipment. With

these precautions in mind, resourceful depart-

ment heads or instructors can often obtain in-

struments, apparatus, and other essential up-

to-date equipment for their laboratories and

shops at a very reasonable cost.Another source of equipment which is of

great importance are farm equipment dealers.

163

Often equipment can be rented or leased and

used for the program until it is superseded by

new models, at which time new leased equip-

ment can take its place and thus keep the in-

structional equipment up-to-date. There is

often a financial incentive to keep equipment

which has been purchased outright beyond its

technological usefulness.Short term leasing of some equipment, such

as spraying units or harvesting machinery, of-

ten is much less expensive than owning the

equipment.The suggested equipment for laboratories,

shops and facilities listed on the following

pages is rather extensive. Careful considera-

tion has been given to the various types ofunits and amounts of equipment shown and the

contributions of each to the educational pro-

gram. It represents a list considered adequate

for either of the options or for both, as indi-

cated. Cost estimates shown are representative

of those prevailing when this guide was pub-

lished and may vary from 10 to 20 percent from

one region or community to another.

Suggested Audiovisual Equipment

2 16 mm. motion picture projectors with tables

1 2- by 2-inch slide projector1 filmstrip projector1 slide stacker1 slide tray with cabinets1 tape recorder1 35 mm. camera with attachments5 movie screens1 overhead projector

Estimated total cost: $2,500 to $3,000.

Suggested Laboratory Equipment

Quan. Bunt1 acreage wheel1 analyzer, protein, Udy1 aspirator, laboratory,

Bates . .

1 autoclave ...1 barometer2 balances, analytical,

Mettler .

Fruitoption

Xgra

Fruitand crops

optionXX

1 balance, grain inspectionand dockage

1 balance, moisture deter-mination, Ohaus . . X

2 balances, single pananalytical X

1 balance, specific gravity1 balance, top loading,

Mettler . . . X6 balances, triple beam .. X2 blenders, food X1 broadcaster, hand seed1 caliper, tree1 can shear .

X._. .... X

4 chains, 100' (steel tape) X6 clippers, fruit X4 colony counters X5 color comparator discs,

Munsell (sets) X1 colorimeter, reflectance,

Agtron X1 colorimeter, spinning

disc .. ............ X1 colorimeter,

transmittance X1 color standards, (com-

plete set), Munsell. X1 corn breakage tester ..1 cotton gin, laboratory

type1 cotton percenter1 cotton tester, micronaire

12 cylinders, soil testingfor use with soildispersion mixer X

2 dessicators X1 dockage tester, Carter....1 duster, bellows type,

hand .......... X1 environmental chamber.. X1 flow meter . . X

12 funnels, separatory ..... X1 furnace, muffle .... X1 'germinator,

Mangelsdorf . X6 grafting tools .. X1 grafting wax melter... .. X1 grain shaker-sizer1 grain viewer and

black light1 grinder, food1 grinder, Tag-Heppenstall

electrode units . . a2 hot plates . X1 hydrometer (lot) , X1 hygrometer X1 incubator,

Bacteriological . X1 injector, chemical .. . X1 injector, liquid fertilizer X

12 illuminators, microscope X

X

6 ladders, picking, 8' X XX X 6 ladders, picking, 12' X X

1 ladder, step, 8' X XX X 1 lamp, ultraviolet X X

4 levels, Abney X X XX X 4 levels, Dumpy with

X tripods. X X X6 levels, hand X X X

X X 12 magnifiers, illuminated X X XX X 12 microscopes, binocularX X with illuminators X X XX X 12 microscopes, dissecting X X X

1 mill, laboratory,Steinlite X X X

X X 1 mill, laboratory, Wiley X X1 miller, rice, McGill X X4 mixers, soil dispersion X X X

24 moisture indicators,X

X

X

X

XX

XXX

XXX

XXX

X

X_

X....

XX0-XXX

X4

X 1

X 1

X 1

X 1

X1

XX 1X

1XXX 1

12X 1

XX 1

X 1

X 62

X 6XX 1X

12X 6X

24XX 4X 4X 1

1XX 1XX 1

164

tensiometers X X Xmoisture meters ..... X X Xmoisture tester,

Brabender with scale . X X Xmoisture tester,

Brown-Duvel X Xmoisture tester,

dried fruit X .... Xmoisture tester,

Motomco X Xmoisture tester,

Steinlite for grain X Xmoisture tester,

Steinlite for oil bear-ing seeds and nuts X X X

moisture tester,Steinlite for processedfruits and vegetables X X X

oil tester, Steinlite X X Xorchard heaters X . Xoven, laboratory,

forced air draft. X X Xoven, vacuum X Xpearler, barley X Xpenetrometers X X XpH meters X X XpH test kits, La Motte-

Morgan Chemical type X X Xpicking ring for fruit

(complete lot) X Xpruners, hand, vine X .... Xpumps, cut-aways of

various types ....... ...... X X Xpurity workboards for

seeds X Xrain gauges - L,a0.0 .. . ..... X X Xrange poles X X Xrefractometer, Abbe X Xrefractometer,

0-25 percent X .... Xrefractometer,

25-50 percent ....... X Xrelaxing box, insect X X X

4 rods, Philadelphia X1 sample divider, Boerner1 sample divider, Gamet

24 sample pans, grain.12 saws, pruning X

1 scarifier, seed1 seed blower, Universal ....1 seeder, cone1 seed separator, air

screen laboratory,Ferrell

1 seed separator, doddermill, Rice

1 seed separator, grader-tester, Simon Carterwith 4 Shells

I seed separator, magnetic,Grisez

1 seed separator, specificgravity, Sutton, Steeleand Steele with3 Becks X X

1 seed separator, spiral,Krussow X X

1 seed separator, verticaldisk, Simon Carter X X

1 seed splitting machine,for use with vitascope

1 shaker, cylinder1 shaker, sieve X

24 shears, hand pruning,Rieser type X

24 shears, lopping X1 sieves, barley (set)1 sieves, cottonseed (set)1 sieves, flax (set)4 sieves, soil analysis (set) X1 sieves, sorghum (set)1 sieves, soybeans (set)....1 sieves, U. S. Standard

(set) (No. 10-20-3040-60-70-80-100) X

1 sieves, wheat, corn,rye, oat (set)

1 sling psychrometer X12 soil augers X24 soil blocks, Bouyoucos X

6 soil sample tubes X1 soil test kit, LaMotte-

Morgan NPK X3 solubridges, with soil cup X1 sprayer, gasoline

powered, 10 gallon X1 sprayer, log plot X4 sprayers, garden,

8 gallon X1 spreader, fertilizer X1 still, distilled water X1 tank, oil storage X1 test unit, water quality X1 thermometer, recording X

X XX XX XX X

X XX XX X

X X

X X

X X

X X

3 thermometers, WeatherBureau typeminimum-maximum X X

1 thresher, head, modelvogel type X X

2 timers, interval X X X2 triers, grain

(complete lot) X X1 triers, seed

(complete lot) X X1 vitascope (tetrazolium

testing of seed forgermination) X X X

1 water measuring device,laboratory models(complete set) X X X

1 weight per bushel tester X XEstimated

total costs $30,500 $40,500 $44,500to to to

32,000 43,000 48,000

Suggested Shop Equipment

FruitX X Quan. Rant option

X X 1 baler, hayX X 1 battery, charger X

1 catching, tray fruit XX 1 combineX 1 crane, overhead power XX 1 cultivator, cornX at vegetableX 1 disc, harrow offset XX 1 disc, harrow tandem XX 1 ditcher XX 24 drafting machines X

24 drafting tables X1 drill, grain with ferti-

lizer and grass seedingattachment X

X X 6 drills, portable XX 4 drill presses X

X X 1 dynamometer, PortableX X PTO XX X 1 electrical test unit X

10 electric motors XX X 1 engine analyzer XX X 10 engines, gasoline and

diesel of various sizes,X X makes, and models XX X 1 forge, gas X

6 forks, pitch XX X 6 forks, spading XX X 1 hacksaw, power XX X 1 harrow, coilshank orX X spring-tooth XX X 1 harrow, spike-tooth" X 1 harvester, forage

165

Cropsoption

XX

.11.

X

Fruitand orops

optionXXXXX

XXXXXX

.1*

12 hoes, garden X X X12 hoes, nursery X X X

1 hydraulic press withtrack pin attachment . X X X

1 hydraulic test stand .. . X X X1 jointer .. .. X X X1 land leveler X X X6 maddocks X X X1 mechanical chair . . .. X X

10 meters, volt-ampere X X X1 micrometer, set X X X1 mower, hay X X1 parts washer X X X1 picker, corn X X6 picks X X X1 planter, precision X X2 planters, row crop

or corn ... ... .. ... ....... X X1 plow, disc . ..... .... .... ....... X X4 post hole diggers, hand X X X4 post hole augers, hand X X X1 pruners, power X X

12 rakes, garden .... ....... X X X6 rakes, leaves X X X1 roller, land X X1 sander, disk X X X1 saw, chain X X1 saw, chain sharpener X X1 saw, portable skill X X X1 saw, radial arm X X X

12 shovels, round point .. X X X12 shovels, square point .... X X X

1 skip loader, tractor ,mount X X X

6 soldering guns , X X X6 spades, balling X X X1 sprayer, orchard mist X X1 spreader, fertilizer

manure ..... ..... ..... X X X1 steam cleaner ... . .... . X X X1 subsoiler X X X

71,

1 sweeper or vacuum X Xtools, hand, for:

concrete X X Xcarpentry and

woodwork X X Xelectrical X X Xmetal, hot and cold X X Xpaint X X Xplumbing X X X

6 tools, handy man sets X X X14 tools, mechanic with

roller cabinets X X X1 tool, on panel, master act X X X6 torches, LPG X X X1 tractor, row crop

3-point hitch X X1 tractor, row crop, small X X1 tractor, tracklayer X X X1 tractor, utility . X X1 tractor, orchard X X1 trailer, field X X X1 tree shaker, tractor

mount X X1 truck, 11h-ton

stake body X X X1 truck, pickup X X X6 weeders, hand X X X1 welder, 6 station oxy-

acty. bench X X X1 welder, 800 amp.

ACDC units X X X1 welder, 300 amp.

DC portable X X X1 welder, 300 amp.

DC units X X X5 welders, 220 amp.

farm welders X X XEstimated

total costs $110,000 $112,000 $145,000to to to

115,000 117,000 160,000

166

SUMMARY OF COSTS

The following estimates are of the cost ofcompletely supplying and equipping a depart-ment for teaching farm crop production tech-nicians at the time of this publication. The esti-mates are based upon the purchase cost of newand modern equipment and supplies of goodquality, but not of the most expensive. Leasing,renting, or other possible arrangements maysignificantly reduce these gross figures. Thefollowing assumptions are made:

(1) The program can be started for a lowerinitial expenditure than the gross esti-mates shown, but complete plans for, andassurance of obtaining, adequate facili-ties soon after the program begins willbe a part of the institution's policywhen initiating any program.

(2) Adequate land for either or both optionsis assumed to be available, either ownedor secured by a long term lease.

(3) Classrooms, laboratories, lecture rooms,library, and other instruction facilitiesare assumed to be available for all ex-cept the technical specialty classes andlaboratory work associated with the pro-gram. It is assumed that both a draftingroom and a chemistry laboratory areavailable. If a drafting room is not avail-able in the institution, $12,000 (grossestimate) may provide one. Similarly, ifa chemistry laboratory is not availablefor the horticultural soils laboratorywork, $25,000 may be used as an esti-mate of its cost.

(4) No provision is made in this estimate foroffice furniture, conventional classroomblackboards, student seats, filing cabi-nets, and the conventional staff or in-structor's office equipment.

(5) The estimates assume the availability ofa building of suitable construction forthe shop and laboratories equipped with

167

normal services, such as electricity,heat, and water to and from the building,but otherwise unfurnished. The cost es-timates include piping, wiring, plumb-ing, and other distribution of serviceswithin each facility described.

(6) Cost summaries are provided for eachoption separately, based on the equip-ment itemized on preceding pages, sothat individual elements in either orboth options can be recognized and usedfor gross prediction of cost of facilitiesfor a program which includes either oneof the options or both.

(7) Facilities for each option (and theircosts) are provided to accommodateclasses of 20 to 25 students per class-room or laboratory. This assumes thatthere will be two laboratory sections of10 to 12 students for some parts of thelaboratory and shop study.

Forage and Field Crop Option

1 greenhouse (1,000 sq. ft.@ $10 to $12) ......

1 lathhouse (500 sq. ft.@ $10 to $12).. . . .

1 head house (2,000 sq. ft.@ $10 to $12)

audiovisual equipmentlaboratory equipment

$ 10,000 to 12,000

5,000 to 6,000

20,000 to 24,0002,500 to 3,000

40,500 to 43,000shop equipment 112,000 to 117,000installation and supplies 8,000 to 10,000

Estimated total cost $198,000 to 215,000

Fruit and Vine Production Option1 greenhouse (500 sq. ft.

@ $10 to $12)1 lathhouse (500 sq. ft.

@ $10 to $12)1 head house (2,000 sq. ft.

@ $10 to $12)

$ 5,000 to 6,000

5,000 to 6,000

20,000 to 24,000

audiovisual equipment 2,500 to 3,000laboratory equipment 30,500 to 32,000shop equipment 110,000 to 115,000installation and supplies 7,000 to 9,000

Estimated total cost $180,000 to 195,000

Both Options2 greenhouses (1,000 sq. ft.

@ $10 to $12)1 lathhouse (500 sq. ft.

@ $10 to $12) .... .....

1 head house (2,000 sq. ft.@ $10 to $12)

audiovisual equipmentlaboratory equipment

20,000 to 24,0002,500 to 3,000

44,500 to 48,000shop equipment 145,000 to 160,000installation and supplies 8,000 to 12,000

Estimated total cost $235,000 to 265,000The foregoing estimates do not provide for the cost

of the building which, if constructed for the program,may be calculated at $14 to $18 per square foot of

10,000 to 12,000 unfurnished laboratory or shop space; and from $20 to$25 per square foot of furnished laboratory or shop

5,000 to 6,000 space ready to receive equipment.

168

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SEFERIAN, DANIEL. Metallurgy of Welding. New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1962.

SHEFF, ALEXANDER L. Bookkeeping Made Easy. NewYork: Barnes & Noble, Inc., 1966.

SHEPHERD, D. G. Introduction to the Gas Turbine. NewYork: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1960.

rai

173

SHERBOURNE, JULIA F. Toward Reading Comprehension.Boston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1966.

SHIPPEN, J. M., and J. C. TURNER. Basic Farm Machin-ery, Vol. I. New York: Pergamon Press, 1966.

SHOEMAKER, JAMES S. Small Fruit Culture. New York:McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., Current edition.

SHORES, LOUIS. Basic Reference Sources: An Introduc-tion to Materials and Methods. Chicago: AmericanLibrary Association, 1954.

SHUSTER, ROBERT L., and JAMES M. REID, JR. A Pro-gram for Effective Writing. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966.

SHURTLEFF, M. C. How To Control Plant Diseases inHome and Garden. Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State Uni-versity Pr:ss, 1962.

SIENKO, M. J., and R. A. PLANE. Chemistry: Principlesand Properties. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Inc., 1966.

SINCLAIR, W. B. editor. The Orange: Its Biochemistryand Physiology. Berkeley, Calif.: University of Cali-fornia, Division of Agricultural Sciences, 1961.

SLOCUM, WALTER L. Agricultural Sociology. New York:Harper & Brothers, 1962.

SMITH, GENEVIEVE LOVE. A Programmed Test: Spellingby Principles. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,1966.

SMITH, HARRIS P. Farm Machinery and Equipment.New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. Currentedition.

SNODGRASS, MILTON M., and LUTHER L. WALLACE. Agri-culture Economics and Growth. New York: Apple-ton-Century-Crofts, 1964.

Society of Automotive Engineers. Engineering Know-How In Engine Design. New York: Society of Auto-motive Engineers, 1962.

SOSNIN, H. A. Arc Welding Instructions for the Begin-ner. The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation,1964.

STEWARD, F. C. Plants at Work. Reading, Mass.: Addi-son-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1964.

STEWARD, M. M. and others. Business English and Com-munication. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Cur-rent edition.

STRUNK, WILLIAM JR., The Elements of Style. NewYork: The Macmillan Co., 1962.

SULLIVAN, M. W. Programmed Grammar. New York:McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.

TAYLOR, C. FAYETTE. The Internal Combustion Engine.Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Co., 1961.

TAYLOR, LEE, and ARTHUR JONES, JR. Rural Life andUrbanized Society. New York: Oxford Press, 1964.

THOMPSON, HOMER C., and WILLIAM C. KELLEY, Vege-table Crops. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,Current edition.

THOMPSON, W. N. Fundamentals of Communication.New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957.

TISDALE, SAMUEL L., and WERNER L. NELSON. Soil Fer-tility and Fertilizers. New York: The Macmillan Co.,Current edition.

TRESSLER, DONALD K. and CLIFFORD F. EvERs. TheFreezing Preservation of Foods, Vol. IX. Westport,Conn.: AVI Publishing Co., Current edition.

TRESSLER, DONALD K. and MAYNARD A. JOSLYN. Fruitand Vegetable Juice Processing Technology. West-port, Conn.: AVI Publishing Co., 1961.

United States Standard for Grades. Washington, D.C.:U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fruit and VegetableDivision. Current edition.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Consumers All. (Year-book of Agriculture, 1965) Washington, D.C.: Gov-ernment Printing Office, 1965.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Financial Calculationsand Physical Measurements. Agriculture Handbook.230 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 1964.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Protecting Our Food.(Yearbook of Agriculture, 1966). Washington, D.C.:

Government Printing Office, 1966.U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Market-ing. (A monthly periodical)U.S. Department of Agriculture. Manual for Testing

Agriculture and Vegetable Seeds. Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1952.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Summary of Regis-tered Pesticide Uses. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, Current edition.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,Office of Education. Chemical Technology A. OE-80027 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, Supt. of Documents, 1967.U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,

Office of Education. Food Processing Technology, ASuggested 2-year Post High School Curriculum. OE-80027 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government PrintingOffice, Supt. of Documents, 1967.

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174

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Westport, Conn.: AVI Publishing Co., 1964.VINCENT, WARREN H. Economics and Management in

Agriculture. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,Inc., 1962.

WALLACE, JAMES J., and RAYMOND R. BENKE. Managingthe Tenant-Operated Farm. Ames, Iowa: Iowa StatePress, Current edition.WEISZ, PAUL B., and MELVIN S. FULLER, The Science ofBotany. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1962.Welding and Cutting Manual. New York: Union Car-bide Corp., 1966.WESTCOTT, CYNTHIA. Gardener's Bug Book. GardenCity, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., Current edition.WESTCOTT, CYNTHIA. Plant Disease Handbook. NewYork: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Current edition.WHITAKER, T. W., and G. N. DAVIS, Cucurbits. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1962.WHITE, C. M. and others. Sources of Information in theSocial Sciences. Totowa, N.J.: The Bedminster Press,1964.WILCOX, WALTER W. and WILLARD W. COCHRANE, Eco-nomics of American Agriculture. Englewood Cliffs,N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1960.WILLIS, HULON. Structural Grammar and Composition.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1967.WILSON, KENNETH G., and others. Harbrace Guide toDictionaries. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,Inc., 1963.WINCIIELL, CONSTANCE M. Guide to Reference Books.Chicago: American Library Association, 1,951.WINKLER, A. J. General Viticulture. Berkeley, Califor-nia: University of California Press, 1962.WOOLRICII, WILLIS RAYMOND. Handbook of Refrigera-tion Engineering. Westport, Conn.: AVI PublishingCo., Current edition.WOOD, JESSE H. and CHARLES W. KENITAN. General Col-lege Chemistry. New York: Harper & Row, 1961.ZETLER, ROBERT L., and W. G. CROUCH. Successful Com-munication In Science and Industry. New York: Mc-

Graw-Hill Book Co., 1961.ZIMMERMAN, JOSEF D. Irrigation. New York: JohnWiley & Sons, Inc. 1966.

APPENDIX

Selected List of Professional and Technical Societiesand Organizations Concerned

with Crop and Fruit Production

A list of some professional and technical societies andassociations concerned with crop and fruit productioncan be a source of useful instructional information andreference data. The compendium which follows :ns nota complete listing; inclusion does not imply special ap-proval; omission does not imply disapproval of an or-ganization. Details regarding lolal chapters or sec-tions have been omitted. Educators desiring informationfrom the organizations may address inquiries to theexecutive secretary at the address shown.

AGRICULTURAL AIRCRAFT ASSOCIATION, 524West Kearney Boulevard, Chandler Field, Fresno,Calif. 93706.

Purpose: Owners or operators of agricultural aircraftbusinesses.

Publications: Newsletter. Also publishes safety bulle-tins.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, c/o Na-tional Academy of Science, 2101 Constitution Ave-nue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418.

Purpose: To promote research and policies to insurebest utilization of agricultural resources in the na-tional economy. Affiliated with the Agricultural Boardand sponsored by National Research Council.

Publications: Various Research Reports.

AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1900Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103.

Purpose: To promote the study of insects and to publishresults of pure research in the systematics and mor-phology of insects.

Publications: Entomological News, 10 times a year;Transactions, quarterly; Memoirs, irregular.

AMERICAN FARM RESEARCH ASSOCIATION, 100Willayne Plaza, 402 Northwestern Avenue, WestLafayette, Ind. 47906.

Purpose: To direct work in animal and plant nutrition,seed and farm chemicals, and farm fields and lubri-cants.

Publications: None.

AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1600Bladensburg Road N.B., Washington, D.C. 20002.

Purpose: Membership includes individual amateur andprofessional gardeners.

Publications: AHS Gardeners' Forum, 8 times year;American Horticultural Magazine, quarterly.

AMERICAN MUSHROOM INSTITUTE, P.O. Box 373,Kennett Square, Pa. 19348.

Purpose: To Conduct promotion campaign to increaseconsumption of mushrooms.

Publications: Mushroom News, monthly.

AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, Departmentof Horticulture, Michigan State University, EastLansing, Mich. 48823.

Purpose: To provide information to professional andamateur horticulturists.

Publications: Fruit Varieties and Horticultural Digest,quarterly.

AMERICAN POTASH INSTITUTE, 1102 16th Street,N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Purpose: To conduct scientific research program inagricultural use of potash.

Publications: Better Crops with Plant Food, bimonthly.

AMERICAN RICE GROWERS COOPERATIVE AS-SOCIATION, 211 Pioneer Building, Lake Charles,La. 70601.

Purpose: Federation of local farmers' cooperatives en-gaged in processing, storage and marketing of roughrice.

Publications: None.

AMERICAN SEED TRADE ASSOCIATION, SouthernBuilding, 15th and K Street N.W., Suite 808, Wash-ington, D.C. 20005.

Purpose: Breeders, growers, assemblers, conditioners,wholesalers, retailers of grain, grass, vegetable, andflower seeds.

FEDERATED PECAN GROWERS' ASSOCIATIONOF THE UNITED STATES, P.O. Box 8597, BatonRouge, La. 70803.

175

Purpose: Federation of regional pecan growers' asso-ciations.

Publications: None.

FLORIDA CITRUS MUTUAL, P.O. Box 499, Lake-land, Fla. 33802.

Purpose: Citrus growers' organization supplying mar-ket and price information and promotional materialsto its members.

Publications: Triangle, weekly; Market Bulletin, 4/week.

FLORIDA FRESH CITRUS SHIPPERS, ASSOCIA-TION, P.O. Box 113, Lakeland, Fla. 33802.

Purpose: Shippers of fresh Florida citrus fruits.Publications: None.

FLORIDA LYCHEE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION,P.O. Box 7, Laurel, Fla. 33545.

Purpose: Marketing organization of lychee growers.Publications: Yearbook.

FLORIDA MANGO FORUM, 1102 North Krome Ave-nue, Homestead, Fla. 33030.

Purpose: To promote the study of mango production,marketing, and selection of new varieties.

Publications: Proceedings, annual.Publication: Yearbook.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR HORTICULTURAL SCI-ENCE, 301 Horticulture Building, Michigan StateUniversity, East Lansing, Mich. 48823.

Purpose: To promote and encourage national interestin scientific research and education in horticulture.

Publications: Newsletter, semiannual; Proceedings (2ndvolume includes roster), semiannually.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF AGRONOMY, 677 SouthSegoe Road, Madison, Wis. 53711.

Purpose: Professional society concerned with farmcrops and soils and conditions affecting them.

Publications: Agronomy Journal, bimonthly; Crops andSoils, 9 times a year.

AMERICAN SOCIETY' OF ENOLOGISTS, Depart-ment of Viticulture and Enology, University ofCalifornia, Davis, Calif. 95616.

Purpose: To promote technical advancement in enologythrough integrated research by science and industry.

Publications: Journal of Enology and Viticulture, quar-terly; News Edition, quarterly.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF RANGE MANAGEMENT,P.O. Box 18302, Portland, Ore. 97218.

Purpose: Professional society concerned with rangemanagement.

Publications: Journal of Range Management, bi-

monthly.

AMERICAN SOYBEAN ASSOCIATION, Hudson,Iowa 50643.

Purpose: To promote new varieties of soybeans andnew markets in the United States and abroad; tocombat diseases and insect pests affecting production.

176

Publications: Soybean Digest, monthly; Soybean BlueBook, annual; Late News, 32 issues year.

AMERICAN SUGAR CANE LEAGUE OF THEU.S.A., Whitney Boulevard, New Orleans, La.

70130.Purpose: Organization for sugar cane producers.Publications: None.

ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURALCHEMISTS, Box 540, Benjamin Franklin Station,Washington, D.C., 20044.

Purpose: To provide information for chemists whodevelop, test and sponsor improved methods of ana-.lyzing products related to agricultural commodities.

Publications: Journal of the AOAC, bimonthly. Pub-lishes official methods of analysis of the AOAC every5 years.

ASSOCIATION OF OFFICIAL SEED ANALYSTS,325 U.S. Court House, Kansas City, Mo. 64106.

Purpose: To provide information for officials of 68 Fed-eral, State, seed testing and research laboratories.

Publications: Newsletter, quarterly; Proceedings, an-nual; Rules for testing seed, 0 issues a year.

BEET SUGAR DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION,156 South College, P.O. Box 538, Fort Collins, Colo.80521.

Purpose: To conduct and promote research on beetsugar processing and sugar beet improvement.

Publications: None.

CALAVO GROWERS OF CALIFORNIA (Avocado),4833 Everett Avenue, Los Angeles, Calif. 90058.

Purpose: Activities include packing, promotion, andmarketing of and research on avocados and otherspecialty fruits (fresh).

Publications: Newsletter, semimonthly; Calavo News,irregular.

CALIFORNIA ALMOND GROWERS EXCHANGE,P.O. Box 1768, Sacramento, Calif. 95808.

Purpose: To promote sale of almonds on domestic andforeign markets, encourage correct almond culturalpractices, and develop stronger and specialized al-mond strains.

Publications: Almond Facts, bimonthly.

CALIFORNIA DATE GROWERS ASSOCIATION,P.O. Box 577, Indio, Calif. 92201.

Purpose: To promote cooperative marketing and har-vesting.

Publications: None.

CALIFORNIA FIG INSTITUTE, P.O. Box 709, Fresno,Calif. 93712.

Purpose: To promote research programs for commer-cial fig growers in California (only State producingfigs).

Publications: Statistical Review, annual.

CALIFORNIA FRUIT EXCHANGE, 1400 10th Street,Sacramento, Calif. 95814.

Purpose: Cooperative marketing organization to dis-tribute deciduous tree fruits and table grapes.

Publications: Blue Anchor, quarterly.

CALIFORNIA GRAPE AND TREE FRUIT LEAGUE,717 Market Street, San Francisco, Calif. 94103.

Purpose: To provide information for growers and ship-pers of fresh deciduous tree fruits, grapes, berriesin California and Arizona,

Publications: Newsletter, irregular.

CALIFORNIA RAISIN ADVISORY BOARD, 2240North Angus Avenue, Fresno, Calif. 93726.

Purpose: To promote the sale of raisins and raisinproducts.

Publications: Report to Raisinlanders, annual.

CALIFORNIA STRAWBERRY ADVISORY BOARD,c/o Malcolm B. Douglas, P.O. Box 57, Santa Clara,Calif. 95052.

Purpose: No data found.Publications: None.

CHERRY GROWERS AND INDUSTRIES FOUN-DATION, Box 283, Salem, Ore. 97308.

Purpose: To provide information for growers, proces-sors, and shippers of cherries.

Publications: None.

COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURAL AND CHEMUR-GIC RESEARCH, 850 Fifth Avenue, New York,N.Y. 10001.

Purpose: To promote discovery of new nonfood usesfor farm crops, their residues and byproducts; newcrops that farmers may grow profitably, etc.

Publications: Chemurgic Digest, 8 issues a year.

CRANBERRY INSTITUTE, South Duxbury, Mass.02374.

Purpose: To promote research on production and mar-keting of cranberries.

Publications: None.

CROP PROTECTION INSTITUTE, P.O. Box 5, Dur-ham, N.H. 03824.

Purpose: To conduct biological and biocidal researchand development of insecticides, herbicides, fungi-cides, nematocides, etc.

Publications: None.

CROP QUALITY COUNCIL, 828 Midland Band Boule-vard, Minneapolis, Minn. 55401.

Purpose: To encourage research and control of pestsaffecting food, feed, oil, and forage crops.

Publicatimis: None.

CROP SCIENCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 667 SouthSegoe Road, Madison, Wis. 53711.

Purpose: To advance research, extension, and teachingof all basic phases of the crop sciences and to co-operate with all other organizations similarly inter-ested in the improvement, production, management,and utilization of field crops.

Publications: Crop Science, bimonthly.

177

DATE GROWERS' INSTITUTE, Route 2,Thermal, Calif. 92274.

Purpose: To provide information for commercial grow-ers of dates.

Publications: DGI Bulletin annual.

Box 81,

DIAMOND WALNUT GROWERS, 1050 South Dia-mond Street, Stockton, Calif. 95205.

Purpose: Producers' processing and marketing organi-zation.

Publications: Diamond Walnut News, bimonthly.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 5603Calvert Road, College Park, Md. 20740.

Purpose: Professional society of entomologists and oth-ers interested in the study and control of insects.

Publications: Annals of E.S.A., bimonthly; Journal ofEconomic Entomology, bimonthly; Miscellaneous pub-lications of E.S.A., irregular; Bulletin of E.S.A.,quarterly.

FARM EQUIPMENT INSTITUTE, 608 South Dear-born Street, Chicago, III. 60605.

Purpose: To provide information for manufacturers offarm implements, machinery, and equipment.

Publications: FEI Letter, bimonthly; Farm, EquipmentIndustry Facts, annual; Land of Plenty. Survey ofAgricultural Engineering Projects at Land GrantColleges in the United States, Canada, Puerto Rico.

FARM EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS ASSO-CIATION, 34 North Brentwood, St. Louis, Mo.63105.

Purpose: To serve manufacturers of "short lines" ofspecialized farm equipment.

Publications: Short liner, semimonthly.

FARM FILM FOUNDATION (Motion Pictures), 1425H Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005.

Purpose: To create better understanding between urbanand rural America through audiovisual education.

Publications: Catalog of 16mm motion pictures.

FEDERATED PECAN GROWERS' ASSOCIATIONSOF THE UNITED STATES, P.O. Box 8597, BatonRouge, La. 70803.

Purpose: Federation of regional pecan growers' asso-ciations.

Publications: None:

FLORIDA CITRUS MUTUAL, P.O. Box 499, Lake-land, Fla. 33802.

Purpose: Citrus growers' organization supplying mar-ket and price information and promotional materialsto its members.

Publications: Triangle, weekly; Market Bulletin, 4/week.

FLORIDA FRESH CITRUS SHIPPERS' ASSOCIA-TION, P.O. Box 113, Lakeland, Fla. 33802.

Purpose: Shippers of fresh Florida citrus fruits.Publications: None.

FLORIDA LYCHEE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION,P.O. Box 7, Laurel, Fla. 33545.

Purpose: Marketing organization of lychee growers.Publications: Yearbook.

FLORIDA MANGO FORUM, 1102 North Krome Ave-

nue, Homestead, Fla. 33030.Purpose: To promote the study of mango production,

marketing, and selection of new varieties.Publications: Proceedings, annual.

HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTERS' ASSOCIATION,

P.O. Box 2450, Honolulu, Hawaii. 96804.

Purpose: To improve and protect the sugar industry of

Hawaii; to support an experiment station.Publications: Hawaiian Planters' Record, annual.

INTERNATIONAL COTTON ADVISORY COMMIT-

TEE, 5441 South Building, Department of Agricul-

ture, Washington, D.C. 20250.Purpose: To collect and disseminate statistics on world

cotton situation, production, trade, consumption,

stocks; to suggest to represented governments ways

of maintaining a stable cotton economy.Publications: Cotton, Monthly Review; Cotton, Quar-

terly Statistical Bulletin; Proceedings of PlenaryMeetings, annual; Base Book of Cotton Statistics,

1959-63.

INTERNATIONAL CROP IMPROVEMENT ASSO-CIATION (Seed), cio R. H. Garrison, Clemson,

S.C. 29631.Purpose: Organization of state seed certifying agen-

cies; promotes breeding, production, and distribution

of foundation, registered, and certified seed stocks.

Publications: None.

INTERNATIONAL PLANT PROPAGATORS' SO-CIETY, Plant Science Department, University of

Connecticut, Storrs, Conn. 06268.Purpose: To serve commercial nurserymen, plant prop-

agators, teachers and research workers concerned

with plant propagation.Publications: Proceedings, annual.

LEMON ADMINISTRATIVE COMMITTEE, 117 West

Ninth Street, Room 905, Los Angeles, Calif. 90015.

Purpose: Committee participates in the marketing of

fresh lemons in the United States and Canada.

Publications: Weekly Newsletter.

NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS ASSO-CIATION, 1145 19th Street N.W., Washington,

D.C. 20036.Purpose: To conduct research to discover new chemi-

cals, improve quality, promote safety in agricultural

uses for chemicals.Publications: NAC News, bimonthly; Bulletins and

manuals.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION GREENHOUSE VEGE-

TABLE GROWERS, 1814 Schofield Building, 2014

East Ninth Street, Cleveland, Ohio. 44115.

178

Purpose: To inform people interested in all aspects of

greenhouse vegetable production.Publications: None.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OFERS, Room 1128, 1411 K StreetD.C. 20005.

Purpose: To coordinate the efforts10 State wheat growers' associate

Publications: Proceedings, annual.

NATIONAL CONTAINER COMMITTEE, 22 WestMadison Street, Chicago, Ill. 60602.

Purpose: To serve railroads with an interest in dam-age prevention and development of regulations in re-gard to fresh fruit and vegetable shipping containers.

Publications: None.

WHEAT GROW-N.W., Washington,

of a federation ofons.

NATIONAL FERTILIZER SOLUTION ASSOCIA-TION, 1146 Jefferson Building, Peoria, Ill. 61602.

Purpose: To serve manufacturers, wholesalers, dealers,in fertilizer solutions.

Publication: Solutions, bimonthly.

NATIONAL JUNIOR VEGETABLE GROWERS AS-SOCIATION, P.O. Box 603, North Amherst, Mass.01002.

Purpose': To conduct educational program for youngpeople (14 to 21) interested in horticulture.

Publications: MIVGA. Newsletter, irregular.

NATIONAL ONION ASSOCOATION, 201% EastGrand River, East Lansing, Mich. 48823.

2urpose: To compile monthly statistical reports of

stock-in-hand, acreage, yield, and production of

onions in the United States.

NATIONAL PLANT FOOD INSTITUTE (fertiliz-ers), 1700 K Street N.W., Washington, D.C. 20066.

Purpose: To support agricultural research program forfertilizers and dissemination of findings.

Publications: Plant Food Review, quarterly; Regional

Plant Food Bulletins.

NATIONAL SOYBEAN CROP IMPROVEMENTCOUNCIL, 211 South Race Street, Urbana, Ill.61801.

Purpose: To promote growing of soybeans in the United

States.Publications: Soybean News, 3 times a year; Soybean

Farming (booklet).

NORTH AMERICAN BLUEBERRY COUNCIL, P.O.

Box 448, South Haven, Mich. 49090.Purpose: Formed to act as a clearinghouse for research

and development activities in blueberry production aswell as provide a central publicity and promotion

agency for all production areas.Publications: None.

NORTHERN NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION, 4518Holston Hills Road, Knoxville, Tenn. 37914,

Purpose: To inform commercial growers and others in-terested in propagation and culture of hardy nuttrees.

Publications: Nutshell, quarterly; Proceedings, annual.

PAN AMERICAN TUNG RESEARCH AND DEVEL-OPMENT LEAGUE, P.O. Box 73, Poplarville,Miss. 39470.

Purpose: To sponsor and conduct market, product, andscientific research on tung oil and tung byproducts.

Publications: American Tung Oil Topics, irregular.

POTATO ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, New JerseyAgricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick,N.J. 08903.

Purpose: To inform professionals interested in the Irish(white) potato.

Publications: American Potato Journal, monthly; Po-tato Handbook, annual,.

PRODUCE PACKAGING ASSOCIATION, P.O. Box29, Newark, Del. 19711.

Purpose: To improve methods of packaging and mar-keting produce, fresh fruits and vegetables.

Publications: Produce Packager, semimonthly.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATES,FOOD AND CONTAINER INSTITUTE, 1819West Pershing Road, Chicago, Ill. 60609.

Purpose: To inform industrial firms, educational insti-tutions, and related groups engaged in food and con-tainer research and development.

Publications: Activities Report, quarterly; Newsletter,bimonthly. Also publishes technical booklets and re-ports.

SEED PEA GROUP, 333 North Michigan Avenue,Chicago, Ill. 60601.

Purpose: To serve processors of pea seed sold to thecanning trade and suppliers to seed trade.

Publications: None.

SOIL CONSERVATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA,7515 Northeast Ankeny Road, Ankeny, Iowa 50021.

Purpose: To serve professional soil and water conser-vationists and others in related fields.

Publications: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation,bimonthly. Also monographs, booklets, etc.

SOIL SCIENCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 677 SouthSego° Road, Madison, Wis. 53711.

Purpose: To serve professional soils workers interestedin fundamental and applied soil science.

Publications: SSSA Proceedings, bimonthly.

SUGAR RESEARCH FOUNDATION, 52 Wall Street,New York, N.Y. 10005.

Purpose: To study uses of sugar and its byproducts.Publications: None.

179

SUNKIST GROWERS (citrus fruit), 707 West FifthStreet, Los Angeles, Calif. 90017.

Purpose: Citrus fruit cooperative for marketing.Publications: None.

SUN-MAID RAISIN GROWERS OP CALIFORNIA,2902 Hamilton Avenue, Fresno, Calif. 93721.

Purpose: Cooperative marketing association of raisingrowers.

Publications: Newsletter, monthly.

SUNSWEET GROWERS (fruit), Market and San An-tonio Streets, San Jose, Calif. 95113.

Purpose: Cooperative marketing organization for pro-ducers of dried prunes, apricots, peaches, and pears.

Publications: Sunsweet Standard, monthly.

TOBACCO INSTITUTE, 808 17th Street N.W., Wash-ington, D.C. 20006.

Purpose: To promote better public understanding ofthe tobacco industry.

Publications: Tobacco News, quarterly; Tobacco andHealth, quarterly.

UNITED FRESH FRUIT AND VEGETABLE AS-SOCIATION, 777 14th Street N.W., Washington,D.C. 20005.

Purpose: To serve growers, shippers, workers, whole-salers, distributors, retailers, handling fresh fruitsand vegetables.

Publications: United Fi Fsh Outlook, weekly; UnitedSpud light, weekly; Supply Letter, monthly; SWDBulletin, monthly; U. M. Y. Fresh Forum, monthly;Terminal Times, monthly; Nutrition Notes, quar-terly, Yearbook, many special reports.

UNITED STATES NATIONAL COMMITTEE, IN-TERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON IRRIGA-TION AND DRAINAGE, P.O. Box 15826, Denver,Colo. 80215.

Purpose: To inform engineers, scientists, and others,interested in irrigation and drainage.

Publications: Newsletter, quarterly.

WEED SOCIETY OF AMERICA, Agronomy Dept.,University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 01801.

Purpose: Professional society of biological and chemi-cal scientists and engineers involved in weed controlresearch, (ix.

Publications: Weeds, quarterly.

WESTERN AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS ASSO-CIATION, 2466 Kellwood Avenue, San Jose, Calif.95128.

Purpose: To provide information to a regional organi-zation of producers and formulators of basic pesti-cide chemicals, etc.

Publications: Newsletters, 45/year.

* U.S. GOV011NMICNT PRINTING OFFICIEI 1070 a.--31111-100