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AUTHOR Smith, Nila Banton, td.; And OthersTITLE Areas of Research Interest in the Language Arts.INSTITUTION National Conference on Research in English.; National

Council of Teachers of English, Urbana,PUB DATE 52NOTE 39p.; Published and distributed by NCTE from its

former office in Chicago; reprinted from fiElem'entaryEngliqh,11 Jan.-April 1952

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$1.85 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS *Educational Research; Elementary Education; English

Instruction; *Language Arts; *Language Development;Language Skills; *Research Needs; *TeachingTechniques

ABSTRACTThis document attempts to highlight strong currents

of educational thought prevalent in the early fifties and to pointout broad implications for needed research in the language artsfield. Chapters include: ',Needed Research in Language Expression,"which discusses vocabulary growth and use, sentence structure, andsemantic problems; "Needed Research in Reuding,fl which presents along list of reading problems which need answering; ',Weeded Researchin. Speech," which considers needed areas of research in speecheducation and speech pathology; and "Needed Research in Listening,"which treats the factors influencing listening in and out of school.(RB)

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EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS MN REPRODUCE° EXACTLY As Reds lye° FROMTHE PERSON OR OROAN)TATION DRiGiNAliNGI It. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL MST/TUT E OF

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Prepared by a Committee

of the

National Conference on Research in English

MLA BANTON SMITH, Chairman

LOU LA BRANT

WILLIAM S. GRAY

KENNEIH Scorn WOOD

HAROLD A. ANDERSON

I

A Research Bulletin of the

NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RESEARCH IN ENGLISH

Officers of the National Conference on Research in English 1951 - 1952:

,JOHN J. DEB01111, President

ROY IVAN JOHNSON, Vice President

"GERTRUDE WHIPPLE, Secretary - Treasurer

Executive Committee for 1951 1952:The officers andEDGAR DALE

HARRY A. GREENE

Editorial Committee for Research Bulletins:ROY IVAN JOHNSON

NILA BANTON SMITHEMMETT A. BETTS, Chairman

Copyright, 1952, by The National Council of Teachers of EnglishPrinted in the U. S. A.

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AREAS OF RESEARCH INTEREST

IN THE

LANGUAGE ARTS

Prepared by a Committee

of the

National Conference on Research in English

NII.A BANTON SaiITfi, Chairman

Lou LA BRANT

WILLIANI S. GRAY

KENNET!, SCOTT WOOD

flAttoi.t) A. ANontsoN

Published by the

NATIONAL COUNCIL. OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH

211 W..68th St.Chic.tgo 21,

Reprinted front

tie tra eta) January to April, 1952

An Ofti Oa' 11,blitation of the Nationat Couneil of 'Feathers of Englisil

JOHN ). DI:BoUR, Editor

Price. 50 cents each. 15 (cots each for 10 or more

'FABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD

MLA 13. Snitch 3

NEEDED RESEARCH IN I ANGUAGE EXPRESSION

Lou LA BRANT

FRED MARCUS

ERWIN R. STEINBERG

NEEDED RESEARCH IN READING

WILLIAM S. GRAN'

7

NEEDED RESEARCH IN SPEECH

KENNI:111 SCOTT ooi) 20

NEEDED RESEARCH IN LISTENING

11AN01.1) A. ANDEPsoN 27

Areas of Research Interest in the Language ArtsFOREWORD

N1LA BANTON SMITH'

With new currents of educational thought,new research needs emerge. Flashes of intuition,fresh insights, groWing convictions lead us toinitiate new practices, to arrange new environ-ments,, to prepare new materials. Research mustprecitte, accompany, or follow these changesin order that we may check hypotheses, evaluate practices, and sense the direction of modi-fications.

The language arts field is of basic signifi-cance not only in learning but also in living.Language symbols furnish the medium whichenables us to participate in the thought life ofthe world and also to make appropriate socialadjustments. Since the use of language is soessential both to effective learning and to socialliving, it is small wonder that hundreds ofstudies have been conducted in this area duringthe last three or four decades. Hundreds more,however, are needed at the present time. Re.search needs in this field are so numerous, sopressing, and so varied that considerable aced.eration in rate, quantity, and quality of produc-tion is not only justified but demanded.

It is thought that those interested in par-ticipating in research in this area may findsome provocative ideas in a brief sumtnary ofsttong currents of educational thinking whichare shaping research needs at this time. A dis-cussion of some of these currents will be givenbelow, and their broader implications will bepointed out, leaving the more specific problemsfor discussion in the sections that follow. Forthe sake of brevity these educational concerns

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which are so strongly influencing research. atthe present time will be called "Areas of Re-search Intetest."

Continuity of Growth.The day of recognizing the whole child

dawned before the day of recognizing the child'swhole life. All phases of growth are related tobeginnings which take place before the childbecomes associated with any one teacher, andwith endings whick will be realized long afterhis association with her is terminated. Knowingthe whole child should carry with it the im-plication of knowing the child's whole life.

The concept of growth, as a continuouspro ess extending throughout the life of an in-dividul, rather than one which can be pigeon-holed into separate grade levels, is one of thecurrents of educational thought which is cuttingmost deeply Into school practices at the present

Research has made its impact felt in de-veloping this concepr, and the concept in turnhas strongly influenced research. Insofar as thelanguage arts are concerned, however, this interaction scarcely has been felt as yet.

The majority of studies which have beenconducted in the language arts area have had todo with segments of child life. Studies whichembrace several years of growth would yieldcurves which would enable us to predictwhat will happen when, Seeing an entire pie-ture of child growth as it proceeds over a peri-od of years would be revealing in regard to'School of Education, New York University.

13 I. I: TAIW

times at which we might expect the mostgrowth and consequently periods in which wewould be safe in providing more intensivelearning situations in ifferent asp.cts of lan-guage development. These long-time views ofchild life would be helpful also in removingpressures and anxieties horn expectations ofregular year by year increments of growth onthe pate of children in separate strands of thelanguage arts.

The uses to which the results of longitudinalstudies may be put are so numerous and so sig.nificant that their impottarice cannot be overestimated. In the future this concept of .zon-tinuity of growth will, without a doubt, beone of the most influential factors in shapinginvestigations in this field. We particularlyneed more longtime studies of language (level-°patent, of language needs, and of languageuses.

InterrelationshipsAnother strong current of educational con-

cern at the present time is directed toward arecognition of the interrelationships of Ian-'page growth with other growth factors.Enough research has been done so far to in-dicatc that language development is related,respectivel.,,, to physical development, to mentalgrowth, to emotional maturation, to social ad-justment, and to experiential background.While a few studies have been completed,there is urgent need for many more investiga-tions which will throw into relief as yet un-known factors concerning relationships of lan-guage with these other fundamental aspects ofchild development.

Some studies also have been conducted withresults which indicate that there are interre-lationships among the various components ofthe language arts constellation itselfreading,spelling. "ral and written composition, speech,and listeni'g While possibilities have beentapped H i:,is are. a great deal remains to bedone. We need to .Lnow which strands of the

language arts tlevelop best in conjunction withthe others, and under what conditions. We needto know what skills are common to all of thelanguage arts and which ones arc different forcertain ones. We nerd particularly to knowwhether those that are different develop bestwhen they are pulled out for special attentionor when they are left embedded in the con-stellation.

While differentiating studies in regard toseparate strands of the language arts arc neededas indicated above, there is also a very urgentneed for studies of the child's general languagedevelopment. No doubt some significant tela-tionships are evading our recognition becausethe preponderance of studies in the past havebeen concerned with isolated strands ratherthan with constellations.

This entire area of language relationships isa challenge to those interested in research.

Group DynarnfcsThe releasing of powerful forces through

interaction of group thinking is another strongcurrent of interest at thc present time. Sincegroup relationships imply the use of languagemedia, this concern spotlights an area of re-search which calls for many new studies inlanguage arts.

What types of relationships between parentand child, between teacher and pupil, betweenpupil and pupil are conducive to languagegrowth? What effect does the social Climate ofthe classroom have upon language develop.mewl? What effect does size of class haVe uponlanguagegrossalt? What are the effects of heter-ogeneous rather than homogeneous groupingupon language? What effect do different pat,terns of grouping within a classroom have uponlanguage growth? What effect does approvalor disapproval of the group have upon languageexpression? llow does the child's language

abilities affect his status in the group?

This is practically a pioneer field for re-

search, and one of great importance. lin.

AREAS OE RESEARCH INTEREST

doubtedly htunan relations and language func-tion will pair in many significant researches ofthe future.

Social ChangeSociety is in a state of rapid change. Indica-

tions ate that change in the future will be evenmore rapid and more dynamic in generatingpowerful influences and in evolving increasing-ly complex patterns of living.

These shifts in social forces and patternscall for changes in education. Just what pro-visions education should make for meeting de-partures from the past and innovations of thepresent and future is one of the gravest of thecurrent concerns of school people. Regardless ofwhat educational measures are provided to helpyouth and adults in adjusting to and improvingthe changing social order, we may be sure thatlanguage will have a fundamental role to plcik.For this reason the interest area of social changeis replete with possibilities for research in thelanguage arts field.

Changes in the mass media of communica-tion, in themselves, are a challenging topic forinvestigators. To what extent is television mold-ing public opinion? The same question mightbe asked concerning each of these other com-munication agencies: Radio? Movies? News-papers? Magazines? Books? flow can wedevelop more discriminating tastes for thebetter types of content which each of theseagencies has to offer? How can we developcritical thinking in regard to the offerings ofeach of these different agencies? How can weincrease sensitiveness to propaganda and slantsin the content of television, radio and movieprograms, and in printed materials? What kindsof material and what types of presentationswould best serve each of these agencies in prornoting better understandings among peopleour own and those of other countries? What isthe relative effectiveness of television, radio,movies, and books for instructional intrpuses?What kinds of instruction might each serve

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best? What types of individuals might profitmost as a result of instruction provided by theuse of a certain one of these media, or a certaincombination of them? These and many similarproblems in regard to mass language mediaawait further study.

The separate strands of the language artsshould be re-examined in terms of social change.Which strands will be most prominent in thefuture? What skills will be most needed inthese prominent strands? What can schools doto prepare for greater emphasis which certainskills will receive in the changing order? Whatis the effect of television on the developmentof vocabulary? Reading? Language expression?Listening? What is the effect of radio or movieson each of these language arts strands?

The effect of social change on interestsoffers many leads to investigators. How dodifferent aspects of social change affect thereadirig interests of adults? Of children? Howdoes social change affect the listening prefer-ences of adults? Of children? flow can we bestutilize the more worthy interests brought aboutby social change? How can we guide undesir-able interests springing up from changingmedia of communication?

Problems needing investigation in this in-terest area are legion. A few very significantstudies have been conducted in regard to thelanguage arts and social change. In general wemight say, however, that the great wealth ofpossibilities in this field remains to be explored.

Environmental InfluencesThe need for providing a rich, stimulating,

permissive school environment is one of themost popular topics of discussion in currenteducational forums and periodicals. While real-ization in many situations falls far short of theideal, the principle seems to have general 3C-cvptance and enthusiastic support.

Several studies already have been made toascertain effects of various environmental fac-tors upon voc.,hulary, quantity and quality of

se-Ist("1

(, El.ithltiNTAtt

oral expression, and reading ability. Relation-ships have been explored between these strandsof the language arts and such factors as sod°economic status; richness of experience; age ofassociates; specific types of situations; andlingualism in the home. The great preponder..-ance of such studies, however, have been con-ducted with pre-school or beginning schoolchildren. We ncrx; nutty more studies of thesetypes With individuals at all levels, and extend-ing over longer periods of time. We need notonly to know what and how environmentalfactors all .,t language at a given stage, but weneed also to know at what stages certain factorsare most potent.

From the teaching standpoint we nerd toknow a great deal more about the effect ofvarious factors in the school environment it-self, upon language development as a whole,and upon its separate strands. Which of the experienccs, possible for schools to provide, arcmost conducive to language growth? Whatare the relative effects of a rich reading en-ironment ersus a meager reading environ-

ment upon reading ability? Upon vocabulary?Upon composition? What is the effect of pro-viding abundant and varied media for use increative self-expression (in art, construction,music and rhythmseparately or together) opon creative language expression? What is theeffect of providing many different levels of ex-periences and materials for any one groupversur the provision of experiences and mater-ials clustered more or less about some particularlevel? What effect does the teacher's own laneguage ability and language interests have uponchildren's language development? Does the pro-vision and use of visual aids contribute to lamguage growth? If so, which strands of the lan-guage arts benefit the most and under what con-ditions?

These arc but a few illustrations of generalproblems relative to school environment andlanguage development. Hosts of others awaitstudy, exploration and experimentation.

' ENCLISI I

Developmental SequencesThe child psychologists have been making

studio; in regard to developmental cycles inchild growth for sonic time, and they have beencalling our attention particularly to the signifcan« of physical growth cycles. In skill devel-opulent areas, however, we as teachers set upempirical sequences and abide by these se-quences unquestioningly even though we haveno evidence that these accepted sequences arethe best ones.

We need especially to find out more aboutdevelopmental sequences in the language artsfield. is this the right sequence for beginningreading: observation and experience with muchverbalization; then naming of pictorial symbols;then reading word symbols in experiencecharts? Is this the right sequence for languageexpression: much oral communication; thenwritten communication without attention toformalities; then gradually giving considerationin spelling and grammar? Is this the rightsequence for learning to write: poster paintingwith large sheets of paper and brushes; thenblack-board writing; then writing on large

pieces of paper with wide spaces, using pencilshaving soft-leads and sizable circumferences;then writing with regularsize pencils on paperwith increasingly narrower spaces?

Some cequenees such as those mentionedabove seem to be sensible. Others which are inuse seem questionable in terms of our corn-bined knowledge of child development and skilldevelopment: This whole matter of sequentialpatterns should undergo a thorough probing,out of which existing practices may be eval-uated and new patterns evolved.

Conclusionin the above discussion of "Areas of Re-.

search interest," the writer has attempted tohighlight strong currents of educational thoughtat the present time, and to point out broad im-plications of these currents for needed researchin the language arts field.

AREAS OF RESEARCH INTEREST

The ensuing ai!iCICS in this series reflectthese "Areas of Research Interest," also, Thesesections, however, deal with specific problemsin regard to some of the separate strands of thelanguage arts. Dr. Lou l.aBrant and collabora-tors have discussed needed research in languageexpression. Dr. William S. Gray has statedseveral problems which need to be investigatedin reading. Dr. Harold Anderson has set forth

7

research needs in listening. Dr. Kenneth S.Wood has summarized pressing problems inneed of investigation in speech.

All strands of the language arts abound infascinating possibilities fat significant research.If this series is instrumental in stimulatingothers to undertake needed investigations inregard to strands discussed within these pages,then its function will have been fulfilled.

Needed Research in Language ExpressionLOU "ABRAM"'FRED MARCUS'

ERWIN R. STEINBERG'

The use of language in written compositioninvolves not only the putting of words intosentences and the arrangements of those sen-tences, but the acquisition and selection of ap-propriate words and some understanding ofmore than their literal meaning. Consequentlythe problems of composition include vocabularystudy and growth, and consideration of seman-tic understandings as well.

Even a casual examination of the researchwhich has been done in the field of teachingwriting or (conversely) of learning how towrite, reveals the inadequacy of our presentknowledge and understanding. A large pro-portion of the studies on composition havedealt with the occurrence and correction oferrors in punctuation and usage, but only asmall body of work on the deeper and moredifficult problems exists. We have some !item-hue on the selection of theme topics, but ingeneral these are surface listings only. Vor ex-ample, such commonly listed topics as pets,games, or trips aro probably symptomatic ofdeep interests or questions such as a yearningfor something to love, a satisfaction in group

activity, or desire to escape present difficulties.Interpretation and probing of expiessed inter-ests is still to be made. The literature on as-sociation and projective techniques is relatedto testing and personality study and not to thestimulation of writing.

The problems suggested in the followingparagraphs cannot cover the field of composi-tion and language growth, but are presented assuggestive, to serve as stimuli to anyone in-terested in the field of investigation. The sug-gestions may also indicate to some teachers thefact that we are teaching a highly complex andimportant form of behavior without as yetknowing, in many cases, whether our methodsare or are not in line with normal growth orwhether- or not our teaching is conducive tomental health.

Vocabulary Growth and UseMost vocabulary studies to date have had to

do with the size of vocabulary at various agelevels, or with attempts to find what words are

'School of Education, New York University.'Crescent School. Brooklyn, New York.Carnegie Institute of Technology.

8

common to the vocabularies of children atgiven grade levels. We need in Addition studieswhich will throw light on language growth interms of experience, use, and understanding.The f011owing are suggestive only;

1. If the findings of Mary KatherineSmith' and others even approximate 1)11 truth,what are the probable common elements? Prom,for example, 16,000 words used by each of twogiven youngsters, which ones ore common?What determines the diversity?

2. Studies of words wed in school com-positions and of words Al)014,0 by school pupilspoint to olarge unused vocabulary for the in-dividual child. How are the related experiencesto be tapped, or are they of no importance tothe progress of writing?

3. What effect does the limitation ofwords in the prepatation of school texts haveupon the expression of the pupil throaghwriting? To illustrate, does the fourth gradechild tend to limit his writing to the words hehas found in his textbooks?

4, How do the vocabularies of told storiesdiffer from the vocabularies in written compositions? Would an increase in oral composi-tion, free as it is from spelling problems,eventually affect the range of expression inwriting?

5. How long does it take the average childin second, third...eighth' grade to copy withmoderate accuracy one hundred words, two hun-dred, three, etc? In the light of .such physicallimitations, how long a story or other com-position can he write in an hour, discountingtime for selection and organization of ideas?What is the effect on style, fluency, and artisticquality when a part of his composition isdictated or written on a typewriter? There is

'Mary Katherine Smith, "Measurement of thesize of General English Vocabulary throughthe Elementary Grades and Iligh School," Gen-eral Psychology Monograph XXIV (August-November, 1941),. (Second Half), 311-345.

Ilts1G1.1s1t

some evidence (based on only a few studies)that typewriting greatly increases the quantityof composition after the fourth grade. Thewhole Arca of the relation of ideas to physicallimitations in recording has been scarcely(ouches!. Present recording devices open a largefield for research. Possibilities of combiningwriting and tape or wire recording have notbeen explored.

6. NX'llat is the relation of fragments ofsentences to (a) such physical problems as aresuggested in the preceding paragraph, .(b) tolack of understanding of the matter to be dishcussed, or (c) to lack of interest in the writing?A few informal experiments with writingwhith is on pupil-chosen topics, undertakenwiot understanding of the subject and with en-thusiastn, indicate more ability to write com-plete statements than ow present literature onteaching would imply. Stated conversely, thereis some evidence that many fragmentary sen-tences result from incomplete understanding ofwhat is being talked about, or from poormotivation. The problem should be exploredcarefully and with sufficiently large groups tooffer some conclusive evidence.

7. What is the effect on wordchoice andclarity, of first-hand experience such as is provided by trips, work in shops and art rooms,gardening, care of pets, etc.? Anderson' foundthat college students wrote with a better styleand organization as the story approached theirreal experience. Similar studies need to becarried on at other levels.

S. What is the effect of wide reading onuse of words in composition? The statement isfrequently made that reading develops vocabu-lary of themes.

%Edward L. Anderson, A Study of Short StonierWritten by ,Stedents in College Corn POIiiiOnClasses to Determine Relationships betweenthe Prior liveriences of the Students mid TheirTreatment of Setting and Character. Unpub-fished Doctoral Dissertation, New. York Uni-versity. 1950.

NEEDED RESEARCH IN LANGUAGE

9. \Vhat is the effect of emphasis onspelling upon fluency in writing?

10, \Vhat is the relation between word-selection (discrimination in selection) and ex-pert knowledge in a field? Does the studentwho writes vaguely on one topic show a differ-ent discrimination when dealing with some-thing- about which he is concerned and in..formed?

11. Is there a distortion of an idea inputting it into words (specifically into Eng.lish)? We have often said that writing is amethod of clarifying on idea. Under what citciunstances is this likely to be untrue? Whorf,Malinowsky, and Korzybski have opened upthis-area, but much is to be done. Studies needto be made, for example, of how concepts oftime, space, causality, subordination, and co-ordination, as they occur in the pattern of thePnglish language, structure thinking.

A difficult related problem is that of keep-ing the idea flexible (preverbal?) while writ-ing is going on. This follows directly from theproblem of the previous paragraph. In caseswhere language distorts thought, can studentslearn how to keep their ideas pre-verbal whilethey are being formed? litre is a difficult prob.lam for investigation, probably with advancedstudents.

12. What is the relation between the stu-dent's vocabulary, idiom, and locutions and theinstructor's? The small child must learn vocab-ulary and structure from his family. Such learn-ing is rapid and effective. One college teacher,for example, reports that often lie con rec-ognize another instructor's speaking personalityin the writing of that instructor's students. Thisproblem is, of course, related to a study of theeffect of reading upon the style of the youngwriter, even in those cases where no consciouseffort re imitate is involved.

13. Do individuals hove "linguistic pro-files"? Baker's° study provides the possibility

9

for many studies. Is it possible that to dis-courage specific linguistic habits in certain in-dividuals is as dangerous as to make those wilo'are left-handed write with the right hand?

Suggested also by the work of Baker arestudies dealing with repetition, and studies oflong -term word analyses, such as he developed,for individual students whose work may beavailable over several years.

Sentence StructureDespite much discussion about the improve.

merit of structure, and an enormous quantity ofexercises on grammar, we still do not have aclear picture of the role of growth in the de-velopment of structure patterns. The steps bywhich the infant moves from the one-word,two-word, and finally the simple verb subjectclause to the complicated structure he can uselater are only slightly known. Less than a dozenpublished studies to date attempt to picturechanging structure beyond the third year oflife, and existing studies are general and basedon small samplings. Obviously one would notattempt to teach a child of fifteen months touse :a full sentence if he were talking in one-word sentences. We have many questions toanswer for the older individual, as for example:

I. To what extent, if any, is the "and," thecomma-splice, or the run-on sentence indicativeof the child's interpretation of what he reallysees or understands?

2. To what extent if any, is the frequentuse of "and" to join sentences or clauses a stepbetween the use of a series of simple sentences(relationships not expiessed at all) and thecomplex sentence (relationships seen as involving subordination)? Piaget's work, whichopened this problem twenty-five years ago, hasnot had adequate folloW.up.

3. What is the current pattern of adult sub.

°Sidney I. Baker, "The Pattern of Language,"Joronal of Gegctal Piythology, XXXII (Jan-uary, 1950), 25-66.

10 -', ELlitAliNTA0

ordinatiert as it appeats in °our' bettor .edited -,

. magazines? Pees It di f f er (ion{ Wthet to-', writer?- #rOfif subject to Subject? *What pat.

...-" terns t1§- various WrItti of distintion- use?Me tbes_e consistent -fii-,:ti,"pAge to page? -.,

4. in the -free wilting ti:t the 8:atlotis age

Is there any unIforrially In 'the We oftenses? At what, age, (or examPle,,May we ex;pest to heat the perfect tenses? What'.iiiect$ for

more than simple piit, present, anclfutitre areevidenced in ,the written Work of children atvarious age lev,els?

Similarly, what are the .tense problemsfound in the writing of high school and collegestudents? (Note that 'problems" is not a spirt.nym for "error" in this case.)

S. in what constructions do students of var-ious age or grade levels use relative pronouns?What problems of wordorder are indicated?

Semantic ProblemsComposition is, of course, far more than the

prepaittion of properly Constructed sentencesand the use of carefully selected words. We ftequently claim that written composition is ameans by which thought is disciplined. Neededresearch would indicate at what age levels andby what means the following skills might bedeveloped:

1. The ability to recognize that the wordis not the physical object it describes.

2. The ability to recognize that a singlemember of a species or group is notidentical with any other member of thatspecies.

3. The ability to distinguish between factsand judgments.

4. The ability to recognize "slanting" ofwritten material through the use ofemotionally charged language.

5. The ability to recognize that the con-notations attached to a particular wordare dependent upon the individual'sprevious experiences with that term.

.--

6. ite ability ,to recognize shifts bi mean.ing when they occur.-

;7. tecogniie ,:kbstractiobswhIcli fail torcOmMunleate

8: The ai414, to *04ttlie: that thereltr-e!- "varying,levels of al!,4traction.

ability" to recognize that contoctidetermine'- meaning4 -.and shadesmeanings,

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10, lilt ability, to arrive at concludonsbased upon specific data.

11, The ability to, organize data intoscribed patterns or forms of written::communization.

12. The ability to shift judgments when theintroduction of new data makes- suchshifts feasible.

13. The ability to recognize the fallibility,of the over.simpti6ed, t"x).0106d'o'rlentation, utilizing eitheror alternatives.,

We. need al)o research to discover to whatextent writing skills and attitudes are generalqualities of an individual's Style., A, writer mayexcel in style of writing fiction and be a poOr -writer of biography. To what extent are thesemantic skills just listed limited, to speci6etypes of writing and specific fields of thought?rot example, such a problem as the followingmight be examined:

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Given a course presenting one of the skillsjust listed, and taught with -immediatesuccess (i.e., success within the clatilimits), does the technique of analysiscarry over into work done in concurrentscience or social science courses?

Purther research lies in the field of measure.talent. We need to have devised tests to measuresemantic values, and other aspects of ethical _

thinking. To date much of such experimentaftion has been done by others than teacherslanguage. We need, also, the preparation ofmaterial illustrative of' sound thinking at var-ious levels of growth.

111i11.DED

Condo IonIt is evident Eton the btief statement above

dim many problems dealing with written expresslon require a considerable knowledge ofbiology and psychology. This Is not strangewhen we consider that language is the chiefhuman means for communkation, and thatspoken language on which the written dependiinvolves the whole physical system. Language

RIISHARCH IN RIIADINQ It

can produce emotional -effects which changerbody temperature, blood content,- and rate ofheart' beat, Spoken know uses a ongetiesof anis4es, nerves;and blood vessels; and writ-ing calls for eye-hand coordinations of a highorder, regulated by the mechanisms of speech.When in addition we remember that languageorganizes and structures thought, it is smallwonder that today we have a slight beginningonly in the field of research in writing.

Needed Research In ReadingW111.1.14114.1 S. GRAY'

Two efforts are made in this chapter toidentify reading problems that merit intensivestudy today. In the first place, attention is di-rected to types of problems that have previouslybeen recommended for investigation and whichare still in need of further study, Those listedare typical of the problems that rank high in along-range program of research in reading. Inthe second place, a series of challenging prob.ferns are presented which are of special signifi-cance today as effort is made to improve readingprograms and to develop greater competence inreading in tesponse to current demands.

revionsly Recommended l'roblemsSeveral facts should be kept in mind as we

review the types of reading problems that havestimulated research in reading in the past. Weshould recall, first that scientific studies of reading began about a century ago as n result ofsheer curiosity on the part of psychologists con-cerning such matters as the behavior of theeyes in reading and how words are rtcognized.We should k. -7 in mind, too, that the scopeof research leading began to increase rapidlyonly about four decades ago as the personaland social needs for reading expanded and asnew and challenging problems were identifiedin the classroom and in the library.

During the last four decades individualsand groups have pointed-out, from time totime, specific issues which in their judgmentwere in need of Intensive study. Evidence thatsuch proposals were very fruitful is found inthe nature and scope of the research that fol-lowed each such proposal. In the discussion thatfollows, attention will be directed to the majorareas of research represented, to the motivesthat led to research in each, and to specificproblems that merit further study today.

1. Problems Relating to the Nature of theReading Act, Most of the early research inreading focused attention specifically on thenature of the reading act, the processes involved,and the factors that influence their develop-ment. Added stimulus to studies of this typewas provided by 13uey's2 excellent summary in1912 of what was then known about readingand the problems that merited further study.rAs a result, several penetrating investigationswere organized and completed during the dec-ade that followed. Their nature and scope areadmirably illustrated by the following titles

'Director of Research in Rtading, Universityof Chicago.

Edmund B. Huey, The Psychology and Pedago-gy of Reading. New York: The MacmillanCompany, 1912.

12 aliMtiNTAnY ENCI.1611

which appeared in a single momograpitReading: lit Nature and Development; Anlixpetirnental Study of the liye.Voke Span inReading; How Numeral: Are Read; Plithiff-me»tal Reading Habits: A Study of Their Do.vetopment; and Silent Reading: A Study of ItsVarian' Typo.

The chief argument advanced in support ofsuch studies was that they are concerned with"basic facts and principles essential to a soundtheory and practice,of teaching reading." Certainly the results of the studies referred to aboveled to radical changes during the twenties inthe scope and organization of reading pro.grams, in the nature of the learning activitiesprovlied, and in the kinds of guidance given.During the last two decades research concern.ing the nature of reading, its fundamental pro.asses and their interrelationships has continuedto increase rapidly. Such studies are often re-(erred to as basic reasearch in contrast to thestudy of specific classroom problems. The examples which follow suggest the variety of socalled basic research problems that have beenattacked recently and which still merit intensivestudy..

1. What are the aspects of intelligencethat most directly influence progress in learningto read and in interpreting what is read?

2. To what extent can breadth and depthof interpretation in reading be acquired bypupils of varying levels of general mentalability?

3. What is the role of imagery in interpreting what is read? How can teachers promote the development of types of imagery es-sential to clear, vivid experiencing of meaningwhen reading?

4. To what extent do the competencies in-volved in reading different kinds of materialand for different purposes vary in kind; to'Supplementary PAlocational Monographs, Nos.10, 17, 18, 21 and 23. Chicago: University ofChicago Pr eSS.

what extent do they overlap and depend upon, some common factor or factors?

5. To what extent does abilir to grasp theauthor's organization of ideas, to draw infer.vices from and to react, critically to what isread depend upon competence in perceivingwords accurately and in- grasping the sensemeaning of passages?

G. What effect does training in 'one_ryPeof reading, such as skimming, have upOrkabilityto engage effectively in other types otrestding,such as grasping details accurately, seeing im%plications, and reacting critically or appreciatively to what is tead?

7. What is the relationship between rateof thinking and rate of reading? What I3 therelative importance of rate of thinking andother factors, such as an adequate meaningvocabulary, on rate of reading?

8. How is speed of reading related to andto what extent does it-affect the comprehenskin of various types of material..-populararticles, fiction, editorials, science, philosophyand in reading for various purposes?

9. To what extent can the claims made,for bibliotherapy be validated for differenttypes of personalities and through the use ofdifferent kinds of material?

10. Are reversals in reading due merely todifficulty in differentiating among symbols thatare similar in form or are they due to somemore basic or subtle factor or factors?

2. Preteticai irruor Paced in Teaching Read.ing. A second broad area of research in reading:includes many so-called "ptactical problems"which teachers fac'e in organizing reading programs and in teaching pupils to read. One ofthe early efforts to prepare a list of such prob-lems was made by the National Committee onReading' in 1924. Three of the thirty-eight

'Report of the National Committee on Reading,Chap. Xli. Bloomington; The 'fwenty.fourth Yearbook of the National Society for theStudy of Education, Part 1, 1925.

NEHDED ittiSBARCII 3N RII1ADING 13problems listed follow; '''How should claws beOrganized to provide for the maximal develop-ment in reading of each child in harmony withhis interest, tastes and capacities without un-due interference In waste?" "What are the apetine techniques involved in work-type readingin each subject of the curriculum?" "Whit 'effects on reading interests, attitudes and appre-ciations are secured by (1) unsupeevlseding and (2) carefully directed supplementaryreading "?

The inaportance of such problems in a pro.grain of reading research was emphasized in1939 by Holmes. He pointed out that "researchin reading starts, ..with very definite and prac-rico) difficulties in the work of =schools andother educational. otganizations. It has to takeinto account, of course, the nature and development of children, and it is dependent alsoon research in many other areas; but it beginswith the problems which all teachers face whouse books in their instruction, and to theseproblems it must finally return. The obstaclesand puzzling situations which confront teachers of many subjects at many levels provide,therefore, the issues to be resolved by researchin reading; these issues may be sharply definedas issues of practice; and however far afieldour research may be forced to go, its value isdetermined in the end by what it reveals aboutwhat to do in reaching childien (or adults) toread, "'

A surprisingly large proportion of the scientific studies of reading which have been re-ported during recent wars were either carriedon in the classroom or had their origin in theproblems faced in classrooms. The examplesthat follow were selected from Holmes list andfrom more recent proposals. They arc 1)0(31of hundreds of classroom problems that awaitsolution.

'Henry W. Holmes, "Research in Reading,"Edrreational Remark p. 83. American Councilon Education Studies, Ill, No, 10, Washington,D. C.; American Council on Education, 1933.

1. When should the teaching_ of readingbegin under varying school conditions and withdifferent types of pupils?

2. What are the requisites of readiness forreading and how can evidence of their attain-ment be identified most effectively udder cur-rent claimant conditions?

3. "Will children progress faster when thevocabulary burden is kept relatively light orwhen,it is made relatively heavy?" In attackingthis problem clear distinctions should be madebetween progreas in early and subsequent stagesof reading and in different aspects of reading.

4. "What types of errors are related to difterm kinds of phonic instruction" and howcan they be prevented or elimt, ated?

5. To what extent and in which areas, ifany, can teachers rely safely on the training pro.vided in, reading classes to develop a high levelcf. competence In study activities?

6. In what respects should the techniquesused in guiding reading activities in the re-5pective school subjects differ horn those usedin teaching pupils to read in reading classes?

7. What procedures are most effective insecuring such effects through reading as "in-creased understanding of a problem or topic","changed attitudes toward a different class orgroup", or broader interests?

8. What are the relative advantages anddisadvantages of group therapy and self-direc-rive techniques in overcoming emotional ellsturbances that retard progress in reading?

9. What are the essential characteristics ofa alassroora environment that will atimulate in-terest in reading and promote thoughtful inter.pretatior, of what is read?

M. 13y what procedure can the quality oforal hitt/pia:union be improved among pupilsat successive kvels of progress?

i. Prolh v,x Relatirig to the Reader. A third

. '

14 11131Ni ENG1.1S1 I

group of teseatth problems is concerned chieflywith the reader; that is, with his vatious Oar-acteristics and their influence on his progressin learning to read and his competence in laterreading activities, Such studies are justified onthe, ground that teachers must understand thechild es a potential Or developing reader if theyare to guide him effectively in his growth to-ward matttrity In reading. Problems of thistype began to rectivtipecific attention duringthe middle and latter part of the twenties 'as theimportinie of reading readiness and the prob.letns faced by the poor reader were recognized,They increased rapidly during the' thirties, bothin number and vatlety as research relating tothe 6311cm-ivies of individuals expended.Within the last few years scores of studies havebeen reported in this area, the results of Whichhave modified both the nature of the readingprograms provided and the kinds of guidancegiven. 'The problems listed here are typical ofthe larger number that merit further study.Some may be classified as basic research prob-lems and others as practical classroom problems.

1. To what extent does a child's growth inreading parallel or depart from his general par .tern of growth? What are the iaCtOrS that makefor variations in this relationship?

2. Which personal characteristics of in-dividualsmentai, social, physical and emo .tional--tlefmitely facilitate progress in readingand which contribute to serious reading retarda-tion?

What are the personal characteristicsthat differenriat; boys and girls and to whatextent are these differences responsible for thefact that boys in the lower grades tend to en-counter more difficulty' in reading than dogirls?

4. How do boys and girls differ in theease or difficulty with which they learn throughdifferent avenuesvisual, auditory, kinaestheticand how do these differences influence themethods that should be used in teaching individuals to read?

5. What are' the types of personalities that ,

develop into superior readers, on the one hand,and into seriously retarded readers, on the

41'

other?

6- What is- the natUre and range of thereading interests of children et specific, levels ofadvancement and bow- may they be providedfor and used to best advantage In'a wcitplannedreading program?

7. Since children- differ significantly In .

verbal facility nd capacity to learn, thiptighprinted symbols, what is the relativethat should be given to reading and 'other-aids, 7-to learning In achieving the goals of $4141pgamong pupils who differ in these respects?

8. To what extent and in what aspects ofreading are norms of achievement appropriate'for children at given age or grade levels?

9. What are the most effective ways ofproviding for individival differences amongpupils when teaching reading at given gradelevels?

10. To what extent do children vary inverbal capacity, and what are the implicationsof these differences with respect to methods ofteaching reading and the extent 'to which read.,ing should be used as an aid to learning amongpupils of limited verbal capacity?

4. Redding Problems at Specific Levels. A,fourth effort to define reading problems hasbeen made by individuals and groups whose,interests focus upon readers at various leYels-of "imaturity or shoot progress. In his discussionof needed research in reading, Holmes' calledattention to the fact that there are readingproblems that are "mainly distinctive of prt ,

maty-grade instruction", "those chiefly met in -

the middle grades" and, those "of pressing jrn-portance in high school, college and later." Sup.port for the foregoing contention is found inthe fact that scores of problems relating to thereadiness of young children for reading, 'the'factors that influence it, and methods of pre. -;'Ibid, p. 90

NEEDED RESBARCH IN READING

moting readiness of various kinds have beenrecommended for intensive study during recentyears. One of ,the most detailed proposals forresearch in reading at a specific level was pre-pared by a Committee on Reading In GeneralEducation (Secondary School Level) for theitcattican Council on Education, In 1939. Theproblems recommended for study follow:

1. What are the major functions that read.ing serves in secondary schools end what is thenature of the demands made 'on the reader?

2. How does reading effect and in whatways is it influenced by other types of expertence and aids to learning in specific study ac-ttvities?

3. In what ways and to *liar extent arereading, language and thinking interrelated,and whet are the implications of these facts forimproving reading in secondary schools?

4. What are ri c merits and limitations ofdifferent types of reading programs in juniorhigh schools, senior high schools and juniorcollege?

5. What are the nature and variety of thereading problems that arise in the respectivecurriculum fields and the kinds of guidance es-sential in increasing reading competence ineach field?

6. What are the adjustments essential inthe difficulty of the reading materials needed indifferent content fields by students of varyinglevels of reading ability?

7. What types of corrective and remedialtraining are needed by deficient and seriouslyhandicapped readers?

8, tio..v can the reading interests of secondary-sehool pupils be increased and theirreading tastes elevated, mid v,liat are the condirions that make for permanency of desirablereading interests after students leave school?

P. What orc the nature and variety of theme.tsuring devices necked in malting u vald

15

appraisal of reading ichleeetWenia and, in evaluating the effectiveness of the instruction pro-vided?

10. What is the nature of the in-servicetraining needed in aequainting secondary-schoolteachers with the reading problems which they'Ace and in developing skill in dealing withthem?

Since the foregoing fiat was prepared, manyof the ptoblems included have been studied toa greater or less extent. Few, if any, of themhave been fully solved. The list serves, there-fore, as a fairly edequate guide today to'neededresearch in reading "at. .the Secondary leVel Itsuggests, also, types of problems that are inurgent need of study at other levels,

The discussion thus far has directed men-tion to reading problems in four general areas:those that are concerned chiefly with the natureof the reading act, the course of its developmenttoward maturity, the processes involved, thefactors that influence progress, and the interrelationships of these various items; those thatare concerned primarily with the specific issueswhich teachers face in organizing reading pro-graMs and in developing the various kinds of .

reading competencies needed; those that seeka better understanding of the reader and thedevelopment of reading programs adapted tohis specific characteristics and needs; and thoseiliac seek to And solutions of the reading prob.]ems faced at different grade or maturity levels.

IF space permitted problems relating to cer-tain specielized areas should be listed, such asdiagnosis and remediation, reading in the respective curriculum fields, interest in reading,the hygiene of reading, and evalaation of instruction in reading. Most of these areas, how-ever, are represented to sorn.: extent hi the pre.ceding lists. The various problems to which re-ference has already beee made from a fairlyrepresen ta t ive list of those which should be inchided in a long-time program of teseatch inreading.

liLliMENTARY

Problems of S'peelal Interest TodayAs one reviews the history of the scientific:

study of reading the fact stands out clearly thatlong-time programs of research in reading aresupplemettml at any given period by a con-counted attack upon problems of special in-terest at the Hine. These problems assume largesignifiance for any one or more of several rea-sons: changing social needs; new conceptionsof the function of schooling; the discovery ofnew problems which call _for immediate sole*.tion; or the urgent need for better understand-ing of certain aspects of reading and their inter-relationships.

The current period is not an exception tothe rule. We face a variety of conditions todaywhich give rise to a series of chalienging read-ing problems. On the one hand, the demandmade on readers has been increasing duringrecent years far more rapidly than schools havebeen able to develop the types and levels ofcompetence needed. Evidence to this effect isfound in the nation-wide demand for improvedreading instruction in schools, in-the urgent ap-peal of thousands of young people and adultsfor individual help in overcoming reading dif-ficulties, and in the participation of hundreds ofthousands of adults in classes which are chieflyconcerned with the improvement of reading. Onthe other hand, new agencies of mass corn-muniotion and better aids to learning havedeveloped at a surprising rate during the lasttwo decades. Millions of adults are now secur-ing through the radio and television ,types of in-formation that previously were available onlythrough print. New and effective aids to learn-ing are being used widely in schools today as asupplement to or a substitute for reading. Theseand other developments have given rise to aseries of challenging problems which are inurgent need of intensive study today.

1. What changes, if any, are taking place inthe dominant role of reading in contemporarysocial life? The fact is widely recognized that

we read the newspaper less today than formerlyfor the flaAi of the minute news and more tosecure the facts back of the news. Putthermoreras shown by Lazarsfold' millions, of childrenand adults Itive turned to the radio, and morerecently to television, for many lighter formsof entertainment that formeily were secured inlarge part through reading. His findings suggestalso that reading is a resource on whichthoughtful individuals rely increasingly hi theirefforts to Lind the solution of challenging per.owl and social problems. Its importance is dueto the fact that the reader can peruse the mater-ial at his own rate, reflect on the ideas appre--hended, and come to reasoned conclusions. -Theexamples given suggest that the role of readingis changing To- the extent that this is true,school and adult agencies should recognize thefact and should adjust reading programs to meetcurrent needs more effectively.

2. What are the l'ariout functions that read.ing'should !erre in the livt r of different groupsof people? PreviouS studies have shown that theamount of reading and the specific functionsserved halm differed in the past among peopleof varying ages, educational levels, and occupa-tions. In view of the widespread use of the radioand 'television, and frequent attendance atmovies, what-ii the extent and character of thereacting that should be carried on by differentclasses of people, and, indeed, by individuals ofvarying capacities, interests and needs? The re-sults of it study now in progress concerning thepurposes for which individuals read aremating in several respects. They show that read;ing serves a -wide-Variety of purposes in thelives of millions of young people and adults,that thtse purposes differ widely among groupsand individuals, and that there appears to beboth group and individual patterns of reading.Further; research is needed to secure a moreadequate picture of current practices. Equally

'Paul T. Lazatsfeld Radio and the PrintedPage, New YOrk: Duell, Sloan and Pearce,1940.

NE19)110 RESRARCH It IMMO

important ate steps which aim to determinemore_fully than is known at present the, valuesthat reading should serve today in the lives ofpeople of 'varying characteristics and &cum.Stances of life. Such information is needed ifschools and adult agencies are successful instimulating and directing the reading intetestand habits of different groups of young peopleand adults.

3. What. is the role of personal reading inthe lives of children and young people ohohave aceets to and make wide use of the radio,television and the cinema? 'the rapid develop.meats of new agencies of communication haveaffected th personal reading of children andyoung people. Some of the evidence availablesuggests that the interests aroused through theradio and cimma lead to a larger amount anda wider range of reading. Other studies revealstriking evidence to the contrary. More detailedinformation is needed concerning the effects ofthese agencies to date on the personal readingof children and young people In the furtherstudy of the problem, thtee facts should be keptclearly in mind; first, that these new agencieshave much to contribute to the enrichment ofchild life; second, that the values securedthrough reading and other aids to learningshould expand in harmony with the child's in.creasing experience and maturity; and, third,that the guidance provided should enable theindividual on leaving school to lit intelligentlyand effectively into adult reading activities. Theneed is urgent for a thoroughgoing review ofthe distinctive roles of personal reading andother forms of vicarious experience among chil-dren at successive levels of advancement. Thefacts and principles that emerge should enableteachers and parents to develop the interests,attitudes and power of discrimination essentialif children are to make wise choices of mediaand to use personal reading in ways that willinsure its greatest contribution to child life.

4. What are the reasons why a surprisinglylarge number of both children and adults are

not attracted to reading as a desirable form ofleisure activity and haw can thil 4411414101, becorrected? Closely related to the foregoing ques-eon ore many challenging problems faced inestablishing desirable reading interests amongchildren and adults. The nature of some of theseproblems is suggested by the following quo-(ions that were discussed pointedly in a recentconference of ten social scientists:' Why domany children acquire a negative attitude to-ward.rmding? Why do many adults look uponreading as a high-brow activity? What are theinflnences that result in the present distaste forbook reading? How can these ,attitudes bechanged? No more challenging problems arefaced today if reading is to continue to play asignificant role in the lives of children andadults. We need added information, too, con.coning positive steps that can be used to pro.mote reading interests and habits in an agewhen radio, television and movies offet veryalluring rewards.

5. What are the types of growth throughreading that are of greatest significance todayand how can the ends .ought be most effectivelyatteinetl? Throughout the history of this coup.try the reading materials assigned in!school havebeen selected in terms of their assumed valuesin promoting desired understandings, attitudes,interest and appreciation& At times religiousand moral motives predominated; at other timesthe aim was to acquaint the reader with the ex.panding world in which he lived and to promore the understandings essential for goodcitizenships; at still other times, the chief aimswere to acquaint pupils with fine selections andto develop an appreciation of good literature.The issue presented here relates to the natureof the understandings, attitudes and skills thatshould be promoted thred,git reading at variouslevels of advancement. This question is as broad,

.01.ester Asheim, Report on the Conference onReeding Development, (January 2421, 1951),New York: Committee on Reading Develop.mem, American Book Publishers Council.

1.

r

18 ENGLISI I

of course, as are the alms of education allptopriate for the kind of world in which we ateliving. rutther research in this area IS essentialbefore reading materials can be selected mostwisely. Closely associated with this problem Isthe nee4 for furthei research concerning theteaching procedures that are most effective Insecuring the ends sought through reading.

6. What it the relative importance in specific learning fit:unions of reading and otheraids to learning, and the order in -14,hith theyshould be usedl.The development of new andvaluable aids to learning has created challengingteaching problems. The fact is known, for example, that certain things can be learned morereadily in some ways than in others. We do notknow as fully as we should, however, which aidsto learning are most effective in achieving certain goals. Nually important is a &met under.standing of the various aids to learning that canbe used to best advantage in the study of a givenproblem, and the most effective order in whichto introduce them. Furthermore, we know thatindividuals vary in the ease with which theylearn through different sense avenues. The needis urgent for a better understanding of the ex.tent to which reading and other aids to learningshould be used in promoting needed types ofdevelopment among pupils of varying levels ofintelligence. Both classroom and laboratory ex-periments ate essential in securing added insightconcerning these issues, .

7. what should be the focus of attention Si)developing reading attitudes and skills adapted

to contemporary needs? The fact is well knownthat emphasis in teaching reading has changedradically the last fifty years. Prior toOK for example, the development of, thehabits essential in effective orals reading re-ceived chief attention. Between 1915 and 1925major emphasis sham' from oral to silentreading. More recently emphasis Ins beengiven to the importance of breadth and depth ofinterpretation,, the reader's reaction to the ideas

apprehended, and their use or application. Inthe tight of the Major functions that reading

serves in promoting child development and inmeeting contemporary ,social needs, what arethe most important reading attitudes and skills,that should be cultivate(' tbrouils a well.plaimedreading program? In reaching conclusions, twofacts shbitld be kept clearly in mind: first, thatgrowth in reading Is continuous; and, second,that the reading demands made on children andyouth at each level of advancement shoula,parallel closely their increasing maturity andtheir expanding interests, motives and drives.

B. What is the nature anti extent of theemotional disturbances created among childrenand youth by the tempo 404 distracting condi.flora of contemporary hit that interfere withprogress in reading? Nutitttous studios reportedrecently pro7ide clear evidence that many chitdrat and youth suffer from emotional diSttlfbances that often affect progress in reading.The need is urgent for more detailed and pre.cise information concerning the nature and extent of such disturbances, what schools ctnt doto correct or eliminate them, and the best pro.cedures to adopt in teaching reading in the case_of emotionally disturbed children. The problemis further complicated by the fact that art emo-tional disturbance may be due to the fact thata child is making slow progress in reading. Itfollows that teachers must pot only be able todetect the presence of an emotional conditionbut be able to determine whether it is a causeOr an effect of poor progress in reading. Care.fully planned studies are needed to determinethe most effective ptotedures id, either case.

9. How should instruction in reading beorganized io order to protide more effectivelyfor individual differences among pupils in each

school grade or class and at the same time takeadvantage of the value; inherent in groupactivities? The fact that wide differences existin the mental mattrity, interests and other im-portant characteristics of pupils at each grade

T.

1-

RI3SI1ARCH IN READING. 19

level has long been established. More detailedinformation concerning the nature and extentof these differences is needed. Purthermore, ex-perience shows that many significant values ateinherent In group activities, We awl to knowmore fully than at present the nature of thesevalues and the conditions under which theyare attained most readily. Much informal ex-perimentation has been in progress during re-'cent years to determine how Instruction In read.ing can be organized so as to take advantage ofthe stimulus that results from the cooperativestudy of a challenging unit and at the sametime provide adequately for individual differences in interests end needs. Such experimentsshould be greatly increased in number and soorganized and conducted that the relative ad.vantages and disadvantages of different procedures can be accurately identified.

14. What changes are essential In the read-ing programs of specific schools and schoolsystems in order to adjust them better to currentneeds and to overcome specific tueaknetter in-herent in them? The responsibility of adjustingreading programs to changing needs and the

results of research is a continuous one thatcannot be neglected by any school system, Theneed for owmorning weaknesses in a school'sreading pr m, due to failure to provide etfective Im,ruction In all essential areas, Isequally urgent The fact that achievement insome school systems is not as high as it wasformerly provides striking evidence to the atmthat vigorous appraisal of reading programs isessential. In view of the nation-wide demandthat instruction in reading be improVed andthat greater competence in reading be clevel .aped, all schools should undertake, hi the iiii .mediate future, a thorough and critical appraisalof their reading ptograms. In the course of suchefforts it is hoped that improved instruments ofevaluation will be developed.

The foregoing Litt of current reading prob-lems is by no meant kthaustive, It focuses attention upon some of the broader issues whichmerit consideration today, It is hoped that thelists of problems presented in the early sectionof this paper give adequate emphasis to themore detailed types of studies which are oflarge importance today.

Needed Research In SpeechKI,N N IsT1 I SCO1 W0061

Aince speech is biological in origin, pigsiological in mechanism, and predominantlysociological in function, it can be studied hollyseveral different angles. From the point of viewof its evolutionary development, speech Is lackmudy related to the biological origin of manas a species. From the standpoint of its beingproduced by definite action" of body parts,speech Is physiological in function; and, as welearn front anthropology, the more primitivethe language, the greater are the evidences ofits anatomical components. Observing that thepurpose of speech is communication, we see itas a powerful social force in man's survival anddevelopment, We sec speech as a means.of expressing motivations, desires, and needs. Wesee how it makes possible mares extension ofhis wishes, his knowledge, and his ideas toothers.

In the world of education speech includessuch activities as reading orally, acting in aplay, broadcasting, public speaking, debating,conversing, participating in organized discus-sion, and conducting a meeting. Many otheractivities are also included. In recent yearsSpeech has evinced a growing Interest in thefield of listening; and many speech textbooksinclude a considerable body of material on thatsubject.

Speech also includes the study and the treatmerit of persons with speech defects as Well asrelated emotional problems; it includes pho.netics, semantics, voice science, and has morerecently allied itself very dosely to the wholefield of hearing on the basis, that the cars arespeech organs in a very real sense.

Taking the broad view, speech would en-compass the entire range of the social, psy.chological, physical, and physiological study ofcommunication.

In order to puler t specific questions andtopiCs in` the field of speeds ,Which heed in-Vc4;'tation and study, we shall divide the fieldinto three areas hich,' as far -educational:'implications-are concerned, are very closely se..fated. Only the first two arras will be consideredhere:

20

I. Studies in Jpereb cdrffatipg Prob'.!ems in undemanding aiid, acquit.ing the various Speech skills,

II. Studies in speech pai4logy; Prpbrlems in diagnosing and treating'_the various speech defects and dis..orders.

III. Studies in speech science; Prob.lems in the analysis of the speechprocesses and their relationship toother aspects of human behavior.

It is evident that such a division of the fieldof speech does not set up mutually exclusiveareas but does establish three channels of studyon the basis of the implications of three kindsof research.

Needed Research In Speech EducationThe first task of an educational system is to

make its pupils articulate. The problems ofconcept formation, personality development,social adjustment, and vocational achleveMent,are tightly linked to the problem of !ranting tbspeak meaningfully, distinctly, responsibly, andeffectively. If this is true, or even partially true,the most needed research in speech is thatwhich can be applied educationally. We need_research which will tell us something aboutdeveloping and teaching speech skills in theprimary, intermediate, and secondary schoollevels with better results than we are gettingnow.

'University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon.

NVF.11111) RESTARCII IN SPEKH 21L It is commonly observed in high schools

and Univerailits afar a very large number of stu-dents hate :advanced through eight or ninegrades without having acquired distinct articu.

Their words are net spoken' cleatly be.CAISt. the sounds in die words ate not distinct

produced When We consider that' the inreiligibility as well as the :mimic effeetivenessof speech depends first of all upon the abilityto control the distinctness of aiirticulation, wecan see the possible importance of teaching thechild mon: about speech sounds.' We can seethe possible need of reinforcing periodically hisauditory concepts of the phonetic elethents inspeech throughout his elementary schooling andbeyond,

Perhaps we could afford to expetintent inorder to discover how the pupil's speech wouldturn out if he were given strong units inphonetic training at every grade level with theaim of heightening and focusing his attention'on speech sounds in ,isolation and in sequence.Such a proguni, if instituted on an experi-mental basis and under the direetion of thor-oughly trained teachers, might produce re-vealing results. This suggestion of introducinga regular phonetic program into the curriculumis not to be confused with the phonics workthat frequently accompanies the teaching ofreading. The phonetic training we are suggest-ing AS, .in experiment is not involved withwritten or printed symbols, but is involved withestablishing auditory concepts of speech sounds,with puttying their acoustic characteristics,and with learning the manner in which they areproduced; and the aim of such an experimentwould nor be to see if it produced improve-ment in word recognition and reading, but tosee if the pupil would not eventually speakmore clearly and have better command of theseveral components of oral expression.

Coupled with this experimental attempt toingrain better articulatory habits in childrenwould be other artats of exploration such ashow to capitalize on the child's natural love of

words, rhymes, and rhythm; how co initiate andperpetuate his interest in the elements ofspeech; and how to develop within him anawareness of language and communication incontrast to his developing speech as an auto-matic social function.

It would be of significance, too, if we couldfind out by representative sampling methodsbow much elementary teachers know aboutphonetics, and oral expression in general.

2, Thousands of schools have acquired re-cording inachines of various types, and they atebeing used in a variety of ways. When they areused for speech training, we raise the questionas to whether or not they are being used to thegreatest advantage. We need experimental evi.dente which will show whether or ,not record-ing devices will aid materially in helping to improve speech; and we need to investigate morethoroughly the methods by which they may beused for maximum results. One is led to feelthat too often major operating factor in theuse of a recording device is its novelty.

What can be accomplished by havinga per-son speak into a microphone and then havinghim listen to himself? Is a person able to listento his own speech critically enough to therebyimprove it? Should certain specific trainingprecede the use of the recorder? Do certainaspects of speech yield more readily to changethan others when a person shidies his ownvoice recordings? What are some of the factorsand conditions which should control the useof recording and listening procedures for theteaching of speech skills?

Assumihg that the equipment is of highfidelity, are most people able to recognize theiron speech from recordings when there are nocontext cues? In everyday speaking, the inclivid-oat hears his own voice radiating through hishead bones to his inner ear; and some of thefrequencies of sound which determine his voicequality he does not ittlif as others do. Con.sequently, what he hears from a recording may

rA

=

be a surprise-to him. What is the lisycholegicaleffect on an individual who hears M3 own 'voice

, for the first time? Is his speech bettit r'worse.than he originally conceived it tO,be? What'light could be thrown on thelactOlVe speechprobleMs.:by haying him seitit frorri,sappie're.,-Cording the kind of speech_ ell-Andes 4 thinkshe has? what persottatityfaCtori would be tenvealed by his indicating his concepts Of his ownispeech? What Is the **mire of the Motivatingeffects of working With recording apparatus forspeech improVement?

While we are on the subject of microphonesand lotid-Speaker, speech, some research couldbe done in regard to the effect that a-centralsound system has on the school -atmosphere.How do pupils feel about- their r!ncipal whomthey frequently heat over the classtoonv loud-speaker but seldom see? What is the effect onthe pupil of this less personal form of deliver.ing to him official information and directivesAbout school affairs? Does such a communica-tion-System within a school have anything todo with emotional tensions of the teachers aswell as the pupils? This last question may beparticularly important in those cases where thesound system .is equipped so that the centraloffice may listen in to any classroom selected.At what grade levels and how effectively cansound systems be used with pupil operation andits attendant possibilities for incidental speecheducation?

3. More research needs to be conducted inreference to the effects of the classroom teach.er's speech on the speaking habits of her pupilsand on their attitudes towatd school work ingeneral. Do preprimary and primary gradechildren with poor speech habits improve moterapidly under some teachers than under otherswhen no directly applied speech training isgiven? What are the differences in the speechof those teachers in respect to rate, intensity,pitch, quality, distinctness of utterance, and thequantity of their, verbal output? Are there otherobservable differences among teachers as to

persorishly traits Which mai, have a bearing oniiig:ther' or not they improve theirspeech -while -Conducting regular claiStoOrn

4, The literature on ,speech improvement liS,

replete with statentetuk to the effect' thttt.speecha reflection of the perionalitY; th:atIt _

vocal:equivalent* of the "Mental ithd tiVq01states of the individual. When °We _Onsiderspeech as net Only-a means of Oninunicatingthought' but Also as a. means Of, conCealingthought, and when we think of person's Ongboth the content and the mode Of his 'speaking-to disguise his feelings to what degree mat we 4assume that a person reflects his real personalitythrough his speech? As far as this authOt knows,there is no experimental evidence substantiatingthe idea that speech is a correlate of the person-ality.

S. It has been said rhetorically that if one _

cannot tell it, he does not know it. What' is therelationship between learning subject mattersuch as geography, history, and literature andhaving speech experiences in these areas? -

Would opportunities for oral' expressionthese subject fields under Certain Ctindltions-,provide a greater motivation and a g(wer ":"achievement than would writing` experience.? -t

To what extent and in what way can speaking-experiences contribute to the pupil's acquiringcommand of fundamental processes? Wouldwe, for example, get a higher achievement level_in reading if pupils were encouraged from thestart to do more talking about what they are .

learning to read instead of markingireadingworkbooks? It seems to this author that thewhole field of speech activity as Maud to schoolachievement at all grade les,eis Is one whichcould be fruitfully investigated further:

6. Some light could be thrown on the- na.tare of the processes involved in extemporan-eous public speaking, and in thought processesthemselves if We were to examine sortie of thethousands of speech_ notes that speakers carry-with them to the platform. The notes would 7

NEN Ilit) RESIIARCIt IN

have to be studied along with the recordingsof the speeches given; and some method wouldhave to be devised to let us know at what timesthe speaker looked at them. It is a f..,,cr that notwo speakers prepare for themselves the samekind of notes; their forms will vary widely. Itis also due that senie of the notes we areallowed to see after the speech has ken givenmake us wonder how they ever served the par-pose at all Perhaps a study of sari notes wouldtell us something about thought organizationand recall during the speaking act when weanalyze the written verbal cues that speakersdesign to call to mind the mental concepts theywish to express,

7. Sin Ca the emotional life of the develOp-ins child seems to have some effect on variousphases of his speech activity, it is suggested thatsome sort of semantic research should be doneon the use of profanity, tabOo expressions, andinterjections among children of various ages.Speech exists .not Only for the purpose ofmodifying the behavior of others, but it funsdons as an outlet for the emotions of the in-dividual. What do these expressions of taboolanguage really mean in terms of the child'sattitudes toward authority, toward the oppositese; and toward himself? Do the reactions ofadults toward such language on the part of thechild condition his speech development as awhole? Will a traumatic experience, or seriesof experiences, in respect to forbidden wordsor phrases have a carry-over <ffect to otherwords with similar syllables?

More research needs to be done to under-Stand the -mechanisms behind a child's sayingone thing and meaning another. in the classroom we sometimes see the child in a situation-wanting to do a certain thing but saying thathe does not want to, or he may say that he dis-likes the teacher, or his pktymate, when in realityhe feels, just the opposite. Many studies havebeen made of the Ways in which children pro-ject their feelings, desires,, and motivations,but it is suggested that at more research is needed

in this area in which the child's everyday speechresponses are used for analysis instead of .theresponses obtained in the -conttollei :situationsof the observation room.

8, The whole area of oral recitation needsto be studied in relation to the pupil's development of speech and his speaking"13e4 ing personality,Perhaps we could learn something about thetechnique of asking questions of children. andof drawing out their answers in such a Way asto give them a greater pteponderance of suc-cessful speech experiences than is often the case.Uoes the problem of stagefright take root in thechild's life during these question and answerperiods 'in which he facts a dual problem of ad-justing his speech to the group and of sayingthings he is not prepared to relate? What wouldbe the results if the children asked more of thequestions and the teacher did more of theanswering?

9, It is common for some patents and teach-ers to encourage children to learn and reciteselections very early in life. In many Sundayschools it is the practice to have the child mem-orize biblical verses. Research is needed to findour.more about the effect of such experienceson the child and his speech stability. What isthe nature of the social load the child carrieswhen he does such reciting? At what age levelis it best to encourage these performances if atall; and what principles in handling them couldbe uncovered by experimental evidence?

10. What could we tear ,,.:alsout the effecton the older child produced Ms participationin school plays, operettas, and skits? Thesespeck' activities are extremely common inschools -vetywhere; and, in the main, the cast-ing of children for parts seems to be dominatedmore by the teacher's desire for a successfulproduction than by a careful consideration ofthe values which might accrue to the individualchild. What are the effects on the child of .

having a part in the school play? How does itaffect the older child's speech style? Do peoplerend to incorporate in their speech the lines

'r : : ;Y' ; ,-'_:; f ', - I-; .

.- .

. ,-

24 Etj1iVNtAtW 1'N(t ISU

P15 they ha'e 1erned in a lthy? I)o thcy so i1it tqht earinij loss ukI no riMvthlly

: 1nØjOtatC lc their euaf speed the intona. a11et the resqks f tljó tes--

tioi patients, fttal ex?resslon, and bxThy Albums of uch records n%ljht be tk elopedwhIch they were tültt In the pIa? whiih ouIJ test a Wide number Of speech vle

1)oes participation In the school pity per inents irtduJunfi wotd choke nd uag !o1c)ttbI)r a1t the uckç's personalIty? an1 auist In fihttsing (v.rd gr®pIng)

11 Sonie speech toaches are still ndvo ipttt inflectiortal patterns ond. mcaflki,cavzt thin as a means of Improving pik atticulstin of SOuhd and eten the logicaltrig atolls, espeeatIy In the areas of btth 1evclopme4-t of 1otnts of argument or exi?htna

controls stfcuJat!on ana vøic qiaaluy Are iOh

there somo pydio!ogktl relitlonshlps btteeo ibis holc ntti i4 the dligtiPsts ahd iteas

singing and speaking 'whkhhavc beA Ovel. tirement of spcech hiIites Is one In vJddt en

looked? Is there any transfer f training 1ro upsurge of research is needed it ve to meet

the singing process ot situ-stion to the speaki; g the needs of shoot eht1ten In sçeed eduça.-

12 There Is need for ?esearcls iii the COI I \1f'en students look up orc.is iti dk

structioct of speth aptitmie tests usd disgnot[t turn trieS, they usu-ttly iut reid chat tie o1ds

speech tests It occurs to dii wrIter that ss fi in bitt they (rcueotIy 'tnnot JtJphrtheas speech skills arö ooncerned1 paper nd pencil systems used to indicate how the vrds tj prS

tests wilt never serve the purpose cxept per nounced kns stodies ie in order t detbtnlne

haps ut tczing ertsib biIItl which niy have to what C,ttent this is uue lut it per be

a orrelatLott wIth speech skills Vathi tcI t qustiort of the tutkntbS learning haE 4ia

liable speech tests, when they axe constructed, criucat symbols mean d boa to use tle ktvtvill probably have so be listesung tests on the rds which are Only of value ft the stu4enr

order of $eashores r&otcls for the diagnolsis of knows cxactly how 10 pronounce the Ie wøtds

muskal ai,itity. Since the ehJl4 learns spçech by rlisttves. There tre seWrl Ji rionarjes hchlistening to ir U Is possible thet If we lsh to enioy different s)srems of dl rttt(a fl%aks

mea.uto bbjetieiy his speech progress and thuscomplictng nsa(rr (tthher: In iidcfltion;

dianoe his shortcomings, we could do it by plioneti alphabets appearing lu s)ecçh and

;eting his listening dlsc mlnaiton. and ilis I riglish iex4iooks lack ag emetut and dd

cernmenc by meins ( st-ttnarJsred recordings Iuther confusion WI,u mn be done to nspd

Such ecordings niight esen do a ktter Job of rdize such Jroruonciatlon Tonking sysrenis for

tesong some spaces of vocbulary deselopm'pt sthool use so that ii student could learn etr1y

than the tandardied inultIpleshoicd prineeul how H) dererbimo pro isciauion and syflabk

tests, Since i1e ourtd of ii wor4 is not the airne en%phasIS fronI printed symbot Is pert sf ieas the Iook of it on a prnted pe tety problem eonerned with thi uctchlt-t,g alt

auditory component of speech could be tested through choôi of keys words through tvtilch

by stai ardi I recos3lngs ott the fts5un1thon alt proiiurici-ttiou isc1 be cJ Aesscthat sshat the Individual may no hear o notico bsck iIn now to the1qucstiott Of

In the speech of others he may nor hise estib plonetfr ekitient qi speech as such in die pTh

lished in his own speech However that it-ray niary grades

bç, hì awarehess and reeonition of speech 14 More studies oulit tO be nncI 1 COO

components could cettiiply be tested Such te5tc vcrsu lnral peçcti in t1cw of iIa fta th1 btsould,of C9UrS hive to e presented to the far the gressf ptoporuh of tt person's trtlsubJeet se!f above iis hearing acuity threshold otupth is onvesuoni1 aisd& to 'ii tpc&h,

-

.. -

--- S - - - -- - - -

- ----- -5---

- -

- -- -

-- -

- S

-: -- --- ---5 - - -

-_

s.

NEEDED RESEARCH IN SPEECH

Since the study of speech is so justifiably oncontcl with the extent to which it can throwiighi on the social behavior of the person speak.ng,:stUdles in Conversation might have far.

'reaching ,educational Implications.

In what ways-does the speech of the trained-speaker change ,wheri ,he is engaged not in a

Speakini situation but In :spontaneousconversation?, What are the individual 'differ.e_nces -in- regard to ;conversational habits andpatterns?, Why, do Ome people "make conver

,, La preference to having mutual silence?What are the salient differences in-the conver-sational patterns of, children when comparedwith -these of adults? Do children ask morequestions of each other than do adults? To whatextent do people register frank, motivated, re-

-- sponsive, arui sincere conversation as contrastedwith conversation that consciously attempts tobe socially- manipulative? What is- the actualrnechailstn behind disagreement in conversa.60.1 exchanges when the conversation isoverheard- at when it is not? What situations

-- condition the talkativeness of children in con._ ver5ition?_ What environmental (actors deter.

mine the topics-of conversation among childon? How may we use what we learn aboutthe child's conversation in tis-speech educationprOgram?

--15. Some study should be made to see howInstruction in lip reading would affect the

habitS = of nornvil hearing-WOuid ileveltipIng awareness Otilie move-Men- of The Speed; organs'focus of attention on such activity `casts "them

deVelotirni* 1) reale' ar tic ttafdry Moierrientsin tiftliiiify-Spri.lkitii?-1f=fnigtli also he' of interesi rip'reiftl Iliruotmal hearing Tperson tictuallY -tests ti ttiucii :tbeing mare ofnit.

61,1::10;09)eekfyieech-

efari';'1J10;',IiniPronls,Aligni5sif,Yrift,i'sfit;in.riceni;tVeits'ensive:-Piohably tlikte:Itestuniol)nt

25

of time and energy has been spent in investigating stuttering; and there is not much toshow for a large part of it. This, howeVer, Istrue of the research in any area. Lately therehas been an Increase in the amount of publishedtuaterial having to do with- cleftpolate speech,but a great deal ofexperitnental work needs tobe done in devising better-methods of speechtraining for those harelip and cleftpalate chit-dren who have received -ail that surgery Nyco

-offer them. Also`, there has been -a phenomenalincrease of research work in problems of hear-ing impairment, in speech staining- for theacoustically. handlopped-, and in -audiometricevaluation. The work in the field Of hearing aswell as that in the field of aphasia- (loss ofspeech from brain damage) was greatly aloud.lated by wartime research in Army and Navyhospitals.

As this author sees it, too many researchworkers are following old lines of research;their thinking and their efforts are channeled --too narrowly by die research 6ndings and coil.yentions of the past.- is needed is morecreativity, more bold venture, without "spec&tally tonsttucted hypothesis for the research, -if necessary, Though it May be heresy in thescientific world to say so,a great number of newdiscoveries and Weds have tome to us by accident during the -course of what seemed likewild, Oa !Mid ish; blind investigation,-

The (kid of speech patholOgy is nor so farremoved from general speech education a5 itmay-stem: it probabii been froin'the field_of silted! path ologrthat'the greatestrion for the-itlentific- study of spepefi Ms come;and it is froin-`*h pathology havet&irned -a great deal -about'thEirtni al develop-menrof skik-1)7-1ri fSefl,Wecri patholog hisraided ':US with a tetz r Aydin f!011af ofJO Thy 'fOrMs 'hat* of11bn-0,0alit

-Utz:ow:it

.116»e.- Desielopinerni Fri remedial r4linic for

26

example, have taught us much about teachingreading-to everyone. Our knowledge regardingthe functioning of the human brain could nothave been gained without the study of the dereceive brain. When we study speech deviationssevere enough to be called defects, we evolveprinciples and methods that are applicable aswell to the training of normal speaking persons.

Let Us suggest a few problems in the areaof speech pathology which need investigation:

i. it is an observed fact that distractionswill help a stutterer during 6 given momentget out of a blockage in his speech, tfe oftenorganizes for himself certain distinction devicesto help himself. Sometimes he wilt whistle,stick out his tongue, jerk his head, squint hiseyes or frown, or suddenly change his mindabout the word he was going to say and utteranother, if we subject him to mild pain or

_discomfort, speak' along with him, or put nbuzzing sound in his ear, he may be distractedenough to recover more quickly from hisspasms, Why do such distraction devices workfor a while and then, when he gets used tothem, cease to be of any help at all? What isthe principle behind distraction as a momentaryaid to the stutterer?

2, If, and when, adequate means are &vetoiled for the measurement of attention, wouldWe find stutterers to have greater distractabilitythan normal speakers? Do they have difficultyfocusing attention and concentrating on ;varioustasks? Could studies of attention In stutteringindividuals be correlated with personalitystudies around a tentative- hypotheils--neurotic tendencies, if they exist, would militate eagainst the person's ability to and sustain

_

attention? e

3. There is no conclusive evidence as .yetthat stutterers have basic, pertonalit'Y 'disturb-Aneel which might account _rot= their ,speech:prOhleik*hile 'more research is needed. Con.,coning: ernotiortil'i factork tOrinteted withstt6iiriS, the -ouieOnioriilli such personality

studies seem to have been in doubt because ofthe limitations of the testing instruments andmethodi. First, We had better develop betteitests than we now have, and this includes the ,projective techniques such as the 'fheMaticApperception Tests and Rorschach's inkblots:We may as st di recognize the fact that -thevalidity of evert known persori-ality_ test is

open to question.

4, Investigators hate studied the developmot of speech in the individual and haysgathered much` data -Ce-nCereiltig' iheyiequiiitiOnof speech sounds from the time of infancy onSimilarly, many studies have been mute ofspeech improvement on the part of individualsin various age brackets. Some interesting-datamight be obtained from studying speech de. -terioration tinder certain conditions: Wittchanges take place in speech as an indliQualloses his hearing? Experimental conditionscould be set up in which subjects would, trothear themselves speak,- sort of 3ttielCitil ataf.ness induced by- means of noise effects, Anobjectite analysis of the acoustic changes inspeech resulting from the experimental de-privation of heating could be obtained fro-kyinographic and osciliographic ieOrdimngs.Such investigations might throw some lighton ,the function of the tactile and kinaesth.etic,senes of speech, organ in learning OWWing speech, it- .might provide more tr4417-,,2data than)ve could obtain from _thetli.,eeCh ofthose who have become deafened 1a,ter 10'06'since coMparisotis f)etween`sprech withand speech without hearing Cotild bF ,gale inthe satne'indivijual.

5. It has been thought that go AiisOn, Why;childteri misfiticolate speech sOunde-le:,itib,ttheir parents:SMic too tAplatY' no 1044noughi nor:411i inClly ekoti11; -1(*attliAchild b<< anne tegaidini4 the its*fi )140 atid-speech 408;ity -0P ,krenii:-*b*-134-riiiittttpi

`-ftintijOrtal cittfcitfatc ry Arriti) _

deliyeci Speech:' 1-

NEEDED RESEARCH IN LISTENING

6. Some of the recent experiments withthe critical frequency at which various individ-uals fuse light flicker -might be interesting ifapplied to persons who stutter, Since the abilityto fuse such flicker at certain critical began-des so that it appears to be .,teady light seems

to be a central and not A peripheral process,--something might be learned in regard to brainactivity and stuttering. Although some stadiei

-in phi phenomena have been made with:stutterers-, the results have not been at all clear.

Attempts should be made to get moreintrospective information from those who havevarious types of speech defects. It will have tocome, of course, from those who are aboveaverage intelligence and who are capable ofpenetrating self-analysis. All of the basic in-formation we have about speech defects andtheir accompanying emotional problems hascome from what we have-observed in those whohaVe the defects. It is suggested that much of

27

what we are not able to observe might belearned by cultivating the introspective abilitiesof speech defectives,

The purpose of this article has been to pre-sent some thinking which might stimulatesome new and needed research., It has not at-tempted to review the extensive research whichhas already been done, When a research Prob-lem is proposed there is usually ,more thanjust a probiem being stoested; A malty ofthought may 6,7 started. The researcher lookingfor. something of significance to investigate maydiscover that his own mind revolves too muchin the same orbit as he mulls over the type ofproblems he would like to answer. This authorhopes that some of the suggestions for researchin speech which he has ?resented will at leasthelp start a train of thought in the mind of thereader to the end that it may lead to evenbetter problems than the ones specifically pro-posed here.

Needed Research in ListeningHAROLD A. ANormsotis

-' We have always spoken perhaps a thousandtimes more words than we write and listened,to a thousand times more words than we read.13ut modern developments in mass media Oforal cornmunicationthe radio, -the sound ino-tton p ture, and now television --,andthe 111.-

crease iglif-Ip'amount of group discussion, public,fdruoi, aid 'debate- have made, the,spoken wordthe 'MOSt -powerful niditith of communiritiorrthe *ON ,his'-`&`er: known. And this nit11011)nay, prove tO be the mat'dangereut;- unless

rising 80004tiOD friA41-i(40 to Ilitet.,,11W MIKA Ili. if A willing subJed.' and an easy,

-'`ii-16Neile"-Wit-ek*6614-tise the silken Wordevil Yes, as .Weitareil jOluisoW has

sant .

A f WO groT. tilOft,. O ninIDD sty

otet*itivto confusing TI-6rfaifiig;er'

clarifying and calming, than our habits oflistening permit them to be Until they reachour ears they are mere sound waves, gentlebreezes, harmless- as a baby's breath. It isthrough the alchemy of listening that they be-come tralikkirmed into the paralyzing and tonvulsant- toxins of illstrust ttnd hateor thebeneficent potions of goOd Will and intelli-

Centuries man' learned- to communl-'tate with written syMlioli, he cOtnotinicated

till Ms eilo ttieti by viord'of mouth Ills iirt ttrure t verist, wars kept --04e by oral tradition:

ioda4 tbine-Ort`i--

_ roititio-nt of Iftittairoty-,-Aliitversity =of

-f_DO .tY6t1 .)_1)01P00"

wiwitto

Gera Searriirir'Y-cif 1lutiittifitt, 19

28 11. Ili's! I INTAltY JtriO1,ISII

of the world rely almost wholly on the spokenword. In our early- schools in this country, oral_instruction was the dominant method of In-struction. Indeed, for ages _listening- was theprimary means possessed by man for gainingan education and for enlarging his own experi-ences vicariously, Then, listening was an Indic.pensable art; the ear held precedence over theeye. This point was well put by Donato W.Overstteet who said:

"The individual who in the long preliterateStages of history, had no keen ability as a lis-tener must hate remained a prisoner within hisown small cell of experience",

With the invention of the printing pressfive centuries ago, listening slowly gave way tothe printed page. -Through the centuries theWestern World became Increasingly print.minded, and the major burden of obtaining aneducation was placid on the eye. In time, lis-tening and the culture of oral tradition werelargely replaced by print and by the practice ofmeasuring literacy in terms of reading. Now, inless than a quartet of a century mass media oforal communication have returned to the earits former preeminence.

This recent _shift from the eye back to theear is in itself no tragedy. The tragedy Iles Inthe fact that only the eyes are trained. Except inisolated instances, virtually the only Instructionin listening that children and_ yOung, peoplereceive in the schools is the quite useless adsmonition to "pay attention" and t6 "listen care.fully". Listening, at all educational tenets, hasbeen the forgotten language art for generations.

Fortunately, there are number of indica.,tioitS that teachers' and other ed4g,tionalWork-ers now recognize the need foi teaching theart of listening. In recent years g sharply ln-creasing rturnber _of articles:and:studies in the'

"Elortaro dverstreet,--"Afierl!his- Manner,-Therefore, !Listen -Ntfrry'43- fr1-.

014_11;' 1946)

field of listening have appeared, and teachersIn a growing nutnber of schools, arc' giving,systematic instruction in listening. Almost everyconvention of teachers _of English today indudes in its program one or more papers ot,,panels on 010 Subjeet. Indeed, interest in the'fi,teaching of listening appears to be gaining theproportions of a movement.

Unfortunately, however, progress in 'the'"teaching of listening is hampered by the paiteityof research in the field. In coMpatisen, withreading, virtually no research has been donelistening. William S. Gray retorts in the 109edition of the Encyclopedia of lieirreolional Icto2.Jea(h that 2,700 studies in reading were pub-lished between 1881 and 1945. In ,the Ave: -

year period from 1941445 alone, 462 studies Irereading appeared. It is estimated that the toter'number is now well over 3,000. The present',writer has prepared an exhaustive bibliographyof ortieles, monographs, and theses In the field:of listening. The total is no mote than-175'titles. 01 these, about 50 may be looselylied as research.

As a result of this dearth of 'research,- Many;questions relating to the teaching of listening--;remain unansweted. This article attempts toidentify some 'of Oiose questions and Is' In:tendedto stimulate resehoth needed' to ao_s*er`..theol;.--The questions -acid iridication. of needed-starch are grouped into seven categories.-!-

I, lieu' i,,ach Mite 4,4_0010:4 to-4,-,One of the accepted pttocitple's of ioirjcitittO,niakitts is-that twits- omglit' (0 be taughtwell those things )vii ch current living ,strtatt'of ,them.-_-IfenOcurriculittn-triaketirnkleffikcjstudies'Of Jhe_kinds of -actislfiCs416'411ifi' hitsArett:youn's people, and adults erigag4,--tempt to ascertain 11000:nt tliiieb*--tO-thcfri, No'ritte, of OttrWif-likiffiritOthaft!the th0 devoted. to :give'.

=

activity sktsuld set:s as the sole even thejOsl,Important Meaiiire'e( importance; but

,

armarussomermirrirowiai".01016%.,-

NEEDED IttiSliAltC1-1 IN LISTENING

studies do serve useful. purposes in the task ofdefining the objectives of instruction.

Our insight into and appreciation of the-place which listening occupies today in theschool and our-ofschool lives of Children andyoung people would be greatly enhanced weremore facts available concerning the amount oftime people devote to listening. It is importanttO know nor only the total amount of time butalso the dine devoted to the various kinds of personality? Are the listening activities in

school appreciably different in kind from thoselistening Activities. Children' and adults listenout of school?to conversation and group discussion; to ser-

mons, travel talks, debates, and public addressesof many kinds.; to a wide variety of radio pro-grams and sound motion pictures; to dramaticpresentations; and to talks by teachers and lel-low students. Many other typei of listeningsituations will come to the reader's mind.

Very few studies ofwere

kind have beenmade. Among the first were those by Paul T.

proportion of this listening time is devoted toconversation, group discussion, talks of variouskinds, radio programs, and all the variouS types_of listening situations? Does the amount oftime deveted to listening increase or cletteaSCas children progress through school? What isthe relation of the amount of time devoted tolistening to such other factors as reading Inter-ests, hobbies, success in school, intelligence,

2. Hoe im,postank is listening in modernlife? Quantitatively speaking, listening iswithout doubt the most Important of the fourlanguage arts. There are, however, other criteriafor assessing the importance of an activity. Oneis its role or influence in the live; of men. Anumber of articles have appeared. in recent yearswhich draw attention to the effects, both good_

nankin (28, 29, 30, 31) who reported on the and bad, of the inclosed amount of listeningrelative amount 'of time devoted to listening brought about by the phenonienal developmentas compared with the other language arts. He of mass media of oral communication. Some

found that adults spent 45 per cent of their of these articles warn of the potential dangers

communication time in listening, 30 per cent in this mass listening. There is fear that thesein speaking; 16 per cent in reading, and 9 per unlicensed teachers----the radio, the motion plc-

cent in-writing. In a more recent study, Miriam tore, and television-I-will capture the hearts andIL_ wilt (47, 48) found that for 530 children minds of young people and adults and employ

at the elementary school level the median daily the spoken word for evil purposes.

listening time was 158 minutes. Tlic-se-studies At present we have very little factual 111-4140re that_ listening is t major activity for f . ;.bout the

, -.-,otniation ;. la taC way in winch people are

_- tiOth -children and adults. Miss' Wilt folind,- affected through listening. We need answers tohOwevcr, That teacher's may not be- fully aware -.-questions'such at diesel' To what Went and inof the role Which listening plays in pupils'learningekperiences. When teachers Wcretisked ".h." "s 'are- the live" P6)Ple'd*I6i'to.tn-tstlftiatiithC aninttnt tittle childrcn-devote day bY- VC/bati!kifbrtirititul'do

'iti.- lisieltIng;;thei tinclerestinlated the'aminin t. by . "whatnow. -6.,46-iii' late- 6IY ibitnigli: listcilhi8? Toalmost -50 Or' cent: In -all'prObabi ii if- fai 'Ifidre: w"at °t6lt °c. 'thiC11- 1)'6t6n1.- 13i)1!::. !°9d;

-Offthe instrilition Which goes Orlin- -the CiasS-nutrition, "marriage and faintly- relitloKshiPs,pofiti6r idehli--per-s-omih&lith;'arid moral -vin.:room -_briiiif,thtotig111ist:6-riliii"thilth' most reach '; _ - -- , ,

ens sitipett.-- .16 listening ii-4'61-tuts'obtained through r:id !stoning a Ite

th* inht -:;_frfili-r-ilieri6hIlitlire7-1O- What= relit ',14Y

*kat -fbAnt be

itnpaCtlriliTifibkihAVO,d-tilf4eleVisfrin lid

30 litx./..ttiNTARY

Influence of these mass media of oral comemunication? To what extent do they Increasepublic enlightenment of the important social,economic, and political issues of the times?In what degree does this mass listening makefor unity and social solidarity, and In what de;grec does it produce hysteria, confusion, anddiscontent?

It must not be assumed from the foregoingquestions that all listening is confined to themass media. Children and young people listento sermons and to their Sunday school teachers;they listen to their teachers in school and to oneanother; they listen to one another on the play.grounds and in the city streets. Wherever theyare, they are listening a great part of everywaking hour. What do they team? What is theeffect of this listening upon their value systems,their ideals. their attitudes toward their fellowmen, their moral codes, their understanding ofthe physical and biological universe? Certainlyit would be naive to assume that their educationcomes solely, or perhaps even largely, from theprinted page.

We need information, too, about the -kindsof activities in Modern life which demand ahigh degree of skill in listening. In what situations is the major burden placed on the ear?Obviously, the radio is the supreme instance.We also need to know how to listen to the oralclement of television and motion pictures. Weneed to know how to listen to conversation, togroup discussion, to talks, and to drama. 'reach,ers take the importance of these listening situpdons for granted. But how much study has beengiven to the importance of listening skills for;he.ealespersen On the job; for the fOreman in .

a factory, for the teacher- 0( Preacher, for 'the-.soldier receiving orders; for-the secretary takingdictation, to mention only a few? Studies areneeded to ascertain the whysskills are needed, in all walks of 'fife. "

:` A sound program of instruction in'the-art ofnutit await lit' large' part ansWers' to

questions naval as those raised in the foregoingpa raw. vhs,

3 nate fl en ;10 pupils pert.odic measurement of the reading ability of .pupils at all educational levels __through theadministration of standardlied tests Is now, al.- ;most universal in this country. Teachers andschool administrators know a great deal aboutthe reading abilities and disabilities of their

-pupils: pit they know virtually nothing about-the listening abilities and disabilities of their '>pupils. Why?' One reason may be that we havebeen insensitive to the importance of Wellingas a language art and hence have not th 'tight itnecessary to be concerned abotit the vel oflistening competence. The more imniedire-rea;'son is that no tests of listening ability have --been available.

There is urgent need today for research inlistening performance. How well do:children,young people, and adults listen? Are there Wideindividual differences in listening' ability?ilfso, chat are these diffetences? Do, pupilsprove in listening competence from grade tograde, or do they get worse as they grow 0140What is, or should be normal performance,- aleach grade level? Can listening nnrms be esiablished? What weaknesses or disabilities-A,o_poor' listeners manifest? What -perecentagepupils are deficient In hearing acuity? What is''the correlation_ ,between listening ability 7,,afidintelligence? BetWeen listening_ andachievement? Between lis,tenin8 4'114vocabulary-I-How cart poor listening habits beIdentified and 'detected? ,*fiat. ark tlae characieristies hivif differentiite_the Ao0 Ihttlkftrout the pOOt listener? -*lit is thOeiplot

iisteoitig perforoNtiee, acid shell kfstiiv-,-,ality: factors as emotional 5004,1 social "`ail..19stoierit, and mental,heilaq- -6(61iic

are 'Llay:d It0 aiitent i_On, =arid,"Wanderjtig-':-

anent difi4e)ii-hearing/Aietfitti-CeetrdMilek T3o-kpupils vary 001r

NI:1mm) RtiSliARCII IN LISTENING

tening?_Witat proportion of pupils are so re.,,tardttl in listening skills as to reqUire rermdialinstruction?

Obyions ly, answers to the questions raisedabove,will be available only after many studieshave been made. Futiliettnute, these studies

lX4,110(le only When Alloge measuringInstruments are available. The most serious needtoday 'is a battery' Of tests which-will produce

-?reliable measurements of the -several skills,-abilities, and aptitudes which -make 'up thecomplex-art of effective listening. We need

_tests of hearing acuity, listening comprehension,listening Vocabulary, 'listening Interprecation,_

%rate of listening, to Mention a few. Fortunately,a beginning has beeri made M the constructionof such instruments. ,Reasonably good rests ofhearing acuity have been 'available for sometitne Recently, some attempts have been madeto construct objective tests of listening. One ofthe Most prOmIsing is n diagnostic test of 13s.tening-cOrnpreliepsion constructed by- James I.BrOwn,(6, 7) as a doctoral dissertation in 1949.

`l he test is being published by the World Bookcompany.

4. trhot it the tidnre of listening or 6tt.rngtrage art ?-- The more than 3,000-studies.which have been made in the field of readinghive given us considerable understanding of the

-AsiolOgy;psYchrlogy, and sociology of read.ins. We have n¢-such body of knowledge aboutlisiening.--The- mental priacessei involVed ire tip

T r6Oing :are:tontNoe and not very :kelt-under.stood. 0011- teiearit provides _More, gUidarice,instfuctititf in'the -art4Sf listening will be based

TliirOies"

-The kinds- of 'research- needed areaale SUggiitia' Wsliih'qUestlens et hese": What,.13tietotogY'''Of -11-sfertingi- What higher

metal 1144,C*0 areinVOlved?'4.9.,.hir a tidallyre 'tilt--proci:40s

feifeci -{,iiiV-gtifi?-;r_

31

be identified and decribed as we now identifyand describe the good reader? What skills, orabilities or attitudes are important in listening?l-ow important are auditory acuity, vocabulary,knowledge of grammar, general linguistic corn.,peceae? Whit factors_make for good listeningcomprehension? Ralph G. Nichols (26, 27)has made a good beginning in identifying thesefactors. Is selective -listening,- the 01114 tolisten only to that which Otte wishes td hear,'a desirable listening faculty? If 60-, can k be

-developed? What Is the essential :difference,psychologically, between mete hearing and tic,tual listening?

Another cluster of questions relate to kindsof listening and listening situations. Are 'skinsneeded for listening to expository speech theSame as those needed, for narrative or argumeptor persuasion?- Is it Motediffit'ult to coMpie.,

_ bend one form of Oral discourse` tbn,:anotilet?Ilow'doefeffeccive lii_tening to lyric poetry 4f!fa from listening to directions on hOW to makea box kite? how 'validly nisi listening be- dif.tferentiated into such categories as coMprehen:sional, discriminative, "iPpOc4lional,What different skills might be'needed in 111.tcnilig 10 Fgliti0f. or

FPO1101.0114*11(1,advertising,, group _clikttSsion, conversation,drama, -priapaganda? What factors in. face-to!lath Iisteedrigliffee fOrri 'those of radio, soundMoll, and television?

" There is also, for teselatth to ascertainthe relation bilWeeri

lislening-ciOpetertre andintelligence and

*11-401-siaiii-130:18;421-i-f4ve`

ken marlo; bill iii Aii4filigs -a 7trild6t-- o'arik!

idle" ct 1?)- know -whether-ei=fr011i4t,6,4 4ia r

factor iiiIango4(.0*-r1WOCi

--.64'01fivke40-§T14#10011-',-Dd-iti pu itsitlitifiglii,,,."--'41tete(r,

itet6iieigktifOIMP'-*h're'tt)aiiiit11010**KityNirs)Wtt

--16.611-6wer

32 ELtilkIllNTARY tt4(31,1S1-1

In school, as ineasuted by school marks, knowhow to listen better than those whO do lesswell? What is the relation Ixtweeti listeningcompetence and vocational success?

S. What dre rho rimiloritler torff dilfereocerbetween tirretritrg and reding?...7:1keacling andlistening are the receiving ends of the corn.municative process. They are assimilative skills.They are the means by which, through Ian.guage, others may commurtiote with. us, hemeans by which our experiences may in extended vicariously In almost limitless measure.In what ways: ate these two languiie arts aim!latl.ln what ways different?

There are some ways in which they areclearly different. Thc ear is the receiving organin listening, and the eye in reading:- In listen.ing, the speaker sets the pace of commithititeon; in reading, the reader sets it. The readermay pause to reread a word, a sentence, or alonger passage. may stop to think aboutwhat he has just read, letting his mitia followa number of voluntary excursions of interpre-tation, association, and iinplication. The listenermust weigh some bit of evidence or proposalagainst his own information or opinion whilelistening to the speaker go on to make hispoint. He cannot pause to think through ametaphor, or marshal his own ideas in silentdebate. Most of our listening does not permitthe _refteetive processes so valuable In :reading.Not so in listening.- The speaker's pace of the ,relentless sound track in-inotion pictures huirlesthe listener along faster than he an absorbwhat he hears or moves so slowly as to produce _-boredom and ennui. listening' is usuallycialtzcd activity while reading is, for the -mostpart, a tasting* Die,' kartirKke,commttnicatlon the listener his thPIOS'Arienoof both the style of the spoof it4elf and thepersonality Of the ,speaker,icin-the outer hand,sometimes, becituseof the speaker's manner 6e---appeatatkce, the/limner -nfaiClefeet Idea oryatt woke *Odd kt 406'6At roaececr :

piint. .=,

PrIsu in ably, too, listening and reading have'much In common. Language Is cortuncfn to both:The saute words, iniarge parr, are-used in both-forms of conununication. Sentence patterns aremuch alike. The purposes Of communicationarc much the same, Mptly otherssimllaritlescome at once to the reader's Mini

13ut the question of slmilaritle$ and differ. =tares is noi sitnpie as it inay seetn at fihtthought, In the first place, no one haithoroughly analyzed these differences andlatities flan psychological, anal _

sociological, points of view. In what ,Ways arethe two forms of assimilative' communication:-essentially Mike and in what ways -1.40--

significantly different?- What 'is the -cliffereticel'_:in the size and natureofIary as compared with one's reading-iocabular0,To what went -dots one stem frOrnlor.-Increaie-,the other? Do purple rely _ihnictethticitly'*j:on. listening for certain kind's of infotmaticin-and satisfactions and upon reading fot:otheis?What is the relative effeetIveneis ?f, the *0media for learning purposes? rY0 people understand what they hear` better than ,ivha!' theYread? Do people remember better, whatbeY'read or what they hear? Are people inclieriti-cat toward what they read than to what they;hear ? Does' instruction, in One rein6r0-:, theotlicr, Or may abundant Practice grid eekli-etente-;

- in one 'weaken! t he other?,0 reading k'f"Oillit,to be superior to 004-- Inbecause of the inherent superiority teilaipg :-Or because pupils 14ve'_I;een taught h# to 00:but to:liste0-Af.liitenIng'`4041 be -:'-

_totind to be Suferlsir;:inayrcr, be beta'lung :is the'moio toMnlon OOP-like the-se- remain Jargely'njtatiskerWAnsOer:s`to these questions will not be easy ((l. 44- *Aof the0--,Probletill7can be` studied ly;

research Herkera. Tt li'llop-64 that

v!iico4 s- 01, tif in Oauate-Elepftc.:= MeM;(61 ctiuditiow said titychblbity -01.15-tfritie

.;11;e111,

Wimp RESEARCH IN LISTENING

It is in this aspect of the teaching of listenins that most of the research to date has beendone. lt is not the purpose of this article to re.view the existing research in listening. Readerswho are interested in gaining a background forundertaking studies in the relation between lis.rening and reading will find studies by Corey(12), DeWick (13), Erickson and King (14),Goldstein (15), Greene (16), Knower, Phil.lips, and Koeppel (19), Larsen and Feder (21),Won and Others (33, 34, 33), Russell (37),Selover and-Porter (38), Sims and Knox (39).Spaclic (40), Stump (42), Tireman andWoods (43), Worcester (49), and Young(52) useful.

6. 11/bar factors influence the finality oflistening in and out ol trbooP We haveknown for a long time that a variety of factors

.influence the quality of a person's reading.Even such seemingly minor matters as length of

-line, sparing betwe.cn lines, margins, site oftype, quality of paper, color of binding, para.graphing, and side and center headings affect

_reatling. Vo:abulary load, sentence structure,and organization of ideas play a ninth largerrole. The great progress which has been madeitt tl.cent years in the preparation and produc.clan of reading materials for children, youngpeople, and adults alike stems in large part fromstudies of these and other factors affecting read,Mg rate, comprehension, and interpretation.

Certainly -there must he comparable factorsaffecting listening,_but little knowledge is avail.able as to-sal:it-0100 factors are or how import

-tacit they are. CtiMinen Sense would suggest Thatlit1C,4 listening Comprehension is affected by

rs L -itarty his person Ilk hisiptakirig Manners; the organiEn ion of his Ideas,heabst nee Of hoises"and oilier dkturbances,'the

41 "NM illolf':of 'the air- in elle1-4361,-t0i the.ntlon tonre14 the inote-Obvititti factars.

Iltb4-Saittlini;atkt a ra Is'sliggestea-thisC.-qttc;t'ons.:What factori m ike for good

listening situations? How important are suchenvironmental factors as physical comfort ofthe listener, absence of noises and other dis.turbances, a congenial atmosphere? How iin.portant is the quality of the speaker's petform,once, that is, his voice qtiality, mannerisms,perionality, rate of speaking, choice of English,method of appeal, organization of ideas? Nowinfluential upon the quality of listening is thespeaker's reputation, authority, affiliation, spunsort What effect do the listener's interest, mo-tivation, and purpose have on his listening?What effect does the listener's emotional statehave on his listening performance! What is theattention span of the average istener? Whatbarriers stand between the speak r and listener?

To what extent do unfavarlble _factors inthe listening situation, such as noise and otherdistractions, lack of motivation, and poor speak-ing, develop inattention, daydreaming, passiveor marginal listening, and even an immunity tolistening?

11 we knew more about, what makes forgood listening, perhaps it would be possible todevelop a score card comparable to a readabilityformula against which we could measure tin.adequacy of any listening situation. In the fieldof reading, we are able to say with some assureonce what makes a book readable, To date, wehave link basis on which to appraise a listeningsituation. Until We do, teachers_ ore not likelyto do much to improve the listening climates oftheir classrooms. . - -

7. Cito he :art of littening 14 siteeettIttllytand.v.7 It is difficult to account for 111 factthat the 31: of isiening is taught in very fewschools today at any educational leVel; Fot sOv.oral 'wits the writer "has corresponded Withlitintlit:di of feachercOf :Engliih ilttoItglitiutthecoati4jft'arratt6ipt to icitiill 610 a c'c. s iii c re

sytt0OitleloOtationlin, liste(d_d$ ar.is-pl!Tion.Only * will Nimb41--0 f isi tteesapprle-to! !.)c.,

ti7i3otrireetif**-?pheeittxf Mozeirqtplicrovethe ductility o-f liseninilttlifeir P-uP1 is: Peritapsthe teaitin fai this lack of attendow to 'an into

34 13LENtliNTARY

portant language art is the dearth of towardin methods of teaching listening. The relatively

high quality of instruction in reading, spellinghandwriting, arithmetic, and other basic sub-

jects may be attributed in large part to the objective studies in methods of teaching made inthese fields. Certainly it is fair to assume that

the art of listening can be taught. We can as

sum. that listening habits can be improved

through direct instruction.

How valid is the assumption that listening

habits can be improved? What particular listening skills are most amenable to training? Does

practice in listening, without guidance, result

in bad as well as good habits? Does instructionin reading facilitate listening? What is the

transfer of habits from reading to listening andvice versa? What classroom activities and' what

kinds of mechanical, equipment are best suited

to improve listening? Ate present "listening cll.

mates" in and out of school conducive to the

development of good listening habits? Do

teachers set listening situations in the classroom

which call for attentive and ethical listening?

What can teachers do to provide listening at-tivitits which give practice In good listeninghabits and which serve to correct poor habits?Can listening best be taught directly and syste-

matically or incidentally and obliquely?

It is hoped that teachers at all levels will

attack the problems of devising effective meansof teaching children, young people, and adults

how to become better listeners. This can bedone only by experimenting with a variety of

methods and objectively evaluating their effec-

tiveness. There Is here, as in all the categoriesdiscussed in the foregoing sections, a wide, openfieid for educational research.

Bibliography of BwarehStrtdles in Lisletting

Anderson, Irving 14,,,,anti,Ealtbanks, Grant."Common and Differential factors In Read.ing Vocabulary and fleAring Vocabulary,Jouroial of ErlOiiiiio-pal-Reseireh;:-<XX(January;-1957);)17:24.'_

2. 13eartisley, Paul W. "Listening Versus Lis.Kiting and Reading, A Study in the Appreelation of Poetry,' Unpublished master'sthesis, University of Oklahoma, 1950,

3. Biewett, Thomas '1 ", "An Experiment in theMeasurement of Listening at the CollegeLevel." Unpublished doctor's dissertation,University of Missouri 1945.

4. Briggs, Thomas H., and Armacost, George, "Results of an Oral TrueFalse Test,

Join oral of Educational Research, XXVI(April, 1933), 595.96

5. Brown, james 1. "A Comparison of Listening and Reading Ability," College English,X (November, 1948), 105.7.

6. Brown, James I. "The Construction of aDiagnostic Test of Listening Comprehension," Journal of Experimental Education,XVIII (December, 1949) 139.46;

7. Brown, James Isaac. "The Construction ofa Diagnostic Test of Listening Comprehen-sion, Unpublished doctor's dissertation,University of Colorado,-1950.

8. Carver, Merton 13, "A Study of ConditionsInfluencing the Relative Effectiveness ofVisual and Auditory Presentati90," Un.published doctor's dissertation, HarvardUniversity, 1931.

9. Chan, Jeanne S., and Dial, Harrold E."Predicting Listener Understanding and In.terest In Newscasts," Educational ResearchBulletin, XXVII (September, 1948), 14153, 168.

10. Clark, Weston R. "Radio Listening Activities of Children in Washington, D. C." 114published doctor's dissertation, GeorgeWashington University, 1938.

l. Clark, Weston R. "Radio Listening,Activl.ties of Children," Journal of ExperimentalEducation, VIII (September, 1939), 44.48.

12. Corey, Stephen M. "LeatrkingFronf Lecturest.s. Learning- from Readings," Jorrihrt ajEducational Psychology, XXV (September,1934), 459.70: ,

13. DeWkk; Henry N.- "The Relative goalEffectiveness 'of Visual and*ditOrysentation of _Advertising toktriirjof Applied EtYrhoi.gY, XIX (Jtne; 110),245-64.

14, Erickson, C. 1.i mi(1_1(inS. trOPS:pailsoq of Visual and Oral Pe6(etitation'of1:65PAS Ip 'the:Case- of -Pr pifvfoilia theThird toS6cielY, VI

NEEDiit) hi:FLOC

15. Goldstein, Harry, keadin and- LiiroringCornprihrnsion at Vatkas ConindiedRate-t. Contributions to &location, No.New. York: lititeau of Publications, Te..chus College, Columbia, University 19.10.

16. Greene, Edward Barrows, "The RelaristEffective-nest of Lecture and individualReading as Methods of College Teaching,'Gtrivic Prydroloky Afetremrapbr, IV tetmktr,-1928), 457-543.

17. HaUgh, Oscar N. "An Analysis of the far.tors Co nd it lonin g the Radio' Listening1-tablii of Senior High School Students,'Unpublished 'master's thesis, University cf1%litittesota, 1940.

l8.- flatlet, Oscar M. "The Comparative h.iste-of Reading and Listening in the Artois?tion of Information and the Changing ofAttitudes of Eleventh Grade Students,- Un-published :.,,ton's dissertation, Unisetsitiof Minnesota, 1950,

19. Knower, Franklin J4; Phillips, David: andKoeppel, Fein. "Studies in Listening to In.formatit.e Shr-ak.ing," 'or amd-q, A bnorriiatitord Plyrbolqy, (f t ur.iy,1945), 52'88.

20: KraMtc, Tlitophile. "A (:umparison 0-Learning and Retention of Materials ht.sented Visttally and Autlitorially, Un-published doctor's dissertation, New YorkUniversity, 1945.

-21. Larsen, Robert P., and Feder, 1).-1).-- mon and Differential Factors in Reading

and Hearing CoiriprelleASiOti," Jorirbal of-14rtratioNrd Psychology, XXXI (April,

19.10), 241.52.Study -of Arndt Leah-

_ing with and withOOr the SppOiet Presvht,!- jiirtrkaf :61 -lixp-oll?retrial o 4,- Vl

(St ptembt. r,'1957),`47-'60.-23. Ronald' "Attitude. Shifts

froni SOli.L.ArOift_ iS hid doctors thes!s,-bhitiStarectirileerSilit, _1939.

/004Pije,tbfq ('t-,-`105.18.25. fif opa)A!liti Ifs t

)-tiot cot"twgz-lcs,

441 rtio ',eYsIty1Nhh,u mi11 ....,...--1).040-Autkititii.e r

711likakci: in Coinpiehzosidri of

IN LISTENING 35

Presented Orally in the Classroom," Linpublished doctor `s dissertation, State UniversitY of low ; 1948.

27. Nichols, Ralph G. "Factors In ListeningComprelithsion," Spaeth Morogrophr, XV,(No. 2, 1948) 154-43.

28. Rankin, poll! T. "The Importance of Listen-ing Mend' (College Edi-tion), XVII (October, 1920, 62340,

29. Rankin, Paul T. " Listening Ability," PP,17235, Moldings- of,-the` hio7 State EdU.CAtitinal Conference, Ninth AnnUul Session.Columbus, Ohio:, Ohio State _University,1929f

30. Rankin, Paul T. "Listening Ability: Jr s linportance, Measurement-and De 'NielopMent,".ehio,go Schools Jortoral, XII --(january,1930), 17749,

31. Rankin; p.m T. "Listening Ability:14 ItiImportance, Measurement, end 15evelopmai " Chicago Srbooh hand, )11 (June,1930), 41740.

32. RicOuil, ildward A. "Children and Radio:A Study u Listening and Nonl.isteoers to

Typcs- of Radio Programs in Termsof Seletted-Ability, Altitude and Witavior*litotes," Unpuhlish0 doctor's 4issetSa-tion, Fordham University, '1949.

33,- Rukn, Phillip J. and ()titers. "A comeati.son of Phonographic ,Recordings with'Printed Material in Term of gnowIcklgeGained through -their Use Alone,". Ho=arc! Pdricarional ltet lew, Xlii jAntritY$

- 1913),63.76.;t4. Rohm, Phillip J. and Others, "A ComParl-

son- of Phonographic Recordings withPrince- Materials irt-'Germs of Knowledge_Gar ed Through Their Use in TeachingUnitrflrliPard Iltitith,; X11101duhriP4i); 10:75.

35. Auto, J And-Others. 1:A tomparist3h':14 = Phono' igi Irl) Recording withPrinted Ma te'rla 14 Thins MotiOtion to

net aryl Re-it* Xii11154;--IM); 2405,-

ItbloklifilliiPTiwi pi)r:Phiittoopa R -60 qvgs-AWIN "-Mdtut atic-3;4,Ttoicp.110:11:;ittp;):rdi

u 0_40 'No-t of eviliKkv

110V' Pr teal 111P-INiitteiV19244,)238.

36

33. Mover, Robert B., and Porter, James P."Prediction of the Scholarship of FreshmlnMen by Tests of Listening and LearningAbility-," Journal of Applied Psycholn,q).XXI (October, 19371, 533.88.

39. Sims, V, M. and Knox, L. 13,, Ilse Reli-ability and Validity of Multiple-ResponseTests When Ptesent0 Orally," Nano: ofErincational Psychology, XXIII (December,1932), 656-62.

40. Simile, -George, "The Construction' andValidation of a WorkType Auditory Comprehension Reading Test,' Ihintoiouai andPrictio/ogical Meainrenlans, X (NumberTwo, Summer, 1950), 249.53.

41. Straker, Esther Irene. "A Study of the OW.ofSchool Rqdio Listening Habits Of TerreHaute SchoorChildren,"- Unpublishedmaster's thesis, Indiana State Teachers Col.!ego, Terre Haute, May, 1940.

42. Stump,'N, P. 'Oral VersuS Printed'Metliodin the Presentation of the TrueFalse Ex.aniinarion," Primal of &Willow? Re-search, XVIII (December, 1920, 423.24.

43, Tireman, L. S., and Woods, _Velma E."Aural and Visual Comprehension of Eng-lish by Spanish-Speaking Children,' Ele-mentary School lonrnol, XL (November,1939), 20441.

44. Weir, Thomas A, "A Study of the Listen-ing Vocabulary of Children in the First,Fourth, and Sixth Grades of the Elemen-tary School," Unpublished doctor's, disserta-tion, Ohio State University, 1951,

45. Widener, Ralph W. "A Preliminary Studyof the Effects of _Training in Listening,"

Eva.isti

rirlished master's thesis, University of

V. Winkler, K, "Psychology al Listen.!ng." pp. 347.49, Education nu the Air,Fifth Ytarlxiok, Institute for Education byRadio. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Unt%ashy, 1934,

i7. V'ilr, Miriam E. "A Study of 'readierAwareness of Listening as a'Factor in'Ele.-men ta ry Education," Unpublished .dOctodittettiti011, Pennsylvania Stare College, '-

1919;43 Wilt, Miriam I "A Study of 'Teacher

Awareness of Listening as a Factor in Mr!memory Education," 1001141 AI Edlle41001Research, XLIII (April, 1950), 62646.

49. Worcester, A. "Isfeninty by Yfsual andby Auditory Presentation,'"honal of Edd.---='

01.< ahoma 1950.

cirjonal Poo,bolms XVI (jaouary, 925),13.27,

50 -Yates, Paul S. "The Relations netweetil,'Reading Recognition Vocabulary and 1-10#1'ing Recognition Vocabulary and-Their Re.:-5pective, Correlations with Ini018010;Unpublished master's thesis, WashingtonUniversity, 1937,

51. Young, William Ernest. "The Relation ok'Reading Comprehension and Retention, r?-:-Hearing Comprehension and 1400456,'.Unpublished doctor's, dissertation, Univer.city of Iowa, 193Q. -

52 Young, Wiltlarn 13. "The Relation of Read.ing Comprehension and'Reteniion,tontar.ing Comprehension and Retention,".16urn;a/ of ENPfillnelirti 1_1440100,V (Septeri'ber, 1936), 30.39.

.1P0,1tt01014,-4*4. 4.. vaa A

Pamphlet Publications of

The National Coirylcil of Teachers of English:

CHILDREN'S BOOKS- ABOUTFOREIGN COUNTRIES

liBLEN SATTLEY, Chairman,A highly selected, annotated list of children's books about Canada, Mticaand Russia, by a stoup of distinguished children's librarians.

65 cents per copy. 50 rents each for 10 or'more.

ADVENTURING WITH BOOKS.MARI3AR531' MARY CLARK

A reading list lot ekuientaty schools, twanged by topic, with appropriate yearsindicated.

60 cents per copy. 50 cents each for I.0 or mote

-WE BUILD TOGETHER (Revised EditLon)CHARLEMAR ROLLIrS

- A discussion of children's books about the Negro; with an annotated list ofrecommended titles.

65 cents per copy.50 cents each for 10 or more.,

SUBSTITUTES- FOR -THE COMIC BOOKS09,1*ANCit CARR

An annotated list of books on' themes featured by the cOinla hooka.25-cent3` peccoPy. '20 cents eacli'for -10 or Mere

'Write to:I NV 66461-14b11-.TEAtlitlt -r.TAT10 A

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