DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 349 .39 RC 018 788

AUTHOR Sigman, Marilyn; And OthersTITLE Wetlands & Wildlife: Alaska Wildlife Curriculum

Teacher Information Manual, Parts I-II.INSTITUTION Alaska State Dept. of Fish and Game, Fairbanks.; Fish

and Wildlife Service (Dept. of Interior), Washington,D.C.

PUB DATE Mar 91

NOTE 148p.; For related documents, see RC 018 789-790.PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Teaching Guides (For

Teacher) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Alaska Natives; Conservation Education; Ecology;

Elementary Secondary Education; *EnvironmentalEducation; Instructional Materials; ResourceMaterials; *Teaching Guides; *Wildlife

IDENTIFIERS *Alaska; Habitats; *Wetlands

ABSTRACTThis document consists of a teacher manual and a set

of information cards. The teacher manual is designed to educateAlaskan students about the important functions of Alaska's wetlandsand about the fish and wildlife that live there. Part I of the manualexplores Alaska's wetland habitats, the plants and animals that livethere, and the relationships between human activities and wetlands asecosystems. The appendices include a description of wetland typesthat may be found in some habitat complexes, animal adaptations forliving in wetlands, and a reference list. Part II focuses on birdspecies which are Alaskan summer residents and includes aspects ofindividual bird species and bird population dynamics. Year-roundhabitats of migratory birds are discussed in addition to detailedaccounts of six species and two sub-species of migratory birds thatnest in Alaska. Also discussed is conservation of migratory birds.The appendices include information on bird migration, laws concerningwetlands and migratory birds, and a reference list. These materialscontain illustrations and maps. The wetland cards contain over 100illustrations of plants, invertebrates, fish, birds, and mammalsfound in Alaska's wetlands. Each illustration is accompanied by textdescribing the organism's traits, habitats, food habitats, and whateats it. (LP)

a Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made a

* from the original document. a

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WETLANDS & WILDLIFEAlaska Wildlife Curriculum

Teacher Information Manual, Part I 791-

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BEST CPY MILANI

Writers/Editors: Marilyn Sigman, Susan JordanWriters Wetland Cards: Susan Quinlan and Matt GravesEditors: Janet Ady, Beverly Farfan, Colleen Matt, Karen fikKibliii, Cathy Rezabeck

Production by Connie Alien, Beverly Ferfan, Cathy Rezebeck, RickTurner, Finsline Graphics

Artwork by Heeling GraphicsPrinted with :laska State Duck Stamp Funds

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Wetlands and Wildlife curriculum is a revision of two previous curriculum packages which involved the hard

work and generous contributions of many individuals and their schools and organizations. Susan Quinlan, Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, wrote, illustrated, and produced the original Alaska Wildlife Week materials on this

topic. Janet Ady and Beverly Farfan, U.S. Fish and Wildife Service, coordinated the project to develop and produce

the Teach About Geese curriculum. We also wish to acknowledge the following individuals who participated In the

development and review of theMetlagasandjanunaterials:

Participants In field test teacher workshops:Juneau: Dan Austin, Peggy Cowan, Nancy Davis, Susanne Elder, Ruth Heintz, Kris Hartnett, Kay Holmes,

Yvonne Ihii, Kim Kiefer, Jim Leet, Betty Lyle, Vicky McLaughlin, Luann VcVey, Caryn Mercer, Kari Monagle,

Kathleen O'Daniel, W. Reilly Richey, Shirley WalkrushCraig: Dan DeRoux (Hollis), Pauline Johnson (Klawock), Nola Kathleen, Janice Lund, Clay Puindsxter (Klawock),

Meg Spink (Theme Bay), Pat Thompson, Dee Ann Walker (Thome Bay), Evelyn Willbum (Port Protection),

Scott Willbum (Thome Bay), Sue Willbum (Thome Bay)Anchorage: Cami Dalton, Steve Hackett (Russian Mission), Mike Hanscam, Gary Holsten (Palmer), Pam Randles

(Fairbanks), Larry Reed, Nancy Tankersley, Ann Wieland

Reviewer:Alaska Department of Fish and Game: Steve Elliott, Ellen Fritts, Colleen Matt, Nancy Ratner, Tom Rothe,

Stan Senner, Sandra SonnichsenU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Gail Baker, David Dall, Robert Gill Jr., Rowan Gould, Bill Kirk, Robert Leedy,

Rosa Meehan, Vivian Mendenhall, Russell Oates, Phillip Schempf, Paul Schmidt, Connie Wassink

Other Contributors: Jay Bellinger, Norene Blair, Steve Breeser, Nancy Byers, Ellen Campbell, Mark Chase,

Max Copenhagen, Tom Demeo, Sandy Frost, Dan Gibson, Amy Keston, Paul Marks, Norm Matson, Russ Meserole,

Pam Nel!on, Betty Olivalo, Janet Schempf, Reva Shircel, Candace Ward, Steve Young

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNIT" STATEMENT

Federal laws, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Alaska Department of Ash and Game regulations and policies

prohibit discrimination. Within all their public programs and activities no one will be discriminated against due to

race, color, national origin, sex, age, or physical or mental handicap. If you believe you have been discriminated

against or want more information contact:

Office of Equal OpportunityU.S. Department of Interior

1849 C Street NWWashington, D.C. 20240

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface 1

Setting The Stage: What Is A Wetland? 3

What Kind Of Wetlands Occur In Alaska? 3

Coastal Areas 6

Stream And River Corridors a

Marshes g

Bogs And Muskegs 10

Tundra 12

The Cast Of Characters: Animals Of The Wetlands. 14

Benefits Of Wetland Functions 18

Humans And Wetlands 20

Resources For Issue Identification And Problem-Solving 23

Appendices

Wetland Types That May Be Found In Some Habitat Complexes 26

Animal Adaptations for Wetlands Living 29

References 39

41

PREFACE Stream And River Corridors

Tundra Coastal Areas

In 1984, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game introduced a curriculum on "Water, Wetlands, and Wildlife" withthe following words:

Each long winter, we Alaskans wait, as native Alaskans have waited each year for centuries, for melting snow, thawingice, and the honking of wild geese returning.

Every year, as they have for centuries, the wild geese return, their V-shaped flocks soaring high across our skies towedge spring away from winter. The geese, ducks, and shorebirds that pour into our state each spring have traveledgreat distances to reach Alaska. They have flown from the continental United States, Mexico, Central andSouth

America, Polynesia, and Asia.

Nearly one-half of Alaska is wetlands and over 20 percent of the state is suitable habitat for breeding waterfowl. Mostof the 16 national wildlife refuges and 1.2 million acres of state game refuges and critical habitat areas were set asideto protect waterfowl habitat. This habitat base supports 37 species of waterfowl, including thirteen populations ofgeese and 30 populations of ducks. Alaska is the primary breeding grounds for 80 percentof the world's trumpeter

swans, 50 percent of tundra swans, and also for six of the 11 sub-species of Canada geese. Generally, Alaska habitats

support 20-50 percent of the pintails, 25 percent of the wigeon, and 20 percent of the scaup and canvasbacks inNorth America. Annually, Alaska yields a fall flight of approximately 80,000 swans, 750,000 geese, and 10-12 millionducks to all four U.S. flyways, Canada, Mexico, and Asia. About 17 percent of all geese and 11 percent of all ducksharvested in North America are from Alaska. In addition to waterfowl production, Alaska provides molting, staging,and wintering habitat for several hundred thousand ducks and geese tt...t breed in Canada and the Soviet Union.

Why do these birds come here each spring, and where are the flocks going as they pass overhead? In a sense, they

come to Alaska for water. All living things plants and animals need water. But many species, like the geese, are

adapted for living in, on, and around water. They come to Alaska to feed, nest, and live in our wetlands.

Over the past several decades, the public's view of wetlands has shifted. In the past, many people believed that

wetlands were wastelands to be filled and put to good use. People are now beginning toconsider their vain to

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humans often in terms of "goods" well beyond the reach of traditional economics. We are just beginning to appreciatethe important functions wetlands perform beyond their well-documented values as habitat for fish and wildlife.Meanwhile, as wetlands losses mount, declines in some fish and wildlife populations have highlighted the Importanceof wetlands as habitat. Among many fish and wildlife species that depend on wetlands, waterfowl are among the mostvisible and most closely managed because of their importance to many people across North America who are eitherrecreational hunters, subsistence hunters, scientists, or birdwatchers.

Teacher Information Manual, Part I explores Alaska's wetland habitats, the plants and animals that live there, and therelationships between human activities and wetlands as ecosystems. Part II focuses on the management of themigratory birds that depend on wetlands.

Two agencies, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, have joined forces todevelop these curriculum materials. The Department of Fish and Game had targeted 1990 as the year to update andrevise the Alaska Wildlife Week curriculum packet entitled "Alaska's Water, Wetlands, and Wildlife," distributed In1984. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service also embarked in 1990 on a statewide information and education programabout waterfowl management. They planned to adapt materials from the "Teach About Geese" curriculum developedin 1988 that addressed topics related to the decline of populations of geese nesting on the Yukon-Kusicokwim Delta.This can iculum packet combines, adapts, and extends many activities from the earlier curriculum packets.

This reference manual is designed to give you a resource "at your fingertips" to answer the biological, ecological, andmanagement questions about Alaska's wetlands and the wildlife that depend upon them. The curriculum will help youeducate Alaska's children about these topics important to Alaska's economic, cultural, and recreational well-being.Educated children will ensure a sound future for the wetlands and wildlife of Alaska.

26

SETTING THE STAGE:WHAT IS A WETLAND?

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So what, exactly, is a wetland? Because some people are apparently keeping track of wetlands, it would seem thatthere would be a common definition. Not so the definition is different depending on your perspective.

If you're trying to travel, wetlands are places where you may ha down or find yourself lam. Bog, quagmire,muskeg, tundra, swamp, fen, marsh, pothole, pond ... these are just some of the many names for areas that peoplerecognize as definitely lad but also definitely yiet

If you're a hydrologist, someone who studies the water cycle, then the wetness of a specific area depends on howmuch water falls on it in the form of rain or snow or which flows across it from "upstream." Water flow can be amatter of torrents down steep mountainsides or trickles down the sides of tussocks or the slow drop-by-drop perco-lation of groundwater. More importantly, how long an area star. wet and how wet it stays depend on the type of soilor plants there and how steeply it slopes to the next "downstream" area. Thus, water disappears down into cracks andcrevices and holes between rocks or soil particles, is taken up by thirsty plants, or quickly streams off steep clifffaces. However, some water remains on the surface in areas where a subsurface layer of rock or permafrost won't letit continue down into the ground or where it enters an existing pond or stream. Wetlands are areas where waterremains ponded or near the surface and saturates the soils, leaving no room for oxygen.

If you're a biologist, wetlands are places where plants and animals that live there must have adaptations for bothterrestrial life, or life on land, and for aquatic life, or life in the water. Also, the soil has limited or no oxygen, andorganisms which live in the soil arid plants that have their roots in the soil must have adaptations to these anaerobic,or low oxygen, conditions.

If you're a regulator, charged with protecting the important functions of wetlands recognized by the Clean Water Act,wetlands have a specific legal definition that currently recognizes the hydrological and ecological conditions describedabove. However, because the water cycle is dynamic and the wetness of an area varies accordingly, determiningwhether the legal definition is met by a specific area is often very difficult.

7

3

WETLAND AREAS

WETLANDS HYDROLOGY

FACTORS USED TO IDENTIFY WETLANDS

TYKALLY WET SOILS

INFORMATION ON TECHNICAL WETLANDDEFINITIONS

Alaska has an abundance of areas that are wet during theperiod of the year that they are not frozen or coveredwith snow. The question "What is a wet area?" has acommon sense answer based on when it's time to donrubber boots or hip boots to walk across an area. But the

question "What is a wetland?" has a complicated answerwhen a technical definition is sought as required byregulations that carry out the Clean Water Act whichprotects wetlands. Under a definition used by the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers and the Environmental Protec-tion Agency, three factors are used to define an area as awetland: the hydrology, or water regime, of the area; thetype of soil (hydric, or water- retaining), and the type ofplants that grow there (dependent on welled wadi-lions, specifically adapted to growth In soils with lowoxygen or wo oxygen at all). With some specific excep-tions, human activities that would dredge or fill areasthat meet all three criteria require wetland permits underexisting laws and regulations.

While federal agencies that manage various wetlandresources agree on the basic elements that identifywetlands, the agencies do not always agree that theregulatory definition is accurate for differing purposesand mandates. The Federal Manual for the Delineation ofWetland Jurisdiction contains different definitions bythree agencies. For example, the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, with responsibility for managing migratory birdpopulations, has adopted a definition that considers theecological role of areas. Thus, they classify unvegetatedareas, such as intertidal sand and mud flats and

unvegetated gravel bar islands in rivers or streams,IV which are important habitat for birds probing for buried

invertebrates as wetlands. They classify all areas aswetlands that have predominantly wetland soils, pre-dominantly wetland plants, ciE where the substrate is not

PLANTS THAT GROWIN WET SOIL

I SsOtes2C3 SIAnfiltes

pKEY CHARACTERISTICS

1. Wetlands hydrology (waterregime): area periodicallyflooded

2. Soils retain water and aregenerally saturated

3. Presence of plants adaptedfor growth in wetlandconditions.

soil, but is saturated with water or covered by shallowwater at some time during the growing season. Incontrast, the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S.Department of Agriculture, which assesses the eligibilityof farmers for U.S. Department of Agriculture programbenefits that are no longer provided if wetlands areconverted to agriculture (the "Swampbuster" provisionof the Food Security Act of 1985), uses a differentdefinition. They exempt permafrost wetlands in Alaskafrom the penalties of the Swampbuster provision if theyhave been identified as having a high potential foragriculture (see discussion of permafrost under TundraWetlands helow).

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE WETLAND

CRITERIA

The water regime has to do with how much water ispresent and where the water is in relation to the surface.How much water depends on water cycle processes andpatterns. Along the edge of the oceans, the tides domi-nate the dynamics of surface water flow. Inland, theamount of water present is a result of precipitation, waterflowing from "upstream," and loss of water throughevaporation or run-off downhill or downstream.

The water regime includes run-off: where the water is inrelation to the surface. Saturated surface soils, and thuswetlands, occur where the water table remains near thesurface. In many areas, the sheer amount of water thatfalls or gathers as a result of gravity keeps the watertable shallow or higher than the ground surface. In otherareas, certain types of substrates (for example, perma-frost or clay) which do not allow the water to passthrough are present below the surface, so the water tableremains "perched" above the layer. If water flow orprecipitation continues, water stands on the surface.While the specific patterns of water flow are unique to

4 8

every wetland, the presence of standing water or water ator near the soil surface is the key characteristic of awetland.

Classifying areas as wetlands also involves determiningwhether soil saturation is frequent or only occasional.However, because it may be difficult to observe areas for

long periods of tlm'j, people often observe insteadwhether wetland sons or wetland plants are present.Certain soil types or certain plants serve as ludleitorsthat areas are typically wet. A list of the hydric soil typesthat indicate wetlands and a list of wetland plants hasbeen compiled for Alaska (see Resources section).

5

WHAT KINDS OF WETLANDS OCCUR INALASKA?

Many people think of wetlands in tenns of areas like ponds, lakes, marshes, or bogs. Ecologists and land managersdistinguish a much larger number of Alaska wetland types which they describe with technical terms that are likelyunfamiliar to you and your students. Thus, these materials provide Alaska wetland descriptions using the commonly-used terms for relatively distinct kinds of areas which generally contain several wetland types.

If you are interested in more detailed information about Alaska wetland types, these terms are cross-referenced withthe wetland types identified through the National Wetland Inventory project of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (seeAppendix). Please note that this system does not classify arras in the center of ponds, lakes, or stream channelswhere the water Is too deep to support plants as wetlands (they are classified as "deep-water habitat'). Wetland areassuch as bogs, saltwater wetlands, and tundra are mosaics of different wetland types and may also contain areas thatare not classified as wetlands.

COASTAL AREAS

U7N WASH 104 MAW

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

1. Salt or brackish (part saltwater, part fresh water)water

2. Productive "edge" areabetween land and sea

3. Often important or crucialhabitat for migratorybirds, juvenile fish, andinvertebrates

4. Diversity of types:estuaries, salt marshes,mudflats, sandflats,lagoon/barrier island andlagoon/spit systems

All wetland plants are adapted to life in a wet environment. The presence of salt water is the factor distinguishingcoastal wetlands from inland wetlands. This factor adds an additional challenge for plant growth. Thus, saltwaterwetlands along Alaska's coast have different vegetation than inland, freshwater wetlands. They are extremely produc-tive "edge" areas where nutrients from the land flow down to the sea and nutrients from the sea are brought inland bythe tides. Many are important feeding, resting, and nesting lubitats for astonishing numbers of migratory birds. Theyare the nursery for many juvenile fish and invertebrates. For example, the young salmon, bottornfish, crabs, andshrimp get their start in the rich feeding zones of shallow coastal wetlands.

Alk Some of the biologically richest areas in the state are the many estuaries where streams and rivers meet the sea andfresh and salt water mingle. As streams reach low fiat areas along the coast, sediment and detritus drop out in deltadeposits. At the same time, nutrients dissolved in the water column are shunted back and forth by tidal action. Thus,estuaries are relatively shallow and well-fertilized by constant flows of fresh and sea water that circulate nutrientsseveral times dalk.

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River deltas support extensive stands of salt grasses andsalt-tolerant sedges. These salt marsh communitiesprovide staging areas for migrating swans, geese, andother waterfowl which graze on tender spring shoots andnutritious fall seeds of sedges and arrowgrass. Nearlyhalf of Alaska's salt marsh habitat is along the coastlineof western Alaska. The Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta area inwestern Alaska is one of the most productive coastalwetlands in the world. Wet tundra on the inland deltamerges with rich coastal estuaries, when salt water maysurge with storms as far as ten miles inland.

This delta alone is the nesting grounds for nearly 2million waterfowl and an estimated 100 million shore-birds. Nearly the entire world population of emperorgeese, many of the black Want, most of the cacklingWilda geese, and most of the western population oftundra swans nest in this area. The Delta is also impor-tant habitat for two of Alaska's most rare and beautifulducks, the Stellers and spectacled eiders. Most of thewestern sandpipers, dunlin, and black tumstones inNorth America also nest in this rich delta. The Delta wasalso a vital staging habitat for the Eskimo curlew, nowthought to be extinct, and the bristle- thighed curlew,which once numbered in the millions.

Southcentral Alaska has approximately 1/3 of Alaska'ssalt marsh habitat. More than 20 million shorebirds,including the entire world population of western sandpip-ers and most of the red knots and dunlin in NorthAmerica, stop to rest and teed in the Copper River Delta.These birds use their long bills to probe deep in theestuary mud for tiny clams, worms, and other inverte-brates; the life found in estuary mud also providesimportant food sources for herons and other shorebirds,dabbling waterfowl, and juvenile bottomfish and salmon.Once rested, the flocks push farther north and west tonest in other Alaska wetlands. The entire population ofdusky Canada geese remain to nest there, along with alarge proportion of the trumpeter swans that migrate toAlaska to breed.

Though the state's salt marshes are important and evencritical In many cases to the well-being of many speciesof migratory birds, they make up a small percentage(1.7%) of Alaska's coastal wetlands; Alaska's longcoastline has only 7% of the salt marsh habitat along theentire U.S. coastline. Every small delta and salt marsh isan important link in the chain of wetlands that enablebirds to migrate from as far away as South America andPolynesia to arctic Alaska. Most migratory water birdsmust stop over on wetlands to rest and eat in preparationfor the next !eg of their journey. They also need wetlandsall along their route to find shelter during storms. All ofAlaska's saltwater wetlands, large or small, are important

to migratory birds, but some wetlands are particularlyimportant to large numbers of birds. For exempts, thedelta at the mouth of the Stikine River in SoutheastAlaska is a migration stopover for tens of thousands ofsnow geese, trumpeter swans, ducks, and shorebirds.

Nutrient-rth water draining into coastal wetlandsenriches seawater and provides a rich nursery ground formarine fish and invertebrates in mudflats and shallow-water areas. Subtidal muddy areas may support exten-sive eelgrass beds which are the nursery areas forflounders, halibut, other juvenile fish, and young crabs.

Many coastal areas from Yakutat to the Beaufort Seahave shallow lagoon systems behind spits or barrierislands that blunt the force of icy winds, rough seas, orthe harsh scouring action of pack is in the north, andwhich restrict the flow of cold water into the lagoons.The sheltered lagoons are rich In nutrients because of thecontinuous deposit of silt and detritus by rivers andstreams, but remain shallow-water habitat as the ebb andflow of seawater in and out of the lagoon prevents thelagoons from filling up with silt These protection andenrichment processes permit the development of saltmarshes. In summer, the lagoons are relatively warmand brackish and support dense concentrations ofmarine and anadromous fish close to the shore.

Lagoon/salt marsh yeas are important habitat formigratory birds. For example, nary all of the PacificCoast population of black brant stop to rest and feed atIzembek Lagoon before making a nonstop flight acrossthe Gulf of Alaska and Pacific Ocean to the West Coastand Mexico. Nearly the entire world population ofSteller's eiders and emperor geese gather in AlaskaPeninsula lagoons during fall; these birds remain inAlaska throughout the winter. The lagoons also provideshelter from storms and food for molting, flightlesswaterfowl. Simpson Lagoon in arctic Alaska is crowdedeach summer by more than 100,000 oldsquaws thatgather there and along the rest of the Beaufort Seacoastline to molt Oldsquaw ducks feed on mysidshrimp, amphipods, and small clams that eat the richdetrital material on the lagoon bottom. Juvenile phalar-opes, brant, and eiders crowd the beaches during fall,and migrating pintail, wigeon, and brant use the lagoonsand adjoining brackish ponds.

Invertebrates of lagoon mud are also food for fish andgray whales. In lagoons that are deep enough, belugawhales and ringed and spotted seals spend much ofevery summer preying on fish that live in the lagoons.Some lagoon channels remain open during winter,providing overwintering areas for fish.

STREAM AND RIVER CORRIDORS

1 Noosed2 Spin rush3 Sedge4 Suet cabbage5 BurnedII Bluegrass

The stream and river channels are arteries that threadthroughout Alaska. They nourish, and are nourished by,more extensive wetland areas within the Hyaline macdefined as the area influenced the flooding regime oft h e stream or river. S p r i n g . .1' bring a rich load oforganic debris and nutrients down rivers, overflowingbanks and depositing the load into adjacent wetlands.However, during most of the year, rivers steadily receivenutrients from numerous small streams and from thedrainage of areas within the stream or river corridor.Nutrients are slowly released from wetlands to the riiters.but rivers store few nutrients, eventually carrying them toestuaries.

The seasonal cycle of ice formation. :ce cover, break-up,and alternating storms and dry periods during the periodof open water results in major changes in water levelswithin the riverine zone. The riverine zone of large riversoften includes ponds, oxbow lakes, gravel bars with tallwillow stands, and marsh areas. Al of these areas areaffected seasonally by Eroding or are hydrologicallyconnected to the main channels.

The many plant and animal species that occur in flood-plains depend upon the nutrients spread by flood waters.In fact, the frequency with which ponds are connected tostream or river systems is one of the key factors deter-mining the amount of food and subsequently determin-ing the productivity of fish and birds using the ponds torear their young.

11. Zone Influenced by rivers

Of stream

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

2. Nutrients are moveddownstream by way ofchanneled flows

3. Water levels change asstream flows change inresponse to precipitation,freeze-up, and break-upconditions

4. Plant and animal distribu-tions are in zones inrelation to distance frommain channels

5. Important movementcorridors for fish andwildlife; -corridors ofproductivity"

Conditions along the edges of streams, In slowly-movingstretches, and in riverins wetlands are similar to thosefound in the shallow areas of ponds, lakes, and marshes.Plants and animals have adapted to live in wet areas,depending on their needs and tolerances to beingflooded. Their distribution reflects a gradient of adapta-tion to submersion or exposure to water.

Shrubby wetlands with stands of willows, birches, andalders are particularly important to Alaska's wildlife. Awalk through a floodplain willow stand during thesummer is a birdwatchees delight. Tracks of moose andbears are common, usually along with the pellets thatindicate that moose spent many winter days browsing onthe willows. As the river rises and deposits more silt inthe stand, a rich substrate is provided for showy flower-ing plants such as Jacob's ladder and monkshood andfor beq-producing plants. Corridors can includeforested wetlands where trees can grow which toleratetemporary flooding. For example, cote wood forestsgrow along braided glacial rivers of southeastern Alaskaand spruce forests grow among a mut of channels onalluvial fans and gravel bars.

Riverine zones are particularly important to fish becausethe wetland plants and plants which grow on less-frequently flooded sites provide habitat for their insectand crustacean foods. Plants also slow water currents,and their detritus fuels the aquatic food chain.

12

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SNALIDW MARSH DEEP MARSH OPEN VOTER

Depressions that collect water exist as a result of varietyof geological processes. Many Alaska lakes and pondswere formed as glaciers receded and gouged holes In thelandscape, ile others occur where river channels cutacross oxbow meanders. Movements of the earth's crustalong fault lines created large, deep lakes. The extensivenetworks of ponds and lakes In permafrost (pereniallyfrozen soil) areas are the result of a complex pattern offreezing, thawing, and filling which alternately createsbasins as ice-formed polygons thaw and subside; thesebasins drain as outlet channels form or they fill withorganic matter. Ponds and lakes occur as isolatedbasins, but many are connected seasonally or perma-nently to streams or wetlands.

A pond or lake Is likely near your home anywhere inAlaska; however, a glance at a map of the state revealsthat some areas are dominated by these wateroodies.Ponds and lakes cover the Arctic Coastal Plain; largeriver deltas such as that of the Yukon-Kuskokwim andsmaller deltas such as those of the Colville, Noatak,Kobuk, Saint, Susitna, and Copper Rivers; the low-lands around Bristol Bay; and inland river "flats" such asthe Yukon, Minto, Kanuti, and Dulbi.

While some ponds and lakes are unsuitable places forplants to grow, many are encircled or covered by plantswhich provide food and cover for fish and wildlife.Shallow marshes, Including the vegetated shorelines ofponds and lakes, are wetlands which display differentzones with character's% plant and animal communities.The factors affecting which plants will thrive in a givenzone are the depth of the water (sunlight penetrationdiminishes with depth) and the plants' adaptations tohaving roots or leaves submerged. In basins, waterdepths depend upon the depth of the basin and theslopes of the sides of silt basin.

ourMARSH

Adaptations to life in shallow water include floatingleaves and flowers (pond illy, buttercups), entire plantsthat float (bladdenvort), an "emergent" growth form thatallows the plant to live with roots submerged and stemspartially covered by water (horsetails, some sedges), andadaptations to photosynthesize when totally submerged(aquatic mosses).

The marsh plants encircling ponds, lakes, and In standsof other shallow water areas provide important cover andfood sources for fish and wildlife. Here, young fish, suchas grayling and stiddebacks, and duddings forage on theabundant aquatic invertebrates. Larger fish depend onaquatic invertebrates and the terrestrial insects whichdrop from plants into the water. Many species of loons,diving ducks, and other waterbirds nest in or near lakes,ponds, and marshes and depend on the plants, inverte-brates, or fish in these wetlands. Many animals dependon different plant and animal food sources at differentstages of their life cycle. Plants also provide nestingmaterials for loons and cover for ducks who lead theirbroods into tall set: areas at the first hint of trouble.

Some ponds, lakes, and marshes have deep, open waterareas Without plants. These areas are important habitatfor fish and are crucial to overwinter survival whenshallow areas freeze. During winter, these areas are alsocritical to the survival of aquatic mammals such as ottersand beavers.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

1. Shallow water areas thatsupport plants

2. Plant and animal distribu-tions are in zones relatedto depth of water and/orslope of basins

3. Wetland plants providefood and cover for birds,mammals, and fish

4. May provide importantnesting habitat for waterbirds

Marsh habitats can be among the richest and mostproductive for fish, waterfowl, and mammals in Alaskafrom the sedge marshes of interior Alaska frequented byblackbirds, muskrats, and northern harriers to the vastnetwork of ponds and lakes on the Arctic Coastal Plaindotted with scattered contingents of loon and pintailbroods and wading shorebirds.

BOGS AND MUSKEGS

1 Whd 1 SONO2 Paper Oven3 glack source4 log tan5 Sphagnum mossI Sundry7 Itostush ply TerryI Lairs& toIP ClotlangralaV So*It Poo ontig12 Steastgale

Bogs, often called muskegs in Alaska, are common in theglacially-carved landscape of southeastern andsouthcentral Alaska and above most of the patches ofdiscontinuous permafrost in interior Alaska. They are aunique type of landform which occurs only in highlatitudes, and they are distinguished by a lush growth ofmoss (usually sphagnum) and thick, organic, acidicsoils.

Bogs form in places where drainage is slow or lackingand soil and water temperatures are low. They often formwhen ponds and lakes are covered by floating plants andeventually filled in by accumulating dead plant materials.In contrast to the rapid decay and export of dead plantsfrom other wetlands, the slow and incomplete decompo-sition of dead plant matter (mostly moss and sedges) inbogs results in the slow build-up of peat. In interior andnorthern Alaska, bogs form where low temperaturesrestrict the activity of decomposer organisms. In south-eastern Alaska, bogs form where the wet climate restt'isin waterlogged soils that lack oxygen, limiting thenumber of decomposer organisms to a low number Inareas with permafrost, slowly-decomposing peat le.ersand surface mosses insulate the soil and prevent thawand slumping of ice-rich permafrost. Not all bogs an inlow-lying areas; in coastal southcentral Alaska andsoutheastern Alaska, "perched" bogs may occur :11bedrock depressions on slopes or wherever co' ditionsfavor development of thick moss carpets.

Certain peat mosses, once established, help retain waterand can actually speed up the formation of bogs. Thesmall stems of these mosses have leaf-like projectionsthat contain gas-fined cells. These cells can fill with waterand allow the moss to hold 200 times Its weight, like a

KEY CHAMCTEPISTICE

1. Usually acidic waters withlush sphagnum mossgrowth

2. Drainage slow or lacking

3. Slow and incompletedecomposition of plantmaterial which causespeat build-up

4. Plants have specializedadaptations

5. May support trees adaptedto wet soils (black spruce,lodgepole pine)

,

sponge. When dry, the moss can wick water up the stemfrom groundwater. Finally, the peat mosses release acidswhich poison bacteria that cause decomposition.

Treeless moss bogs occur in southcentral, interior,southwestern, and southeastern Alaska. Few tree speciescan grow in these waterlogged soils because their rootsystems accumulate toxic substances during anaerobic,or low oxygen, respiration. A few tree species haveadapted to wet bog conditions and especially to underly-ing permafrost by developing a broad surface net ofroots rather than a deep root system. They are oftenunstable and lean eventually. creating "drunken forests."Black spruce and tamarack are able to grow new roots aslower roots are "drowned," sprouting roots from lowerbranches or stems or forming new stems when the treefalls over or is wind-thrown. The indiscriminate trees cangrow well on fallen logs. In southeastern Alaska, scat-tered lodgepole pines grow in many bogs, often in astunted form.

Many plants are common to the soggy soils in allregions; pungent Labrador tea and several spring-blooming plants such as bog laurel, bog rosemary, andshooting stars nestle in the sphagnum mat. Black sprucebogs may also have dwarf birch, willow, and leatherleafshrubs, horsetails, grasses, and sedges in the under-story. Lodgepole pine bogs in southeastern Alaska mayinclude skunk cabbage and various orchid species.Insectivorous plants thrive in otherwise low-nutrientsoils.

Due to slow decomposition and thus slow cycling ofnutrients, bogs are generally areas of low productivity for

1410

insect foods for fish or birds. The acidic water whichslows plant decomposition and nutrient cycling alsoinhibits growth of algae and bacteria. Thus, plants andanimals on lower levels of the food chain are lessabundant than in other types of habitats, and feweranimals can be supported at higher levels of the foodchain. But wildlife use exists during all seasons. Birdsthat graze (swans), capture airborne insects (songbirds),or prey on other animals (hawks) use bogs as feedingareas. Aquatic or semi-aquatic mammals such asbeavers, mink, and otter often find their preferred foodsin bogs. Moose probe during spring and summer for thesucculent plants that contain needed minerals.

Because bogs are treeless or support only scattered,stunted trees, they serve as important open areas inforests. They are used by diffeisnt wildlife species duringdifferent seasons. Deer use southeastern Alaskamuskegs for courting during fall. During spring andsummer, bird songs fill the air above Alaska bogs andmuskegs as birds engage in aerial displays. Hawks andowls perch along the edge, keeping watch for the lem-mings and voles that venture out of mossy nests. Bogsare certainly one of the most unique habitat types inAlaska.

11

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TUNDRA

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Tundra describes all areas that have periodic severe cold,short growing seasons, persistent winds, and no trees.In Alaska, these conditions are met in the western andnorthern portions of the state where flat or gently-

*sloping areas have poor drainage and are often underlainby permafrost. Large portions of these tundra areas arewetlands, and tundra areas are found further south andeast where permafrost is intermittent. Tundra is alsofound in alpine areas statewide, but only a small portionof alpine tundra is flat or wet enough to be considered awetland. Most of lowland tundra remains wet or moistthroughout the short season of thaw because watercannot seep through the permafrost and it flows slowlyover flat ground. Lowland tundra has peat deposits as aresult of the slow decomposition of matter under arcticor subarctic conditions.

Tundra is a mosaic of many different landforms and plantcommunities. Elevation, which affects the degree ofwetness of an area, Is an important factor determiningwhere different plants can grow. Often only a matter ofinches separates very different plant communities. Thewettest tundra areas typically have shallow standingwater throughout the summer. Sedges such ascottongrass thrive in this type of environment In some-what drier patches (gravel bars, river banks, hummocks,and tops of icewedge polygons) where surface waterdrains by late summer, grasses and dwarf willows canbecome established. The diminutive flowers of mountainavens (Dips spp.), saxifrages, and taller poppies are

MIfound in these areas. Where conditions are dry enoughfor tussock-forming cottongrasses to establish them-selves, these plants create their own mini-uplands.Although only several inches higher than the surroundingtundra, the tussocks provide a roothold for dwarf and

KEY CHARACTERISTICS

1. Combination of periodicsevere cold, short growingseasons, persistent wind.and no trees

2. Includes many wetlands,but uplands also

3. Elevation most importantfactor determining whereplants grow

4. Some tundra wetlands areextremely productiveduring thaw period,particularly for migratorywater birds and somemammals (for example,lemmings)

shrub birches, Labrador tea, lichens, and many berry-producing plants such as lingonberry, doudberry, andbearberry which are adapted to drier sites.

Some tundra wetland areas are very productive duringthe brief arctic summer. Migrations of Orions of shore-birds, waterfowl, and other water biros return to thetundra to nest from wintering grounds as far south asAntarctica and South America. They spread out over thevariety of tundra micro-habitats. In general the deep andshallow tundra ponds, lakes, and streams near the coastaro heavily used by a wide variety of nesting birds.Further inland, fewer species and lower densities of waterbirds are supported by wetland habitats.

Fish and invertebrates move into flooded wetlands nearstream courses where they grow and reproduce. Stickle-backs swarm in wetland complexes where they arepreyed upon by loons and other fish-eating waterfowl.Caribou calve at,' find the summer foods that will allowthem to survive the lean winter. Lemmings graze greengrowth and stockpile "haystacks" for the coming winter.Grizzly bears, arctic foxes, jaegers, and snowy owls areamong the predators that roam the tundra, searching forsmall mammals or bird eggs and nestlings.

After the brief summer ends, many fish and birds migrateto more southern areas, while polar bears and arcticfoxes head north with the ice pgsk. Bears dig dens, andarctic ground squirrels dig burrows and then sleep awaythe long winter. Insect larvae go dormant and fish finddeep, spring-fed holes in rivers. Stilt some wildlife areadapted to the harsh winter conditions. Lemmings andvoles, muskoxen, ravens, and caribou remain activeyear-frd.

12

The seasonal ecological importance and ecology of arctictundra wetlands to fish and wildlife is described in moredetail in the articles "The Summer Pageant" (Alaska Fishand Game magazine, ) and "Arctic-Tundra Wetlands:Values and Management" in the March-April, 1990,edition of the Alaska Fish and Game magazine included inthis curriculum packet. Tundra is the theme of AlaskaWildlife Week Unit 6 ("Alaska's Living Tundra"). Pleaserefer to this unit for further background information onthis type of habitat.

SUMMARY

Wetlands are diverse and productive. Saltwater wetlandsline Alaska's long ccastline, and freshwater wetlandsabound along drainages or where the land is flat anddrainage is poor. The next section of the manual de-scribes the fish and w:Idlife residents of the wetlands.

13

1l

THE CAST OF CHARACTERS:ANIMALS OF THE WETLANDS

Knowing the natural history of animals helps in making wise decisions affecting their futures. This section introducesthe birds and mammals of Alaska's wetlands and then focuses on migratory birds, detailing the identification, status,and annual migration cycle of species that represent unique wildlife management challenges.

Tundra

Bogs & Muskegs Stream and River Corridors , it9 Marshes

6-..%:-

WATERBIRDS

Waterbirds are those species found around fresh water or salt water. These birds get their food from the water andcan be found in Alaska wetlands.

THE WATERFOWL FAMILY

WI, gma, and swam together are called ygledgt. The world's 145 waterfowl species have several characteris-tics in common. For example, all are web-footed swimming birds with a row of tooth-like serrations along the edgesof their broad bills that they use tear vegetation, grasp small fishes, or strain edibles from pond water. All have downy

young that, unlike the naked, helpless young of most other birds, are able to see, walk, eat, and run within :lours of

hatching.

1814

Waterfowl are an order of birds that can be divided intoseveral groups, two of which are found in Alaska: ducksin one group, and both geese and swans in the other.Ducks can be further sub-divided into diving ducks or"divers," puddle ducks or "dabblers," seaducks, andmergansers.

Gam and Swans

Geese and swans are like other types of waterbirds(loons, grebes, shorebirds) in that the males and femaleshave similar plumages and have the same call. Geeseand swans mate for life; they molt (replace their feathers)only once a year; and the male guards the nest and helpsthe female care for the young. Because swans and geeseare generally large and conspicuous, they rely more onaggression to protect their nests than on secrecy andconcealment. They are adapted for walking on land andfor grazing on vegetation.

Five species of geese are common migrants and breed-ers in Alaska: Canada goose, black brant, greater white-fronted goose, snow goose, ano Emperor goose. Threespecies of swans occur in Alaska: tundra, trumpeter, andwhooper swans, although the latter species is a rarevisitor from Asia. For more information about severalsub-species of Canada goose and on tundra swans, seethe next section of this guide.

Mkt

Ducks differ from other types of waterbirds in that femaleand male ducks have different plumages and voices.They mate only for a single season, each year goingthrough elaborate courtship rituals. During the breedingseason, the male's feathers are flashy to attract a mateand to show off in front of other males. Female duckswear drab feathers to help them hide from predatorswhile sitting unguarded on their nests. The male leavesthe female once :.:he begins to sit on the eggs and,thereafter, has nothing to do with her or her young.

altgacks dive for clams, insects, crustaceans, fish,and deep plants. They nest at or over water, preferringlarge marshes and lakes. Their feet are large andwebbed, and their legs are set way back on their body forunderwater swimming. Thus, they waddle on land,walking awkwardly, but use their large feet and broadwebs to propel them through the water and to dive.Some divers can go down to 150 feet. When they take offfrom the water, their short pointed wings require thatthey build up speed in a long pattering run along thewater surface (loons and grebes also take off this way).Diving ducks that nest in Alaska Include the bay ducks,also known as inland divers (canvasback, redhead, ring-necked duck, and scaup), sea ducks (eiders, scoters,oldsquaw, harlequin ducks, goldeneyes, and bufflehead),and mergansers.

Most sea ducks spend their winters at sea, althoughmany move to freshwater wetlands during the breedingseason. They have bold black- and -white plumage,compact bodies, and fat layers under the skin. Eider 0down is well-known for its value as 'mutation from thecold. For example, in Iceland, the down is collected fromnests ant.. used to make warm clothing and sleepingbags

Mergansers are specialized sea ducks that resembleloons and grebes. Like loons and grebes, they dive forfish and cam' their young on their back. Commonmergansers nest in holes in tree trunks near streams andhave slender bills with sharp, teeth-like structures tobetter catch and hold fish. Red-breasted and hoodedmergansers also occur in Alaska.

QabbInglkicks feed on insects and crustaceans on thesurface of the water by walking through the water. Theyfeed on bottom-dwelling animals and plants by "tippingup" so that only their bottom and wagging tail can beseen in areas of shallow water. Their necks are longerand their legs are more centrally placed than those ofdivers. Thus, they walk better on land, often nestingaway from watt on the ground among grasses and latermoving their brood relatively long distances to water.Because their broad wings allow dabblers to fly quicklyoff the water when taking off, they can nest and feed onsmaller ponds and escape predators. As they take off,they flash an iridescent speculum (patch on the trailingedge of the wing). Mallards, pintails, teal species,American wigeon, and northern shovelers are commondabbling ducks that migrate through and breed in Alaska(the mallard is the most common duck in NorthAmerica). The life history of the northern pintail isdescribed in Teacher Information Mylual Part II.

LOONS

Loons are striking birds with black and white spots andstripes. They sit low in the water and often sink straightdown like a submarine. !n flight, they hold their headslower than their body. Webbed feet and sharply pointedbills are other characteristics of this excellent diver thatfeeds on fish or aquatic invertebrates. The common loon,Pacific loon, and red-throated loon are Alaska loonswhich use both freshwater wetlands for nesting andbrood-rearing and marine waters for wintering.

GREBES

Grebes have long, skinny necks and are smaller thanloons. Both red-necked grebes and homed grebes can beseen swimming and diving in freshwater lakes, ponds,and slow-moving rivers. Grebes have lobed toes insteadof webbed ones.

1511

SHOREBIRDS AND WADERS

This diverse group includes cranes, herons, and shore-birds.birds. Some shorebirds are upland birds in the sense thatthey feed and nest in drier areas away from wetlands;but, as a group, these birds are among the most abun-dant users of Alaska wetlands where they find food,stage along their migration route, or nest. Alaska wet-lands are particularly important for some shorebirdspecies because it is the only place in the world that theynest. Shorebirds are most identifiable during springwhen they are in breeding plumage; during fall andwinter, they have only brown, black, and white feathers.

Shorebirds, in general, have long legs for wading, shorttails, and sharp, pointed wings such as falcons and otherfast flyers. Dowitchrs, godwits, plovers, tumstones,sandpipers, curlews, snipe, phalaropes, and yellowlegsmake up the many whirling flocks which migrate throughAlaska, staging in areas like the Copper River Delta by themillions. Dowitchors and curlews probe the mud andsand of tidal and riverine flats for insects, crustaceans,and mollusks; yellowlegs and herons wade into shallowwater on long legs. Plovers patter their feet on loosesand or mud causing the small organisms on which theyfeed to rise to the surface. As shorebirds reach thoirnesting grounds, they spread out into a diversity ofhabitats.

SEABIRDS

A wide variety of birds fit into the category of "seabird."Several seabirds spend the summer in inland wetlands,although a larger variety of seabirds nest on the coast. Allseabirds spend most of the year (September throughApril) along tin coast or at sea. Many seabirds of thewetlands nest in colonies on islands, which protectsthem from predators such as foxes.

Seabirds have webbed feet, and their bills are sharp forsnatching up fish and invertebrates. Seabirds that spendthe summer in Alaska wetlands include gulls, tams, andcormorants. Mew gulls and arctic toms nest in coloniesin many marshes and lakes. Bonaparte's gulls nest intrees near lakes in interior Alaska. Larger gulls, especiallyglaucous-winged, glaucous, and herring gulls, visit lakesand rivers to feed. Some arctic terns and gulls nest ongravel bars along rivers. Double-crested cormorantsbreed at a few lakes in southcentral Alaska. Uncommonseabirds of the wetlands include Aleutian time (near thecoast) and Sabine's gulls (on marshy arctic tundra).Many seabird species such as puffins, mumss, andmurrelets nest only on coastal cliffs along rocky coast-lines.

BIRDS OF PREY

Birds of prey, or "raptors," include those species of birdsthat capture and eat birds, fish, or mammals. This groupincludes the eagles, hawks, falcons, and owls that percharound the perimeter of freshwater wetlands or soar inthe openings searching for voles or nesting birds. Allbirds of prey have acute vision for spotting prey overlong distances.

Bald eagles are common along the coast of Alaska wherethey feed nn fish. Ospreys are also specialized to preyupon fish and nest regularly in Alaska along lakes, rivers,and coastlines south of the Brooks Range. The northernharrier is a madiuni-sized hawk formerly known as themarsh hawk because of its characteristic low-flying,gilding behavior over marshy areas in quest of smallmammals. Buteos (soaring hawks) and hawk owls oftenperch on dead trees to spot prey. Rough-legged hawks,kestrels, snowy owls, short-eared owls, and peregrinefalcons are other raptor species commonly spotted overopen marshes or tundra wetlands. Hawks hunt duringthe day while most owls are nocturnal hunters.

PASSERINES AND OTHER BIRDS

Passerines are perching birds, with feet designed norgrasping a perch, they are sometimes called songbirds.This group includes flycatchers, swallows, jays, chicka-dees, thrushes, warblers, finches, sparrows, and manyother birds. Many species are true ;crest birds; othersare most common in forest openings or at the edges offorest stands where they can perch, find cover andnesting places, and keep a sharp eye out for insects overponds, marshes, or muskegs. Rycatchers, swallows,warblers, and sparrows are common throughout Alaskain wetlands or along wetland edges, and the dipper is aspecialized year-round inhabitant of springs that stayopen during winter. Riverine shrub thickets are especiallyrich areas for a variety of passerines. Other birds thatmay be found in Alaska wetlands include woodpeckers,swifts, belted ldngfishers, and hummingbirds.

WETLAND MAMMALS

Many different mammal species use Alaska wetlandsduring part or all of the year. The lush, arty spring plantgrowth attracts deer and bears to the tidal salt marshes.Grizzly bears of interior Alaska seek the green growth onthe broad floodplains as spring spreads northward.Further north on the tundra, caribou seek tender sedgeshoots as a welcome change from a winter diet of

111

2 ti

lichens, dwarf willow, and birch shrubs. As floodplainshrub thickets green up, moose and muskox nibbletender willow leaves in the same areas where theycrunched on branches and sought shelter from winterwinds and deep snows. The aquatic plants of ponds,stream edges, and marshes are the foods of beaver andmuskrats. The amphibious land otter and mink hunt onboth land and in the water, feeding on a variety of plantsand animals such as small fish, crustaceans, and mol-lusks.

Throughout the summer, moose feed in ponds andmarshes. They often submerge their heads in ponds toobtain the mineral-rich aquatic plants that help replacethe calcium lost through nursing cows or to antlerdevelopment. Caribou feed in tundra wetlands. The latesummer berries of bogs attract black bears. Smallmammals scurry among tussocks or along the shores ofponds and streams, sometimes pursued by foxes orweasels. Bats may emerge at dusk, hunting insects overponds and bogs.

Beaver and muskrat are year-round residents of pondsand lakes, continually travelling during winter betweenthe shallow waters that support the plants whose rootsand stems they eat and moving into deeper waters asshallow areas freeze. Beavers are the architects ofwetlands, creating deep-water habitats by their dammingactivities and opening clear areas by cutting down trees.While beaver are found throughout the state, the highestpopulations of muskrats are found in the broad flood-plains and deltas of major rivers and in marshy areasdotted with small lakes in the "flats" areas of Alaska suchas Yukon Flats, Minto Flats, Northway- Tetlin Flats, theYukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and the Selawik-Kobuk-NoatakFlats. Muskrats feed on aquatic plants such as the rootsand stems of cattails, lilies, sedges, and grass andoccasionally feed on mussels, shrimp, and small fish.Living below the ice in ponds during winter, they create"push-up" holes where they push up piles of the grassescollected during summer and keep an air-hole open toaccess their cache. As shallow ponds freeze, they move

to deeper ponds. Small amounts of available food andlong, cold winters result in high mortality among themuskrats. Land otters (also known as river otters)forage on land and in fresh or salt water. Mink preferstreams, ponds, beaches, and marshes, but will moveinland to take advantage of an abundance of mice orhares.

Other mammas reside year-round in tundra wetlands.One of the most characteristic groups is the lemmings.Brown, Siberian, black-footed and northern bog lem-mings are year-round tundra inhabitants. They areherbivores, storing cut plants in "hay piles" that theyfeed upon throughout the winter. When lemmings areparticularly abundant, weasels may move to lowlandtundra areas to hunt them. Wide-ranging predators suchas wolves, coyotes, and wolverine include wetlands intheir hunting ranges, often using river corridors for travelduring both summer and winter.

FISHES OF THE WETLANDS

Alaska's wetlands are nursery areas for many fishspecies. The streams, rivers, and riverine wetlandsproduce the millions of salmon upon which the largeAlaska commercial fishery depends. Saltwater estuariesare critical to the successful transition of smelts andjuvenile salmon from their freshwater birthplace to theiradult life in the ocean. The estuaries are nurseries forother important commercial fish species: halibut, sole,crab, and shrimp. Wetlands also provide habitat for fishcaught by sportflshers and for subsistence use.

The emergent plant communities at the shallow edges ofstreams and rivers, in areas of slow-moving water, andin riverine wetland areas are especially important tosmall fish such as sculpins, young freshwater fish, andcoho salmon. Here, they find cover, an abundance ofinvertebrate food, and shelter from strong currents.

17

BENEFITS OF WETLAND FUNCTIONS

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The following table. "How Wetland Functions Benefit Humans," extends the article "Alaska Wetlands" in the AlaskaDepartment of Fish and Game magazine (included in this packet) which describes the different wetland functions.Examples of benefits to humans and economic benefits can be used as a reference to lead activities and discussionsrelated to teaching activities in Units 4 (Wetland Worth) and issue-related activities in Unit 5.

While all wetlands have one or more of these functions to some degree, it is rare that a wetland will have all of thepossible functions and benefit humans in all possible ways. People who regulate human uses that could disturbwetland functions try to assess the relative degree of the function present and how a proposed change in the wetland(for example, diverting water by using ditches, or placing fill materials in the wetland) will diminish the function. Theyalso consider ways to minimize the loss of functions and to restore wetlands whose function has been impaired byhuman actions.

A regulator would take into account the value of the wetland as habitat for fish and wildlife when assessing its func-tion as habitat. All *Viands do not have the same value as habitat from the standpoint of individual fish or wildlifespecies. The habitat requirements of each species differ. Because of these differences, the overall diversity of the

ir species supported by a specific type of wetland or specific wetland can vary considerably.Some wetlands support anastonishing variety of species and others support only a few species. This relativity of value for various wetlandfunctions is important background for the issues that arise in relation to decisions to alter wetlands or leave them intheir natural state.

2218

HOW WETLAND FUNCTIONS BENEFIT HUMANS

WETLAND FUNCTION(S) BENEFITS TO HUMANS ECONOMIC BENEFITS

FISH & WILDLIFE HABITAT Hunting - food, recreationFishing - food, recreationTrapping - fursMite PhotographyViswintfinkflminfScientific Study

Hunting & FishingGuiding IndustrySubsistence EconomyCommercial Fishing IndustryTourism IndustryRecreational Equipment Industry

HYDROLOGYGroundwater Recharge

Groundwater Discharge

Maintain Stream Flows

Flood Storage

Dependable water supplies

Dilution and transport of pollut-ants

Safe, dry sites for homes andcommercial developmentRecreationlOpen Space

Business or industrial use ofwaterSavings on wells and transporta-tion of water

Less expensive sewage treat-mentMaintenance of fisheries

Savings in flood insurance,damage costs, public services

WATER QUAL:TY

Sedimentation

Erosion Protection

Nutrient Transformation

Water supplies suitable fordrinking water

Swimming

Aesthetics (streams, reservoirs)

Absence can result in propertydamage

Purification of polluted water

Business or industrial use ofwater requiring high - qualitywater, e.g., mariculture, seafoodprocessing.

Savings in water treatment fordomestic use.

Savings in disease control andtreatment.

Avoids cost of erosion controlstructures

Less expensive treatment ofpollutants.

WETLAND PLANTS Provide foods (e.g., berries,greens) and medicines

Subsistence economy

Z319

. HUMANS AND WETLANDS

Wetland Losses

ilistoncally, wetland areas were often thought of as wastelands and thus were developed in order to be put to use.Many numan activities required that the wetlands be drained or filled with gravel. Wetlands development has beenfollowed by actions to preserve and restore altered wetlands.

In Alaska, proper or improper land uses in support of agriculture, oil and gas development, community exAasion,timber harvest, and mining can alter wetlands in a variety of ways. These land uses may entail clearing vegetation,dredging, filling, changing flow patterns by ditching, diversion, or channelizing, building structures and roads, apply-ing chemicals, and discharging pollutants.

The overall record on conversion of wetlands in North America has been grim from the standpoint of maintainingimportant fish and wildlife habitat values and other values such as flood control and water quality. It has been esti-mated that approximately 1/2 of the wetlands in the lower 48 states were lost between the time of European settle-ment and the mid-1970s. Wetland loss in individual states has been as high as 90% during that period.

In Alaska, the overall losses of wetlands are relatively small in proportion to the large size of the state. These losseshave been concentrated in urban areas (Anchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, etc.), around villages in tundra areas, aroundcommunities in the narrow strip of land between mountains and coastal areas of southeastern and southcentralAlaska, and in areas of large industrial development such as oilfields, transportation corridors, and industrial sites. Inurban areas particularly, rates of wetland loss are similar to those nationwide. By 1990, the Anchorage Bowl had lostover 1/2 of its freshwater wetlands, and the Juneau area had lost approximately 1/3 of its freshwater wetlands.

Wetland Protection and Restoration

As people throughout the United States began to accumulate information about the importance of wetlands, theprotection of many wetland areas was accomplished by creating national and state wildlife refuges, parks, and publicrecreation areas. The proceeds of sales from state and federal Duck Stamps, a required purchase for waterfowlhunters, are used to help acquire private wetlands for waterfowl habitat. In addition, several organizations concernedwith the conservation of wildlife and wildlands (Ducks Unlimited, National Audubon Society, The Nature Conservancy)acquire lands and manage them to avoid further loss of habitat values for fish and wildlife.

Restoration of degraded wetland areas has occurred, but a nationwide wetlands gain of two million acres between themid-1950s and the mid-1970s was overshadowed by a loss of 11 million acres over the same period. Restoration isrequired of private developers as mitigation for habitat destruction, and state and federal agencies undertake projectsto restore wetlands. However, restoration or creation of new wetlands is difficult, aY^Ansivs, and not always success-ful. In Alaska, where wetland systems are often fragile and sensitive to change, very few attempts at restoration havebeen made.

Regulation of Develupment Activities

In addition to laws setting aside wetland areas and attempting to restore degraded wetlands, a variety of laws andregulations were passed in the late 1970s that provided for a review of some types of development projects on privateor public lands which may result in environmental impacts to wetlands. The most specific legislation is Section 404 ofthe Clean Water Act which governs activities that require the dredging or fill of wetlands. As implemented by regula-tions of the Army Corps of Engineers, development projects that would dredge or fill wetland areas are reviewed by

Ak state and federal fish and wildlife managers and the public The purpose of the review Is to avoid or minknize adverseIIII impacts to the habitat. However, recommendations on how to accomplish this are weighed against other public

factors such as economic benefits that may result from development, whether the projects need to be sited in awetland or wet area, public needs for facilities and transportation, and whether 4Itematives that will not affect wet-lands exist.

n Z4

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) alsorequires reviews of the environmental impacts of devel-opment projects on federal lands or which involve majorfederal actions. A national Coastal Zone Management Actdirects attention to the protection of coastal wetlands inland use planning at the state and local level; but again,the need for protection versus development Is oftenreviewed in a trade-off context with societal values. Keyconcepts of regulating activities in wetlands mitigationinclude attempting to avoid negative, impacts, minimizingimpacts that can not be avoided, and restoring andrehabilitating areas that are damaged.

Current Issues in Wetland PolicyDevelopment

In 1987, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencyestablished a National Wetland Policy Forum whichattempted to draw in as many perspectives aboutwetlands protection and management as possible. TheForum included representatives of state governors(including Alaska), federal agencies, conservationgroups, oil companies, the logging industry, and wetlandscientists. The group held public workshops in severalstates. Their report (The Conservation Foundation 1989)includes a summary of "the wetland issue" from anational perspective.

In 1988, the Forum recommended that the federalgovernment pursue a policy of "no net loss" of thenation's remaining wetland base, as defined by acreageand function, and to restore and create wetlands wherefeasible to increase the quality and quantity of thenation's wetlands resource base. ("No net loss" byacreage and function meant that unavoidable losses ofwetlands should be mitigated by restoring or enhancingfunctions on degraded or lower-quality wetlands; wetlandlosses and gains should be equal in the short run andgains more than offset losses in the long run.)

The recommended policy was vigorously opposed by theoil industry, some local governments, and °thorn inAlaska who believed that the policy would severelyrestrict development in the state. They argued thatAlaska's wetland losses were insignificant and that ifdevelopment activities continue, losses will continue tobe insignificant. Because few alternatives to wetlandsdevelopment existed in many areas of Alaska (such astundra wetland areas) and because no technology hadbeen developed for wetland restoration in arctic tundraareas, wetlands policy opponents felt that restorationshould not be required in Alaska. They also believed thatthe large amounts of land already protected in Alaskaassured that there MN never be a problem similar to thatseen in the lower 48 states. Thus, a wetlands issue InAlaska involved the trade-offs of maintaining habitat andother public values of wetlands versus their developmentfor economic benefits to individuals and society as awhole.

President Bush has made the protection of our nation'swetlands a major priority in his environmental program.In an address to the Ducks Unlimited Sixth InternationalWaterfowl Symposium in June, 1989, the President said,"It's time to stand the history of wetlands destruction onIts head." He also said he hoped people could report thatby 1989 a new policy would be applicable "... a policysummed up in three simple words: *no net loss'."

In early 1990, President Bush directed the DomesticPolicy Council Task Force on wetlands to solicit publicinput on appropriate strategies for working toward thenational goal of "no net loss." The Task Force includedrepresentatives from the White House, the Departmentsof Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Energy, Housing andUrban Development, Interior, Justice, and Transporta-tion, the Environmental Protection Agency, and theCouncil on Environmental Quality.

The Task Force has been charged with providing recom-mendations on wetland policy to the Domestic PolicyCouncil. The Task Force review of wetland policy willconsider recommendations for revisions in existingpresidential executive orders on wetland protection andflood plain management. For example, Executive OrderNo. 11990 on the Protection of Wetlands directs federalagencies to minimize the loss of wetlands but does notaddress the broader issue of working toward theachievement of "no net loss." The Task Force will alsoexamine other methods to work toward "no net loss" ofwetlands, including regulatory and non-regulatoryapproaches such as market-based incentives. Addition-alty, the Task Force will consider how the aggressivepursuit of the `no net loss" goal may affect farmers,public works projects, businesses, and private landown-ers.

The following questions cover some of the issues thatthe Task Force WI explore in developing a recommendedpolicy for the pp sident in 1991.

What should be the appropriate federal, state, andlocal government roles in working toward the nationalgoal of "no net loss" of wetlands?

What regulatory and non-regulatory mechanisms nowin place offer the best and most effective means ofhelping achieve the goal?

What new or revised regulatory and non-regulatoryapproaches, including market-based incentives,should be considered?

How effective are current federal, state, and local lawsIn protecting wetlands?

At *tat level should the "no net loss" goal be ap-plied on an individual property basis, locally withinthe state or region, or at the national level?

Z 521

To what extent can wetlands effectively be created orrestored? What tcols or approaches should be used toensure that creation of restoration projects are suc-cessful, especially over the long term?

What role should mitigation banking play in workingtoward the "no net loss" goal?

Should wetlands be indexed according to their func-tions and values in applying the "no net loss" goal? Ifso, what criteria should be used to determine theindex?

How do we balance the need to protect wetlandsagainst the potential effects on farmers, businesses,and public works projects?

What research or data collection is necessary Inworking toward the "no net loss" goal?

How should the federal government teenage itswetlands? How should the existence of wetlands beaddressed prior to disposal of federal properties?

What can be done to encourage public awareness ofthe value of wetlands?

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service responded to Presi-dent Bush's statements about a national "no net loss"policy with a national wetlands action plan "WetlandsMeeting the President's Challenge."

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26

RESOURCES FOR ISSUE IDENTIFICATIONAND PROBLEM-SOLVING

The problem statement developed by the National Wetland Policy Forum summarizes the issues related to wetlandloss, protection, and restoration. The problem statement is included as reference material for you and your class andis followed by a brief summary of the regulatory process for wetlands and some aspects of the issue unique toAlaska. Finally, a list of resources to allow your students to explore different opinions about the issue is includwi.

The National Perspective:A problem statement from Protecting America's Wetlands : An Action Agenda, the final report of the

National Wetlands Policy Forum (1932):

In recent years, dramatic changes have occurred in the nation's appreciation of the many values wetlands provide asintegral elements of ecological and economic landscapes. Wetlands used to be viewed chiefly as sources of diseaseand pestilence. The earliest government wetlands programs simply gave them away on condition that they be drainedand converted to purposes considered more useful. In this century, well-intentioned public and private efforts toprovide flood protection, greater agricultural protection, better highways, and other valued societal benefits have oftenled to the drainage or filling of wetlands for farming. In 1983, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimated that over200 million acres of wetlands existed in the lower 48 states at the time of European settlement, but by 1975, thenumber had decreased to 99 million acres.

An acre of wetlands Is lost every minute. At the same time, some new wetlands are being created. Private huntingclubs and organizations such as Ducks Unlimited have Intentionally established or improved many wetlands toprovide waterfowl habitat. (Ducks Unlimited in 1989 had 3,788 projects in Canada, 272 in the U.S., 76 in Mexico; 5million acres were reserved and managed. Ducks Unlimited buys wetlands, fences them from livestock, dredgespotholes and basins, digs ditches, and controls predators.) However, the new wetlands may be of different types andprovide different functions than those being lost.

The nation is now coming to realize that wetlands have great value in their natural state. Their biological productivitycan exceed that of the best agricultural lands. A broad array of wildlife, fisheries, and other aquatic resources dependson them. Wetlands sustain nearly one-third of the nation's endangered and threatened species. They provide breedingand wintering grounds for millions of waterfowl and shorebirds every year. Coastal wetlands provide nursery andspawning grounds for 60 to 00 percent of U.S. commercial fish catches.

Wetlands also play key roles in regional hydrologic cycles by lessening flood damage, reducing erosion, recharginggroundwater, filtering sediment, and abating pollution. Within a landscape, wetlands are linked to both upstream anddownstream ecosystems, and their functional values may extend well beyond their own boundaries. At an extreme, asin the case of some migratory birds, habitat functions can extend even to other continents.

At the same time, property containing wetlands is valuable for other purposes as well. Facilities such as ports andmarinas need to be adjacent to water. In some metropolitan areas, the only large, fiat, open, and centrally locatedparcels of available land contain wetlands, making them prime sites for shopping centers, industrial parks, airports,parks, highway and utility crossings, and other large developments. Wetlands may overlie important oil, gas, andother mineral deposits or support valuable stands of timber. In agricultural areas, they may provide the only land thatindividual farmers can readily make use of to expand their cropped acreage.

Wetlands can be altered physically, chemically, or biologically by human activities. Physical alterations can include theplacement of fill and other materials in wetlands, excavation, drainage or flooding, or the disruption of natural sup-plies of sediment needed to maintain their elevation. Chemical alterations are caused by water pollutants. These mayinclude petroleum products, heavy metals, pesticides and herbicides, or a host of other substances that are toxic tosome wetland plants and animals. Clearing wetland vegetation results in biological alterations.

Alterations can occur at different rates. While filling wetlands is usually a relatively rapid event, the construction of adam and other flood control structures can reduce the amount of sediment that flows downstream over a long period

of time and eventually cause permanent submersion of downstream wetlands.

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The effects of some changes are more temporary thanothers. Harvested forests may grow back. The effects offilling wetlands are likely to be permanent.

Landowners receive most of the economic benefitsw resulting from wetlands use and conversion. In contrast,

the benefits resulting from wetlands protection as well asthe costs of their degradation tend to accrue mostly tothe general public. Often, the landowner may not beaware of these public benefits and, therefore, may resistefforts to restrict the use of the land. The fact thatprotection of wetlands makes good economic as well asenvironmental sense for society is central to much of theconflict over wetlands protection policies.

'Description of Wetlands Regulation

In 1972, the federal government enacted the first nation-wide wetlands regulatory program in Section 404 of theClean Water Act and focused increased attention oncoastal wetlands by enacting the Coastal Zone Manage-ment Act. These laws require that anyone planning todredge or fill a wetland must apply for a permit. Thepermit application is then reviewed by the public and bystate and federal agencies who identify the wetlandvalues. The Army Corps of Engineers, with guidancefrom the Environmental Protection Agency, must thenweigh the information and decide whether it is in the bestinterests of the public to allow the activity to occur. The

"Swampbuster" provision of the 1985 Food SecuritiesAct (Farm Bill) discourages agricultural drainage ofwetlands farmers are to be denied farm programbenefits if they drain wetlands and plant crops. Thefederal law covers only dredging and fill activities anddoes not regulate clearing or draining.

Critics of regulatory programs say they have onlyreduced the rate of wetland loss in the nation, but havenot stopped it. They say the current systems are incon-sistent, unpredictable, slow, and ineffective. They areconcerned about loopholes" that exempt many farmingand timber harvest operations from regulation. Theyadvocate no further net loss of wetlands and that anypermit to destroy wetlands must be accompanied by acommitment to create or restore the same amount ofacreage.

Another approach to the wetlands controversy is requir-ing mitigation that reduces the loss of wetlands butwhich does not always require creation or enhancementof wetlands. Mitigation means to avoid or reduce thenegative impacts that a proposed project may have onthe environment. Obviously, the least possible impactwould be to move the project and its impacts to an areathat is not a wetlands. If that is not a possibility, then

possible measures to reduce the impact would be tomove a project from a wetland with high values to awetland area with lower values, to make the projectsmaller, or to require treatment of pollutants beforeallowing them to be discharged into a wetlands. Mitiga-

tion measures often increase the cost of developing aproject, but maintain a larger share of the societal values.

The Alaska Situation

Wetland losses in Alaska are relatively small compared tothe vast acreage of the state and the large number ofacres that are wetlands. However, many of the losses arelocalized to industrial sites, such as the Prudhoe Bayoilfield, and to the vicinity of communities, especiallyalong the coast. The creation of new wetlands hasoccurred only in a few instances. The technology tocreate new wetlands and to restore the functions ofdegraded wetlands In Alaska's harsh climate Is a subjectof current research.

Approximately 45% of the land in Alaska is wetlands;therefore, any type of development usually requiresdraining or filling in some wetlands. In other areas ofAlaska where undeveloped, flat land is scarce, commu-nity expansion or industrial development puts pressureupon wetlands. Also, locations on lakeshores or alongthe coast are often highly desired places to live or placesfor tourist facilities.

In Alaska, much of the land is publicly-owned throughlocal, state, and federal governments. Government landowners such as the Bureau of Land Management and theAlaska Department of Natural Resources seek to optimizemany uses of their lands, isduding those uses producingeconomic returns. Conflicts occur in Alaska between theeconomic desires of private land owners and the "soci-etal good." Conflicts also exist between economicbenefits to society from the development of wetlands andenvironmental and economic costs to society that resultfrom the loss of their functions. Flood control is per-formed year after year and its absence is only noticedafter it is lost. The dams and other types of structuresneeded to replace it can cost millions of dollars.

In Alaska, filling is one of tne most common wayswetlands are altered to provide foundations for buildings,roads, and airports. Wetlands have been filled along thecoast to provide platforms for transferring materials toshore, for transfer of logs, minerals, and other resourcesto market, and for developing waterfront residences andbusinesses. In tundra areas of Alaska, all developmentnecessarily occurs in wetlands. In these and otherpermafrost areas, thicker layers of fill are needed forinsulation. Gravel fill covers fish and wildlife habitat andeliminates cover, food, and water sources. Wildlife maystill make some use of these areas if higher, dry sites arepreferred and if the animals can tolerate the humanactivity associated with the fill. Fill in permafrost areasmay also result in the damming of shallow surface waterdrainage. Without proper culverts and bridges to main-tain cross-drainage, areas upstream of the fill becomeflooded while those downstream dry up.

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The challenges associated with considering Alaskawetlands and mitigating wetland losses during theeconomic development of communities and oil and gas,mineral, and timber resources result In controversialissues. People promoting the benefits of economicdevelopment point out that jobs will be created, that arelatively small percentage of the state wetlands hasbeen altered compared to that of other states, and thatthere is a lack of alternatives and techniques to restoreAlaska's wetlands following development. It is likely thatyou can find a local wetland issue and involve "bothsides" of the issue in a unit for your classroom. Articlesin the Alaska Department of Fish and Game magazine onwetlands and the following additional resources will helpyour students frame the issues and research the "pros"and "cons" of development versus protection of wet-lands.

Teacher Resources

The Alaska Public Affairs Journal, Summer, 1990 issuecontains articles representing the viewpoints of the ArmyCorps of Engineers, a wetlands ecologist, an oil companyrepresentative, and a logging company representative onwetland regulatory issues in Alaska.

The CLASS PROJECT Wetlands in Alaska unit, 1986,includes the activity "Developing a Wetland: a Conflict ofValues" and a role-play about a wetlands issue. Availablefrom the Wildlife Federation of Alaska, 750 W. 2ndAvenue - Suite 200, Anchorage, AK 99501.

Groups likely to have a position on Alaska wetlandsissues:

Landowners: Native Corporations, state and federalland management agencies, oil companies

Industry groups: Alaska Forest Association, AmericanOil and Gas Association, etc.

The Wildlife Society, Alaska ChapterMunicipalities or Borough governments (contact

planning departments)

Adopting a Wetland: a Northwest Guide.1990.Adopting a Strum: a Northwest Handbook. 1988.University of Washington Press. These two booksprovide practical information about gathering informationabout streams and wetlands and taking action to improvethem or protect them.

America's Wetlands: Our Vital Link Between Land andWater.1988. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.EPA-87-016. Describes wetland functions, EPA involve-ment in wetland resouices, and regulatory measures.Available tram EPA Public Information Center, 401 MStreet SW, Washington, D.C. 20460.

Our Nation's Wetlands.1978. U.S. Government PrintingOffice 0-329-527. Summarizes wetland functions, the

Impacts of different types of land use on wetlands, andlaws regulating wetlands. Excellent diagrams illustratethe concepts.

A Citizen's Guide to Protecting Wetlands.1989. TheNational Wildlife Federation. Provides a step-by-stepguide to the Clean Water Act 404 permit process for thelayman. Available from NWF, 1400 16th St., N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20036-2266.

Protecting America's Wetlands: An Action Agenda. Finalreport of the National Wetlands Policy Forum. 1989. TheConservation Foundation. A review of issues related towetland management in the U.S. and specific changes inlaws and programs needed to protect wetlands. Availablefrom The Conservation Foundation, 1250 24th St., N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20037. Send $2.00 for shipping.

Wetlands: Meeting the President's Challenge. 1990. Awetlands Action Plan for the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService. Includes a discussion of the application of a nonet loss policy to Alaska's North Slope wetlands. Avail-able from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - Habitat En-hancement Division, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage,AK 99503.

25 ? S

APPENDIX A

WETLAND TYPES THAT MAY BE FOUNDIN SOME HABITAT COMPLEXES

WETLAND TYPES

A wetland type describes the general appearance of the habitat in terms of either the dominant life form of the vegeta-tion or the composition of the substrate. These are features that can be recognized without the aid of detailed environ-mental measurements. Life forms are characteristically used to describe habitats because they are relatively easy todistinguish, do not change distribution rapidly, and have traditionally been used as criteria for classification of wet-lands.

Of the eleven wetland types recognized, five are vegetated and six are non-vegetated. For the purpose of this text, thesix non-vegetated wetland types (for example, mudflats, gravel bars) will be considered as onz type and called non-vegetated wetlands. The five vegetated wetlands, in order of descending life form are 1) Forested wetlands, 2) Scrub-Shrub wetlands, 3) Emergent wetlands, 4) Moss-Lichen wetlands, and 5) Aquatic Bed.

Forested wetlands are characterized by woody vegetation that is six meters tall or taller. They include mature trees aswell as some recognized shrubs that may attain tree height. Tree species typically found in a Forested wetland typemay include black cottonwood, tall willow, balsam poplar, alder, black spruce, and tamarack.

The Screb-Shrub wetland type includes areas dominated by woody vegetation less than six meters In height. Thespecies include true shrubs, matted or decumbent shrubs, young trees and saplings, and trees and shrubs that aresmall or stunted because of environmental conditions. This wetland type may represent a successional stage leadingto Forested wetland or they may be relatively stable communities. Shrub vegetation may include alder, willow,sweetgale, Labrador tea, prickly rose, cinquefoil, dwarf birch, crowberry, lowbush cranberry, bog blueberry, bogrosemary, red currant, and those species listed for Forested wetlands which may be saplings or stunted due toenvironmental conditions.

The Emergent wetland type is characterized by erect, rooted, herbaceous hydrophytes, excluding mosses andlichens. This vegetation is present for most of the growing season in most years. These wetlands are usually domi-nated by perennial plants. Emergent wetlands in an estuarine environment may contain many different sedges (prima-rily Lyngby sedge), arrowgrass, plantain, alkaligrass, milkwort, saitbush, spurry, glasswort, silverweed, and bluelointgrass. Within the freshwater areas may be found various sedges and grasses, horsetail, marestail, dock, Jacob'sladder, peavine, buckbean, buttercups, cottonsedge, sundew, arrowgrass, and numerous other non-woody floweringplants.

The Moss-Lichen wetland type includes areas where mosses or lichens cover substrates other than rock and whereemergents, shrubs, or trees make up less than 30% of the area. Mosses and lichens are important components of theflora in many wetlands, but large or extensive areas of "pure" moss or lichen are rare. They usually form a groundcover under a dominant layer of trees, shrubs, or emergents.

The Aquatic Bed includes wetlands and deepwater habitats dominated by plants that grow principally on or below thesurface of the water. Aquatic Beds represent a diverse group of plant communities that require surface water foroptimum growth and reproduction. They are best developed in relatively permanent water or uncle' conditions ofrepeated flooding. The plants are either attached to the substrate or float freely in the water above the bottom or on

Ak the surface. Aquatic Beds include algae (both freshwater and saltwater), eelgrass, seagrass, pondweed, water milfoil,

MI waterweed, water lilies, duckweed, and bladderwort.

263 i a

WETLAND HABITAT COMPLEXES

A wetland habitat complex is a mixture of two or morewetland types which together form a more generalcategory or description of an area. The categories usedfor these complexes are the everyday terms known to usas marsh, bog, tundra, or forested wetland. The empha-sis in describing these wetland habitat complexes is todirect the students' attention to the fact that any largehabitat type is actually a "complex" made up of smaller,more technically "pure" types. Thus, a bog can beconsidered a complex with several integral parts; It iscomposed of emergents, shrubs, possibly trees, moss,and may have small pools of aquatics.

Marsh A periodically wet or continually flooded, butnon-peat forming, ecosystem supporting predominantlyherbaceous plants such as sedges, rushes, marestail,and other hydrophytes. Woody plants, sphagnum mossand lichen are absent or rare. Marshes may be eitherfreshwater or estuarine. In Alaska, marshes are charac-teristically flooded with 15 cm or more of water, mayhave no standing water late in the summer, but soilsremain saturated.

Marshes are among the most productive of all wildlifehabitats. They are important in controlling flood surges,in water purification, and in water recharge. Marshes aredistinguished from swamps by the noted absence ofwoody plants and from bogs by the absence of moss andheath-type shrubs. Marshes are a complex of severalwetland types including Emergent wetland, Aquatic Bed,and non-vegetated wetlands.

Bog/Muskeg A peat-forming ecosystem influencedsolely by water which falls directly on to it as rain orsnow and generally dominated by sphagnum moss. Thewater table is generally near the surface, but there is littleor no standing water. The peat (semi-decomposed mossor sedge) may be up to 12 meters thick. Vegetation mayinclude trees, heath-type shrubs, and herbaceous plants(mostly sedges and other grass-like plants). The surface

terrain may be hummocky with standing water in smalldepressions.

Bogs (or muskegs in Southeast Alaska) are composed ofmany wetland types including Forested wetland, Scrub-shrub wetland, Emergent wetland, Moss/Lichen, andsmall pools of Aquatic Bed.

Moist Tundra A cold climatic landscape having asubstrate that is generally frozen and underlain bypermafrost. The vegetation communities are character-ized by short-stemmed perennial herbaceous plants,stunted or prostrate shrubs, lichens, and mosses. Treesare conspicuously absent. Tundra has a short growingseason and low summer temperatures resulting In lowprimary productivity and low decomposition rates.

The presence of permafrost enables the thin mineral soilto remain saturated during the non-frozen summerperiod. In some areas, permafrost may be only 3-4 cmbelow the surface. The permafrost itself may be over1000 feet thick.

Moist tundra is a complex of the Scrub-Shrub, Emergent,and Moss/Lichen wetland types.

Forested Wetland An area with saturated soil orperiodic inundation which is covered primarily bybroadleaf deciduous (cottonwood, alder) or coniferous(spruce, tamarack) trees. Forested wetlands may occurwithin the active floodplains of major rivers or as for-ested areas in slight depressions or on toe-slopes ofmountains. The majority of Forested wetianus occur inSoutheast Alaska and the southcentral coastal fringe andon Kodiak Island. Forested wetlands in interior andsouthcentral Alaska are usually associated with bogareas (spruce bog).

Forested wetlands are composed of the Forested wetlandvegetation types along with an understory of the Scrub-Shrub and Emergent wetland types. Forested wetlandswithin floodplains may lack the shrub and emergentunderstories.

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31

WETLAND TYPES THAT MAY BE FOUND IN SOME HABITAT COMPLEXES

WETLAND HABITAT COMPLEXES

Marsh Bog/Muskeg Moist Tundra Forested

Forested X X

Scrub-Shrub

X X(understory)

Emergent X X X X[understory)

Moss-

Lichen X XAquatic Bed

X X(small pools)

.3,;' 33

APPENDIX B

ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS FOR WETLANDS LIVINGAn adaptation is an anatomical, physiological, or behavioral attribute which enhances an animal's ability to live in aspecific environment. Adaptations may improve an animal's ability to live in one environment yet reduce its ability tosurvive in other, different environments.

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS Allanimals require oxygen to breakdown carbon chains and release theenergy needed for their metabolism,growth, capture of food, reproduc-tion, and escape from predators.

Air-breathing animals must be ableto temporarily survive underwaterwithout air. Air-breathing animalsmust have a means of keeping waterout of their respiratory system.

Aquatic animals must obtain oxygenfrom water. Even water saturatedwith dissolved oxygen contains 30-40 times less oxygen than anequivalent volume of air.

IffittallnIta

OXYGEN STORAGE Some air-breathing invertebrates (like preda-ceous diving beetles) entrap abubble of air and carry It with themas they swim underwater. The airbubble, in addition to being a storeof oxygen, serves as a gill. Whenthe oxygen in the bubble is depletedby the insect's respiration, oxygendiffuses from water into the bubble,and the insect is thus supplied withmore oxygen than it carried under-water. In most insects, oxygen iscarried to cells in gas form throughopen tracheae, rather than by blood.A few aquatic insects, however,have hemoglobin to store oxygen.

MEANS OF EXTRACTING OXYGENFROM WATER Aquatic inverte-brates, including fairy shrimp, waterfleas, bivalve mollusks, flatworms,and others extract oxygen fromwater by diffusion. Some (likeflatworms and some insects) have abody covering that is permeable tooxygen. Others have specializedmembranes, called gills, which arepermeable to oxygen and othergases. Gills are found on legs, theabdomen, thorax, or other parts ofthe body. Many invertebratesmaintain a flow of water, and thus arenewed oxygen supply, by stirringthe water with waving motions oftheir legs, antennae, or the gillsthemselves.

SIPHONS AND SNORKELS Someinvertebrates are able to breathatmospheric oxygen through a tubeto the water surface (for example,mosquito larvae). Some insectshave special respiratory tubes to tapinto air spaces of aquatic plants.

'LI

WM=

MEANS OF EXTRACTING OXYGENFROM WATER Adult amphibiansare able to extract oxygen fromwater by diffusion through theirmoist skin. They also have lungs tobreathe the air.

Juvenile amphibians have gills.

29

Elk

HIGH TOLERANCE FOR CO2Some fishes are able to live in waterwith low oxygen levels because theycan tolerate high levels of CO2 inthe blood.

CLOSED RESPIRATORY SYSTEMFish absorb oxygen across gill

membranes only.

MEANS OF EXTRACTING OXYGENFROM WATER AN fish havespecialized membranes or gills forextracting oxygen from waterthrough diffusion. Fish maintain anadequate flow of freshwater overtheir gills by continually pumping

a water with specialized muscles, andin some species by living in runningwater or water with high levels ofdissolved oxygen. Fish gills are ableto extract 4/5 of the oxygen dis-solved in water.

Mak

REDUCED USE OF OXYGENBirds that dive are able to reducetheir heart rate by as much as 50%when underwater, thus greatlyreducing their rate of oxygen use.Dippers, and perhaps other divingbirds, can reduce the supply ofblood to non-vital organs andtissues.

HIGH TOLERANCE FOR CO2Diving birds (dipper, loons, grebes,diving ducks) have the ability totolerate high levels of CO2 in theblood and thus are able to stayunderwater for longer periods thanother birds that dive.

OXYGEN STORAGE Diving birdshave nearly hvo times as muchblood and greater concentrations ofhemoglobin (and thus a greatercapacity for oxygen storage) thanland birds of equivalent size.

MEANS OF CLOSING OPENINGS TORESPIRATORY SYSTEM Dippershave special nasal flaps which theyclose before going underwater.

35

Mammi II

REDUCED USE OF OXYGEN

Some aquatic mammals (seals,beaver, whales, porpoises) canreduce their heart rate and thesupply of blood to certain organsand tissues and thus reduce theirrate of oxygen use.

HIGH TOLERANCE FOR CO2Diving mammals ( whale, otter,beaver, muskrat, seal) can toleratehigh levels of CO2 in their blood andare thus able to stay underwaterwithout breathing for longer periodsof time than other mammals.

OXYGEN STORAGE River ottershave relatively larger lungs thanother mammals and can store moreair for underwater use. Marinemammals have high hematocrit andhemoglobin levels and big bloodvolumes which increase theircapacity for oxygen storage andtransport.

MEANS OF CLOSING OPENINGS TORESPIRATORY SYSTEM Mostdiving mammals have special flapsor specially shaped nostrils so theycan close these openings whenunderwater. The anatomy of thebeaver's respiratory system pre-vents them from breathing throughthe mouth. Thus, they can opentheir mouth underwater to carrysticks.

Muskrats can close their lips behindtheir incisors, so they can gnawwhile underwater.

30

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

MAINTAINING OR ATTAINING ADESIRED POSITION IN THE WA-TER; MOVING IN WATER Wateris denser than air and thus providesmore resistance; animals needspecialized appendages to propelthemselves through water and abody shape that reduces the resis-tance of water (particularly impor-tant for animals in running water). Afusiform shape, narrow about bothends and widest part of body one-third of the distance between eachend, offers the least resistance.

Air-breathing animals that float onthe surface, but dive underwater,need a means to overcome thebuoyancy of water. Aquatic animalsneed a means of staying at thedesired depth. Animals that live inrunning water need ways of stayingin a desired spot.

Animals that live on the watersurface must have adaptations tostay afloat.

landelualu

METHODS OF PROPULSION cilia(paramecium).

fringes of hairs to increase thesurface area of appendages (watermites).

wide, flattened appendages(water boatmen).

AIR BLADDER Some phantommidge larvae have a gas sac at eachend of their body and can rise orsink in water by regulating theamount of air in these sacs.

AVOIDANCE OF CURRENT Someinvertebrates that live in runningwater avoid the water current byliving in the boundary layer betweenthe water and the bottom. Within afew millimeters of the bottom,friction reduces the water current toalmost zero. Some mayflies havevery flattened bodies and flattenedappendages that stick out to theside rather than down, so theanimals can keep out of the current.

CLASPING APPENDAGESMayflies, caddisflies, and otheraquatic insects have claws on theirlegs and/or anal hooks to hang ontothe bottom. Dipteran larvae do nothave true legs, but have developed"prolegs" for hanging onto plantsand stones.

ANCHORS Aquatic caterpillars,leeches, and blackfly larvae havegroups of tiny spines to attachthemselves to the bottom. Bivalvemollusks, hydra, rotifers, aquaticcaterpillars, midge larvae and someother invertebrates anchor them-selves to the bottom or to plantswith sticky threads or glue-likesecretions.

BALLAST Caddisfly larvae havehooks to hold onto their cases; theweight of their cases helps keepthem on the bottom.

SURFACE TENSION Tiny animalsare able to stay afloat by spreadingtheir weight over a larger area, sothat the surface tension of waterremains unbroken. Water mites,water boatmen, and other inverte-brates have long fringes of hairs;water striders have very long legs.

Amend=

METHODS OF PROPULSIONwebbed feet (frogs, salamanders).

strong leg muscles and theirswimming legs are placed far backon the body (diving ducks).

ANCHORS Frogs and salamanderegg masses are anchored to under-water sticks or plants by sticky,mucous-like surfaces.

36 31

fit11/ METHODS OF PROPULSION fins

(bony rays with skin stretched overthem) common to all fish.

STREAMED-LINED SHAPE Mostfish have fusiform body shapes tominimize the resistance of movingin water or remaining stationary inrunning water.

AIR BLADDER Some bony fishhave a special air bladder located inthe middle of their body. By regulat-ing the amount of air and gases inthis bladder they can control thedepth at which they float.

ANCHORS Lamprey have apowerful sucker which they use tomo.d against the current and holdthemselves in place, in addition toholding on to animals they parasit-ize.

IdaMETHODS OF PROPULSIONwebbed feet (ducks, loons, gulls,terns, geese, swans). These in-crease the surface area of the feetand allows the bird to propel itselfthrough the water. Swimming birdsalso have large, strong leg musclesand legs placed far back on theirbody to increase the propulsionprovided by moving their feet.lobed feet (grebes. phalaropes).

STREAM-LINED SHAPE Loons.grebes, mergansers, and divingducks have bodies that are flattenedhorizontally, have smaller wings,and short, vertically-flattened legsplaced toward the rear of the body.All of these factors streamline thebird for underwater swimming.

AIR-BLADDER Swimming birdscan regulate the amount of air in theair sacs in their abdomen and theamount of air entrapped by theirwaterproof feathers: thus they makethemselves buoyant for floating onthe surface or less buoyant fordiving underwater.

CLASPING APPENDAGESDippers have long toes for claspingthe bottom.

BALLAST Diving birds (loons.grebes, and diving ducks) havemarrow-filled bones and few airsacs (while other birds have hollowbones and many air sacs as adapta-tions for flight). These birds are alsoable to tightly compress theirfeathers to expel the air trappedbetween them.

17

Mamma

METHODS OF PROPULSIONwebbed feet (beaver, muskrat,otter).

fringes of hairs (water shrews.muskrats).

flippers and flukes (seals, sealions, porpoises, and whales).

STREAM-LINED SHAPE Divingmammals in general have smallerappendages (ears, legs, tails) thansimilar sized land mammals. Also,swimming mammals have a fusi-form shape.

SURFACE TENSION Watershtews have long fringes of hair ontheir hind feet. Surface tensionagainst these hairs allow the tinyshrew to run across the watersurface.

32

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

FEEDING ON ANIMALS that live inwater or along the shore.

FILTERS TO CAPTURE FOOD

Invertebrates have the greatestvariety of adaptations for filteringedible materials from water. Sala,like hydra, mow tentacles throughthe water. A wide variety (Includingbivalve mollusks, rotifers, waterfleas, and others) have hair -likefilters. Several insects (somemayflies, caddisflies) have !tinges ofhairs on their appendages whichfilter out food. Some caddisMesspin web -Nice nets which they holdout in the water current to capturefood particles.

36

1

33

nik

METHODS OF GRASPING SUP-PERY ASH Predaceous fish, likenorthern pike, have long laws andmany sharp teeth for grasping theirprey.

FILTERS TO CAPTURE FOOD

Mallards, pintails, shovelers, sigeon,and some other ducks have tinylamellae (sill leir-Ilke fringes) ontheir Mb which they Ws to straindetritus, insects, mollusks, and otherfood from water. They also havemore touch-sensitive now endingsper square millimeter in their billthan humans have in a finger tip.

LONG, PROBING BILLS Shore-birds have specialized bills adaptedfor probing deep in the mud. Thebills of many are packed with touch-sensitive nerve ending so the birdscan distinguish food from mud orsand.

LONG LEGS Most birds that feedalong the shore have long legs forwading in water without getting theirfeathers wet

METHOD OF GRASPING SUPPERYFISH Fish-eating birds thatcapture fish with their bills havesharply pointed bills (bons, grebes,and kingfishers). Many of these fish-eating birds also have backward-slanting protections on their tongue.roof of their mouth, or throat to helpin holding and swallowing slipperyfish. Eagles and osprey which catchfish with their feet have long, sharptalons. Osprey also have specialspiny tubercules on the bottom oftheir fist which help to hold on toslippery fish. Mergansers have billswith saw-tooth edges which helphold slippery fish.

FILTERS TO TRAP FOOD SomeMules have stiff, hair-Mb baleeninstead of teeth. They use the baleento strain organisms from water.

METHODS OF GRASPING SUP-PERY ASH Rsh-eating mammalslike the river otter have sharp clawsand razor sharp teeth for graspingand ripping fish flesh.

34

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

SURVIVING PERIODS OF FROZENWATER Animals that live in wateror obtain food from water musthave a means of surviving periodswhen water trans.

Problems include 1) avoidingfreezing and (warren- blooded ani-mals) keeping warm, and 2) obtain-ing sufficient oxygen since theoxygen in water covered by ice maybe used up by respiration of theanimals living under the ice, and 3)obtaining food.

IIIIIGIMIS

LIFE CYCLE ADAPTATIONS - -Insects that live In water bodies thatfreeze solid In winter survive byentering a period of dormancy,called dimwit. MOO velintw.During *pause, growth, develop-ment and reproduction cease andthe animal's metabolic rate areduced. Insects may pass throughdiapause in the egg, larvae, or adultstage.

Other kwertebrates also surviveperiods of cold W enterkg periodsof dormancy or in life stages thatcan tolerate freezing.

USE OF SHELTER Many inverte-brates burrow into the mud, moveinto gravel interstices, deep water,or into plies of decrying vegetation.These locations provide protectionfrom freezing.

4u

GUAMUFE CYCLE ADAPTATIONSFrogs require open neer for eggsand tadpoles to develop. Wood frogeggs and tadpoles develop morequickly Man those of other frogs.This fast development allows woodfrogs to survive at whim IMIkkleswhere ponds are frozen sold for 7months of the year. Ony the air-breathing adults overwinter.

USE OF SHELTER Most amphib-ians overwinter as adults. They burythemselves In mud or sotto avoidfreezing. Wood frogs, the northern-most amphibians, burrow into thehumus layer of a dry site. Snow, leaflitter, and soli insulate the frog.Wood frogs seek dry sites forburrowing, as these provide betterprotection against freezing.

FOOD STORAGE Wood frogs andperhaps other amphibians put on anextra layer of at before winter. Thisat reserve provides energy for themetabolism of the hibernatinganimal.

REDUCTION OF ENERGY REQUIRE-MENTS Wood frogs reduce theirwinter food requirements byremaining inactive and reducingtheir heart rate and other metabolicfunctions while hibernati-g.

35

LIFE CYCLE ADAPTATIONS MostAlaska freshwater fish lay eggs inlate summer or fall. The eggs andthe alevins (embryos) have a foodsupply in the yolk and can survive insmall amounts of flowing water onthe bottom and in gravel intersticesof stream bottoms.

MIGRATION Most Alaskanfreshwater fish migrate downstreamto overwinter in deep rivers andlakes that do not freeze solid andhave sufficient open water or watermovement to provide adequateoxygen supplies. Some fish (likeDolly Varden) overwinter at sea.

USE OF AIR HOLES Blackfish,capable of breathing air with theirspecialized esophagus, gulp airfrom holes or breaks in the ice. They

lip are known to gather around muskratpush-ups, holes in the ice thatremain open throughout winter.

II*

LIFE CYCLE ADAPTATIONSWater birds nest as early in springas possible so that eggs are hatchedearly and young are full grown andcapable of migrating by fall.

MIGRATION Almost withoutexception, Alaska's wetland birdsmigrate to more hospitable areas forwinter. Many move out to sea or tothe sea coast (phalaropes, loons,diving ducks, emperor geese,shorebirds). Others migrate to areaswhere open fresh water occursthroughout winter (dabbling ducks,most geese, sparrows, swallows,northern harrier, bald eagles,osprey). Some birds migrate shortdistances downstream or to thecoast, while others make globaljourneys to reach areas of openwater and plentiful food.

41

USE OF SHELTER Beaver,muskrat, foxes, otters, mink, andwater shrews use dens and burrowsduring winter. The dens provideprotection from winter cold andwinds.

FOOD STORAGE In fall, beaversstore large quantities of branchesunderwater 'ear their den or lodge.These provide a winter food supply.

USE OF AIR HOLES Muskratsmaintain air holes in the ice bypoking holes in the is when it isthin and then pushing vegetation upthrough the holes. These plantscover the hole and insulate it so thehole does not refreeze. Muskratsuse their "push-ups" to get air whenthe pond is frozen over. This allowsthem to swim under the ice and feedon aquatic plants throughout winter.Ringed seals also maintain breath-ing holes in sea ice by digging andscraping the ice with their frontclaws.

INSULATION Alaskan mammalsgrow a much heavier fur coat forwinter. The thick white fur coat ofthe arctic fox can keep this animalwarm at -40°F. Marine mammalsalso grow a thicker layer of blubbertor winter.

36

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

KEEPING WARM Water conductsheat more quickly than air, sowarm-blooded animals lose heat 10-100 times more quickly in waterthan in air.

Evaporation of water takes heat, soan animal that gets wet and isexposed to air will lose heat morequickly than an animal that is dry.

landalaglo

COLD-BLOODED

42

Amphibians

COLD-BLOODED

37

flak

COLD-BLOODED INSULATION AND WATERPROOF-ING Birds that swim ordive (loons, grebes, mergansers,waterfowl) have thider layers ofdown and fat and a higher totalnumber of body feathers than otherbirds. When cold, birds can fluff outtheir feathers to entrap a layer of airwhich helps to insulate the body.

The preen glands of swimmingbirds are larger and produce moreoil than those of land birds. Thebirds frequently preen this oil on totheir feathers to maintain water-proofing.

SPECIALIZED CIRCULATION The

webbed feet of ducks and geesehave no capillaries (the arteries flowdirectly to veins) which allows morerapid blood circulation and reducesheat loss through the feet.

43

MEW'

INSULATION AND WATERPROOF-ING Most mammals that live inwater or swim have thick waterprooffur coats that entrap a layer of airwhich helps insulate the animal(beaver, water shrews, mink, otter,sea otter, polar bear, muskrat).Whales and seals that have little orno hair have thick layers of blubber(over 25% of their body weight).

REDUCED BLOOD FLOW TOEXTREMITIES Beaver, seals, andporpoises can reduce the amount ofblood flowing to their extremitiesand thus reduce the amount of heatlost from these. Marine mammalsalso have relatively smaller limbsthan terrestrial mammals, so theyhave less surface area from whichto lose heat.

GREATER HEAT PRODUCTIONSome mammals, like porpoises,have a higher basal metabolic ratethan terrestrial mammals of thesame size. Others, like the muskrat,are able to increase their metabolicrate, and thus increase heat produc-tion before and while swimming.

38

APPENDIX C

REFERENCES

GENERAL

Caduto, M.J. Pond and Brook: A Guide to Nature Study in Freshwater Environments. 1984. University Press of NewEngland.

Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. 1979. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Federal Manual for Identifying and Delineating Jurisdictional Wetlands. 1989. U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, Environ-mental Protection Agency, Department of the Army, and Soil Conservation Society.

Horowitz, E.L. Our nation's wetlands: An interagency task force report. U.S. Government Printing Office.

Hydric Soils of the State of Alaska. 1985. U.S. Department of Agriculture.

National wetlands priority conservation plan. 1989. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Reed, P.B., Jr. National list of plant species that occur In wetlands: Alaska. 1988. U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceBiological Report 88.

Wetlands Values and Management. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Environmental Protection Agency.

Wildlife Notebook Series. 1989. Alaska Department of Ash and Game.

JUVENILE BOOKS

Berry, W.D. Deneki - An Alaskan Moose. 1965. Press North America.

Cowing, S. Our Wild Wetlands. 1980. J. Messner.

Crosby, A.L. Canada Geese. 1966. Garrard Publishing Co.

Ducks, Geese, and Swans. Zoobooks. San Diego, CA.

Field and Machlis. Wetlands Game in Discovering Endangered Species. 1990. Dog-eared Press.

Freschet, B. The Flight of the Snow Goose. 1970. Crown Publishers.

. Year on Muskrat Marsh. 1974. MacMillan.

Goldin, A. Ducks Don't Get Wet. 1965. Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Milne, L.J., and M. Milne. The Mystery of the Bog Forest. 1984. Putnam and Sons.

Mishka, M. Beaver Moon. 1978. Little, Brown, and Co.

Niering, W.A. The Life of the Marsh: The North American Wetlands. 1966. McGraw-Hill.

Overbeck, C. Carnivorous Plants. 1982. Lamer Publie,ation Company. Minneapolis, MN.

39 44

Puddler Magazine. Wetlands wildlife magazine for children 11 years and under. Scheduled for publication in January,1991. Ducks Unlimited, One Waterfowl Way, Long Grove, IL 60047.

Stone, L. Marshes and Swamps. 1983. Children's Press.

Wetlands Coloring Book. 1986. Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C.Stock No. 055-000-00187-1. S 4.00.

Williams, T.T. Between Cattails. 1985. MacMillan.

MORE WETLAND TEACHING ACTIVITIES

Wading into Wetlands. Naturescope. National Wildlife Federation, 1400 Sixteenth St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036-2266.

See/River Week Series:Discovery - Volume I.Animals of the Seas and Wetlands - Volume II.Shells and Insects - Volume III.Birds and Wetlands - Vol. IV.Available from Sea Grant Program, 138 Irving II, University of Alaska Fairbanks (write for ordering information).

Aquatic Project WILD Western Regional Environmental Education Council. Contact Coleen Matt, Alaska Departmentof Fish and Game - Division of Wildlife Coordination, 333 Raspberry Road, Anchorage, AK 99503 to arrange a teacherworkshop.

Habitat Pacs: Estuaries and Tidal Marshes, Freshwater Marshes, Rivers and Streams, Migratory Birds, WetlandsConservation and Use. Available from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503.

Western Education Development Group Series:The Pond Book, The Lake Book, The Estuary Book, The Creek Book, The Pond Book, The Snow Book, The Rain Book.Pacific Education Press, Education Department, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. Canada V6T 1W5.

Wild Fish and Hatchery Fish: a six-lesson unit. Available from Jon Lyman, Division of Sport Fish, Alaska Departmentof Fish and Game, Box 3.:300, Juneau, AK 99801. Includes a stream survey form and instructions.

CLASS Project. Classroom Learning Activities for Science and Social Studies Project. Units include Wetlands andWildlife Habitat Management, both of which have been adapted for Alaska. Wildlife Federation of Alaska, P.O. Box103782, Anchorage, AK 99510.

RECORDINGS OF BIRD SOUNDS

Audible Audubon - sound plates and player. Living Sound Society, Box 3529, Torrance, CA 90510.

Dawn in Duckblind - record. Crow's Nest Bookshop, Laboratory V Ornithology, Cornell University, 159 SapsuckerWoods, Ithaca, N.Y. 13850.

Field Guide to Western Bird Songs. Available as records or cassettes. Follows Roger Tory Peterson's Field Guide toWestern Birds. Houghton-Mifflin Co.

15

40

Alaska Department of Fish and Game

Division of Wildlife ConservationP.O. Box 3-2000

Juneau, Alaska 99802-2000(907) 465-4190

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Office of Resource Support1011 Tudor Road

Anchorage, Alaska 99503

(907) 786-3351

4 6

WETLANDS & WILDLIFEAlaska Wildlife Curriculum

Teacher Information Manual, Part II 744-

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Writers/Editors: Marilyn Sigma, Susan Jordan

Writers Wetland Cards Susan Oulnian and Malt Graves

Editors: Janet Ady, Beverly Fades, Colleen Matt, Karen McIWIbin, Cathy Renbeck

Production by Connie Allen, Beverly Fatten, Catty Rouble', Rick Turner, Hollins Graphics

Artwork by Aniline GraphicsPrinted with Alaska State Duck Stamp Funds

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Wetlands and Wildlife curriculum is a revision of two previous curriculum packages which involved the hard

work and generous contributions of many individuals and their schools and organizations. Susan Quinlan, Alaska

Department of Fish and Game, wrote, illustrated, and produced the original Alaska Wildlife Week materials on this

topic. Janet Ady and Beverly Farfan, U.S. Fish and Wildife Service, coordinated the project to develop and produce

the Teach About Geese curriculum. We also wish to acknowledge the following individuals who participated In the

development and review of the materials:

Participants In field test teacher workshops:Juneau: Dan Austin, Peggy Cowan, Nancy Davis, Susanne Elder, Ruth Heintz. Kris Hartnett, Kay Holmes,

Yvonnelhli, Kim Kiefer, Jim Leet, Betty Lyle, Vicky McLaughlin, Lunn VcVey, Caryn Mercer, Kari Monagle,

Kathleen O'Daniel, W. Reilly Richey, Shirley WalkrushCraig: Dan DeRoux (Hollis), Pauline Johnson (Klawock), Nola Kathleen, Janice Lund, Clay Poindexter (Klawock),

Meg Spink (Thome Bay), Pat Thompson, Dee Ann Walker (Thome Bay), Evelyn Willbum (Port Protection),

Scott Willbum (Thome Bay), Sue Willbum (Thome Bay)

Anchorage: Cull Dalton, Steve Hackett (Russian Mission), Mike Hanscam, Gary Holsten (Palmer), Pam Readies

(Fairbanks), Larry Reed, Nancy Tankersley, Ann Wieland

Reviewers:Alaska Department of Fish and Game: Steve Elliott, Ellen Fritts, Colleen Matt, Nancy Ratner, Tom Rothe.

Stan Senner, Sandra SonnichsenU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Gail Baker, David Dail, Robert Gill Jr., Rowan Gould, Bill Kirk. Robert Leedy,

Rosa Meehan, Vivian Mendenhall, Russell Oates, Phillip Schempf, Paul Schmidt, Connie Wassink

Other Contributors: Jay Bellinger, Norene Blair, Steve Greaser, Nancy Byers, Ellen Campbell, Mark Chase,

Max Copenhagen, Tom Demeo, Sandy Frost, Dan Gibson, Amy Keston, Paul Marks, Norm Matson, Russ Meserole,

Pam Nelson, Betty 011valo, Janet Schempf, Reva Shircel, Candace Ward, Steve Young

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY STATEMENT

Federal laws, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Alaska Department of Fish and Game regulations and policies

prohibit discrimination. Within all their public programs and activities no one will be discriminated against due to

race, color, national origin, sex, age, or physical or mental handicap. If yon' believe you have been discriminated

against or want more information contact:

Office of Equal 09portunityU.S. Department of Interior

1849 C Street NWWashington, D.C. 20240

4S

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

Aspects Of Population Dynamics 3

Species Accounts 9

Conservrtion Of Migratory Birds 41

Appendices

Bird Migration 47

important Laws 50

References 53

INTRODUCTION

While Alaska contains the breeding grounds of more than 400 species of birds, only a few of these species are year-round residents. Once Alaska's abundant summer food supply begins to dwindle in the fall, most birds migratethousands of miles to areas where a warmer climate assures winter food. Certainly such long flights are hazardous.But the birds' metabolic rates are very high and large amounts of food are necessary for survival. For most species,the increased food supply in the south is worth the risk of migration. Only a few birds (such as ptarmigan, ravens.and chickadees) have adapted to the limited winter food supply and remain throughout the winter.

All of North America and several other continents are reached by migratory birds that breed in Alaska. Through thecenturies their flights south in the fall and return in the spring have served to enrich the lives of people along theirroutes. Some people hunt these birds for food during the birds' migration. Native American people traditionallytravelled to migration and nesting areas to take birds for food and feathers and some groups continue to do so today.Many hunters from all cultures eagerly await fall hunting seasons and may travel thousands of miles for an opportu-nity to hunt a species unavailable in their home area. Migratory birds are valued for more than hunting: NativeAlaskan tales, like those of other Native American people, include many stories about birds that have strong culturaland religious significance. For many people today, watching rid learning about birds has become a major recreation.

The annual migrations provide excellent opportunities to see birds that are rare visitors in certain areas.

As human populations have grown and as both hunting and travel methods have become more mechanized, somebird populations have been seriously depleted. Consequently, the migrations are carefully monitored and studied tohelp find methods to preserve a healthy population of the species. This acquired knowledge has led to the establish-ment of a variety of management programs and to the enactment of treaties, laws, and regulations to control con-sumption. These conservation efforts require cooperation at local, state, and national levels.

Of all the migratory birds, waterfowl have been hunted the most, providing food and recreation for many. Therefore,

they are the most intensively studied and managed, and our knowledge of them is more enriched and expanded than

of other species. What we know of ducks, geese, and swans has also broadened our knowledgeof the factors that

affect all bird populations and has hepied wildlife managers of all migratory birds.

5 it1

As we begin our study of waterfowl, it is important tounderstand two terms used by wildlife biologists andmanagers.

The first term is species. A species is a group ofanimals which breeds only among themselves. There aremany different migratory bird species. They are distin-guished by unique characteristics which result fromevolutionary separation. Often, geographic barriers suchas mountain ranges and oceans isolate one species fromother species. However, migratory bird groups often mixduring their travels. In this instance, the differencesbetween species have been maintained over time byseveral factors: strong traditional migratory patterns, theuse of specific breeding and wintering areas, and special-ized instinctual behaviors. For example, the thirty-threeduck species in North America all mingle on theirwintering grounds. But each species has developedspecialized feeding habits and social signalssuch asmale plumage colorsthat ensure mating within thesame species.

The second important term is populations. Within aspecies with a broad geographic distribution, there are

often several populations of birds that occupy onlycertain parts of the entire species' range. A populationmay (and sometimes does) mix with members of otherpopulations. But generally, a population associates onlywith its own members and breeds within the population.For example, six distinct populations of Canada geesenest in different parts of Alaska and generally winter inspecific areas of Washington, Oregon, and California.Some of these populations overlap during winter, but stillmaintain their group identities. Alaska tundra swans areanother example of a species that forms two popula-fionsone that breeds in northern Alaska and winters onthe Atlantic coast, and one that breeds in western Alaskaand winters in California. These populations remaindistinct.

Studies have shown that wetlands are absolutely vital tomigratory birds' survival. In this manual, we concentrateon species which are Alaskan summer residents. Thefollowing pages outline the year-round habits of migra-tory birds and give detailed accounts of six species andtwo sub-species. Also discussed are population dynam-ics, bird migration, migratory bird management, andlaws concerning migratory birds.

ASPECTS OF POPULATION DYNAMICS

NEST DENSITY .,. ;,%(7.

41410:AND AVERAGE

CLUTCH SIZE

POPULATION

AND BREEDING

PAIRS

xi,

NEST SUCCESS

(% HATCHED)

Important Population Measurements

WINTER

INVENTORY

* -Vr:' r,

-4eN

Understanding the dynamics of individual species and populations permits management of waterfowl by geographicbreeding stocks. The following section examines critical characteristics that scientists and managers measure in

waterfowl populations, the factors that affect populations, and typical activities of biologists involved in waterfowlmanagement throughout the year. It is intended to illustrate the dynamics of waterfowl populations and provide

background to allow you and your students to construct a simple population model for one yearly cycle.

FALL FLIGHT

FORECAST

NUMBER OF

BROODS AND

AVERAGE BROOD

SIZE

Spring Arrival Period

Reproduction, the addition of offspring to a population, begins when birds arrive on the nesting grounds.The number

of young that can be added depends on the number of pairs of birds that breed that year and how many young each

pair produces. Thus, Alaska biologists and biologists in other nesting areas first count the number of adult breeding

palm that arrive in the spring.

The number of breeding pairs which arrives depends on the overall survival rate of the population through winter and

the hazards of spring migration. Not all of the arriving birds will reproduce; the number of breeding pairs alsode-

pends on the proportion of birds in the population that are old enough to reproduce. This proportion varies.Ducks

generally mature within their first year, except some seaducks, such as eiders, that take up to three years to mature.Ducks choose new mates each year during winter or spring migration. In contrast, most geese and swans mature atthree years of age or older and usually mate for life. Consequently, among waterfowl arriving in Alaska in spring,ducks have formed their pairs for the season and nearly all are capable of nesting, but goose and swan populationscontain immature birds that will not nest for one or more years into the future. As discussed later, age structure of a

3 5

SentarePenn

Waterfowl Spring Surveys

OldCrow

YukonClete

Copper DeltaKenos Susstne

population not only affects potential production in agiven year, but also indicates a population's ability tomaintain itself by replacing losses from natural mortality,hunting, and years of poor nesting conditions.

In spring, biologists conduct breeding bird surveys fromaircraft over the most productive nesting areas acrossNorth America to assess an annual outlook for waterfowlproduction. There are twelve major breeding areassampled in Alaska and Yukon Territory each year (seeillustration). The crews record birds as singles, pairs, orflocks, and by species. Weather and habitat conditionsare also recorded in each survey area. The product ofthese intensive survey flights is a Smedley pair indexderived from the actual counts of birds, adjusted for thehabits of each type of bird (every lone female duck isassumed to be paired; flocks often contain young orunmated birds and are disregarded as pairs) and totalarea sampled. The breeding pair index is not a totalcensus of all waterfowl, but is a relative measure ofpotentially productive birds to compare with other yearsor to show long-term trends for a given area or region.Because waterfowl are widely dispersed over the expan-sive northern regions of the continent for nesting, it isneither possible nor practical to measure populationsizes during the breeding season. This is accomplishedwhen they are more concentrated on fall staging areas(where birds stop to rest and sometimes eat) andwintering grounds.

Nesting Period

Not all breeding pairs nest successfully, so the nextimportant statistic is the number of nests that are builtinto which eggs are layed. The actual nesting effort of a

population is usually measured in terms of nen Nally(number of nests per unit area) or the number of nests incolonies for birds like snow geese and brant that nesttogether on traditional sites.

The timing of breeding and egg-laying in birds is con-trolled by hormones that are triggered well before theirarrival in Alaska; thus, the availability of suitable habitatand spring weather conditions on the nesting groundscan strongly influence the number of breeding pairs thatsuccessfully establish nests. A late break-up can keeppreferred nest sites covered with snow and ice, limit theavailability of plant foods for grazers like geese, or maketravel easier for predators like foxes. On the other hand,a rapid break-up can cause extensive flooding along riversystems and lakes where waterfowl nest, eliminatingpreferred nest sites.

Spring weather can also affect the number of eggs layed,or the clutch sin, due to ti;e relationship betweenweather and female fat reserves. Cold spring weatherdrains energy reserves of female birds who need themfor development of eggs. Geese have adopted a strategyof nesting early in spring, so they feet heavily in latewinter and on spring migration, arriving with most of thefat and protein needed to lay egos as soon as the snowmelts. If snow and cold weather persist, they beginconsuming those reserves and, in very poor years, theymay resorb developing eggs or abandon nesting entirely.In contrast to geese, ducks count on arriving later on thenesting grounds and getting protein for eggs by feedingintensely on insects and crustaceans in newly thawedmarshes and ponds. A delayed spring limits food avail-ability for ducks and has the same effect on egg produc-tion as described for geese. To measure the effect ofspring weather on nesting conditions, biologists makecounts of the number of eggs laid in nests on nest plotsto estimate the average cinch size per Bestial pair asanother important measure of annual waterfowl produc-tion.

Another factor influencing reproductive effort in water-fowl is their social behavior during the nesting season.Swans, ducks, and most geese have develop td pairterritories that are defended against other birds. Territo-rial defense ensures that each breeding pair has its ownarea for mating, a reserved food supply, and a suitablearea for raising young. In most instances, only a fixednumber of good territories exist in an area, naturallylimiting the number of pairs that can be accommodated,and thus limiting the potential productivity of the popula-tion. Territorial behavior results in the most experiencedand productive pairs getting the best breeding sites,young and inexperienced pairs pioneering marginalhabitat, and nonproductive birds often being driven outof areas where they would compete with breeders forfool and other resources.

The establishment of nests occurs rapidly and is nearlysynchronized for each species in a given region. As soon

4 5 j

as nests are built and eggs are laid a number of factorsbegin to operate that will determine crest success, theproportion of nests that produce at lust one hatchedegg. During the nesting period biologists can determinewhen nest losses occur and the causes of nest failuresby periodically observing or revisiting nests.

Because northern-nesting waterfowl nest as soon aspossible, spring snow storms, flooding from springthaw, and cold rain are all threats to eggs that must bekept warm. Under these conditions, birds must remainon their nests and use their energy reserves to keep theireggs alive. Usually, a small percentage of eggs do notsurvive because they are either pushed out of the nest,get too cold at some time, or are infertile.

As soon as a pair of birds selects a nest site, the nest sitebecomes a target for a variety of bird and mammalpredators. Ducks, geese, and swans lay one egg every 1-2 days. They cover their nests and leave aft' each eggis laid until the entire clutch is completed. This mini-mizes the risk of attracting predators to their activities orto their scent around the nest.

Once all the eggs are laid, the females begin incubatingthem nearly constantly except for short breaks (somemale swans help by taking shifts with their mates).Incubation takes at least 20 days for ducks and as longas 37 days for trumpeter swans. During incubation, baththe eggs and the female are at risk from predators. Thedrab brownish plumage of female ducks is an adaptationfor concealment while they are on their nests and theirmates have left them for the season. Swan and goosemales remain with their mates and help defend theterritory and nest from intruding neighbors and preda-tors.

Over the entire nesting period many eggs and entirenests may be lost depending on the number of predatorsand the abundance of other foods for those predators. InAlaska, if lemmings or mice are scarce, bird predatorsand foxes take more waterfowl eggs. Bird predators, likegulls and jaegers, and small mammals like mink, takesingle eggs and eat them nearby which allows thenesting birds to incubate the remaining eggs. Foxesusually take most or all of the eggs away, burying themone at a time as food caches (storage) for use in winter.Coyotes and bears tend to eat all the eggs in a nest andtear up the nest itself. These clues help biologistsdetermine which predators are causing nest losses.Foxes, coyotes, bears, and eagles also prey on someadult birds on or near their nests.

Although nest predation is probably the most importantfactor in the production of young waterfowl in Alaskaeach year, nest failures also occur if prolonged adverseweather or disturbance of breeding birds is enough tocause nest abandonments. Nesting waterfowl areparticularly sensitive to disturbances by people, vehicletraffic, noise, and other animals during the egg-laying

5

period. As incubation progresses, birds are increasinglyattached to their nests. If weather, disturbance, orpredation causes abandonment during early nesting,ducks can often start a new nest when their reproductive Aiksystems develop new eggs. Geese and swans, however,usually do not have enough energy reserves or time tostart over and raise young during the short Alaskansummer.

Brood Rearing And Molt Period

In waterfowl, all the eggs in a nest hatch within 24 hoursof each other and the down-feathered young are ready totravel within one or two days. Hen ducks and both swanand goose parents lead their young (called a brood foreach family) away from the dangerously scent-filled nestto the safety of ponds, lakes, or rivers. The first week ina young bird's life is the most perilous because they maybecome separated from their parents and predators likegulls and foxes can easily catch them. During the 8-10weeks until they are able to fly, broods need water wherethey can swim away or dive from danger and plant coverwhere they can hide. Young waterfowl instinctively peckat moving things and feed almost continuously oninsects and crustaceans during their rapid growth.

All waterfowl lose the worn out flight feathers on theirwings and regrow new ones in mid-summer. Maleducks and non-breeding geese and swans begin thiswing molt by late June. Geese, swans, and female duckswith families molt later. Nonbreeding birds usuallygather together to seek safe molting areas, sometimesmigrating hundreds of miles to special places. Safetyfrom predators and disturbances as well as abundantfood are important needs for the birds during the 3-5weeks it takes to grow new feathers and regain the abilityto fly.

Biologists are particularly interested in broods in latesummer when they are nearing the flying, or "fledging,"stage. At this time, annual production in an area can beestimated by counting the member of broods and aver-age brood size. By this time most losses to predatorshave occurred and the remaining young will likely beadded to the fall flight of all birds in the population. Inaddition, molting adults and their flightless young maybe easily captured and banded in August before they canfly. By July, biologists can use breeding population andproduction information to produce a fall flight forecastthat is used to adjust hunting regulations for the comingfall hunting season.

Fall Migration Period

During August, waterfowl in Alaska begin to gather inflocks on large lakes and along the coast in preparationfor the fall migration. Among most species there issome difference in the timing of departures of different

54

sex or age groups (e.p., male ducks may precedefemales with broods, nonbreeding geese precede familygroups). Waterfowl consume a large amount of foodenergy to successfully complete their long migrations,relying on stored fat accumulated on the breedinngrounds in late summer and "refueling" at a seri( s ofstopover places. Geese and swans especially nee(' foodand resting spots, called staging areas, where largenumbers of birds traditiorally gather each year.

Concentrations of geese on staging areas providebiologists an opportunity to make population estimatesfrom aerial counts. During these counts, young birds canbe distinguished from adults by their immature plumage(Canada geese lack the white cheek patch, white-frontedgeese lack black barring on the breast, and young swanshave dirty grey plumage in their first fall). Calculated ageratios (young per adult) from these surveys providegood estimates of the number of young produced thatyear. The age ratio also tells biologists what proportionof young may have survived to flight stage since theywere hatched on the nesting grounds.

Waterfowl face a wide variety of hazards during theirmigration, including inadequate energy (fat) reserves tomake the flight, bad weather, and hunting along theirflyways. A substantial number of young birds are lostduring their first migration, usually because they lackexperience and stamina for the rigorous journey, but alsobecause they are more susceptible to hunting. Youngbirds, unaccustomed to hunting, are not very wary whengoing Alto fields and marshes, and they are more easilyattracted to the decoys set out by hunters.

The high death rate of young birds due to natural causesand hunting are important concepts in managing water-fowl populations and regulating hunting. For the mostpart, hunting removes many young birds that would notsurvive their first year in any case. This suUstitution ofhunting for natural mortality has little effect on thepopulations. In addition, the harvest of mostly youngbirds results in greater survival of the older, moreproductive adults that will return to the breeding groundsin the next spring.

Because of the importance of measuring and controllingthe effects of hunting on waterfowl, the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service and the Alaska Department of Fish andGame conduct harvest surveys by asking a predeter-mined number of hunters to keep track of and report thenumber and kind of birds they take during the openseason, as well as the places they hunted and thenumber of days they spent hunting. Also during the fallhunting season, biologists receive many reports of birdsthat are marked with neck collars or leg bands. Huntersoften give metal leg bands from birds they've shot tobiologists. These reports and observations will begathered throughout the winter and analyzed later todetermine patterns of bird migration, hunting activity,and many other kinds of information (see the 'Tagging

Birds' and 'Migratory Mapping' activities). Particularly inthe lower 48 states, biologists and wildlife managersspend considerable time at hunter check stations and onlaw enforcement patrols to gather information andensure compliance with hunting regulations.

Winter

By late November or December, most waterfowl are ontheir wintering grounds. Without the protein require-ments of the nesting season and territorial behavior ofbreeding pairs, wintering waterfowl are very social andflocks travel to find abundant food. Nowadays, most ofthe major wintering areas have been converted fromwetlands and grassy plains to agricultural uses andurban expansion. This has not been all bad for waterfowlbecause most ducks, geese, and swans have adaptedand become dependent on abundant corn, rice, andwinter wheat crops, as well as livestock pastures forfood. Of course, this sets up conflicts with farmers thatmay experience damage to their crops from largeconcentrations of waterfowl.

The primary problem with winter waterfowl habitat is theloss of wetlands needed by birds for resting and feedingon natural wetland foods. Crowding, spread of diseases,and poor water quality on the remaining wetlands areserious problems. Over the years, a network of state andfederal waterfowl refuges has been established to bothpreserve critical wetland habitats and draw waterfowlaway from awricultural crops on the wintering grounds(see section on the Conservation of Migratory Birds).Management and restoration of wintering grounds isbecoming critical as evidence shows that the condition ofwaterfowl throughout winter affects how productive theyare the following spring.

During winter, waterfowl populations that cannot beestimated on fall staging areas (ducks, swans, somegeese) are counted in wintering concentrations onmidwinter inventory surveys. These surveys are con-ducted from the ground and from airplanes by manypeople across the major wintering areas of the U.S. andMexico. For most waterfowl populations, either a fall ormidwinter population Index is used as an annualmeasure of population size over time, but these areestimates and are not total counts of all birds.

By late winter and spring, after the hunting seasons haveclosed in January, biologists and managers have gath-ered a great deal of information on the size, distribution,and welfare of waterfowl populations. From hunterharvest survey reports they can estimate the number ofhunters that hunted waterfowl, the level of effort (days)spent by hunters, their average success in taking ducksand geese, and the locations of hunting activity. Thesefigures are used to calculate estimated total harvest andother statistics, nationally, by flyway, by state, and evenfor some local areas. When compared with past informa-

6 5J

tion, these data indicate changes in waterfowl harvestsand hunter behavior.

Other information is gathered from examining wings ofducks and tails of geese taken by hunters. Duck wingsamples provide the composition of duck species in theharvest, the proportions of males and females (sexratio), and the proportions of young and adult ducks(age ratio). Goose tails show the number of eachspecies and the proportion of young geese in the har-vest. Computerized records of metal leg band reportsand observations of marked birds may be used toestimate survival rates for groups of birds and to plot theharvest distribution for birds from a particular breedingarea or population segment.

As early as February, waterfowl begin trickling north-ward, feeding more intensively for their long springflights to Alaska in April and May. Experienced adults areanxious to reach the nesting grounds and lead the way,followed by maturing birds with new mates and youngbirds learning the traditional flyways and rest stops.Once again, staging areas are critical to their survival andthe pace of spring in Alaska will strongly influence theannual success of the populations.

Applications For Students

North American waterfowl populations face increasingproblems, from the vagaries of continental droughts tothe continued loss of wetland habitats and complexitiesof human impacts. The species accounts following thissection illustrate some of the problems of the individualwaterbird populations and the wildlife managementefforts underway to address them. We hope this back-ground material will help you convey the principles ofpopulation dynamics and the variety of factors influenc-ing populations in many of this curriculum's activities.

By necessity, the art and science of managing migra:otybird resources has advanced rapidly in the last 50 ormore years. The methods of early naturalists with theirnotebooks and cameras and their prosaic accounts ofbird observations have been largely overshadowed bymodern technology and highly trained scientists. We cannow reach every corner of the earth with airplanes, wecan track individual birds or map their habitats on a largescale from satellites, and we use computers to makemore accurate population estimates and harvest fore-casts.

Certainly, ornithologists and wildlife managers needtechnical skills in mathematics, chemistry, physics, andbiological sciences to understand wildlife resources. Butthey also need to know the sociological, economical, andlegal Issues associated with the conservation of wildlifein our complex society. Hopefully, some of your stu-dents will become fascinated with these migratory birds

7

that touch so many lives and will take an interest inwildlife science as a profenion. At the very least, wehope all students will appreciate the natural world andbecome informed citizens capable of making betterdecisions that affect the future of migratory birds.

Simple Model Of Annual WaterfowlPopulation Data

This example may serve to integrate lessons on factorsaffecting waterfowl populations and waterfowl manage-ment activities. In reality, many different kinds ofsurveys are conducted to gather information on many ofthe specific populations of swans, geese, and ducks.The model illustrates only the main measurements thatare taken, and the numbers were made for a relativelyhealthy goose population unit from a small breedingarea.

May Breeding Population Survey (by airplanel

A. Total Population (estimate) = 250 birdsB. Breeding Pairs (observed) = 100 pairs (200 birds)

We now know: most of the population (80%) is adultbreeding birds in pairs, with 50 immature or unmatedbirds. This can be compared to previous years.

Early June Nesting Surveys (ground surveys

C. Nests Found = 90 B C = 10 (10%)D. Average Clutch Size = 5 eggs C x 0 = 450 eggs

We now know: about 10% of the pairs did not nest andthere are potentially 450 eggs produced by the popula-tion. Nest numbers and clutch size can be related to thisyear's weather conditions and previous data.

late June Nest Survey (groundl

E. Nests Hatched = 60 E ÷ C = 67% nest successE x D = 300 potential young

We now know: about 30 of the nests did not hatch andwe can estimate how many were lost to predators fromsigns at the nest sites. The population may have pro-duced as many as 300 young birds, a loss of 150 eggsfrom the starting total of 450.

Jut/ Brood Survey (by airplanel

F. Number of Broods = 40G. Average Brood Size = 3 youngH. Production Estimate = F X G = 120 young

We now know: over half the young birds that may havehatched have been lost by this time, and from an averageof 5 eggs per family only 3 young have been produced.

5f;

Fall Population Forecast (calculations)

I. Fall Flight = A + H = 370 birdsJ. Percent Young = H +I = .32 (32%)

Biologists estimate the size of the fall population byadding the estimated number of young produced to thepopulation size measured prior to the nesting season.The fall flight forecast is usually given in terms of changefrom previous years; in this case the population hasincreased by 48% (H + A). A high percentage of youngin fall indicates a growing population. Special airplanesurveys on fall staging areas provide more accurateestimates of the proportion of young surviving to migra-tion.

8

ISIIIILIMMORalzawilaatanagamisoulai

K. Total Population . 300L. Total Young = 75 L + K = 25% Young

We now know: the population decreased by 45 youngand 10 adults since fall migration. The estimatednumber of young have survived their most difficult lifestages and are likely to represent lasting additions to thepopulation (called "recruitment"). Thus, if we take intoconsideration all of the adults and young that havesurvived since we first started counting birds, we show a20% increase of the total population. When informationis gathered from hunter surveys and banding reports, afairly detailed picture of this population can be drawn forthe entire year.

57

SPECIES ACCOUNTS

pThe following pages contain profiles (accounts) of six species and two sub-species of migratory birds that nestin Alaska. These accounts provide background for several of the activities in this curriculum. Certainly thereare many more migratory birds in Alaska than are listed here: these species accounts should serve as examplesof the diversity of waterfowl that use wetland habitats. The summaries include important facts about breedingand molt cycles, migration routes, nesting areas, and wintering locations. Each account also outlines thefactors which influence the population dynamics and the management efforts to maintain or restore thesegroups of birds.

As you will note in your reading of the sections called "Factors Affecting Populations...," several importantsocietal issues are raised concerning human actions which are needed to maintain or increase waterfowlpopulations. These issues can form the basis of units or action projects that focus on conflict resolution andthe development of critical thinking skills.

11/44,11 i

9

5 3

CANADA GEESE (Brenta canadensis)Igsragutilgich (Inupiat)Midhalzin, dits'in, vidhal zring (Athabascan)

There are six kinds, or sub-species, of Canada geese that nest in Alaska. Two of the sub-species, the Aleutian Canadagoose and the dusky Canada goose, present unique management situations. While Canada geese populationsthroughout North America have generally been increasing, these two sub-species are in trouble; the Aleutian Canadageese are on the threatened species list and duskies are at low population levels compared to historical numbers.These two types of Canada geese nest in different areas of Alaska and remain separate sub-species because thepopulations do not interbreed in the wild. However, they mingle with other types of Alaska nesting Canada geesewhen the geese are on their wintering areas.

Identification

Canada geese have black heads and necks, white "chinstraps" stretching from ear to ear, black bills, legs, and feet;grayish-brown backs and wings, gray or brown sides and breasts, and white bellies and flanks.

Breeding Habits

Canada geese mate for life and generally nest at three years of age (occasionaily at two years). Vegetation is theirprimary food and they construct their nest with vegetation, usually close to the water. The two sub-species featured inthis section nest on the ground; other sub-species sometimes nest in trees (Vancouver Canada geese), or occasion-ally on cliffs (interior and northern Alaska geese). Canadas lay 4-5 eggs per nest. Predators on eggs and goslingsinclude gulls, foxes, coyotes, wolves, bears, wolverines, jaegers, eagles, and ravens.

0 Molt Cycle

Canada geese molt each summer, losing all of their flight feathers simultaneously. Geese are flightless for about amonth, while new feathers grow.

10 5.4

Aleutian Canada Goose (Branta canadensis leucopareia)

Identification

Aleutian Canadas are nearly the smallest of Canadageese, weighing four to six pounds. They have a broadwhite ring at the base of the neck and a light breast. Noone characteristic distinguishes these from the othersmall Canada goose sub-species, thus a combination ofcharacteristics is needed for identification. Their size andhigh-pitched voices are similar to cackling Canada geesethat nest on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta.

Breeding Grounds and Migration Routes

Until recently, scientists thought that Aleutian Canadaswere nesting on only a few of the Aleutian Islands, aremnant of their former range which included theAleutian Islands and the Kurile and Commander Islandsof the Soviet Union. In 1984, sophisticated genetictechniques have confirmed that the geese on KiliktagikIsland in the Semidi Island group south of the AlaskaPeninsula were, in fact, Aleutian Canada geese.

Aleutian Canadas are seldom seen in Alaska outside theirSemidi and Aleutian Islands nesting areas. Their migra-tion route is thought to be across the Gulf of Alaska andthrough remote coastal areas of the state.

Wintering Areas

The geese that nest in the Aleutians winter primarily inCalifornia's Central Valley, making landfall in the Cres-cent City area and wintering in the Sacramento Valley

11

and south to the San Joaquin River in the Modesto/LosBanos area. In spring, they again stage at Crescent Cityand travel along the Oregon and lower Washington coaston their way to Alaska. The birds nesting on KiliktagikIsland winter in the Pacific City/Woods area of Oregon.

Population Status

The Aleutian Canada goose is one of only a few speciesof Alaska wildlife that are presently classified as threat-ened or endangered (by both the Alaska Department ofFish and Game and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has now reclassifiedthe sub-species threatened since its population has alower level of potential for extinction. The decline of thespecies began in the mid-1800s, with the introduction ofarctic foxes to the Aleutian Islands. Farmers releasedfoxes on the islands and harvested them later for thei:.furs. The foxes fed primarily on defenseless wound-nesting geese and seabirds who had no similar naturalpredator. (Geese respond to dogs, which have been usedto herd them for banding or capture, by freezing in placeand acting as if hypnotized.)

In 1967, managers could account for fewer than 800birds in the population. The only known nesting area wasBuldir Island in the western Aleutians and migrationroutes and wintering areas were not known. In 1989-90,6200 birds were estimated in the California winteringareas, and breeding birds occupied Kiliktagik Island andChagulak, Agattu, and Nizki Islands in the Aleutians. Thegroup nesting on Kiliktagik Island was estimated at 100birds on its Oregon wintering grounds in 1988-89.

f. 't /

ALEUTIAN CANADA GEESE

Fall/Winter Population Indexin California and Oregon

1 I I I I I

6000

5000

4000 -

3000 -

2000 -

1000 -

1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1986 1989

FactorsAffecting the Population on the

Nesting Grounds

Wherever foxes remain, they continue to be a majorcause of mortality for Aleutian Canada geese and anobstacle to reestablishing them on islands where theyformerly nested. Bald eagles, found on islands east ofBuldir, are also an effective predator on young birds andmay be a barrier to establishment of new populationsthrough transplants of young or captive-reared birds.More than 90% of the population nests on Buldir andmanagers remain concerned that a single catastrophicevent such as a severe storm could decimate the poodle-lion.

Management Efforts on the NestingGrounds

In 1975, managers implemented a Recovery Plan for thesub-species under the requirements of the EndangeredSpecies Act. Foxes were eradicated from several AleutianIslands with a combination of trapping and controlleduse of the poison 1080" in small tallow baits. No effectsof the poison on bald eagles were noted, although someglaucous-winged gulls and ravens are believed to have

died due to ingestion of the poison. The EnvironmentalProtection Agency has banned the use of the poisonexcept in specially-permitted and carefully monitored

applications such as those necessary to provide securemsting habitat for the Aleutian Canada goose.

Biologists reared geese in captivity from eggs removedfrom the nests. However, when captive-reared goslingsor adults were released directly onto islands, these failedto survive and did not breed with wild birds. The bestsuccess followed the capture of wild male geese innorthern California which were then bred with captively-reared females. The resulting family groups were thentransplanted to Buldir and many survived. Production onBuldir has increased to the point where captive-rearingwas no longer necessary; however, some captive-rearedflocks still remain in zoos and in Japan where birds havealso been released to try to restore birds to the western-most area of their historic breeding range.

Wild birds have been captured and relocated to islandsthat are either fox-free historically, or from which foxeshave been eradicated. In 1989, the efficiency of thebiologists' round-up of flightless, molting geese in tallgrass on steep slopes was greatly improved by the useof border collies to locate and "herd" the geese. Oncetransplanted, young birds have suffered high predationby bald eagles; the most successful transplants of wildbirds have been of families nearing the end of theirflightless period. The adults serve as guides to winterareas and the young return to the transplant site thefollowing year, where hopefully they will nest at twoyears of age.

Factors Affecting the Population onMigration Routes and Wintering Areas

On staging and wintering areas, hunting was a majormortality factor until 1975.

Some portions of the wintering areas are privately-ownedand the habitat is not necessarily managed by landown-ers to ensure long-term feeding areas and high-qualitywater sources for the birds. In general, the Central Valleywintering grounds are frequently affected by shortages ofwater and poor water quality. Agricultural interestscontrol much of the water supply, and only tri remain-der (which in some cases is polluted with fertilizers andchemicals) is left for wildlife refuges and waterfowlmanagement areas. These areas are small which resultsin crowding of many kinds of waterfowl into remainingwetlands. Disease outbreaks can occur and severelyaffect many birds under these conditions.

Management Efforts on the WinteringAreas and Migration Routes

When the sub-species was listed as endangered in 1967,migration routes and wintering areas had not beenidentified yet. Managers used band returns and observa-tions of color-banded birds and intensive winter surveysin Washington, Oregon, and California to trace theroutes.

Canada goose hunting has been closed in areas used byAleutian Canada geese to ensure that this small popula-

tion survives and grows. Canada goose hunting is closedwest of Unimak Pass in Alaska and has also been closedsince 1975 on three important staging and winteringareas in northern and central California. During fall andwinter, biologists carefully monitor the numbers and themovements of Aleutians to prevent accidental shootingof these birds during hunting seasons for ducks andother kinds of geese. A major education program forhunters and non-hunters has emphasized identificationof seven different kinds of Canada geese in the PacificFlyway and the need to protect Aleutian, cackling, anddusky Canada goose populations.

As part of the 1986 North American Waterfowl Manage-ment Plan, efforts have intensified to protect and in-crease the California grasslands and wetlands vital toAleutian Canada geese. The U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, California Department of Fish and Game, andmany private conservation groups have joined forces tobuy and lease land, create wetlands, and manage pas-tures and rice fields for ducks and geese. Their goal is torestore and enhance 90% of the original wetlands thathave been lost in the region.

13

Summary

The Aleutian Canada goose is a success story in terms ofits continuing recovery from a point where it was inimminent danger of extinction. However, efforts are stillneeded to expand their use of nesting areas in theAleutian Islands and provide long-term security for bothstaging and winter habitat.

f; )4.

SUMMER AND WINTERDISTRIBUTION AND

MIGRATION ROUTES

ALEUTIAN CANADA GOOSE

* Summer Breeding Grounds

Fall and *Ind Slat* AreasWinton's° Grounds

.604Aigration Route

14

63

Dusky Canada Goose (Branta canadensis occidentalis)

Identification

Duskies, as their name implies, are some of the darkestcolored Canada geese in Alaska. In the fall, they weighfive to eight pounds, but males in spring can weigh tenor more pounds. They are closely related to theVancouver Canada goose that is found from SoutheastAlaska south to Washington state.

Nesting Areas and Migration Routes

Dusky Canadas nest only on the Copper River Delta nearCordova. In fall, duskies migrate from Cordova acrossthe Gulf of Alaska. Some stop in the Queen CharlotteIslands of British Columbia. Most land in southwestWashington then follow the Columbia River to Portland,turning south to spread out through the WillametteValley. The spring migration route is the reverse.

Wintering Areas

The primary wintering areas for this population are theWillamette Valley in western Oregon and the lowerColumbia River floodplain. Small numbers winter inother areas from British Columbia to California.

Population Status

Fall numbers of dusky geese declined during the period

15

1979-1990, from 25,500 in 1979 to between 10,000 and12,000 in 1990.

Factors Affecting the Population on theNesting Grounds

In 1964, the nesting area in the Copper River Delta wasuplifted by the "Good Friday" earthquake. Following theuplift, some portions of the wetland habitat on theCopper River Delta began to dry out. Shrubs grew muchbetter than the wetland plants in the drier areas. (Thearea is expected to follow a successional pattern that willeventually transform the shrubs into forest stands.)Although nesting habitat was still abundant, the shrubsprovided habitat in the form of food and cover foranimals that prey on eggs and goslings. As the activity ofbrown bears, coyotes, glaucous-winged gulls, andparasitic jaegers increased in nesting areas following theearthquake, nest success dropped dramatically.

Nests also fail if flooding occurs in June. Heavy rains cancombine with high levels of beaver activity dammingstreams to reduce the availability of elevated, dry nestingsites.

Management Efforts on the NestingGrounds

Attempts to stabilize the population of dusky geese in theface of a dramatic ecological change is one of Alaska's

64

20.000

DUSKY CANADA GEESE

Fall/Winter Population Indexin Oregon and Washington

10.000

1964 1968

most difficult waterfowl management problems.

1972 1976

Researchers have been studying changes in the selectionof nest sites and nest success as the plant communitiesare changing on the Delta. Since 1984, artificial nestislands have been built by the U.S. Forest Service andDucks Unlimited to discourage predators from reachingnests. A variety of designs have been tried, and floatingfiberglass platforms are being used successfully by thegeese.

In 1987, the brown bear population was temporarilyreduced by 40-60% by capturing and moving bears along distance from the nesting areas when geese beganlaying eggs. Researchers did not observe an increase innest success that they could attribute to the reduced bearpopulation. Weather conditions were cold and rainy in1987 and predation by glaucous-winged gulls andjaegers increased over previous years. Researchers alsoobserved that coyote predation on nest Is high in ayear that their rodent prey base was low. ,e to theeffects of several types of predators, the researchersconcluded that all three types of predators affectedgoose nest success and would have to be consideredtogether in any management program to increase thedusky population.

Beginning in 1987, goslings and adult dusky Canadageese were transplanted to Middleton Island in the Gulf

of Alaska. There are no foxes or other mammalian

1980 1984 1990

predators which would prey on the geese on the island.As of 1990, the production of geese on Middleton isincreasing and may help to stabililize the dusky popula-tion.

Factors Affecting the Population on TheirMigration Route and Wintering Areas

Dusky Canada geese stop at several places in SoutheastAlaska and British Columbia during fall migration. Mostof these places are in their natural condition on protectedpublicly owned lands. However, further south they useagricultural lands and other areas that are susceptible toconversion into unusable habitat (residential or commer-cial development, etc.). Changes in agriculture andestablishment of wildlife refuges have attracted 80,000Canada geese to the Willamette Valley during winter. Thegeese feed on winter wheat, grass sod farms, and othercrops, creating conflicts with farmers who want to bepaid for damages.

Historically, dusky Canada geese were heavily hunted inOregon, and hunting controlled the size of the popula-tion. This situation has changed and production on thebreeding grounds is now the major limiting factor. Whenhunting was heavy, high annual production of youngsustained the population.

In addition to recreation and food provided by hunting,the hunting season discouraged geese from using

§E;)

farmers' fields and limited the total number of all kinds ofgeese on the wintering grounds. But now that thethreatened dusky Canada and cackling Canada geesehave begun to winter in Oregon together, there are moreprotective measures needed to restore their populations.Hunting is increasingly restricted despite the largenumbers of other Canada goose subspecies available tohunters and feeding on crops.

Management Efforts on Their MigrationRoute and Wintering Areas

In 1964 and 1965, three National Wildlife Refuges were

established in the Willamette Valley to provide sanctuary,food, and water for duskies during winter. Creation of therefuges has helped safeguard winter habitat, and thevegetation on the refuges is managed to keep the geeseon the refuges.

There is a limited number of tools that biologists can useto safeguard migratory birds. Controlled goose hunts arenow used in Oregon to minimize the harvest of duskygeese. There is also a major education effort to helphunters tell the sub-species of Canada geese apart. Andscientists arelonducting research to find ways to bettercensus goose populations and more accurately measuresurvival rates.

17

tit;

8

SUMMER A110 WINTER

DISTROUTION A110MIGRATION ROUTES

DUSKY CANADA GEESE

* Summer &Ming Grounds

Fad and Son/ StaOni IdeasA Wintering Grounds

.0.4hgr7bon Route

Fr,'

18

Pacific Black Brant (Branta bernicla nigricans)Neq lomat, leqlernat (Yup'ik)Niglingaq, Niglingak, Niglingat (Inupiat)Novoghhigidits'in (Athasbascan)Chyornaya Kezar lc& ;Russian)

The Yup'ik and Inupiat names for brant sound like theb.ant's call while the scientific names bernicla means: irk-bellied and nigricans means black, both of whichuescribe its color.

Identification

Brant are small geese, 22-26 inches long and weighapproximately three pounds. They are stocky in silhou-ette and dark in color with black heads and necks. Whitefeathers make a "necklace" high on their necks. Theirbreasts and bellies are a uniform dusky brown to black-ish color as far back as the legs, and the sides and flanksare strongly baned grey and white. Their bills, legs, andfeet are black.

Goslings are slate grey and fluffy. Immature or juvenilegeese are very similar to breeding adults, lacking onlythe white neck markings and with white edging on thefeathers of the middle wing.

In flight, brant are fast, easily-maneuvering, dark birdswith a conspicuous expanse of white feathers under theirtails. They often travel in wavering lines low over thewater.

Breeding Cycle

Black brant are social birds, preferring to nest in largegroups or "colonies" instead of in scattered pairs. Theynest on small islands in freshwater tundra lakes, usuallywithin three miles of the coast. Birds return year afteryear to the same traditional nesting areas on the Yukon-Kuskowkim Delta, in the Canadian Arctic, and Siberia.Brant usually arrive on their nesting grounds after mid-May, but do not arrive on their farthest north coloniesuntil June. Here they graze on sedges and grasses,establish nests with three to five eggs, and cooperativelydefend their nests from predators.

Brant mate for life and first nest when they are two yearsold. They are known for depositing large amounts of darkgray down in their nests. Brant usually raise their youngin coastal saltmarshes, often forming large communalfamily flocks. Two to three goslings usually survive fromeach nest and make the fall migration.

19

Molt Cycle

Birds that do not breed and those whose nests havefailed migrate long distances to traditionally-used tundra

, .0j

lakes to summer and molt during June and July. Whilesome non-breeders congregate in large flocks nearnesting areas, most birds travel to the Teshekpuk Lake

area on the central portion of Alaska's North Slope.Teshekpuk Lake and nearby lakes and ponds are a veryimportant molting area for 30-50,000 geese each year. Alarge percentage of Alaska's summer brant populationmolts there, joining molting white-fronted, snow, andCanada geese. Scientists have estimated that up to 20-25% of the population of Pacific brant molt there eachyear; banding returns have documented that brant cometo Teshekpuk Lake from the Mackenzie and AndersonRiver Deltas of Canada as well as from Siberia. The brantmolt on large lakes with grassy meadows along theshores. The meadows provide feeding areas and thelarge lakes provide escape habitat from land predators.These areas are very important because brant areflightless while they grow new wing feathers.

Migration Routes

Brant move to coastal wetlands and stream deltas afterthe molt in August. When the black brant leave theirtundra molting and nesting areas at the end of summer,they migrate westward and southward along the coast ofAlaska to Izembek Lagoon at the western end of theAlaska Peninsula by Cold Bay. They stage in severallagoons along the way near Chagvan Bay, Pilot Point, themouth of the Cinder River, Port Heiden, and Port Moller.The brant that nested on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Deltaand the North Slope of Alaska join the birds that nestedin Siberia and Canada making Izembek one hugefamily reunion site for almost all of the world's blackbrant during September and October.

The brant stay at Izembek between four and six weeks tofatten up on a highly nutritious marine grass calledeelgrass (Zostera maritima) which grows abundantly inthe shallow waters of the lagoon. The brant gain aboutone pound, or about one-fourth to one-third of their bodyweight. Accumulated fat supplies critical energy for theirnon-stop transoceanic flight south when the birds leaveIzembek.

Their departure from Izembek is a spectacular event.Near the first of November when a weather system givesthem tail winds, the social brant climb together higherand higher into the sky and begin their migration enmasse. Since they usually leave between sunset andmidnight, radar at the nearby military site has been usedto track their departure. Within a day or two, the lagoonis quiet and almost empty. A few thousand brant will staythe winter at Izembek if the weather remains mild.

The migrating brant fly over the Pacific Ocean west of theGulf of Alaska and most of the flocks go straight tolexico, settling in Baja or the mainland west coast ofMexico.

In February, brant start moving back northward on theirlong journey up the Pacific Coast, concentrating enroutein bays of California, Oregon, Washington, and BritishColumbia. In April the geese push north, a few ;toppingat Kodiak, but most returning directly to Izembek La-goon. After a few weeks spent feeding on the eelgrass,the birds fly atom] the coast, stage again in bays on thenorth side of the Alaska Peninsula, and then fly on totheir breeding areas.

Wintering Areas

Over 90% of the population winters In Mexico along theBaja and mainland coast. Approximately half of theMexico-wintering birds stay in San Ignacio Lagoon.Scattered small groups winter north of Mexico in BritishColumbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. A groupof 15,000 to 20,000 brant, mostly from the farthest northnesting areas in Canada, stay in Puget Sound nearAnacortes, Washington. Brant prefer saltwater forwintering, again feeding primarily on eelgrass.

Population Status

The number of black brant in the population is measuredeach year in January when the birds are concentrated ontheir wintering areas. These annual counts indicateconsiderable fluctuations from year to year, but the long-term stable average is around 140,000 birds. In speciesthat nest in the arctic, it is not unusual for years of goodand bad spring weather to cause a "boom or bust"pattern of population changes.

Over the past 25 years, the two major changes in thenumbers of Pacific brant have been the shift to moresouthern wintering grounds and a dramatic decline in thenumber of birds nesting on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta.

Factors Affecting the Population on theNesting Grounds

Between 1981 and 1984, the number of birds nesting onthe Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta decreased by more than75%. Large expansive colonies that were nearly continu-ous along portions of the coast before the decline werereduced to three small colonies with empty habitatbetween them after the decline occurred. In 1990, thecauses of the decline had not been explainr And theeffect of the decline on the total brant population wasunclear. Scientists did not have enough information todetermine if brant that formerly nested in western Alaskashifted to more northern nesting areas or if they died athigher rates than birds that nested in other areas. Thetotal population did not show a major decrease in thesize of the wintering population during the 1981-84period.

6:4

20

Population Levels of Pacific Flyway

N 200,000UMBER

0 100,000

GEESE

Black Brant( Neglernat, 'Leqlernat )

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

E3 Annual Population Loves - 3-Year AverageData band on auk makAnlet Wes mama In lie Pacific flyway

raiding Wasnalpion. Oman. CaWarnla and Manta

There are two major causes for concern about the brantpopulation: 1) vulnerability of the small remainingco;inies on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta to predatorsand to catastrophic events such as storms; and 2)limited knowledge of the productivity of colonies in theCanadian arctic and the Soviet Union. In addition, Yup'ikpeople on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta have traditionallyhunted brant during the spring and also removed eggsfrom nests for food. This harvest adds to the harveststhat have historically occurred along the fall migrationroute and wintering areas. Hunting and egg-gatheng,with associated disturbance, can affect local nestingcolonies.

Like other waterfowl, delayed nesting because of a latespring or flooding results in lower productivity. Floodingin combination with high predation by arctic foxes maycompound population reductions particularly in the smallremnant colonies on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. In onenesting colony on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, foxeswere removed by trapping prior to the nesting season.Nesting success increased from 2% in 1985 and 7% in1984 to 83% in 1986, 87% in 1987, and 79% in 1988.Colonially-nesting birds are especially vulnerable topredation.

While most nesting areas are largely unaltered bydevelopment, the potential for habitat degradation anddisturbance could affect the population on some breed-ing and molting areas. Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta nestinghabitat is almost totally within the boundaries of theYukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, but over 50% ofthe habitat is privately owned. Nesting areas on the Deltaand on the arctic coast of Alaska and western Canada areadjacent to areas already leased for oil and gas develop-ment or scheduled for lease sales. The critical TeshekpukLake molting area, managed by the Bureau of LandManagement, is within National Petroleum Reserve-

21

Alaska, where oil and gas exploration has occurred andwhere interest remains high.

Factors Affecting the Population onMigration Routes and Wintering Grounds

Hunting has historicaliy oeen an important concern forthe population along its fall migration route, especially itspotential to prematurely move birds out of stopoverareas from Washington south to California. Most brantharvested by recreational hunters are taken by Americanhunters at San Ouintin Bay in Mexico. Careful manage-ment of brant hunting requires close cooperation be-tween the U.S. and the government of Mexico. Youngbirds are especially vulnerable to hunting, and when theyare numerous in years of high production, the harvest inMexico increases markedly.

Between the mid-1960s and the mid-1970s, the majorityof brant shifted their wintering grounds from coastalWashington, Oregon, and California to Baja Mexico. Thisshift is one of the major factors affecting the numbers ofPacific brant, but the reasons for this dramatic change intradition is not known. Wildlife managers believe it islikely related to increased development and humanactivity in bays preferred by the brant for wintering andthe degradation of important eelgrass habitat areas. Ageneral decline in the population corresponds to thisperiod of winter redistribution.

Continuing threats from changing land use exist for thestaging and wintering brant concentrations. IzembekLagcon could be affected by oil and gas exploration anddevelopment in the St. George Basin or North Aleutianareas as part of the Outer Continental Shelf leasingprogram. The lagoon lies in the path of transportationccrridors and is adjacent to areas suitable for portdevelopment and siting of other support facilities.

7u

Disturbance and degradation of habitat through develop-ment and human activities in coastal areas of Washing-ton, Oregon, and California are continuing. Offshore andcoastal resource development threatens Mexican winter-

ing areas where tourism and resort development isincreasing. People come to beaches and lagoon areas forwarm weather, whale-watching in the lagoons, and otherrecreational activities.

Many of the staging areas critical to brant have beenplaced in a protective land status. lzembek Lagoon hasbeen officially designated as a wetland of internationalimportance. The shallow lagoon is a State Game Refugeand the surrounding land is a National Wildlife Refuge.Cape Newenham (Chagvan Bay) is a State Game Refugeadjacent to Togiak National Wildlife Refuge, and PilotPoint, the mouth of the Cinder River, Port Heiden, andPort Moller are State Critical Habitat Areas. Scammonand San Ignacio Lagoons are Wildlife Sanctuaries inMexico.

Cooperative Management Efforts

Pacific brant are one of four species of geese nesting inwestern Alaska that have experienced serious populationdeclines or changes in recent years. As these species ofgeese began declining in numbers, people throughoutthe range of the geese became concerned and werebrought together to craft a set of solutions to problemsfacing the birds. In 1984, the Yukon-Kuskokwim DeltaGoose Management Plan (YKDGMP) was adopted by thepeople of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, people from allthe other states along the migration route of the geese,and the state and federal agencies responsible for wildlifemanagement. This unique conservation program in-volved education and information exchange to promoteunderstanding among very different interest groups fromAlaska to Mexico. It also required sacrifices oneveryone's part to achieve what was needed to restoregoose populations.

All users agreed to reduce hunting of the four species ofgeese. Hunting for black brant was not to occur on theYukon-Kuskokwim Delta during nesting, brood-rearing,or molting periods and there was to be no egg-gatheringfrom brant nests. Spring waterfowl hunts are traditional

22

in rural Alaska, but they are prohibited by the interna-tional treaties signed by the United States with othercountries. Efforts have been on-going to amend thetreaties or to find a means to legally permit and regulatea spring harvest which is an important source of food forAlaska Natives and other rural residents at a time of yearwhen fresh game is scarce. Recreational hunters in thePacific Flyway states agreed to additional restrictions onseasons and bag limits during fall. Recreational harvestsof black brant were reduced by 50% in California andAlaska and carefully controlled in Washington andOregon. The government of Mexico has shortened thebrant season, reduced bag limits, and conducted harvestsurveys since the goose management plan was adopted.

In 1985, population goals were established and mini-mum population levels were identified for all four speciesof geese. The minimum population level was the levelbelow which more intensive act, As were needed and nohunting would occur. For brant, the population goal is185,000 birds; the minimum population level is 120,000(based on 3-year running averages of January indexcounts).

Since 1984, the YKDGMP has been modified and up-dated to efficiently address concerns of everyone In-volved, and it remains a major source of direction formanagement of brant and the other goose populationsnesting in western Alaska. Other conservation provisionsof the plan include increased efforts to protect morehabitat on the wintering grounds, to reduce disturbanceon nesting, molting, and staging grounds, and to im-prove scientific research into factors affecting goosepopulations. For brant, this has meant new managementprograms for coastal habitats, studies of brant coloniesand predators on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and thebeginning of cooperative surveys and research with theSoviet Union and Mexico.

The plan recognizes the need to share information fromresearch studies on the geese and to expand the coop-erative information and education program amongpeoples that value Pacific brant and other migratorybirds. The school curriculum package "Teach AboutGeese" is one result of that effort and the source of manyactivities in this expanded Wetlands and Wildlife"curriculum.

71

loo

0

0

SUMMER AND WINTERDISTRIBUTION AND

MIGRATION ROUTES

PACIFIC BLACK BRANT

* Summer Breeding Grounds

Fall and Spring Staging Areas

Wintering Grounds

-um- Migration Route

23

i 4,

Northern Pintail (Anas acuta)Kurugaq, kurukkak, kurukkat (Inupiat)K'enlathgi, gidrangidh, gidrongedh (Athabascan)Shilokhvost (Russian)

C

4.111111111111

Identification

Male pintails have a chocolate-brown head atop a slenderwhite neck, the white extending in a thin line onto thehead. The other easily-distinguishing characteristic is thelong, black central tail feathers that extend far beyond theend of the wedge-shaped tail. Females are difficult toidentify due to their resemblance to other brownishfemale ducks, but they have a longer, more pointed tailand longer neck than other ducks. The silhouette of aflying pintail is distinctive, with a long neck, slenderbody, and long, pointed wings. The dark green/bronzespeculum (trailing edge of the secondary wing feathers)bordered in white can sometimes be observed.

Breeding Cycle

Pintails begin leaving their winter grounds in late Januaryor early February. Pintails are among the first waterfowlto return to Alaska. They arrive on nesting areas in latespring: in late April in Fairbanks and in mid-May on theYukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Female pintails feed heavily on

invertebrates before and during egg-laying, then switchto a primarily vegetarian diet. Females select open areasfor their nests where vegetation is low or sparse. Theylay an average clutch of six eggs (range of one to 12)with an incubation period of 22-24 days. The females

lead the ducklings to water, sometimes over longdistances.

Young pintails feed almost exclusively on animal matter,with the percentage of plant material increasing as theducklings grow. Pintail ducks breed at the age of oneyear.

Molt Cycle

Male pintails begin flocking by mid-June while femalesare incubating eggs or tending the young. The malesmolt and are flightless by late June and early July. Flightfeathers are generally regained by early August. The wingmolt of females is delayed to coincide with the develop-ment of the young. Pintails build up into spectacularlylarge molting concentrations along the coastline of theBering and Chukchi Seas.

Breeding Grounds and Migration Routes

Pintails are widely distributed during the breedingseason. They nest both in Alaska and in northeasternAsia but are most abundant in the prairie pothole regionof northcentral U.S. and Canada.

In the fall, pintails stage in saltmarsh areas where they

7324

Breeding Population Estimates*

Northern _____ILPintail .._

10.000

9.000

111 40001 7,000

1,000

2 5,000'Id.0 '

1 000

I 3.0002.000

1,000

0

Nasal on Woodlre pals Mona *ON fa Vabalty loas

feed heavily on seeds of sattmarsh plants. The seeds arean important part of the diet because their high carbohy-drate content helps to provide the energy necessary formigration.

Pintails usually leave Alaska in late August or earlySeptember. An important migration corridor stretchesfrom near the tip of the Alaska Peninsula to the KlamathBasin in northern California. Pintails gather at IzembekLagoon and nearby concentration areas on the AlaskaPeninsula before using this corridor. A second corridorextends from the base of the Alaska Peninsula along thePacific Coast to Puget Sound; smaller migration corri-dors extend from interior Alaska to the interior of BritishColumbia and to northern Alberta.

Wintering Areas

The majority of pintails that breed in Alaska winter inCalifornia or further south in Mexico and northern SouthAmerica. Small numbers remain to winter in the AleutianIslands and Southeast Alaska.

Population Status

Pintails range further over the earth's surface than anyother type of waterfowl, being circumpolar in theirbreeding range and wintering as far south as Hawaii, thePhilippines, India, Columbia, and central Africa. Thepintail is the most abundant nesting dabbling duck inAlaska and is the second or third most abundant duck inNorth America behind mallards, and, depending onannual production, lesser scaup. It is also the mostabundant duck in the Pacific Flyway, with a significantportion raised in Alaska.

On the North American continent, pintail breeding

25

populations declined from 6.3 million in the 1970s to 3.8million in 1985. The decline continued to a low of 2.5million in 1989, the lowest since breeding groundsurveys began in 1955.

Factors Affecting Populations on theNesting Grounds

The major factor affecting pintail populations continent-wide is loss and degradation of habitatboth winter andbreeding habitat. While most of the breeding habitat inAlaska remains relatively productive, the draining andfilling of California Central Valley wetlands and farmingpractices which drain prairie pothole habitat continue.

Unprecedented drought in the mid-continental prairiesthroughout the 1980s dried up large numbers of pondsand made it easy for farmers to cultivate formerly wetareas. This long-term habitat loss has been particularlydevastating to pintails which prefer shallow, temporarywetlands which are vulnerable to drought.

Lack of rainfall in the prairie pothole area has historicallybeen a factor in reducing duck populations. Drought inthis region results in migrant pintails which "overfly" thearea and continue on to Alaska. However, managerssuspect that many of these birds do not breed success-fully because their fat reserves have been exhausted.

Widespread drought occurred in the prairie potholes inthe late 1980s. In 1986 and 1988, 46% and 61%,respectively, of the continent's surveyed pintail popula-tion was found in Alaska on the nesting grounds com-pared to 25% in an average year. However, the totalnumber of pintails in Alaska that arrived on the nestinggrounds remained fairly constant. These two statisticstaken together imply that while a greater percentage ofthe population came to Alaska during those drought

74

years, the total population continued to get smaller andsmaller. Production of young birds in Alaska did notappear to increase to compensate for the overall popula-tion losses.

In Alaska, a late spring and break-up can prevent ducksfrom foraging in the shallow waters of small lakes andponds. Early cold weather and accompanying ice condi-tions can eliminate the fall food resources in freshwaterareas.

Because they nest in open areas, the nests are vulnerableto predation from birds (gulls, crows, ravens, jaegers)and from mammals (foxes, coyotes).

Management Efforts on the Nesting Areas

Ten species of dabbling ducks are included in the NorthAmerican Waterfowl Management Plan. The Plan statesthat "continuing habitat degradation and loss since theearly 1960s have diminished the likelihood of thesepopulations recovering to former abundance withoutinnovative and intensive management on public andprivate lands, greater efforts to preserve existing habitat,

and changes in land use and agricultural practices onprivate lands." While the most severe impacts on nestinghabitat are occurring in the prairie pothole region,maintenance of breeding habitat in Alaska is also critical.In the plan, several areas of Alaska have been identifiedas waterfowl habitat areas of major concern for theUnited States and Canada.

Government agencies are seeking partnerships withprivate landowners and private organizations (such asDucks Unlimited) to set aside wetland habitats forwaterfowl production. They are seeking to protectmigration and wintering habitat by acquiring discreteareas of critical importance for long-term use by water-fowl. They are also trying to influence land-use practicesto benefit waterfowl.

Factors Affecting Populations on TheirMigration Route and Wintering Grounds

As described above, loss and degradation of winterhabitat is part of the reason for the decline of pintailsnationwide. The crowding of birds onto shrinking winterhabitat areas has contributed to mortality from diseaseoutbreaks and lead poisoning.

26

73

*

SUMMER AND WINTER

DISTRIIIMON ANDMMRATION ROUTES

NORTHERN PINTAIL

* SIAM &Wing GroundsFall and Spnng Staging Alas

A Wintering Grounds

488.Migration Route

27

I 6

Canvasback (Aythya valisinera)

Identification

Male canvasbacks are large diving ducks with an unmis-takable coloration of chestnut head and neck, blackchest, and whitish sides and belly. Their coloration issimilar to that of a redhead duck, which is less common,but the male canvasback has a sloping forehead andupper bill profile, and the bill is black (in contrast to therounded head of the redhead and multi-colored bill). Thefemale canvasback has the same profile and bill color asthe male and has a pale brown head and neck and palebrownish-gray back and sides.

Canvasbacks often feed in large flocks. Like other divingducks, canvasbacks dive for their food, to depths of 6 to30 feet, and feed while submerged.

Migrating flocks are fast-flying and form Vs or linos. Onfeeding grounds, they move in small compact flocks,their wings creating a loud whirring noise.

Breeding Cycle

Courtship begins in mid-February, with pair formationoccurring in late winter or during migration in earlyspring. The birds usually breed at the age of two years

and find a new mate each year. Most diving ducks arrivelir on their nesting areas by mid to late May in southwestand southcentral Alaska. They use larger, more perma-nent ponds for feeding, resting, and courting and use the

smaller, shallower, and less permanent ponds fornesting.

Canvasbacks nest in beds of bulrushes and reeds insloughs and marshes just above the surface of the water.Their clutch averages 7-9 eggs and the incubation periodranges from 24 to 28 days. Nesting females and youngducklings feed primarily on animal matter such as fish,insects (e.g., caddisfly larvae), and mollusks. Femalesmove the ducklings to different water bodies or throughmarshes to obtain the animal foods needed.

In contrast, adult mai., canvasbacks feed on plants. Assoon as the females begin incubating, the males with-draw into flocks by themselves and take no role inrearing the young. The young fledge at about 80 days inlate August in Alaska. Young birds may or may notmigrate with their parents.

Molt Cycle

The male canvasbacks molt in flocks on larger lakes andare flightless for about two weeks during mid-summer.

Breeding Areas

Canvasbacks are managed as two populations: aneastern population winters on the mid-Atlantic coastaround Chesapeake Bay, and a western populationwinters in California and Nevada. Birds that breed inAlaska belong to both populations.

28 7 7

CANVASBACK POPULATION INDEX (BPI)

May survey, Western Population

Canvasbacks breed throughout southwestern,southcentral, and interior Alaska near the larger anddeeper inland water bodies. Most of the canvasbacksthat winter in the Pacific Flyway breed in Alaska orAlberta. The largest breeding population in Alaska occurson the Yukon Flats. This area and the Old Crow Flats inYukon Territory contribute an estimated 90% of thewestern population of canvasbacks. The Tanana-Kuskokwim area is another important breeding area.

Fall Migration and Wintering Areas

During fall migration, adult females and young switch toplant foods in the fall. Like males, they feed on the roots,tubers, and the basal portions of underwater plants.Pintails favor the tubers of pond lilies and the seeds ofsedges and grasses, which they strain out of pond mud.

Adult males and young congregate in large flocks duringmigration, but females migrate in a more dispersedfashion and are not common at any particular location.

Western canvasbacks overwinter along the coast inshallow, enclosed estuaries. Some overwinter in Kodiakand the Aleutian Islands, in Cook Inlet (especially inKachemak Bay), and in Prince William Sound. Importantmigration stops for those migrating further south includeGreat Salt Lake marshes, Malheur National WildlifeRefuge (Oregon), Klamath Basin (Oregon), and theCarson Sink area in Nevada. San Francisco Bay is amajor overwintering area; smaller winter concentrationsoccur along the Pacific from British Columbia throughMexico. Eastern canvasbacks from interior Alaskamigrate across the continent to the Atlantic coast,though some winter along the Texas and Louisianacoasts.

Population Status

Despite their extensive distribution, canvasbacks havenever been very abundant. Populations have declinedsince the settlement of the western United States. Thewestern breeding population fluctuated between 76,000in 1961 and a high of 308,000 in 1990. The easternpopulation peaked at 589,000 in 1975, but has generallydeclined to 285,000 in 1990.

Factors Affecting Populations on theNesting Grounds

Similar to its effect on production of dabbling ducks, thetiming of break-up in Alaska affects productivity of divingducks. Late springs can delay nesting, and flooding candestroy eggs and young. However, the flooding in rivervalleys is also beneficial because it fertilizes ponds andproduces more food for waterfowl. Dry conditions canalso reduce productivity.

The loss of prairie pothole wetlands habitat to agricul-ture, draining, and fill is believed to be a major factor, ifnot &major factor, causing declines in canvasbackpopulations nationwide. Also, where the nesting groundsof canvasbacks and redhead ducks overlap, redheadducks are nest parasites, inserting their eggs intocanvasback nests for the canvasbacks to raisemuch tothe detriment of canvasback ducklings!

A major factor affecting canvasback populations is thedrought conditions which have recurred in recent yearsover much of their breeding range outside of Alaska. Thenumber of ponds declines, and larger wetlands arereduced in size during drought conditions. Canvasbacksare particularly vulnerable to dry habitat conditions

29 75

because the availability of overwater nesting cover isreduced and the nests are accessible to predators.

When drought conditions occur in the prairie region,canvasback migrants overfly the area and continue on toAlaska. Alaska breeding grounds remain a last strong-hold for prairie-nesting duck species that are vulnerableto recurrent drought and reduced breeding habitatelsewhere in their range.

In the North American Waterfowl Management Plan,several areas of Alaska have been identified as canvas-back habitat areas of major concern for the United Statesand Canada.

Factors Affecting Populations on TheirMigration Route and Wintering Areas

Canvasbacks have historically been a very sought-aftergame species. They were the prime target on the prairies

at a time when they were hunted for profit in the late1800s, largely because of their habit of gathering in largeconcentrations. Regulated hunting has reduced theharvest to a level which allows the population to sustainitself.

Wintering areas are being affected by wetland filling,pollution, and human disturbance.

Management Efforts on the MigrationRoute and Wintering Areas

Hunting regulations have been restrictive on canvas-backs since the late 1950s.

Canvasbacks are addressed in the North AmericanWaterfowl Management Plan. Measures to improve thequality and quantity of wintering habitat in the CentralValley of California would benefit the Pacific Flywaycanvasback population.

7:4

30

a

SUMMER AND WINTER \\DISTRIBUTION ANDMIGRATION ROUTES

CANVAS BACK

* Summer Breeding Grounds

Fag And Spring Staging Areas

Wintering Grounds

....Migration Route

31

S to

Tundra Swan (Cygnus columbianus)Tavo (Athabascan)

Identification

Tundra swans were formerly called whistling swans. Likeother swans, both male and female adult tundra swanshave identical all-white feathers, while the young are anash-grey color. Although less than 2/3 the size of thetrumpeter swan (the world's largest member of thewaterfowl family), tundra swans are often difficult todistinguish from their close relative. Adult tundra swansfrequently, but not always, have a yellow spot betweentheir black bill and eye. Their voice is different than thetrumpeter's deep horn-like note. Tundra swans have ahigher pitched, bark-like call, and they call more fre-quentty than trumpeters.

Breeding Cycle

Tundra swans often arrive on the nesting grounds beforethe snow has melted and begin nesting as soon as thespring thaw permits. They often return to traditionalnesting sites, selecting tundra areas and preferringnummocks on peninsulas and islands near water. Boththe male and female uproot plants in an area up to 15feet in diameter and form a nest mound 12 to 18 incheshigh from moss, grasses, and sedges in which thefemale lays an average of three to five eggs.

The male defends a territory around the nest. Unlike thepattern in ducks, both male and female parents shareincubation, nest care, and rearing of the young. During

incubation the male (called a cob) molts and is flightlessfor approximately one month. The young (called cygnets)hatch after 31-35 days, and the pair guard the cygnetsfor the next 8 to 12 weeks until they are ready to fledge.During this period, the female (called a pen) molts herfeathers.

Summer foods for the adult swans are leaves, seeds, andtubers of marsh plants such as horsetail, pondweeds,sedge, bulrush, and pond lily. They feed in shallow water,immersing their head and neck. They also graze themargins of lakes and ponds. Like most young waterfowl,the growing cygnets require aquatic invertebrates duringthe first few weeks then gradually shift to a plant diet.

Swans mate for life, usually as two-year-olds, but delaybreeding until their third, fourth, or even fifth year. If oneof a pair is lost, a new mate will be found before the nextbreeding season.

Masks Nesting Areas and Migration Routes

Two different populations nest in Alaska. These popula-tions nest and winter in different areas and little inter-change occurs between them. The western populationnests along the west coast of Alaska from KotzebueSound to the Alaska Peninsula, arriving from Californiawith an important staging stop at the Naknek River nearKing Salmon. The major breeding areas are the Yukon-Kuslcoinvim Delta, which they reach in late April to mid-June, and the Bristol Bay area. The eastern population

32 81

200 000

TUNDRA SWANS

Mid-Winter Population IndexTotal United States

150.000 -

100.000 -

50.0001967 1971 1975 1979 1983

nests primarily on the North Slope in Alaska and east-w:rd into the Canadian Arctic. They also nest westwardto the Seward Peninsula.

Fail Migration and Wintering Areas

As the tundra begins to freeze in late September orOctober, the swans begin their fall migration to theirwintering area, migrating as family groups or smallflocks. In the fall, they feed on lowbush cranberries andblueberries on the tundra.

The western population travels via two routes to theCentral Valley of California to spend the winter. One routeis along the Pacific Coast, while a second route headsinland through western Alberta, western Montana, andUtah before reaching California. Some non-migratoryswans remain to winter offshore of Unimak Island in theAleutian islands; small numbers winter all along thePacific Coast south to Baja California. The easternpopulation migrates across the continent through theCanadian prairie provinces, eastern Montana, and theDakotas to winter on the east coast of the United Statesin Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. Major concen-trations occur in Chesapeake Bay and the farm fields ofNorth Carolina. Tundra swans stop over in most prov-inces and northern states. Thus, tundra swans use allfour of the flyways in North America!

Population Status

The western population of tundra swans has fluctuatedmarkedly since the late 1960s but has increased duringthe late 1980s. The 1990 population estimate wassignificantly lower at 40,000 birds, compared to 79,000in 1989. The eastern population continued to slowlyincrease, a trend it has followed since the 1940s. The

1987

eastern population numbered about 90,000 in 1900. Theonly decline in wintering populations occurred in Mary-land, but populations increased further south in coastalNorth Carolina.

Factors Affecting Populations on theNesting Grounds

Timing of snow melt is a major factor influencingproductivity of tundra swans.

Survival of young to fledging is affected by severeweather, predator populations, and possibly diseases.

The breeding range of tundra swans is large, but withinthat range the breeding habitat is specific. For example,some birds select certain kinds of lakes with the rightcombination of aquatic plants. These specific habitatsmay be vulnerable to degradation due to their scarcity.

Management Efforts on the NestingGrounds

Wildlife managers in Alaska are working to identifytraditional tundra swan breeding areas and protect themfrom human activities with the potential to alter habitatand limit productivity. In western and northern Alaska.concern exists for the impacts of offshore and onshorepetroleum and mineral development. Onshore oil devel-opment in the Prudhoe Bay/ICuperuk areas and NationalPetroleum Reserve-Alaska are occurring in key breedingareas for the eastern tundra swan population.

Factors Affecting the Population duringMigration and on the Wintering Grounds

A subsistence harvest of swans occurs in Alaska and in

33 52

northern Canada. Since 1961, a limited recreationalharvest has been permitted in Utah, Nevada, Montana,and North Carolina. An experimental hunting seasonopened on the Seward Peninsula in Alaska for the firsttime in 1988. Permits were issued for the hunt and onlyone swan could be harvested per permit.

The subsistence harvest of swans occurs in westernAlaska and in Canada although the harvest is not legallypermitted. Other swans are killed by vandals. Wildlifemanagers estimate that 6,000-10,000 swans are killedannually in this unregulated harvest.

Population shifts have occurred in the wintering areas ofthe eastern population of swans, with fewer swanswintering in Chesapaake Bay and more swans winteringin coastal North Carolina. Threats to eastern winteringhabitat include the pollution of Chesapeake Bay andgrowing concern about damage to wheat crops in NorthCarolina, to seeded oyster beds in Virginia, and to

cranberry crops in New Jersey. Loss of traditionalwintering habitat may have contributed to the learnedbehavior of feeding on crops. Lead poisoning and oilspills have caused mortalities in eastern wintering areas.

Loss and degradation of wetland habitat in the CentralValley of California is a concern for the western popula-tion. Swans are also subject to die-offs from aviancholera in the western wintering areas. Winteringpopulations in Nevada, Utah, Idaho, and Washington aremore variable than those in California. Populations mayfluctuate in response to harsh winters and fluctuatingwater levels. Water allocations that provide priority foragriculture or other human uses can threaten winteringpopulations during periods of drought.

34

Lead poisoning, mainly from spent hunting shot, is achronic cause of mortality that affects both populationsin migration and wintering areas. Swans ingest the leadwhen they dig for roots and tubers of aquatic plants.

'33

?xi

SUMMER AND WINTER

DISTRIBUTION ANDMIGRATION ROUTES

TUNDRA SWANS EASTERN

POPULATION

* Summer Bleeding Grounds

;all and Spring Staging Areas

Wintering Grounds

iii.i. Migration Poute

35

S 4

r

0

SUMMER AND WINTERDISTRIBUTION AND

MIGRATION ROUTES

TUNDRA SWANS WESTERN

POPULATION

* Summer Breeding Grourds

Fall and Spring Staging Areas

Wintering Grounds

.... Migration Route

36

S 5

WESTERN SANDPIPER (Calidris mauri)Pereponchatopaly Pesochnik (Russian)

Identification

Sandpipers are a group of shorebirds which have long,slender bills and legs, short tails, and relatively long,pointed wings adapted for fast flight. Several sandpiperspecies nest in Alaska and, white they vary in size, theyare generally difficult to tell apart. They are most easilyidentified during spring and early summer when eachspecies displays its somewhat distinctive breedingplumage and engages in distinctive courtship displaysand calls.

At approximately 6 1/2 inches long and weighing 20.40grams, the western sandpiper is among the smallest ofthe shorebirds. It is closest in appearance to the leastsandpiper, but is more often observed with semipal-mated sandpipers in coastal and tundra habitats inAlaska. In breeding plumage, the heavily-patterned wingsand back of the western sandpiper are chestnut-tintedwith rusty highlights, and the crown of the head is rusty.The black legs of the western sandpiper are the majorfeature distinguishing the species from the least sand-piper which has yellowish-green legs. The westernsandpiper has distinct, arrow-shaped flank spots. Whilethe plumages vary seasonally, they are the same for maleand female birds.

Breedin: Grounds and Migration Routes

Western sandpipers are highly migratory. While theentire world population of western sandpiper migrates to

breed in Alaska during summer, they occur during otherseasons on both coasts and at many interior sites intemperate areas of North America and at coastal loca-tions in Central and South America.

The birds arrive in Alaska from their nearest majorstaging area in Vancouver Island, British Columbia in lateApril and early May. The long, rocky coastline providesfew feeding opportunities until they reach the CopperRiver Delta area in Alaska. Here, they make a criticalfueling stop to replenish their fat supplies after the longflight. The stop is especially important to these smallbirds.

Western sandpipers often arrive at the Copper RiverDelta in mixed flocks with other sandpipers and shore-birds and are among the some 20 million birds that usethis important staging area each year. The migration stopon the delta and tideflats between Controller Bay andOrca Inlet is short, however, and the entire migrationoccurs within a five-week period. Tt, ' birds feed duringboth rising and falling tides along Th.. tideline, probingfor clams and other invertebrates.

The birds continue along the coast of Alaska on to theYukon-Kuskokwim Delta and to northwestern Alaska.Some of them make intermediate stops at Fox River Flatsand Kachemak and Kamishak Bay wetlands in LowerCook Inlet.

Western sandpipers nest during late May and early June.The majority of the birds nest primarily from the Alaska

37 6 ti

Peninsula at Nelson Lagoon northward to the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Other smaller numbers nest along thecoasts of the Seward Peninsula, the coasts of the Beringand Chukchi seas to Barrow and Atkasook, and 50 milesinland along the Meade River. they also nest in north-eastern Siberia (northwest Chukchi Peninsula) and onNunivak, St. Matthew, and St. Lawrence Islands. Westernsandpipers select mainly drier, shrubby tundra areas(where they have some cover from predators) close tomarsh or mudflat feeding areas. A majority of birds arefaithful to nesting sites and use the same territory andeven the same nest cup in subsequent years.

While many larger sandpipers are polygamous anddisplay a variety of breeding patterns, most smallsandpipers such as the western sandpiper are monoga-mous. A male attracts a female by performing displaysover areas he claims and defends as his territory. Thefemale lays four eggs. The young are precocial, borndowny (vs. wiiNout feathers), and are able to maturequickly. Both the male and the female incubate the eggsfor 20-22 day;.. They both tend the young birds; how-ever, the female leaves the young before they fledge andthe male stays only until shortly after fledging.

Hatching coincides with the peak abundance of adultinsects, which provide the first foods for the young. Theyoung leave the nest within a few hours of hatching. Asthey grow, the young sandpipers forage for themselvesand shift to feeding on insect larvae. During the nestingperiod, adult birds probe the wet soil and muddy mar-gins of ponds, marshes, and sloughs in tundra areas,foraging for insect larvae (especially craneflies andmidges). They also capture spiders and beetles and feedin nearby intertidal areas for oligochaetes (marineworms), small clams, crustaceans, insect larvae, andmarine zooplankton.

Flocks of adults begin to form in late June as non-breeding birds gather. Flocks grow as birds which fail tobreed join them. These flocks move from tundra areas tocoastal mudflats, saitmarshes, sloughs, lakes, and riversduring July and begin migration southward. The firstsouthbound migrants may reach the 'lower 48" states byJuly 4. Juveniles remain in tundra nesting areas whileadults are forming flocks, then flock up later as theymove to coastal areas. The juvenile birds remain on thecoast until mid or late August and migrate south sepa-rately from the adults. Juveniles also probe shallow-water wet mud and sand habitats for a variety of insectlarvae, worms, crustaceans, and mollusks.

Birds from the eastern U.S.S.R. join Alaska birds on fallstaging areas on the extensive mudflat/saltmarsh areasof Kotzebue Sound, the northern Seward Peninsula, andNorton Sound. Two migration routes are followed: 1)birds nesting on the Bering Sea coast stage on mudflatsof the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and Alaska Peninsula,then migrate southeastward along the Pacific Coast ofNorth America; and 2) birds nesting farther nortn move

inland from the Chukchi Sea coast then eastward alongthe Beaufort coast and down the MacKenzie Riverdrainage south to the central plains and Gulf of Mexico.The fall migration lasts longer than the spring migrationand not all migrants use the same staging areas theyused during spring. In fall, large staging concentrationsoccur in southwestern Alaska and a large percentage ofthe fall migrants overfly or bypass the northern coasts ofthe Gulf of Alaska used during spring.

Wintering Areas

Western sandpipers winter in coastal mudflats andbeaches along both the west and east coasts of Northand South America. They winter along the Pacific Coastfrom southern Alaska south to the coastal wetlands ofnorthern California and as far south as Peru. The sand-pipers also winter along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexicocoasts from North Carolina south to Mexico, Columbia,Venezuela, and Surinam, in the West Indies. They feedon foods similar to those on their staging areas.

38

Population Status

Compared to waterfowl species which have traditionallybeen hunted, other migratory birds are rarely activelymanaged so their populations are not closely monitored.Scientists estimate the population of western sandpipersto be several million birds. As far as is known, thepopulation is relatively stable.

Factors Affecting the Population on theNesting Grounds

A variety of predators (including foxes, weasels, jaegers,and gulls) feed on eggs, young, and even adults on thebreeding grounds. Sandpipers and other shorebirds haveevolved a variety of defenses to distract the attention ofpredators from nests, including feigning a broken wingor crouching to simulate the movement of a rodent.Groups of birds also "mob" predators that move intonesting areas. When family groups feed away from thenest, the cryptically-colored chicks respond to alarmcalls from adults by squatting motionless in low-growingplants where they are difficult to see. Feeding in denseflocks also makes it more difficult for aerial predators topick off a single `ird.

Managers and conservationists are concerned about theeffects of oil development in arctic tundra habitats on avariety of birds that depend on wetland habitats forbreeding. The Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refugeincludes a major portion of the breeding habitat forwestern sandpipers and is especially critical for thisspecies. Western sandpipers are susceptible to offshoreoil spillage that could contaminate intertidal feedingareas or oil the birds directly.

Development of facilities for oil exploration and develop-ment or for other purposes in tundra wetlands generallyrequires dredging, filling, or diking of wetlands. Suchalterations would reduce the habitat available to westernsandpipers for breeding and foraging. Tundra wetlandsof the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta are of particular concernto this species because such a high percentage of itsbreeding occurs there.

Factors Affecting the Population DuringMigration

The major type of problem facing this species and othershorebird species was summarized by Joseph Jehl, Jr.,at the symposium "Shorebirds in Marine Environments"held in 1979: "Consider a bird programmed by 10,000years of postglacial evolution to hit a specific stagingarea after a flight of hundreds of miles. It arrives ex-hausted, fat reserves nearly gone, only to find what wasa slough a few months ago is now a parking lot. And noalternate sloughs are available."

While staging areas along the Atlantic and Pacific coastssouth of Alaska are in much greater danger of becomingaltered, another type of threat does exist for the CopperRiver Delta, a critical "bottleneck" during migration. Thebirds arrive at the Delta with few fat reserves and with noalternative staging areas nearby. The population literallyhas "all of its eggs in one basket," even though the eggs,at this time of year, have yet to be layed. The CopperRiver Delta is one of only five sites in North America thatsupport more than a million shorebirds each year (Gray'sHarbor, Washington; the Bay of Fundy, Canada; Chey-enne Bottoms, Kansas; and the beaches of Delaware Bay,New Jersey and Delaware are the other four).

The major marine shipment of oil from Alaska occurs inPrince William Sound south from the port of Valdez. Theeffects of an oil spill contaminating the Copper RiverDelta could have a very serious effect on the species,particularly if it occurred while the entire population wasconcentrated there dunng spring migration. The 1989Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill was carried by currentsaway from the Copper River Delta, but had winds shifted,the oil would have reached the staging area a few weeksor days before the birds arrived.

If birds come into contact with oil, the oil destroys theinsulative value of their feathers. As birds preen to cleantheir feathers, they ingest the highly toxic oil and arepoisoned. Oil which is stranded on beaches can smotherintertidal invertebrates or poison them through chroniccontact. Stranded oil can persist for many years inintertidal mudflats and marsh habitats. Scientists havestudied what western sandpipers eat on the Copper RiverDelta and found that a small intertidal bivalve clam,

Macoma balthica, Is a very important food Item. Theoclams occur very near the surface of mudflats, accessibleto the short bills of the small birds. The clam is thusvulnerable to smothering or poisoning by spilled oil,which comes ashore; experimental oilings have resultedin high mortality which increased with Increasing lengthof exposure. An oil spill which killed this important foodsource could result in high mortality among the sandpip-ers. But even levels of toxic oil compounds that didn't killfood items outright could cause harmful effects to thebirds over time as the birds consumed them.

The sandpipers are also vulnerable to oil spills or othertypes of pollution at other staging areas along theirmigration route.

Factors Affecting the Populations on theWintering Areas

39

Destruction or pollution of coastal wetlands wouldreduce the habitat available for wintering birds.

Management Efforts on the Breeding Areasand Migration Routes

The tideflats and wetlands of the Copper River Delta andFox River Flats in Cook Inlet have been designated stateCritical Habitat Areas which are managed to protect thehabitat. The value of the Copper River Delta for wildlifealso received special recognition in the Alaska NationalInterest Lands Act (ANILCA). Therefore, the ForestService, which manages the lands above the intertidalzone, manages these lands with a priority for wildlifeover cover uses.

In 1990, the Copper River Delta was recognized interna-tionally as a Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve dueto its critical nature as shorebird habitat. CheyenneBottoms, Kansas, an important staging area, and SanFrancisco Bay, California, an important wintering area,have the same designation. Designation as a site in thenetwork is a means for scientists and conservationists toencourage landowners to protect and manage the landfor shorebirds and to communicate with the landownersand land managers of other important sites for the samespecies of shorebirds. Areas it Panama which providewintering habitat for western sandpipers have beennominated as Ramsar sites, another protective designa-tion for wetlands of international importance.

Wildlife managers are beginning to actively manageNational Wildlife Refuge wetlands for shorebirds as wellas waterfowl. In those areas where water levels aremanipulated for irrigation and habitat, water levels can bedrawn down at critical times during migration to providesuitable habitat.

6J

SUMMER AND WINTERDISTMIUTION AND

MIGRATION ROUTES

WESTERN SANDPIPER

* Summer Breeding Grounds

Fah and *mg Staging Areas

lAhritenng Grounds

.00. Migration Route

4S

40

CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY BIRDS

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The management and conservation of migratory birds requires information about habitats used all along their migra-tory routes. These activities also require considerable cooperation among people. The long migratory routes of manybird species cross political lines of states, and countries. The birds depend on habitat areas managed by privatelandowners and public land managers who manage lands for a variety of purposes.

Scientists throughout the world have worked together in researching the life cycles and routes of migratory birds.They have also cooperatively monitored changes in the size of populations. All bird species have not received equalattention. Sp-des that are difficult to study and are not currently used by people in some way or threatened by humanactions have received less study. Finally, people have managed certain bird populations cooperatively to avoid fore-seeable declines or initiate action when major declines occurred that could be reversed by human actions.

People have acted to conserve migratory birds in five major ways.1) habitat preservation and enhancement2) regulation of development activities3) control of toxic pollutants4) harvest regulation5) propagation

In 1986, the United States and Canada adopted a North American Waterfowl Management Plan. This document is acomprehensive blueprint for the application of conservation measures to increase waterfowl populations to the higherlevels that have existed historically. Wetland habitat maintenance and improvement are the key elements of the plan.Commonly used conservation measures as well as new innovative measures will be needed if the goals of the plan areto be realized.

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41 :)V

Habitat Preservation and Enhancement

The section on Humans and Wetlands in Teacher Infor-mation Manual I generally describes the situation ofwetland habitat loss and the measures being taken torestore or protect wetland habitats. Many state andfederal refuges and state Critical Habitat Areas have beenestablished in Alaska specifically to protect habitat formigratory birds and other wetland-dependent wildlife.The passage of the Alaska National Interests LandConservation Act in 1980 placed several million acres innational wildlife refuges. Birds that breed in Alaska stageand winter in many of the more than 400 national wildliferefuges outside Alaska.

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Wetland losses have been substantial in some localizedareas of Alaska. Restoration of wetlands followingdevelopment has rarely been attempted. However, someefforts have been made to enhance habitat quality forwildlife. For example, artificial nest structures have beenconstructed on the Copper River Delta. Nesting duskyCanada geese now use the nest structures. Chicks fromartificial nests boost the declining productivity. Inanother case, Ducks Unlimited and the Alaska Depart-ment of Fish and Game have built artificial nestingislands in Palmer Hay Flats State Game Refuge. And, apond system was excavated in Creamer's Field StateGame Refuge, Fairbanks, to provide habitat for migrantsand nesting birds.

Because of the critical nature of Alaska's wetlands as thebreeding grounds for many migratory species, thesewetlands require protection. However, wetlands else-where must be protected as well. One of the mostsignificant problems facing waterfowl populations thatbreed in Alaska is the loss of wetland habitat in the lower48 where these populations winter. For example, by

1984, California had less than 10% of the wetlands it hadin 1850. An average of 5.4 thousand acres were de-stroyed each year in the Central Valley of Californiabetween 1939 and the mid-1980s. Over 60% of theducks, geese, and swans of the Pacific Flyway and many

other migrants to Alaska wintered in the Central Valley.Thirty-one and one-half percent of the Valley's wetlandswere lost during this period to agriculture and urban andindustrial development.

1131

CALIFORNIA WETLAND LOSS

WETLANDS. THOUSANDS OF ACRES

MIS 11101

The North American Waterfowl Management Planidentifies actions to restore and maintain habitats neededto achieve specific population goals for 29 species ofducks, five species of geese, and four species of swans.All but four of these duck species breed in Alaska. Theplan identifies priorities for habitat acquisition, mainte-nance, restoration, and rehabilitation. Seven habitat areasin Alaska are described as "of major concern": lzembekLagoon, upper Alaska Peninsula, Yukon-KuskokwimDelta, Upper Cook Inlet, Copper River Delta, Yukon Flats,and Teshekpuk Lake. The plan concludes with thefollowing call to action:

The major requirement for waterfowl conservation inNorth America is to influence land-use practice onextensive areas across the continent ... . The effortrequired to maintain and enhance waterfowl habitat inNorth America is beyond the capability of publicnatural resource agencies alone. Long-term solu-tions will require the coordinated action of govern-ments, private organizations, landowners, and othercitizens.

Regulation of Development Activities

Besides habitat loss or alteration that results from thefilling of wetlands, development activities can affectwildlife negatively in a variety of other ways. Theseinclude disturbance or harassment by people or byvehicles such as motorboats, airplanes, and helicopters;displacement; mortality due to accidents; entrapment inimpoundments or excavations; entanglement in fishingnets or debris; or collision with vehicles or structures.Migratory birds are especially vulnerable to harassmentby airplanes or helicopters flying over staging or breed-ing areas and to collisions with oowerlines or largeantenna systems placed perpendicular to their migrationroute. Diving ducks and seabirds are vulnerable toentanglement and drowning in submerged gillnets.

42 91

Knowledge about migratory birds and their habitatsimproved in large part dua to programs designed tostudy the likely environmental impacts of proposeddevelopment projects. For example, in Alaska, afterpotential offshore oil and gas leasing areas were identi-fied, researchers studied the migration routes, productiv-ity, and life histories of many shorebird and seabirdspecies that use saltwater wetlands as part of the OuterContinental Shelf Environmental Assessment Project.Researchers gathered similar types of information aspart of baseline studies related to oil and gas leasing inthe Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Information from theOuter Continental Shelf studies provided a basis forresponse measures to protect key habitat areas followingthe Exxon Valdez oil spill. Studies also document nega-tive impacts and provide a basis for measures to avoid orminimize impacts in the future. Examples of such studiesin Alaska are those in the Prudhoe Bay area where oil andgas development continues to occur ead in the areaaffected by the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

I

Federal laws (the National Environmental Flicy Act, theFish and Wildlife Coordination Act) and Alaska state laws(Anadromous Fish Stream Protection Act, Alaska CoastalManagement Act) require the involvement of fish andwildlife management agencies in the permitting of manydevelopment projects. These fish and wildlife manage-ment agencies, including the Alaska Department of Fishand Game and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, reviewproposed development projects and sometimes recom-mend that developers move projects to avoid importantwetland habitats or redesign them to avoid or minimizenegative impacts to wildlife. In some cases, they recom-mend that a project should not occur due to the potentialfor negative impacts to outweigh any positive benefitsthe project might provide.

In most cases, the fish and wildlife management agen-cies advise the regulatory agencies responsible for

permitting the projects. When projects are proposed onstate or federal refuges or other protected areas man-aged by fish and wildlife agencies, these agencies play aregulatory role.

Control of Toxic Pollutants

Some chemicals used by humans for one purpose canhave unfortunate side effects on migratory birds. Themost dramatic example is that of DDT, a pesticide usedto control mosquitoes and other insect "pests." Itswidespread use contributed to the decline of bald eaglepopulations in all states (except Alaska) to endangeredstatus. Other raptors, including the endangered sub-species of peregrine falcon that nests in Alaska, alsodeclined. DDT is a substance that "bio-accumulates,"reaching mere concentrated levels as it is incorporated athigher levels of the food chain. At higher concentrations,it causes thinning of bird egg shells which shatter duringincubation. Use of DDT has been banned in NorthAmerica, but its use continues in South America wheresome of Alaska's birds spend the winter.

Other agricultural chemicals that control undesirableweeds or insects have poisoned migrating waterfowl:dieldrin, aidrin, and parathion pesticides have been usedin the rice fields of Texas; heptachor and lindane Insecti-cides coat winter wheat seeds and have been fed uponby migrating geese in Oregon and Washington; anddiazinon pesticide has been used on golf courses. Geeseare especially vulnerable to chemical poisoning becausethey are attracted to farm fields and golf courses forfeeding. Many farmers have quit using these chemicalsor reduced their use, but in some areas no alternativesexist that will allow similar high levels of agriculturalproduction to continue.

The death of wetland birds also results from encounterswith petroleum and petroleum products. The transportand accidental spills of these substances pose a threat tomigratory birds who have no adaptive mechanisms toavoid spilled oil. Birds that encounter spilled oil die eitherwhen they lose buoyancy and drown, when they loseinsulation and die of hypothermia in cold waters, orwhen they preen to remove the oil and ingest the toxicoil. Birds which dive for their food are most vulnerable tomarine oil spills. Thus, deaths of diving seabirdsloons,grebes, and seaducksdominate the known mortality ofbirds that encountered oil spilled from the Exxon Valdeztanker. Migrants adapted for long flights, such as thesmall sandpipers, are less vulnerable to even large spillsbecause they fly over miles of open water betweenstaging areas without landing on the water. Spills thatcontaminate wetland staging areas could be devastatingto a variety of bird species. Because clean-up technologyis poorly developed, realistic regulation of oil transporta-tion that focuses on prevention of spills is best formigratory birds.

43 :I

In addition to the relatively rare events of catastrophicspills, numerous small spills and routine operations inoil-related facilities may result in chronic, low-levelcontamination of nearby wetlands. Chronic pollution alsoenters the food chain and may reduce productivity in thearea. In addition, oil drilling requires the use of drillingmuds that include highly toxic compounds. Disposal oftoxic drilling muds into reserve pits in the tundra wet-lands at Prudhoe Bay has reduced invertebrate popula-tions that are a food source for waterbirds. In someareas such as Prudhoe Bay, reinjection of the muds backinto the hole is an option that avoids contaminatingwetlands. In other areas, reinjection would contaminatethe groundwater and pose health hazards in drinkingwater supplies for humans.

A final class of pollutants that has caused die-offs inwaterfowl populations are heavy metals. Heavy metalcontamination in dc mnstream run-off of agriculturalirrigation waters has resulted in sharply-reduced produc-tivity on refuges in California and severs deformities inyoung birds. Researchers traced the cause to seleniumthat was in high concentrations in upstream farmlandsoils. Agricultural practices have been restricted to endthis contamination; however, the problem will continue inareas with similar types of soils or soils with other typesof heavy metal concentrations. Birds also die when theyencounter mining tailing waste ponds with high heavymetal concentrations.

Lead is another lethal pollutant that results from the useof lead-based shotgun ammunition by waterfowl hunters.In 1989, lead poisoning was estimated to kill as many as1 1/2 to 3 million waterfowl every year. Because shotgunloads consist of many small pellets, many of which missthe bird, thousands of lead pellets end up in the bottomsof wetlands and waterfowl hunting areas every year.Diving ducks (scaup, canvasback, and ring-neckedducks) are more likely to swallow lead pellets thandabblers. Ducks that feed on plants and invertebrates inthe water or on the surface of the bottom are less likelyto pick up lead shot that has settled to the bottom thansnow geese, swans, and ducks such as the pintail thatdig into the bottom for food. Bald eagles also suffer fromlead poisoning when they feed on ducks and geese thathave been poisoned by the shot.

Even after research established the link between the useof lead shot to losses of waterfowl from lead poisoning,changing the use of lead ammunition by hunters hasbeen a slow process. The Pacific Flyway Council adoptedcriteria for monitoring and reducing lead poisoning inwaterfowl in 1980. In 1985 and 1986, the Alaska Depart-ment of Fish and Game collected livers and gizzards frommallards and pintails harvested by hunters in Upper CookInlet and detected high levels of lead shot. A federalregulation bans the use of lead shot for waterfowlhunting nationwide after September 1,1991. An efficient

non-toxic steel shot substitute has been developed andan education effort is underway to help hunters switchtheir hunting techniques to compensate for the lessdense metal.

One mysterious case of waterfowl die-offs in Alaskaremained unsolved in 1990. Biologists saw birds dying inthe Eagle River Flats area near Anchorage in 1980. Overseveral years thousands of ducks and swans died. Thearea had been used by the military as an artillery rangesince World War II, but no similar die-offs were noted atother artillery ranges. Through studies, biologistseliminated disease as a likely cause. When scientists fedplants, water, or mud from the area to mallard ducidings,some of them died. When they placed birds in pens onthe flats, some of these also died. The birds first becamedisoriented, stumbling and walking in circles. Then theywent into convulsions, arching their heads and necksover their backs and doing somersaults before dying.Yet, scientists were unable to pinpoint any toxic sub-stance in the blood or flesh of birds that died. They nowsuspect that very low levels of chemical residues frombomb compounds are somehow the culprit in the deaths.They believe these toxic substances are in the water andthe mud.

Waterfowl Regulations

Waterfowl have traditionally been harvested for food. Ashuman populations have grown, breeding, migration, andwintering habitats have diminished. As the technologyfor harvest has improved, it has become increasinglynecessary to monitor numbers of breeding birds andproduction and regulate harvests all along the birds'migration path to ensure maintenance of healthy popula-tions.

In North America since 1952, states and provinces haveparticipated in flyway councils to cooperatively managewaterfowl harvests. Four flyway councils manage fourregions of the U.S. Each council management areaincludes several states and Canadian provinces withcommon boundaries. Areas managed by a councilinclude the entire migration route of species that migratein a north-south direction. Species that follow east-westroutes may cross flyway boundaries and receive man-agement attention and coordination from one or morecouncils. Alaskan representatives of the Alaska Depart-ment of Fish and Game and the U.S. Ash and WildlifeService participate as members of the Pacific FlywayCouncil. However, because the waterfowl that breed inAlaska migrate in all four flyways, Alaskan researchersand managers provide information to all four flywaycouncils. Information on production in Alaska is espe-cially important to the Central Flyway Council duringdrought years for the prairie-pothole area.

4493

PACIFIC FLYWAY

FLYWAY COUNCIL

Flyway councils meet annually to review populationinformation and to agree on a strategy for managing thefollowing year's harvest. They agree on the times andlengths of harvest seasons, the size of bag limits, and themethods hunters will be allowed to use. The migrationroute of each species is divided into several managementunits that correspond with different populations.

Council members base their recommendations on areview of information gathered by research biologistswho census waterfowl on the breeding grounds in Mayand June (to determine the number of birds returningfrom wintering areas), on the breeding grounds in July(to determine the number of young produced), and onthe wintering grounds following the hunting season.Most surveys are aerial surveys :4 specific "index" areasthat are counted year after year to provide a historicalcomparison. Some areas are also surveyed from theground (on foot) to correct aerial counts that may misssome birds or to measure productivity. When other typesof information are needed, researchers band birds on thebreeding grounds. Band returns provide additionalinformation about migration routes, use of specific areas,and causes of mortality.

Transect Surveys, N.A.

The illustration shows the areas and tensed Ines whenaerial surveys of adult birds (nesting pairs and non-nesting flocks) are conducted each year in Alaska. Brood,or productivity, surveys have also occurred in recentyears in Alaska, using low-level helicopter surveys inlow-density nesting areas and on-the-ground surveys inhigh-density nesting areas. Major banding efforts occuron many Alaska refuges to provide information onspecific management situations. These surveys indicatethat the timing of snow-melt and break-up in Alaska isone of the major determining factors of annual produc-tivity for the species the nest in the state. Short summerseasons prevent renesting if a nest fails and can meanthat late nesting birds cannot successfully fledge theiryoung by freeze-up.

Researchers combine information about adult breedersand non-breeders and the estimated rate of production(young fledged/ pair) to project the number of birds thatwill make up the "fall flight" between nesting and winter-ing areas. Members of the flyway councils use theseprojections to recommend hunting regulations to theSecretary of Interior who has the authority to adopt theminto law. The Alaska Board of Game also adopts theregulations. Both state and federal enforcement officialsare responsible for enforcing the laws.

Flyway council members also exchange information onwaterfowl research and management needs, law enforce-ment problems, and overall coordination among agen-cies, private groups and citizens. Technical committeesthat are part of the councils coordinate waterfowl census,banding, migration, and harvest studies. Finally, thecouncils develop management plans for individualspecies of waterfowl as needed. For over a decade, allfour councils have worked together to develop the NorthAmerican Waterfowl Management Plan adopted by theU.S. and Canada in 1986. Regulation of harvests is thesecond key element of this plan after habitat preservationand enhancement.

Control of Disease

Several diseases result in large-scale die-offs of water-fowl because they spread rapidly in areas where birds areconcentrated. The number of diseases and disease-breeding conditions are increasing due to the loss ofwetland habitat and the crowding of larger numbers ofbirds into smaller and smaller areas. Although millions ofwaterfowl die of disease each year, it ray be reiativelyunnoticeable because sick and dying birds seek coverand predators and scavengers consume the carcasses.

Avian cholera and avian botulism are two lethal diseasesthat are caused by bacteria. Viruses, fungi, and parasitesalso cause diseases and loss of waterfowl. Some viruses,in particular, are extremely deadly to waterfowl.

Managers seek to control disease by removing diseased

45 94

carcasses from the environment and disposing of themproperly, manipulating water levels, using scare devicesto keep healthy birds out of disease "hot spots," andusing insect control to slow the spread of diseases suchas avian pox which is spread by mosquitoes and flies.Plowing under unharvested grains and peanuts that arelikely to become moldy eliminates a source of fungi andmycotoxins.

Propagation

Propagation is a means to enhance or restore waterfowlpopulations that are at low levels. In Alaska, one exampleof propagation has been the captive-rearing of AleutianCanada geese, an endangered species that was reducedto only a few remnant populations on remote islandsuntil recovery efforts were begun.

46

Since 1986, trumpeter swan eggs have been transferredto Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin to help reintro-duce the species. Careful studies have ensured thatremoval v-mid not reduce production in Alaska and thatabandonnw t of nesting areas would be minimized. Theeggs have been hatched and the cygnets reared incaptivity in Minnesota and Michigan. In Wisconsin,young swans have been raised in natural wetland areaswith use of a swan surrogate mother (which is actually aperson in flotation waders inside a swan-like structurethat leads the cygnets around the lake to feed)! Thesestates hope to reestablish breeding pairs that migratewith natural populations. The eggs of peregrine falconsand bald eagles have also been removed from Alaskanests to hatch in captivity so that young birds can bereintroduced into areas where the species was formerlyplentiful in the northeast United States.

95

APPENDIX A

BIRD MIGRATION

In spring and autumn, the sky can become dark with countless birds flying between their breeding grounds andwintering grounds. This seasonal or periodic movement, called migration. Is not unique to birds. Various WOWspecies ranging in size from butterflies to whales are migratory. While most birds migrate, many, such as the ravenand chickadee, do not. The reasons for migration, the problems surr- ,rx it, and the management of migratorybirds will be explored here.

Why Do Birds Migrate?

The reason birds migrate can be explained only partially at this time. Several theories for migration have been identi-fied, and it is probably a combination of factors that stimulates birds to migrate.

One theory suggests that seasonal changes in weather which affect the availability of food and water cause birds tomigrate. Waterfowl obviously cannot feed in frozen lakes, and many insect-eating birds leave the north to winter inCentral America after feeding on the abundant arctic insects all summer.

A second theory links migration to genetic or inherited characteristics by suggesting that migration is an instinctivereturn to ancient habitat areas.

How Do Birds Migrate?

During migration, birds accomplish remarkable feats. For instance, the golden plover from Alaska flies across 3.000miles of open ocean to find tiny land spots of Hawaii; a ruby-throated hummingbird can fly as high as 21.000 feet;geese attain speeds of 50 mph; and greater shearwaters migrate 8.000 miles annually. The destinations of migratorybirds are as amazing as their flights. After a journey of 3,000 miles, the Tennessee warbler has been known to returnto the same tree in which, it nested the previous year.

Migratory methods are varied and fascinating. In addition to flying, some seabirds migrate by swimming; mountainquail migrate down mountain slopes in the winter to warmer altitudes (instead of flying to warmer latitudes).

Several senses and adaptations enable birds to migrate. Most migratory birds have very powerful flight muscles. Theyalso have a highly developed respiratory system, hollow bones. internal air sacs, and specialized body shapes. All ofthese features enable them to fly high, fast, and for long periods of time.

In addition, most birds have very sharp vision. This enables them to use distinct landmarks and the sun or stars asdirectional cues. Other helpful aids include an ability to see ultraviolet light, hear low-frequency sounds (like surfagainst a distant beach), detect the magnetic and gravitational fields of the earth, and sense weather frontal systemsand changes in barometric pressure. One or several of these aids may be used depending upon the species and theroute traveled.

When Do Birds Migrate?

Times of annual migrations vary. For instance, while many shorebirds begin their fall migration in early July, otherspecies, such as geese, do not begin until late fall. And *tile some birds have a leisurely migration schedule, othersfly swiftly to their destinations. In general, however, migrations in the fall are less hurried than in the spring. It isbelieved that spring migrations are faster because of the stimulus to breed and nest.

it 647

The time of day when migration occurs also varies. Ingeneral, most small birds migrate by night. Ducks andgeese may migrate both day and night. Observationsmade with telescopes focused on the full moon haveshown birds migrating over one area at a rate of 9,000birds per hour! Travel by night enables some of the smallbirds to avoid their enemies. In addition, by traveling atnight, birds can spend the day feeding and resting.

Day migrants include loons, cranes, gulls, hawks, andvultures. Soaring birds such as broad-winged hawksmigrate only during the day because they are dependentupon updrafts created by the sun.

Where Do Birds Migrate?

Migration can take birds from the arctic to Antarctica.While most species' journeys are not that long, manybirds, even small songbirds, do travel impressivedistances. This makes bird migration an internationalconcern. The availability of food, water and shelter arethe most important factors which determine where birdsmigrate. Many species of birds will seemingly travelseveral thousand miles out of their way but actually takethat route because of the avail?bility of food sources.

While general directions of flight are consistently fol-lowed by migrating birds, it is important to remember

that the term "migration route" does not mean an exact,specific route between wintering and breeding grounds.Routes tend to follow major habitat types, avoid crossingobstacles like mountain ranges, and provide the neces-sary food, water, and shelter. Migration routes tend tofollow a north-south path, but routes can also includeeast-west movements.

There appear to be four broad migration routes in NorthAmerica. For research And management purposes theseroutes are depicted as four distinct flyways: the AtlanticFlyway, the Mississippi Flyway, the Central Flyway andthe Pacific Flyway. Of these, the Mississippi route is themost used.

Difficulties Along the Way

Despite the many benefits of seasonal movement, anumber of problems can occur during migration. Migrat-ing birds are under considerable stress and use up agreat deal of energy in sustained flight. A sudden stormthat blows them off course or unusually cold weatherthat reduces their food supply can have disastrousresults. Stress also makes them more susceptible todisease, and some birds migrate in large flocks wheredisease can spread easily. Mother problem for migratorybirds is collisions with skyscrapers, picture windows,radio towers, and power lines.

Map of North American Flyways

48 97

Alteration of habitat along the flyways offers potentialbenefits as well as problems for migrating birds. Manymarshlands and other resting places for the travelingbirds have been converted to farmland. The birds mustfeed and rest to survive, so they often take advantage ofwheat or corn fields along the way.

These crops are a good food source, but many birdshave begun to delay their migrations, feeding for longperiods in areas with prime supplies. This not onlypresents a problem for the farmer but also for the birdswhich may suffer a higher incidence of disease or facesevere weather as the seasons change. The conversion ofland for many other uses such as housing or commercialdevelopment reduces the amount of food availableduring migration.

Migratory bird populations can also be seriously affectedby contact with pesticides. For many years DOT wasused to kill insects. Through the food chain process, DOTaccumulates in the bodies of birds and mammals. Forbirds, this can result in thin-shelled eggs, infertility, andsometimes death. While DOT is now banned in theUnited States, it is still used extensively in other parts ofthe world. Therefore, birds migrating to these areas arestill exposed to it.

Research and Management

A variety of research is currently being conducted toincrease our knowledge of bird migrations. Methodsused to collect migration data include direct observation,recordings of calls, bird banding, radio tracking, radarobservation, and laboratory studies involving orientation,navigation, and the physiology of migrating birds.

Of all these methods, however, bird banding has prob-ably yielded the most information. Bird benders trap or

49

net birds and place a metal band on each bird's leg. Eachband has a different number on it. This number, alongwith a description of the species of bird, Its age, sex anddate of banding, Is sent to the U.S. Ash and WildlifeService. After the banded bird is released, it may becaught again by benders, die of accident, disease, naturalcauses, or be shot by hunters. Information about therecapture or the band from the dead bird is then sent tothe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

By analyzing the reported bands, wildlife professionalscan tell where birds breed and winter, how long they live,and the times, lengths, and routes of their migration.Band recoveries provide valuable data for the biologiststo use when estimating the relative abundance of aparticular species in an area or population. The publiccan playa valuable role in this research by sending anybird band found to the address on the band: U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service Bird Banding Laboratory. Theinformation obtained from research provides valuablecontributions to the management of migratory birds.Some examples of how research dlta are used by w:' leexperts include how to combat disease outbreaks,change feeding patterns that are damaging to crops, andset harvest limits for migratory bird hunters.

Much of migratory bird management consists of makingsure that adequate habitat exists along the migrationroutes so birds can rest and feed. Hundreds of private,state, and federal wildlife refuges have been establishedto help meet these needs. Similar efforts are also con-ducted in other countries. This international effort iscrucial to the survival of migratory birds.

Research, habitat preservation and management, andinternational treaties ensure that migratory birds will behere for future generations.

From: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Issue Pac, MigratoryBirds.

APPENDIX B

0IMPORTANT LAWS CONCERNING

WETLANDS

Clean Water Act

Section 401 of the Clean Water Act requires states to develop water quality standards for all uses of the state's waters

that benefit society, such as public drinking water, maintenance of fish and aquatic life, and recreation. States must

establish minimum levels of various water quality characteristics necessary to maintain these uses. States review

federal permits raQuired under Sections 402 and 404 of the Act and certify that the activities will not result in viola-

tions of the state water quality standards. The Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation is responsible for

determining appropriate water quality standards and for reviewing permit applications for the purpose of certification.

Section 402 created the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) through which the Environmental

Protection Agency regulates pollutant discharges such as industrial wastes and sewage to wetlands, streams, and

other waters.

Section 404 regulates activities that would place dredged or fill materials in all "waters of the United States," which

include most wetlands. A permitting system is administered by the Army Corps of Engineers and overseen by the

Environmental Protection Agency. Examples of the types of activities which may require permits include road fills,

bank and shoreline protection projects, utility line crossings, and shoreline structures such as bulkheads and piers

requiring fill.

Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899

Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act regulates activities that alter the navigability of waterways, including oceans,

rivers, streams, and lakes. A permitting system is administered by the Army Corps of Engineers.

The Coastal Zone Management Act and Alaska Coastal Management Program

The Coastal Zone Management Act requires that states review and certify that proposed activities affecting the coastal

zone, including many activities in wetlands, will be consistent with environmental requirements imposed under state

law. The Alaska Coastal Management Program establishes the standards against which activities are reviewed and

includes standards for the maintenance of wetland functions.

Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act

The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act requires consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the state

agency which manages fish and wild& for all water use projects that might affect fish and wildlife populations or

habitats. As a result, these agencies review all Environmental ImpactStatements, Corps of Engineers permit applica-

tions, and other federal permits that affect wetlands and provide recommendations to mitigate the impacts to fish and

wildlife.

0 Fish Habitat Protection Permit Required (A.S. 16.05.870)

A permit from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game is required for activities that would affect streams, lakes, and

rivers that are important for the spawning, rearing, or migration of anadromous fish. Activities which require permits

95150

are those which would divert or use water; obstruct, pollute, or change the natural flow or bed; cr use of certain typesof equipment in the bed. The department reviews permit applications and assures protection of fish and wildlifebefore issuing the permit.

Emergency Wetlands Resource Act of 1986

The Emergency Wetlands Resource Act of 1986 provides for the collection of fees at national wildlife refuges. Thesefees and funds from the Lands and Water Conservation Act are deposited into the Migratory Bird Conservation Fundfor use in the acquisition of privately-owned wetlands. The act also directs the development of priority conservationplans to provide the framework, criteria, and guidance for identifying wetlands warranting priority attention foracquisition and to address wetlands as an important outdoor recreation resource.

Food Security Act of 1985

The Food Security Act of 1985, or Farm Bill, has several sections that promote acquisition of wetlands for protectionof fish and wildlife habitat. Easements and deed restrictions can be obtained for conservation purposes on landsowned by the Farmers Home Administration prior to resale. Wetlands on private lands can also be set aside in conser-vation easements in exchange for debt relief to landowners.

100

51

IMPORTANT LAWS CONCERNINGMIGRATORY BIRDS

Migratory Bird Treaty Act

The Migratory Bird Treaty Act and its amendments between the U.S. and foreign governments 1916 U.S. and GreatBritain (for Canada), 1936 U.S. and Nalco, 1973 Convention U.S. and Japan, and 1976 U.S. and U.S.S.R. providemandates for protecting and managing specks and critical habitats for species that migrate between the U.S. andforeign countries. The Act also provides the authority to control the taking, selling, transporting, and importing ofmigratory birds, their nests, eggs, parts, and products.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat -1972

This convention, known as the Ramsar Convention adopted in Renner, Iran, includes criteria for designatingwetlandsin this international category.

National Wildlife Refuges Act

The National Wildlife Refuges Act established the refuge system in 1903 primarily to conserve valuable habitat formigratory birds (especially waterfowl), large game animals, and endangered species. The national refuge systemincludes more than 430 units of land in 50 states, including 16 in Alaska.

0 North American Waterfowl Management Plan (1986)

The North American Waterfowl Management Plan provides general guidelines for waterfowl habitat protection andmanagement actions for 29 species of ducks, 27 populations of geese, and four species of swans. Waterfowl habitatareas of major concern are identified in the U.S. and Canada, including seven in Alaska (Irembek Lagoon, UpperAlaska Peninsula, Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Upper Cook Inlet, Copper River Delta, Yukon Flats, Teshekpuk Lake). Theplan has been signed by the United States and Canada.

t .1 1

52

APPENDIX C

REFERENCES

GENERAL REFERENCES

AlaskafildlieligaggLSKIth. 1989. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Public Communications Section. Box 2-

3000, Juneau, AK 99801. $10.00.

Belirose, F.C. 1976. DisisSimazamosaktlawki. Harrisburg, PA. Stackpole Press.

Adria Aaskirdiaabok. 1981. Arctic Audubon Society. Alaska Natural History Association.

Lincoln, F.C. 1979. faggithrunkth U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 16. USGPO S/N 0-274-535. $6.00.

Steinhart, P. 1987. Tracks in the Sky: %IMO% and Wetlands of the Paci Ilc Reny. Chronicle Books.

Timm, D. and D.E. Wesley, ed. 1987. Alaskisbapiffjaftesawagthydff. Harrisburg, PA. Stackpole Press.

BIRD FIELD GUIDES

Afigargadwitegeauktsua. 1975. (Arranged to accompany Peterson's field guide) Boston, MA. Houghton-

Mifflin Co.

Armstrong, R.H. atifiukkigikairdastAlaska. Alaska Northwest Publishers. $19.95.

Ehrlich, Dobkin, and Wheye. 1988. TheNew y or*, N.Y. Simon and Schuster.

Fidel rgadu jitakdasakunida 1983. National Geographic Society. $14.95 (Available from Alaska Natural

History Association).

Peterson, R.T. A Fisk! Guide to Western Birth. Boston.MA. Houghton-Mifflin Co.

Robbins, Bruun, and Zim. 1966. airthiaorthArnetha. New York, N.Y. Golden Press.

111,1,11.11 r r 1 0,11,k 0, io

BIRD CHECKLISTS AND BIRD- FINDING GUIDES AVAILABLE IN

ALASKA

21112111

agithiallikAbitalthiloka. Alaska Department of Fish and Game - Public Communications Section, Box 3-

2000, Juneau, Ak 99802 - $12.95.

Anchorage Audubon SoolotY, Inc.

Gbiallautalagalith. 1990. University of Alaska Museum. $AO.

53 1 2

butheastAlukt&GberldialfiLdratgadedayllafiggalifiggumant. 1979. National PS* Service. Alaska Natural History Associa-

tion. $.75.

usludandaahamagaadsingwalomeasin. 1986. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Wildlife

Conservation, Box 20, Douglas, Alaska.

Birds of Southeast Alaska: A Checklist. 1987. Alaska Natural History Association. $ 1.50.

Birds of the Chia! Valley. 1990. Haim Visitor Bureau, Box 518, Haim, AK 99827.

Southcoastal Alaska

V i 4.0 1,0,i I L1 I 11 1 II ,1 . 11 1,11 , I I 11 .1 . I . 1986. U.S. Ash and Wildlife Service.

BialitlifiaribmtAlaski. 1979. Anchorage Audubon Society, P.O. Box 1161, Anchorage, AK 99510.

BigroulahuaraiatimaLfacestAlaskaArlocklig. U.S. Forest Service, Chugach National Forest, 121 W.

Fireweed lane - Suite 205, Anchorage, AK 99503.

Birds of Kachemak Bay. Alaska (Pt. Pogibshi to Anchor Rived. 1983. Alaska Maritime NWR, 202 Pioneer Ave.,

Homer, AK 99603.

figlialuklenaalatiaoalAnalehlgeAaska. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Birds of Seward. Alaska. Seward Chamber of Commerce, Box 749, Seward; AK 99664.

Birchside Studios, Box 841, Homer, AK

99603 - $ 3.00.

Isleib, P. and B. Kessel. BisIssifitzfigrIbluitLoasizboralifilamSimaagIgn. 1989. Alaska Biological Paper

No. 14. University of Alaska Press.

Central Alaska

Bird Checklist for Denali National Park. 1980.

akatingSgiciajakgaLhabcpaLEalt Alaska Natural History Association. $ 2.00.

Bird list Kanuti National Wildlife Refer. U.S. Ash and Wildlife Service.

Birds of Interior Aiasm. 1990. University of Alaska Museum. $.60.

fkgradibilegialiatigoaMdfillaim Alaska. 1990. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Checklist of Birds of the Palmer Area. 1984. M.T. Bronson, Box 2176, Palmer, AK 99645.

Southwestern Alaska

Birds of Adakisland. Aleutian Island Unit. Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Rte. 1987. U.S. Ash and Wildlife

Service.

BialutIturibilaiatimall. 1973. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

54 tt.3

BirdsAuiaticusiands. Anchorage Audubon Society, P.O. Box 1161, Anchorage, AK 99510.

akkaiSLEatkland. City of St. Paul, Pouch 1, St. Paul, AK 99610.

Vi stern Alaska

Kessel, B. fidsottelesua2eninsla. University of Alaska Press. $34.95.

Addresses for ordering:

Alaska Natural History Association, Mail Order Services, 250 Cushman Street - Suite 1A, Fairbanks, AK 99701.

University of Alaska Museum, Sales Desk, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775.

University of Alaska Press, Signer's Hall, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Public Information Office, 1011 E. Tudor Ave., Anchorage, AK 99515 (also availablefrom individual refuges).

References for Species Accounts:

Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1986a. "Dabbling ducks life history and habitat requirements." Pp. 241-253 inLite Histories and Habitat Renuirements of Fish and %Ste. Alaska Habitat Management Guides. ADFG. Juneau, AK.

1986b. "Diving dicks life history and habitat requirements." Pp. 255 -269 in Lb Histories and Habitat Require-mentutigundjinfe. Alaska Habitat Management Guides. ADFG. Juneau, AK.

1986c. "Tundra swan life history and habitat requirements." Pp. 309-314 in life Histories and Habitat Require-ments ci Ash and WWI. Alaska Habitat Management Guides. ADFG. Juneau, AK.

Canadian Wildlife Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Set* 1989. 1969 status of waterfowl and fall flight forecast.

CamPbell. B.H. and H.J. Grine. 1987. Manaoenrrent oofIor forfor Dusky Canada oeel9e and their predators on theConner River Delta. Alaska. ADFG, Juneau, Ak.

Connors, P.G. 1984. Distribution and biology of semipalmated sandpipers and western sandpipers in Alaska. OCSEAPReport.

Comely, J.E., B.H. Campbell, and R.I. Jarvis. 1975. Productivity, mortality, and population status of Dusky Canadageese. Transcript. National Association of Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 50: pp. 540-548.

ffiniedannalitaydyback. Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Canada.

Rosenberg, D. and D. Timm. 1989. "Canada Geese." falatiggiLkidas. ADFG, Juneau, AK.

Sellers, R., D. Timm, N. Tankersley, and D. Rosenberg. 1989. "Swans." IdebakSedes. ADFG, Juneau, AK.

Senner, S.E. 1979. An evaluation of the Copper River Delta as critical habitat for migrating shorebirds. Studies inAvian Biology No. 2:131-145. pp. 131-145.

U.S. Dept. of Interior and Environment Canada. 1986. North American Waterfowl Management Plan.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Migratory Bird National Resource Plan for the Northern Pintail.

1985b. Migratory Bird National Resource Plan for the western population of canvasback.

55 104

1985c. Migratory Bird National Resource Plan for the dusky Canada goose.

- 1985d. Migratory bird national resource plan for the eastern population of tundra suns.

1989. Aleutian Canada Goose Recovery Team Report, 4/17/89.

Personal communications:

Garrett, Ron. USFWS Endangered Species Coordinator. Anchorage.

Rothe, Tom. ADFG Statewide Waterfowl Coordinator. Anchorage.

Gill, Robert Jr. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Senner, Stan. Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

Alaska Department of Ash and Game

Division of Wildlife ConservationP.O. Box 3-2000

Juneau, Alaska 99802-2000(907) 465-4190

U.S. Ash and Wildlife Service

Office of Resource Support1011 Tudor Road

Anchorage, Alaska 99503

(907) 786-3351

116

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE

0MOSQUITO

WETLAND CARDS

The following pages contain over 100 illustrations ofplants, invertebrates, fish, birds, and mammals foundin Alaska's wetlands. Each illustration is accompanied

by text describing the organism's traits, habitat, food

habits, and what eats it.

Upper elementary, junior high, and senior high schoolteachers can use the cards as is, or photocopy them.Primary teachers may choose to enlarge and use only

the illustrations for handouts, and use the informationfor reference and simplify it for young students.

BALD EAGLE

lt. s

I

Welled/Edam Marilyn Sigmas, Susie JudasWrism Mottled Canis: Suess Outdo sad MN GravesEditets: Janet A*, lewdly Feriae, Celina Met Karon lAcKibble, Cathy RailedProducible by Conde Mien, Beverly Fades, Cathy Itsrabeck, Rick Tomer, Anglin GraphicsArtie* by Ronne GraphicsPrided with Alaska State Duck Stamp Feeds

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Wetlands and Wildlife curriculum is a revision of two previous curriculum pick:ages which involved the hardwork and generous contributions of many individuals and their schools and organizations. Susan Oukian, AlaskaDepartment of Fish and Game, wrote, illustrated, and produced the original Alaska Wildlife Week materials on thistopic. Janet My and Bevery Wan, U.S. Fish and Mate Service, coordinated the project to develop and producethe liachasboarammcurriculum. We also wish to acknowledge the following individuals who participated inreview of development and review of theAllioduoiStilknateriab:

Parldpants la field test teacher weekdays:Amen: Dan Austin, Peggy Cowan, Nancy Davis, Susanne Eider, Ruth Heintz, Kris Hartnett, Kay Holmes,Yvonne MN, Kim Kiefer, Jim Lest, Betty Lyle, Vicky McLaughlin, Luann VcVey, Caryn Mercer, Karl Monagle,Kathleen O'Daniel, W. Reilly Richey, Shirley Walt:rushCraig Dan DeRoux (Hollis), Pauline Johnson (Klawodc), Nola Kathleen, Janice Lund, Clay Poindexter (Klawock),

Meg Spink (Thome Bay), Pat Thompson, Dee Ann Walker (Thom. Bp), Evelyn Wilibum (Port Protection),Scott Wilburn (Thome Bay), Sue Wdbum (Thome Bay)Ander*: Cami Dalton, Steve Hackett (Russian Mission), Mike Hansom, Gary Hoisten (Palmer), Pam Randies(Fairbanks), Larry Reed, Nancy Tankersley, Ann Wieland

Reviewers:Alaska Department of Ask and Game: Steve Elliott, Ellen Fritts, Colleen Matt, Nancy Ratner, Tom Rothe,Stan Senna, Sandra SonnichsenU.S. Fhb led tfildlife Simla: Gall Baker, David Dail, Robert Gill Jr., Rowan Gould, Bill Kirk, Robert Lady,Rosa Meehan, Vivian Mendenhall, Russell Oates, Phillip Schempf, Paul Schmidt, Connie Wassink

Other Coetribdors: Jay Bellinger, Moreno Blair, Steve Brener, Nancy Byers, Ellen Campbell, Mark Chase,Max Copenhagen, Tom Demeo, Sandy Frost, Dan Gibson, Amy Keeton, Paul Marks, Norm Matson, Russ Meserole,Pam Nelson, Betty 011,41o, Janet Schempf, Rave Shiro!, Candace Ward, Steve Young

EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY STATEMENT

Mud laws, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Alaska Department rit i' sh and Game regulations and policiesprohibit discrimination. Within all their public programs and activ10.1 no one will be discriminated against due torace, color, national origin, sex, age, or physical or mental handicap. if you believe you have been discriminatedagainst or want more information contact

Office of Equal OpportunityU.S. Department of Interior

1349 C Street NW

Washington, D.C. 20240

WETLAND CARDS

ObjectivesStudents will:1. Become familiar with wetlandspecies and their habitats

2. Learn Interrelationshipsamong spades

MethodStudents use Wetland Cards foractivities to become familiar withwetland species and habitat.

BackgroundOn the back of the Wetland Cardsare a description of the size,physical description, habitatpredators and food for eachspecies. Younger students mayuse fewer cards for the activities.

MaterialsWetland CardsContact paper to cover cards

ProcedureChoose enough cards to equalthe number of students. Choose

cards that relate to each other. Forinstance, you might choose a duckspecies, its food, and its predators.Give each student a Wetland Card.Each student should then learn abouthis/her species. For younger stu-dents, learning the name is sufficientEach student then introduces theirspecies and tells some informationabout It Older students should tellonly facts about their species, to seeif the other students can guess thespecies. (Several activities in eachTeacher's Guide require the use ofthe Wetland Cards.)

EvaluationCan students identify a species by itspicture? Can students Identify foodand habitat for main species? Canstudents identify Miff species andtheir habitats, foods and predators?

Extensions1. Tape or pin a card to eachstudent's back The student cannotlook at the cards on their back butcan ask other students Yes' or 'no'questions about their species untilthey guess coffectly. Or pin a card toone student at a time and have them

ask questions of the class as a

group.

2. Make 2 sets of cards to playthe game 'concentration.' One setshould be drawings of wildlife; theother set should be correspond-ing cards with the name andinformation about the wildlifespecies. NI cards are laid facedown. Students alternate turningtwo cards over at a time. When amatch is made (card with thename and the card with thecorrect picture) the student keepsthe pair.

3. Play food chain rummy. Thisgame has the same rules asrummy, but students must makea food chain (of three or fourcards, depending on the level ofthe students) to lay down.(Example: eeigrus, goose and fox- fox eats goose, goose eatsestrus; Information aboutfeeding habits is on the cards).When all the cards are gone, the

student with the most sets wins.

1. Ak

NNE Air is made up of several gases, including nitrogen), oxygen (21%), rare gases ((0.0%), and carbon dioxide

.03%).Air surrounds us, but we rank notice R.

Met The thin layer of air that blankds the earth makes theearth suitable for life, by providing the stigen and carbondioxide needed by Hying things, IN kipping heat from the sun,and by blocking out high intensity (ultraviolet) light rays thatare harmful to living things.Cesservallmi MMus: Burning of wood and fossil fuels (oil,pas, and coal), and other activities of people, can pollute theair. Polludai may be changing the earth's atmosphere andcould thus harm dimates and living things."case Whiz": Although the sky above us looks endless, theearth's atmosphere is actually very thin. On a scale model ofthe earth the size of an apple, the atmosphere would be thesame thickness as an apple skin.

2. Ws*

Trolls: Water molecules are made up of two atoms of hydro-gen and one atom of oxygen. Water is a solid (ice) at tem-peratures below freezing (32 F, 0 C), a liquid above this,becomes a gas at temperatures above 212 F (100 C).Osearmose: Water occurs in the air as clouds, rain, andsnow. It forms lakes, streams, rivers, and oceans. It alsooccurs in the soil and deep underground in the water table.Velvet AN living things need water for most life processes.Moat living things are made up of 70% water.Cmdorindk a Problems: Disposal of wastes in or near watersupplies, or in the air, can pollute water and make it poisonousto living thir.gs."Me Whiz' : Water cycles continuously from clouds to rainor snow to rivers, lakes, and oceans, then back to douds.Today we are using the same recycled water that dinosaursused thousands of years ago.

S. Sell

Truitt Rocks are made up of elements and compounds thatform solids under most of the conditions on earth. Wind andwater erosion champ rocks into fine sand and clay particles, thebasis of soils. Some soils are enriched by nutrients from decom-posed dents, animals, and other living things.Ossorreass: The earth Is made of soled and (in its cord moltenrock. Much of the land on earth Is cowed by soil, but differedkinds of soil occur, e.g. desert soils are mostly sand.Volvos: Moe plants require soil to wow. It provides them apiece to anchor, and la their source for minerals and water.Semenstles Problem Soil takes thousands of years to formfrom rocks and decomposition, but can be quickly washed orblown away by rains and wind.'lee Whir A teaspoon of soil may contain 3-10 Won micro-scopic orgar ems, as well as, hundreds of tiny invertebrateanimals.

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4. Sim

Traits: The sun is a dwarf, yellow star, essentially a very densebell of gases and dust Thermonuclear reactions in the sungive off tremendous amounts of heat and light energy. Thesun is about 100 times the size of the earth.Oemwrimees: The sun is located in the center of out solarsystem, 93 million milts from out planet, Earth. It takes lightfrom the sun eight minutes to ,mirth.Val Plants, and other

minutes)capture the energy in

sunlight and, through photosynthesis, store it in the form ofsugar. They, and all other living things, use this storedsunlight energy* to grow and reproduce.Coommatimi Problems: Pollution of the earth's atmospherewith chemicals made by people may change the amount andkinds of solar energy reaching the earth. This could changethe earth's climates, or allow more ultraviolet light (whichharms living things) to reach the earth's surface.°Geo *kV: The amount of solar energy striking the earthevery day is about 1.5 billion times greater than the amount ofelectricity generates each year in the United States.

5. lioe-Greeli Algae

Tatty Microscopic to several inches in length, single celled orin colonies of cells, can appear blue-green, brown, red, oryellow depending on pigments.Habitats: common in small ponds, lakes, estuaries, or in openocean. can occur in floating masses or attached to submergedrocks.Food: Make their own by photosynthesis.Eats. by: Protozoans, roundworms, segmented worms,WrinOtills. mites."Goo Wide: The Red Sea gets its name from the occasionalabundance of blue-green algae which is red. Blue-green algae,once considered a primitive plant, is now considered to bemore like bacteria and is classified with these simple organ-isms in a separate kingdom of living things, called eMonerans.

6. Diatoms

Trails: Mic:Jscopic, single-celled organisms that occurindividually or in colonies. These organisms are encased bytwo lens-like shells made of silica (a component of glass).Habitat Diatoms are the most abundant producers (photosyn-thetic organisms) in both fresh and salt water. Many are free-floating in water, while some live attached to submerged rocksor sticks, often giving these a very slick or slimy surface.Foot Make their own by photosynthesis.Edo by: Amoeba, small crustaceans, larvae of invertebrates,and fish.lin Mile: When these organisms die, their shells fall to thebottom of the sea. Large deposits formed over centuries arenow mined and the collected shells are used in industry asfiltering agents, insulators, in soundproofing, and in toemanufacture of some paints and varnishes.

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7. MN Also

Trails: Sipple -celled organisms capable of photosynthesis.They occur individually, in filaments, and in colonies. Thecells store food in the form of starch.MIK Often occur wherever water occurs. Some grow indamp or moist soil or in tree boric.Food: Make their own by photosynthesis.Mu by: Protozoans, roundworms, small crustaceans,certain mollusks, other aquatic invertebrates, fish, geeseducks, and other water birds."Gee Mir: Green algae were once considered a kind ofplant, but they did not have the same kinds of cells and do nothave specialized conducting tissues to mom water and foodfrom one pert of the organism to another. Today, mostbiologists classify green algae in the kingdom Trotista" - agroup that includes manu microscopic organisms.

I. Amoebas

Traits: Microscopic organisms that move and capture prey by'pseudopodia,' or flowing extensions of their bodies.Habitat Amoebas occur in both freshwater and saltwaterhabitats.Food: Amoebas prey on small organisms including otherprotozoans, bacteria, algae and diatoms.EMI by: Other protozoans."Gee Valk": certain kinds of amoebas cause diseases inpeople, such as amoebic dysentery. 'pseudopodia' means-false leer.

9. Flagellates 44

Traits: Microscopic, single-celled organisms with long, whip-like structures called flagella. Flagellates are a variety ofshapes and may be attached or free living. Phytoflagellatescontain pigments necessary for photosynthesis whilezooflagellates do not.Wait* Common free-living organisms in fresh and saltwater. Some are reunites on other organisms.Food: Phytollagellates produce their own food throughphotosynthesis, but zooflageNates feed on other microscopicorganismsEaten by: Zooplankton, small crustame, larvae of inverts-bratse, fish larvae."Gee Mir: Red tides, which occasionally cause the death ofthousands of fish, are caused by vast swarms of certain kindsof flagellates.

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10. I Balls

Trap: Microscopic single-celled organisms that have cilia(short, hair-like structures) which they use to move aroundand to capture food. Most ciliates have a all mouth, and allhave two kinds of all nudsi.Habitat Most ciliates are free swimming and live in fresh orsaltwater. Some kinds live inside of or attached to otherorganisms.Fool: Other small organisms including rotifers, protozoans,bacteria, algae, detritus, and diatoms. Some are parasites onOW organisms.Ma by: Protozoans, roundworms, segmented worms, andfish lame."Bo With": Certain dilates live in the digestive tracts ofhoofed mammals, like moose and caribou. The ciliates helpthese animals digest their foods. Up to 400,000 dilates maylive in a teaspoon (1 ml) of the digestive fluid of these mam-mals.

11. Bacteria Protist

Traits: Microscopic protist that may be round, rod-shaped orspiral.Habitat Some types of bacteria occur in every moist environ-ment a tablespoon of tundra soil may contain 1 billion ormore bacteria.Food: Mainly dead plant, fungi, and animal materials; somekinds of bacteria live as parasites of living things, and someare able to make their own food.Eaten by: Protozoans, some fungi."Bee Wide: Some bacteria are parasites and cause diseasesof plants, animals, or fungi; others live in the digestive tractsof animals and aid in digestion. Bacteria can survive longperiods of inactivity and unfavorable conditions. They are amajor decomposer in most ecosystems.

12. Fungi and Liciseas

Traits: Fungi are an entire kingdom of living things whichincludes mildews, morels, truffles, mushrooms, toadstools,shelf fungi, yeasts and molds. Lichens are made no of a fungiliving together with an algae or cyanobacteria. AI fungi obtainfood by absorbing it Many are extremely important asdecomposers. Microscopic to 12 inches.lirbItat Molds, mildews, and rusts: dead plants or wasteModals, on living plants or insects. Mushrooms: soil and litterof tundra and other habitats.Food: Mary feed on dead plant matsrials, while others live asparasites use plants or insects. Lichens make their own food.False by: Sprinotalls, bacteria, squirrels, lemmings, fungusgnats, nematodes, people eat several type of mushrooms.Bee Witt: ": Many fungi can stop functioning, then begin

activities when conditions are favorable to allow them to surviveIn harsh environments. some lichens have revived after 100years V dormancy.

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13. Haute lis

Trolls: Ground cover with distinctly jointed stems that growfrom an underground rhizome. 2 to 8 Inches (5-20 cm) high.HON* Wet, moist, and dry soils in forests, tundra andwetlands.Feed: Make their own by photosynthesis.Eau by: Bears, moose and grouse."Goo Sift": Horsetail stems contain silica (the element insand) so they can be used like a scouring brush to dean potsand pans. Horsetails were among the dominant plants whendinosaurs roamed the earth; many kinds grew to tree sizethen. Today, only one species grows over 6 1/2feet (2 m) tall.

14. leased

Trolls: Lc..g, flat leaves; flowers and seeds in round burr-likeclusters, 6 to 20 inches tel.HON* Deep or shdow water from alpine to lowland areu.Feat Make their own by photosynthesis.Eau by: Ducks, swans, sandhi,' cranes, common snipe, andmuskrats."Gee Mir: The shape of the flow heads give this plant itsname. Male and female flowers occur in separate bum on thesame plant

15. Edgiest

Trails: A marine (salt water) plant with slender, branched,green stems and leaves up to 30 inches (1.0 m) long withpualiel veins. Separate male and female flowers grow on thesame plant Stems up to 61/2 frmt (2m) long.HON* Shalow estuaries and lagoons around the world.Food: Make their own by photosynthesis.Eats by: Ducks, geese, fish, and a variety of marine inverte-brates including mollusks and crustaceans; also people."Goo Whiz": Digress is the primary food source of blackbruit on their staging areas and wintering grounds.

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16. Sedges

Trolls: Herbs with long, narrow leaves, with parallel veins,and solid, usually triangular stems. Vary from 1 to 30 inches(2.549 cm) in height. The tiny inconspicuous flowers growin dusters.billet Grows in shallow water, mud, or moist soil of freshor salt water wetlands.Feet Make their own by photosynthesis.MN br Caribou, muskoxen, ground squirrels, lemmings,voles, pose; also seedeating birds such as snowbuntinAlongspurs, and rosy finches."Gee W10": Th. long, narrow leaf shape of sedges reducesfraying by strong winds.

17. Pendent Grass

Trails: Aquatic grass with long, narrow leaves. Small, red-brown flowers occur in 1-7 tight clusters (spildets) at the topof a tall stalk Up to 36 inches (91 cm) tall.Habitat Grows in shallow water of wet tundra and alonglake shores and stream banks.Feet Maks their own by photosynthesis.Eaten by: gene, ducks, certain insects, snails, and otheraquatic invertebrates that at plants. A major spring foragefor brown and black bears."en IRV: Loons and grebes use the leaves and hollowstems of this grass to build nests that float on the water.Pendent grass also provides important cover for moltingduds and geese.

111. Cellos Grass

Traits: Herbaceous plants with long, narrow leaves, andsolid stems. Tiny, inconspicuous flowers grow in tightdusters. This mis-named sedge has tufts of white cotton-like bristles on the seeds.Habitat Wet tundra, muskegs, coastal wetlands, and streamor lake margins.Fest Make their own by photosynthesis.MN IN: Caribou, muskoxen, lemmings, voles, geese, andseed:ating birds such as longspurs, redpolls, and snow

it?ulaNntlik": The cotton-like seeds of these sedges aredispersed by the wind. Tussocks formed by cottongrassprovide shelter and nest sites for small tundra birds andmammals.

lib

lg. Mhos

Trait Aquatic plants with round leaves that have parallelveins. The tiny flowers have three greenish petals and grow industers along the sides of leaves.WINE Marshes, wet tundra, **Wks, Mon* bogs,and ponds in cool temperas, subarctic, and arctic regions.Feet Wm their own by photosynthesis.Esbe by Some aquatic invertebrates; seeds are Wen byseed-siting rds."Ilea late:

biRushes compete with other aquatic plants and

sometimes crowd out other species.

20. Agrimilere Grabs

Tulle: Wheat, rice, milo, oats, barley, posture grasses andother grains are actually types of grasses that once grew wild.They have narrow leaves, small green flowers, and round,hollow stems Grains have larger seeds than wild grasses dueto centuries of selection by farmers for the largest seeds andfastest growth.Pullet Grown by people in largo agriculture fields through-out the world in regions of moderate dilutes.Fast Wks their own by photosynthesis.Elbe by: Many waterfowl, including Pacific White-fronts andadding Canada geese eat shoots and seeds, especiallyduring migration and wintering. People world-wide dependupon grains for bread, cereal and other food."(be VW% Some National VAIdlife Refuges grow specialcrops of grains just for waterfowl to eat during winter.

21. Arrewgrass

Traits: M aquatic plant with long, narrow round leaves thatrise from a horizontal root The rounded fruits are looselyarranged along the stem. Maybe 4 to 35 inches UN, but theyare usually small. This plant contains small amounts ofquids.MN* Fresh or saltwater wetlands.Feet Make their own by photosynthesis.Mee Orr Ducks, geese, and some aquatic invertebrates."Gee Mite: The same species of arrowgrass that occur inAluka also grow in Canada, Europe, Asia and Siberia.

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22. Pamined

Trails: Aquatic plant with floating leeves, parallel veins,leaves submerged on young plants, long and narrow in mostspecies. Rowers in spike, 2 to 12 inches (5-30.5 cm) tall.NM Shallow to deep water in lakes and ponds through-out koala.had: Mate their own by photosynthesis.blue or Insect lame, snails, muskrat, waterfowl."ON Mr: Them are about 40 species of ponthveed inNorth America, almost all of which are important either asfood or shelter for animals.

o

to. Mare's Tall

Traits: Aquatic plants with 6 to 12 pale green leaves in awhorl (circle) around the stem, flowers grow between stemand leaf.MIMI In Alaska, one species grows in shallow runningwater, one in mountain streams, one kind grows in estuaries.Feet Make their own by photosynthesis.Mu or Ducks, certain sandpipers, and some aquaticinvertebrates.Nese Whiz ": Only a few species of mare's tail exists. Theyoccur in wetlands worldwide.

24. Ws* Mi Nolis

Traits: Aquatic plant with finely divided leaves that form acircle around the stem. Rowers grow on a spike that sticksabove water. Up to 6 inches (15cm) tall.Feed: Make their own by photosynthesis.MN* Grows in shallow, slow-moving or still waters.Edon kr Muskrats, ducks, and some shore birds."ON WAIT": the male flowers have larger petals than thefinale ones. Both male and female flowers occur on thesame plant

l a y

25. YelMw Peed Lily

Walk: Grows in water. A large plant with large, long-stemmed, heart - shaped floating leaves. Rowers large, 3 to 4inchn, and yellow. ROWOM have 7 to 9 petals.liaMMt Ponds and slow streams throughout most of Alaska.Bogs and muskegs except in western Alaska and north of theBrooks Range.Feet Make their own by photosynthesis.Eska Br Root eaten by muskrats, dudcs, and traditionally byAlaska *Iva"Gee twit": Seeds may be popped like popcorn, and servedas a carol or snack.

2$. Water Smartweed

Taft Aquatic plant with long petioles (small stem thatattaches leaf to main stem) on oblong, smooth edged leaves;net pettemed veins. Leaves often tinged with red; pink flowersgrow in dense spikes (upright cluster). leaves 3 inches (7.6cm) long, stem t: inches (38 cm) or more. The bases of theled petioles (called stipules) are paper-like, and wrap aroundthe stem.NOM Wetlands, ponds, and bogs.feet Make their own by photosynthesis.Edo by: Muskrats, moose, ducks, some aquatic inverte-brates."Gee Mb": This plant grows in wetlands of northern areasaround the world.

27. Madietwort

Trills: Aquatic plant with finely divided underwater leaves.The small flowers stick out of the water.Millet Ponds and lakes throughout Alaska.Fast Make their own by photosynthesis. Also feeds on smalinsects.Bin by: Ducks"ON Mr: Small air sacs (or bladders) on the underwaterNaves are traps for insects. When an insect touches thesensitive heirs outside the trap, the air sac pops open. Waterthen rushes in, carrying the unsuspecting insect into the trap.The bladderwort then digests the insect and uses the nutrientsfrom its body to grow dowers and new leaves.

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i

2$. Cattail

Trails: Tall plant with broad leaves and central reddish-brownspiky.Mild: Shallow water and marshes in Interior AlaskaFood: Makes their own by photosynthesisEaten by: Muskratslko 11W: Called 'the supermarket of the marsh,' all partscan be eaten by humans.

29. Sphagnum Moss

Traits: A primitive kind of plant, this soft-stemmed moss, hasfeather-like leaves that soak up and hold water. Thesemosses vary in color from white to green to pink.Habitat: Wet sites in coastal wetlands, muska9s, wet tundra,and forests. Often forms thick, spongy mats that cover largeUSU.Food: Make their own by photosynthesis.Edo by: Certain small invertebrate animals and microscopicorganism .

"Goo WOW: Sphagnum mosses have been used as asubstitute for gauze in surgical dressings, and as diaper liningby the Eskimos. Whitefronted geese use sphagnum mossesto build nests. Its anti-bacterial pr3perty makes it valuable fortreating wounds.

30. Sundew

Traits: Small plant vntil leaves covered with sticky glands.The flowers are small with five petals; up to 1 inch (2.5 cm)tall.Habitat Common in muskeg bogs.Food: Make their own by photosynthesis. Also feeds oninsects. Edo by: Unknown"OH Whiz": Sundew plants trap insects on their stickyleaves. The leaves dose around the trapped insect and digestit. The nitrogen and phosphorus in an insect's body arevaluable n l.ients that the sundew needs to produce itsflowers.

12o

Maek Marigold

Trolls: A herbaceous plant with shovel-shooed, net veinedleaves and showy yellow flowers. They grow 3-5 inches (I-13an)HON* Grows in wet and moist places.Fret Make their own by photosynthesis.Ealui W: Moose, muskrats, and some aquatic invertebrates."GEE Ole: Marsh marigolds are poisonous when raw, butare edible after careful boiling.

32. Marsh FIVONSW

Trails: A sprawling plant with woody rootstalk. Leaves aretoothed and in groups of 5 to 7 separate leaflets. Rowerspurplish-brown with 5 pointed petals.HaMlet Wry wet meadows, marshes, shallow me*, andalong streams.Fast Make their own by photosynthesis.Mu IF Unknown"Gel whiz": Also called Marsh Cinquefoil

33. WIN Iris

Trade: 12 - 24 inches (25 - 30 cm) tall with broad, grass -Cokeloves; parallel veins; thick, round flower stalk. ROWS have 3iarge purple violet petals.It Bogs, meadows, shorelines, and riverbanks.Food: Mske their own by photosynthesis.FAN Ily: Unknown, may be poisonous to most animas."Gee Mk": This plant is poisonous and causes yarding.

121.

$4. Bayberry

Tram Low-growing shrub with esr or penis**deciduous term Snwl, bellihapsd fters. The Milt is anedible berry. A member of the hseth or father fanik H0111*to 2-3 inches (5-7.5 an).Itablbt Grows on dry and moist Sell in alpine and lowlindtundra, twits, andFest Wks their own INFalse IF: Burs. voles, lemmings, plarmiasn. geese. Plata.and other birds.*Ilse Whin Barberry plants depend on fungi to help themobtain nutrients from the soil. They provide wows to thefungi in exchange.

35. Dwarf Birch

Trolls: A low shrub with smell, round deciduous Neva IA*and fermis flowers are on the same pkint and are in caldris.Up to 2 1/2 fest (0.8 cm) tall.Mittel; Moist and **alpine and lowland tundra.Feet Make their own by photosynthesis.Eaton W Ptarmigan, caribou, musician, and sledingbirds such as Wools, longspurs. and snow WO..Ilse NW: The low growth form of this shrub aloes It toavoid the wind and die adentage of warm soli Isnipentriss.its perennisi growth allows It to North* and reproduce despitethe short growing mason in tundra regions.

311. Willow

Try Willows are low to tall shrubs with deciduous lavaMost have long, narrow leaves. Them are mulls male andfemale plants.MIK In wetlands, forests and tundras throughout north-ern regions of the world. Most willows prefer moist or wetsites.Fist tab their own by photosynthesis.Eden hyllusk din, caribou, moose, snowshoe hams.Onto" mdpolls."tae WW1: Willow bark contains salicylic add, the actiningredient in aspirin. Willow bark was used as a psinidlier atleast 2400 years ago.

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37. Alder

Trails: Smooth, gray bark with horizontd lines (lenticels).Usually with groups of 3 - 9 slender-stalked, black or darkbrown cone-like fruits. Lest blades somednos finely toothed.NON* Grows on disturbed yew gravelly slopes, floodplains, landslides, and along streams and msrshes.Foot Make their own tN photosynthesis.EaMo IN: Deer and moose browse the twigs and leaves.Some birds ad the buds and seeds.IN Whir: Alder roots usually have root nodules which fixnitrogen from the air and enrich the soil. Excellent wood forsmoking fish, also carving, particularly spoons and rusks.

3$. Tamarack

balk: A small to medium size tree from 30 to 80 feet tall.Leaves are needles and are deciduous (shed in fall). Needlesare in dusters of 12 - 20 and tum yellow before Wino off.Dark-gray bark.Habitat Muskegs throughout central and parts of westernAlaska. Found with black spruce, white spruce, alder, andpaper birch.Food: Make their own by photosynthesis.Mu ly: Porcupines eat inner bark, red squirrels cut conesand seeds. Voles and some birds eat seeds."Gee Wklz": The only Alaska conifer shedding its leaves inwinter.

39. shore Rae (Lodgepole)

Traits: A low spreading or scrubby tree 20 to 40 feet tallTrunk 8 to 12 inches in diameter. Needles 1 to 2 inches long,2 per bundle. Sometimes grows as a shrub in poor soil.Habitat Open muskegs and along open lake shores inSoutheast Alaska. Intolerant of shade.Food: Make their own by photosynthesis.Elise ly: Seeds eaten by pine grosbeaks and squirrels.Porcupines eat bark. Deer browse younger trees."Gee WW: The shore pine, along with its close relative, thelodgepole pine, are the only true pines naturally found inAlaska.

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40. Meek Sprees

Tolle: Small evergreen tree 15 - 30 feet Often shrub-like.Short sparse branches often drooping. Needles are long,pointed, stiff, blue-green, and on all sides of twig. Twigscovered with very short reddish hairs.Habitat Cold wet bogs, muskegs, and lake margins through-out central, eastern, and southern Alaska.Food: Make their own by photorinthesis.Estee By: Moose and snowshoe hares will feed on the twigsunder starvation conditions. Red squirrels cut cones and atseeds."Gee With": Popular for Christmas trees.

41. Diving Beetle

Traits: Predaceous, aquatic insect. Larvae have a large head,long mandibles, and eight to ten abdominal segments. Adultsare oval-shaped and have legs with hair-like fringes. Length:1/32 to 13/4 inches (0.1-4.5 cm) long.Habitat Common in ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, and,estuaries.Food: Adults and larvae prey on aquatic insects, small fish,and tadpoles.Estee by: Fish, water birds, and water shrews."Gee Mgr: Diving beetles obtain air at the surface of thewater but can remain submerged for long periods of time bycarrying an air bubble underwater with them.

42. Wbirliglg Beetle

Traits: Aquatic insect. Adults are flat, oval-shaped and havetwo eyes on top of the had and two on the bottom. They aretriad( or greenish and often swim in circles together.I age: 1/8 to 1/3 inch, (0.3-0.8 cm).Habitat Common in ponds, lakes, and streams.Food: Insect larvae, small fish, tadpoles.Estee by: Rsh and waterbirds.lee With": Whirligig beetles can see underwater and abovewater at the same time.

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43. Water Boatman

Traits: Aquatic insect with front legs modified to formscoops and two long pairs of legs used for swimming. Thelarvae and adults look alike.HON* Margins of lakes, ponds and estuaries.Food: Algae, insect and crustacean larvae, detritus.Eaten by: Diving beetles, frogs, fish, waterfowl, and shorebirds."Oft Whiz": Water boatmen are like scuba divers They trapan air bubble under their wings at the water surface then usethis 'air tank' to breathe while diving underwater.

44. Water Strider

Traits: Insect with body and long legs covered with stiffwaterproof hair that allows the insect to 'skate" across thewater surface. Length: 1/8 to 3/4 inch (0.3-1.9 cm).Habitat Common in ponds and streams.Food: Small living or dead insects on the water surface.FAIN by: Fish, water birds, and water shrews."Gee Whiz": A water strider will sink and drown if the hairson its legs become wet and it cannot reach a place to dry out

45. Springtall

Trails: Small, wingless insect with chewing mouth parts, atube on the underside of the first abdominal segment, and atail-like forked organ (called a furcula) on the last abdominalsegment. The furcula is folded down under the body andreleased, springing the animal into the air.Habitat: Lives in soil, litter, decaying logs, and moss; a fewspecies live in trees.Food: Decaying materials, algae, lichens, pollen, and fungalspores.Mel by: Centipedes, ground beetles, spiders, shrews, birds."OM Whiz ": A springtail, 1/4 inch (6mm) in length, can jump3 to 4 inches (7.6-10.2 cm).

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41. Maylly

Trails insect with two to throe hair-like structures at the endof the abdomen. Adults hold their two pairs of wings uprightover their body when at rut Rear wings are smaller thanforswings.Habitat Larvae are common in clear, fast-flowing streams,lakes, and ponds.Fool: Larvae feed on diatoms, algae, and detritus; adultscannot feed because their mouth parts do not function.(also kr Diving beetles, frogs, fish, waterfowl, and shorebirds.°Geo Wide: Most adult mayflies live for only two to threedays; some live for just one to two hours.

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47. Maddly

Traits: 1/12 -1/8 inches long. Adults have 3 pairs of legs andare dark colored flies with broad wings and short legs. Larvaeare worm-like with a sucker at the end of their abdomen.Habitat Larvae live underwater attached to rocks and plantsin streams. Adults live around water.Food: Larvae feed on detritus (decaying plant and animalmatter). Adults feed on flower nectar and adult females suckblood from birds, mammals, and other animals.(also or Adults are eaten by swallows and dragonflies.Larvae eaten by fishes such as bladdish and dippers."Gee Wide: Female blackflies are vicious biters; males don'tbite.

48. Dragonfly

Traits: Adults 3/8 - 21/2 inches long. Long, narrow abdomen.They hold their wings at right angles to their body. Hind wingsbroader at base than forewings. Three pairs of legs, largeeyes, and four wings. Larvae have no visible gills at the baseof the abdomen.Habitat Larvae live on the bottom of streams and ponds oron aquatic plants. Adults live near water.Food: Larvae prey on mosquito larvae, snails, tadpoles andsmall fish. Adults prey on small flying insects includingmosquitos and blackflies.(also Sr: Slimy sculpin and other fishes. Swallows at adults.Dippers feed on larvae."Geo Wide: Adults catch mosquitos in the air with theirbasket-like legs.

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MI. Crassly

Nib: Long-legged insect that resemble a huge mosquito.They have one pair of clear wings and a small pair of knobs(called halters) on the beck.Habitat Larvae live in moist soil and decaying plants inforests. Some species live in the water.Food: Larva feed on algae and detritus; some prey on lameof other Insects. Some adults feed on flowers.Eaten by: Bats, shrews, insect-siting birds, including shorebirds and some waterfowl, centipedes, spiders, and otherinsect-edng invertebrates.`Obis Whir: Drumlin are able to develop slowly andresume development after long periods of cold and inactivity.Although aansflies look Ike giant mosquitos, they do notbite. Prey do, however, eat mosquitos.

50. CaddIsfly

Traits: Insect with aquatic larvae. Lam have hook-likestructures at the end of their abdomen, tiny Interne, andsome have feather-like gills. Adults have wings covered withhairs, long antennae, and when at rest hold their wings overtheir body like a roof.Habitat Larvae live in ponds, lakes, and streams.Food: Larvae feed on aquatic plants, algae, diatoms, smallcrustaceans, and aquatic insect larvae. Adults feed on flowernectar.EON by: Diving beetles, frogs, fish, waterfowl, and shorebirds"Gee Willi": Many larvae build casts In which to pupate.These cases may be made of leaves, twigs, sand grains,pebbles, or entirely of silk which the larvae produce frommodified salivary glands.

51. Damselfty

Traits: Insect with aquatic larva. Adults have four wings ofthe same size. They hold their wings in a raised position whenresting. Larvae have three visible gills at the base of theabdomen.Hablist Lame live on aquatic plants or on the bottom ofstreams and ponds. Adults five near water.Food: Larvae eat mosquito larvae, tadpoles, and small Ash.Adults prey on flying insects including midges and mosquitos.Filo by: Diving beetles, frogs, fish, waterfowl, and shorebirds"ON Whin Fossil records indicate that some prehistoricrelatives of damselflies had wingspreads of 27 inches (68.6cm).

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52. IllsoNs

Trails: Insect that have worm- like larvae and adult forms withscales and a long, tubular mouthpait (probosds) for sucking.Nast Mod lame ars aquatic and live in ponds, lakes,puddiss, and still water along rivers and strewnFoot LAMS food on algae, protozoans, and detritus. Adultmoles feed on flower nectar. Adult females suck blood frombirds and mammals.Ea Ms Ivy: Lame are food for other aquatic insects, fish, andwatsthirds. Adults are stun by dragonflies, fish, frogs,swallows shore birds, warblers, and bats."Asa Vflir: Male mosquitos pollinate flowers. Fern*mosquitos can carry art* microscopic organisms thatcause diseases in mammals and birds.

53. edge

Trails: Insect with aquatic larvae. Adults haw six long legs, along narrow abdomen, and one set of wings that are narrow atthe best. Mosquito-like appearance. Length: 318 to 1 ininches (1.0 -3.3 cm).Mat Lame live in water or wet moss; adults occur inswam over these habitats.Foot Some larvae feed on algae and plant material. Othersfilter microscopic organisms from the water, and some preyon other insects. Some adults feed on flower nectar andPolio.false by Ash and other aquatic animals, birds, shrews,ground beetles."Gee Mk": Adults often occur in huge swarms in theevening. Adults live for only 5-10 days. They do not bits.

I

54. Fatty Map

Traits: Crustacean that swim upside down; 20 segments inbody with appendages on the first 11-12 segments, eyes onstalks, no hard shell covering body. Length: 3/8 to 4 inches(1-10 cm).Habfiat: common in small ponds, springs, and meltwaterpools.food: Detritus, small crustaceans, rotifers, protozoans, algae,diatoms, and other plankton.Ealea by: Ducks, phalaropes, water shrews, diving beetles,other predaceous aquatic invertebrate, and fish."Ass WW": Foals am often mom abundant than males,and in some types no males are known and develop fromeggs that have never been fertilized.

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55. kapiliped

Trails: Crustacean with many legs, a hard exoskeleton, and abody compressed from side to side. The ryes of amphipodsare not on stalks (unlike shrimp).MIK Most live in saltwater, but many kinds occur infreshwater lakes and ponds.Feat Detritus, and small invertebrates.(atm IN: Ash, water birds, whales, and other aquaticpredators.NON Whir: Beech amphipods, sometimes called said fleas,are only 2 cm long, but they can leap 1.1 yards (1 m). That isfarther than any other organism of their size.

5$. Copepod

Trail': Crustacean with short, cylindrical bodies of tensegments. The first few segments behind the had haveappendages but none on the other segments. Length: 1/64to 1M Inch (0.3-3.1 mm).HAN* Common in both fresh and saltwater wetlands and atus.Feat Most filter detritus or algae from the water, but somecapture small zooplucton. Some copepods are parasites onthe gills of fish and large crustaceans.Edo by: Ash and other aquatic minis induding whales.

NON Although they are tin, copepods and other smallcrustaceans are the chief food of the largest animals on earth,blue whales.

57. Waist Flea

Traits: Crustacean with body compressed side to side, hardshell covering body but not head, uses second set of antennaeto swim. Microscopic to 1/5 inch (3mm).thillst Common in lakes, ponds and streams.Feet Alters detritus, protozoans, rotifers, small crustaceans,algae, diatoms, and other plankton from the water.Elbe Ducks, shore birds, diving beetles, other preda-ceous aquatic invertebrates and fish."Gee IRV: Females produce two kinds of eggs; thin-shelledeggs in the summer which develop without fertilization, andthick-shelled ones in winter which are fertilized by males.

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U. kW

Trans Mo losk with flat creeping foot, one-piece shill, andwell heed. Length: 1/2 to 5 Wm (1.3-12.7 cm).Ilablat Snails he on lend as as M wily. Most aquaticmils live on rocks on um* or silly bottoms, or on aquaticpion!' in either huh wrier or salt mar.Fat Most freshwater snits grue on algae, aquatic plants.detritus, and fungi. Some marree fans prey on other marineanimals, including other mollusks.hits 1 y: Crab:eons, fish, birds, and mammals.`Om Vellir: There are over 35.000 living species of Inds.

58. Mosel

Trails: Mollusk with two - valved shells hinged on one side,small head. compressed body. They attach themselves to asurface with Vissal threads' Ungth: 1/2 to 8 inches (1.3-20.3cm)Willa Pdtatched to rocks or wharf pilings in saltwater.Feed: Filter food particles including detritus, algal, protozo-ans, small crustaceans, and insect lame from the we*.IAN by: Snails, sea stars, certain fish, diving ducks, emperorgeese, shore bids, sea otters, and people."Gee Mk": Mussels are edible.

10. Clam

Trails: Mollusk with two-valved shells hinged on one side,small head, compressed body. Length: 1/2 to 8 inches (1.3-20.3 cm).Milk Varies by species. Some burrow in said of smoothNachos, or mud of boys and inlets; certain species burrow inrocks.Feet Alter food particles including detritus, algae, protozo-ans, small crustaceans, and insect larvae from the wily.Faits wf: Snails. Ise stars, certain fish, diving duds, em-peror geese, shore birds, sea otters, and people."Ore Wide: Clams can burrow very rapidly by extendingtheir loot' into the sand or mud, expanding the tip to act as aanchor, and pulling themselves down.

13u

Si. Rd Selma

Della Rai with an adipose fin, sly lugs spots on back andcaudal fin. Up to 30 inches (76 cm) long and 6 pounds

(214).HON* Adults Ns at sea but MOSS into freshwater to spawn.They mown in MN and river mouths. Young go to seashortly after leaving gravel spawning nes.Feet Copepods,sould, insects, amphipods, and small fish.Eats largerVi, seals, sea Ions, certain whales, boss,

bid MIK osprey,Ilse Me: Pink salmon are the smallest salmon. They arealso called humpback salmon because the breeding nabshave large humps on their backs.

62. Who Salmon

Trills: A large salmon reaching 24 - 35 inches (63 - 00 cm)and 6 - 12 lbs.(2.7 - 5.4 kg). Adipose fin, small black spots onthe beck and upper caudal fin. No spots on IOW lobe of tail.Have grey gums.Millet Adults live at sea but return to freshwater to spawn.They spawn in fast - flowing streams with gravel bottoms. Thefry remain in freshwater streams for 1- 2 years.sift Adult coho salmon prey on herring, sandlance, crusta-ceans, and other invertebrates. Young feed mostly on insectadults and lase.Elise . Eggs are eaten by grayling. Young are eaten byother salmon, grebes, and loons. Adults are eaten by orca andbeluga whales, eagles, bears, and humans."Gee 1111111r: Young coho salmon may spend up to five yearsin fresh water before going to sea.

13. Chun Samoa

Trolls This salmon species is 24 - 28 inches (60 - 70 cm) and10 -13 lbs. (4.5 - 6 II). Adipose fin, absence of spots onbody and fins; d fins, wept dorsal, have dark tips.Halal* Adults live at sea but move into fast-flowing freshwa-ter streams to spawn. Young to sea shortly after leaving thegravel and mature in estuaries.Feed: At sea, chum salmon feed on small crustaceans includ-ing copepods. euphausilds, amphipods, squid, crab larvae,young herring, and other fishes. During migration out to sosthe fry eat insects (including midge larvae and water fleas)and copepods.Nee Ily: Eggs are eaten by Arctic grayling. Young are eatenIN other salmon. Adults are eaten by orca and beluga whales,00111, bears, and humans.Ilse Mr: Known as 'dog salmon' and are a tradftionalsource of dried food for winter use as dog food. Some ChumSalmon swim 2,000 miles up the Yukon River to spawn.

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U. bins MissWalt Fish with an adipose fin that lade definite spots onback and W. Length to 25 Ind= (63.5 cm), weighs 4 to 8pounds (114.6 kg).NAM Adults Iva at se but *um to fresh war streams tospawn. Spawning is In drowns with fins pawl bottoms. Mtnhatching, young, or the fry, Me into kin where tiny remainfor one or two yaws before migrating to the sea.Feet Id se sockeye salmon eat squid, copspods, crusta-ceans, buds, and other small fish. Fri eat water Hess, insectlarne, coPePolls, and other kivertsbraNu * Sea, %AIN& WOK k bu. bald will, andpeople. Fry we eaten by fish-sting birds, such as mergowsand loons."Os Mel". Sodsys Salmon are the most abundant salmonin Alaska. They are also called red salmon.

II. Honing

balls: A medium -sized fish that grows 10 -15 inches (25 - 38cm). No lateral line, large mouth, no teeth or jaws, no adiposefin.Nast Lives mainly at sea and in estuaries. Spawns inshallow waters over eelgrass, kelp, or rocks. Young live inshallow bays, inlets, and channels before moving out todeeper waters.Fast Adults feed on copepods, amphipods, euphausiids,mollusks, lame, and sma ll fish. Young feed on copepods,invertebrate eggs, and diatoms.Eaten Ily: Chum salmon, loons, porpoises, beluga whales, andhumans."Ow Molt: A very important put of the food web?

N. traits Ckar

Trolls: A medium-sized fish up to 16.5 inches (42 cm) and 2.2.4.4 lb' (1- 2 kg). Adipose fin, small scales, largo pink to redspots on sides and beck.NON* Lives in Wes. Spawns in gravel of lake margins orshallow, quiet stream pools.Fast Insects, young fish, crustaceans, mollusks.Estes Ily: Young are eaten by other fishes. Adults eaten byhumans.lee IRV: Adults feed on salmon srnolts migrating to thesea.

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V. Pulls Drawling

T r o l l s : G r a i n s r e a c h 12 -14 I n d u s (30 - 3 5 c m ) a n d 1

(0.5 - 0.7 kg). Adiposs fin; large sd-lile dorsal fin;small mouth. Dorsal fin dotted with large iriducent red or

Pin* olloto.IlsblIst Cold, dad strums, lakes, and ponds. Spoors inshuns with sandy yawl bottom.Fos* WOK dwells, caddisfiles, uknon eggs, salmonsmogs. Was or shrews the MI ante the eastEON ly: Young sates by larger fish, loons, "'bag, andmammon. Adults are Wm by humans.6Sn Its Grayling nuke long migrations upstream tospawn M freshwater d inreams MMa.

N. Masa

Tuft Grows to 8 inches (20 cm). Lower jaw longer thanupper and curves upward, WOW body, forted tall, 18 - 23rays in anal fin, dorsal fin starts behind bus of pdvic fins.HAN* Adults hive at sae but *um to freshwaid stuns tospawn. They spawn in streams with coarse said and growlbattens. The fry are swept out to su and live in intrudes andnearshore wars.Fist Feed on copepods, phytoplankton, mysid shrimp,bands larvae, water fleas, worm MINK and otOnoulido-(ales Ilal Young eaten by salmon, seals, sea lions, and belugawhales. Spent bodies of spawned out sulachon can by gulls.eagles, and bears. Mutts eaten traditionally by Alaska Natives."See litlile: Also known as the candlefish because of itstraditional use as a candle when dried and fitted with a wick

N. *wawa Mb

Tralk: A fish with a long, fiat snout roar placement of dorsaland anal fins; large mouth with maw sharp teeth. Elongatedbody and head. Up to 52 inchu (133 cm) and 48Ibs. (22 kg).Habitat Adults live in deep freshwater almand rims inwinter, but urn and spend summers in shallow neushorewaters with dense emergent aquatic plants.Fast Mutts eat fish including stiddebadcs, blackfish, burbot,and young pike. They also feed on waterfowl, frogs, watershrews, rid insects. Young eat ooPoPods, water fleas, andinsects.Mu Dr Young oaten by adult pike and Alaska bladdish.Adults eaten by humans."pit Me: A 12 lb. Pike was found with a 4 lb. pike in itsstomach.

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70. IMMO

Tralts: A fish up to 00 inches ti c.:cm) long and 15 1/2 lbs.(34 kg). Large head. wide gill openings, 2 dorsal fins (modone long), small barbel on chin; rounded tail, no spines infins.Habitat Burbot live in deep waters of lakes and river. Theyspawn in moderately deep water with dean gravel and sandbottoms.Feat Adults feed mostly on fish but may also eat insectlarvae, mollusks, copepods, fish eggs, shrews. Young feed onstone' and mayfly larvae, other insects, and small fish.Eats 14: Young eaten by other fishes and humans."Gee OW: A single female Burbot can lay 1,000,000 egos,

71. Thies -splas Stickleback

Traits: Grows up to 4 inches (10 cm). Three sharp spines onbads, pelvic fin is a sharp spine, and spine in front of the analfin.Habitat Some adults overwinter in deep water of lakes andrivers, but move into shallow water with aquatic plants tospawn and teed during summer. Others live at sea and returnto estuaries and river mouths to spawn.Food: Copepods, water fleas, midges, rotifers, said shrimp,aquatic worms, mollusks. amphipods, leeches, planar*, andwater mites.Estee 1y: Salmon, Dolly Varden, loons. grebes. and mergan-sers. Mutt sticIdebacks will eat young stiddebede."Gee Stiddebadcs migrate to deep pools in streamsand ponds to prevent being frozen in the ice during the winter.They also have a high tolerance to low oxygen levels inshallow frozen lakes enabling them to survive where other fishcannot.

72. Nine-sples &Odds!**

Trans: Fish with nine spines in its dorsal (back) fin.Habit* Found in lakes and rivers; spends the winter in deepwater, then migrates to shallow water and tributaries tospawn.Fool: Midges, Water fleas, copepod:., ;:rustavians, and

aquatic insects.Eiden By: Arctic char, lake trout, grayling, loons, grebes.terns, gulls, mink, river otters, and people."Gee Whiz": Stiddebedcs can survive underneath the is inwinter because they migrate to deep water, and CM toleratewater with a very low oxygen content They an lock theirspines upright to prevent predators from swallowing them.

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73. nary kelp hi

Traits: A small fish that grows to 3 - 5 inches (7.5 - 12 cm).They have a large head, short lateral line ending below thesecond dorsal fin.Itablist Adults five in lakes and fast-moving streams. Theymove into shallow water to spawn.Feet Eat brae of flies, mayflies, caddisfies, dragonflies,amphipods, some eggs, and young fish.Edo tf: Grebes, loons, mergansers, and other fishes"Oee Mik": Male builds nest and defends eggs againstpredators

74. illeddlik

Traits: Fish with broad, flat heads, large dorsal and and finsplaced far beck on body, rounded tail, three rays in pelvic fin.Up to 12 inches (30.5 cm).Habitat Heavily vegetated lowland ponds and streams; movesupstream to spawn and into Op water for ovenvintering.Feet Copepods, water fleas. lame of sioneflies, mayflies,midges, and dragonflies. Also mollusks. segmented worms,and algae.Files by: River otters, mink, loons, grebes, terns, and people."Gee Blackfish are able to breathe air for shortperiods of time and have antifreeze in their blood that allowthem to tolerate icy cold water and survive partial freezing.

75. Whitefish

Traits: Fish with slender, rounded bodies, large scales, forkedtads, and small mouths with the upper jaw overlapping thelaver jaw.Habitat Lakes, streams, and estuariesFood: Mainly insects, induding Ian* mayflies, stoneffies,midges, dragonflies, and mosquitoes; also eggs and larvae ofother fish.Ealeei by lake trout, burbot arctic char, and people. Fry areeaten by fish-eating birds, such as mergansers and grebes.lee Whiz": Most whitefishes migrate long distances up anddown rivers between feeding and spawning grounds Somemigrate to saltwater feeding great but Own and overwinterin freshwater.

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79. Emperor Goose

Trails: Blue -gray geese with round body, rounded head, andshort, thick neck. The heed and back of neck are white. TheOra/ feathers on the beck and wings are edged with bends ofwhite and black. The face is often stained a rust color in thesummer.HON* Most nest in loose groups in wetlands within 5-15miles (8-24km) of the Bering So coast. They winter in theneershore waters and intertidal areas of the Aleutian Islands.Food: Cruses, sedges, and aquatic vegetation in summer andfall. In winter their foods include small invertebrate animalssuch as mussels, and some *pass and algae.bin * Foxes, gulls, bogus, ravens, and people."Goo Wide: Most emperor geese spend their entire life inAlaslor. Most winter in the Aleutians, but a few winter nearKodiak Island.

80. Castile!! COWS Goose

Trails: Large bird with webbed feet, black head and neck withdistinctive white °chin strap.' Cadders have black Ms, legs,and feet. This subspecies, the size of a mallard duck, is thesmallest type of Canada goose.Habitat Nests in the coastal wetlands of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. Winters in Oregon and California in wet-lands and agricultural areas.Foot During spring and summer cadders feed on grassesand sedges. In late summer and fall they also eat berries.During winter, wildgrasses and agricultural grains are theirmain foods.Eats, k Foxes, gulls, jaegers, ravens, and people."Gel Wide: The all of the cacIder is a short high-pitchedcackle. This is why it is called the 'cackling' Canada goose.

$1. Aleutian Canada Goose

Traits: Small goose with black head and neck marked withwhite °chin strap* from ear to ear. Broad white ring at base ofneck. Grey body.Habitat Nests on grassy slopes in Aleutian islands in sum-mer. Winters in western Oregon and northern California.Food: Eats shoots, roots, and seeds of grasses and sedges,bulbs, grain, berries, also insects, crustaceans, and mollusks.Eaten Br Foxes, bald eagles."Gee Wide: Rarest of all Canada geese. Were endangereddue to foxes that were released for fur farming, but arerecovering.

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62. Daly Condo Boole

Trolls: A medium-sized goose with black head and nickmarked with white 'chin strap' from ear to ear. Dark burstHabitat In summer, found in one great colony in sedgemarshes of the Copper River delta. Winters in Oregon alongWillamette River Vdey.Fart Shoots, roots, and seeds of grasses and saw, bulbs,grain, burls; also insects, autumns, and molusks.Oise Br Gulls, Mews. bold eagles, brown bear, coyotes,mink."Om %lilt% Nests only on the Copper River delta andwinters only in Oregon.

U. Tundra Swam

Traits: largo aquatic bird (6 - 7 ft. wingspan) with all-Odtsplumage and very long neck. Bright yellow spot on black bill.HaliNot Lowland tundra, small islands, ponds, lakes, riversduring summer. Winters mainly in California, Maryland, NorthCarolina, and Virginia.Food: Leaves, seeds, and underground roots of horsetails,pardoned, sedges ,rushes, pond Illy, and water milfoil. Youngwit invertebrates, then switch to plants.Eaten If: Adults eaten by foxes. Young eaten by foxes, minks,and gulls."Om WNW: Once paired, mates tend to stay together for life.

$4. Pintail

Traits: A large slender duck. Male has whits breast and brownheed with long pointed tail.Habitat In summer, grasslands, tundra, sandy flats, lakes,ponds, and marshes. Winters in salt and brackish watersalong coatFood: Eats 90% plant foods induding: seeds of sedges,grasses, pondweeds, smulweeds, and grain. Will eat aquaticinvertebrates, Insects.Eaten Pp Adults eaten by foxes, eagles, minks, and humans.Young eaten by gulls, japers, and toms."Aso Milt": Most widely distributed duck in North America.

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o

86. Oldequw

Trade: Stocky, diving duck with black and OM plump.Lug* Mete is 22 inches (56 cm) and ferule is 18 lutes(41 cm). The long tail of the mils is noticeeble during flightIthlitht: Ponds and lakes of lowland and alpine tundra inSWIM, at in winter.Foot Musselssea, dams, snails, and crustaceans we their mainfoods. In fresh water they also ad lame of midges,crenefiles, ceddisflies, and other insicts.MN IN: Eggs and young eaten by hots, vaults, gulls.IssOlfs,11x1 ravens.'Su Viliti: Num,* may dive deeper than any oew duck.They have been recorded at depths of 72-240 feet (73 m).

8$. Causebesk

Traits: A medium-sized duck with a forehesd that slopes to along black bill. Male hu dark reddish head and neck withwhitish beck and sides. Females are light brown.NUM* In summer, found in mushes, sloughs. and lakeswith shoreline plants. Winters in lekes, dvala, and aadvoatar

baYS.Food: Pondweeds and seeds

smel dof sedges, and hyoids, aquatic

invertebrates (especially l ams).Mu Sy: Adults leen by foxes, falcons, eagles, and humans.Young eaten by foxes, Yowls. Ind gulls."ON MC: Typical diving ducks: a* are located far beckon the body and wide apart, which is good for diving but poorfor walking.

87. Merganser

Traits: 16 - 27 inches (40 - 87.5 cm) and 1.75 - 3.51bs. (0.8 -1.6 kg). Long bill with sew-tooth edges; hooked tip; webbedfeet most have a crest on head; unable to take off from land.NANO Nests on ground (red4reasted) or in hole in treenear river, laka, or estuary. Winters along coast and on largeinland lakes and rivers of lower 48.Food: Stiddebacks, sc,ulpins, eels, eulachon, herring, black-fish, frogs, crustaceans, wok insects, and leeches.Eatho Pi: Foxes est adults on the nesting grounds. Youngeaten IN host, weeds, and gulls."Bee N: Mother mergansers will sometimes carry youngfrom nest to water In her bill.

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U. Grebe

Trans: 12 - 22 inches (30 - 55 cm) and 15 - 32 ounces (0.4 -0.9 kg). Sharp, pointed bill; lobed feet; dives underwater,unable to take off from land. Rarely seen on land or in flight.Habitat Nests on lakes and estuaries. Winters along coast ofNorth America in bays and estuaries.Food: Sticidobwks. sculpins, herring, dragonflies, damself-lies, water striders, water boatmen, caddisflies, diving andwhirligig beetles, crustaceans, frogs.Eaten By: Young are eaten by foxes, mink, weasels, ani gulls.Adults eaten by foxes and sometimes eagles."Gee Mir: Grebes at feathers? This if thought to protectstomach and intestines from sharp fish bones.

89. Loon

Trans: 23 - 36 inches (57.5 - 90 cm) in length and 4 -15 lbs.(1.8 - 6.8 kg). Sharp, pointed bill; webbed feet; large heavybody; dives underwater; unable to take off from land. Malesand females look the same. Five species in Alaska.Habitat Nests on freshwater lakes. Winters along coast toMexico.Food: Stiddebacks, sculpins, herring, sandlancs, youngsalmon, rockfish, flounders, and codfish. Also at leeches,snails, frogs, shrimp, amphipods, and aquatic insects.Eaten Or Young eaten by gulls, jaegers, and foxes. Adultssometimes eaten by foxes."Gee Whiz": Loons can dive to 240 feet and fly up to 60 milesper hour.

90. Phalarope

Traits: 6 - 9 inches (15 - 22.5 cm) long and 1- 2.5 oz. (28 -63 grams). A small dainty bird; straight thin bill (longer thanwidth of head); 4 lobed toes; often sits duck-like in water andspins in circles.Habitat Nests amidst grasses and sedges in wetlands. Bothred and red-necked phalaropes winter at sea, mainly insouthern hemisphere.Food: Eats plankton, mosquitoes, midges, blackflies,craneflies, tiny mollusks, amphipods, copepods, fairy shrimp,and other crustaceans.Eaten By: Adults eaten by foxes. Young eaten by foxes, gulls,and weasels."Gee Wide: Their native name "Nimishuruk" means "spins ina circle after the spinning motions that phalaropes use whilefeeding. Males incubate eggs and stay with the young.

14u

91. Western sandpiper

Traits: A small shorebird with black legs, longer bill, andreddish markings on the held.Habitat In summer, found on drier tundra. Winters alongcoast on tideflats.Food: Amphipods, small dams, worms, lams of dandiesand midges.Elise Pr Adults eaten by foxes, falcons, and japers. Youngeaten by foxes, gulls, ileum falcons, owls, and mewls."Gee Whiz": Travels as far south as Peru to spend the winter!

92. Samildil Crane

Traits: Large gray bird with long neck and legs, red skin oncrown, whitish chin, cheek and upper throatHabitat Lowland tundra, muskeg, and river bottoms insummer, migrates to plains and coast of Lower 48 duringwinter.Food: Shoots, roots, and seeds of wetland plants, lemmings,voles, insects, and frogs.Eaten by: Foxes, wolves; eggs eaten by issuers, gulls and

Inds."Gee Whiz": Some radio tapped sandhi!l cranes in Tennesseetraveled 363 miles (584 km) non-stop in 9.5 hours.

,ol AllakaW

93. Belted Kingfisher - Cetyle alcyon

Trails: Small chunky body; large head with crest; long sharplypointed bill; small legs and feet; two front toes joined to-gether; long tail.Habitat: Found along coast, rivers, lakes, ponds.Food: Sticklebacks, sculpin, bladdish, young salmon, herring,eulachon, minnows, frogs, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquaticinsects.Eaten Br Unknown"Gee Whiz": Digs burrow in bank above water.

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N. DIPPof

Trolls: 5 1/2 7 1/2 inches (14 - 19 cm); 1 5/8 oz. (50 gm).Plump, all-gray bird, short neck, short MN, short tail, and longtoes.Habllot hund along clear, fast- mowing streams throughoutAbele.Foot Lame of addisflies, stomas, mayflies, mosquitoes,midges, water stride's, water boabisn, protons divingbeetles; also dams, snits, smell fish fry and eggs.Mu ily: Sharpshinnsd hawk, mink, marten, smut, wolver-ine, and °calamity large fish.60se Wlilzu: Able to walk underwater by grasping bottomwith long toes.

95. Swallow

Traits: 4 3/4 8 1/2 inches (12 - 18 cm); 3/8 - 24 oz. (12 - 22gm). Slender body; long pointed wings; tiny bilt short lets andsmall feet moderately long tail - square, or slightly to deeplyforked.HON* Varies by species, but most live in open areas aroundlakes, ponds, and rivers.Foot Blackflim mosquitoes, civilities, mayflies, dragonflies,dalnulfills, aphids. beetles, wasps, bees, water boatmen.Ma Pr Hawks and falcons.lee With*: Catch almost all their food in flight

N. Simeon Gall

Traits: Large bird with pale grey wings and mantle. Light canbe seen through the white wing lips.Habitat Wetlands in hind's, forest, and coastal vas.Food: Mainly dead animals, eggs and young of other birds;also crustaceans, insects, and fish; gulls are scavengers.Eaten by: Foxes, weasels, bears, jaspers, and falcons.UGH !nit': Gulls can stand on ice and still keep warmbecause of a special arrangement of the blood vessels in theirlegs. The arteries surround the veins, so that the cold bloodreturning from the feet is warmed before reaching the gull'sbody.

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97.PorasMo Alger

Trolls: Seabird with strongly hooked bill and long, pointed,angled wings; long central tail feathers.Habitat Alpine and lowland tundra throughout Alaska: pelagic(at us) in winter.Fool: During summer, lingers prey on lemmings and smeltbirds and eat the eggs and young of geese, ducks, and shorebirds. In other seasons, they prey on anti sea birds and stealfish from large sea birds.Elise by: Eggs and young may be eaten by faxes, bears, andgulls."Gee Whiz": Japers migrate from tundra nesting areas towintering areas at sea in both the northern and southernhemispheres.

98. Snowy Owl

Traits: Sharply hooked bill, talons, large forward-WM NY's,and large, broad wings and tail. Snowy owls are the only a8-white owl; they have varied amounts of black speckling. 20-27inches, 3.5 - 4.5 lbs.Habitat: Coastal Lowland TundraFood: Mainly lemmings and other small mammals, such asmoles, shrews, ground squirrels, hares, and weasels.Eaten by: Humans"Gee Whiz": Snowy owls nest only when lemmings areabundant and migrate south only when lemmings are scarce.

99. Northern Harrier

Traits: 20 inches (50 cm); 12 - 20 oz (335 - MO grams).Large eyes; sharply hooked bill; talons; long tail; long wings;white rump patch.Habitat Found in open areas, particularly coastal and fresh-water wetlands. Nests throughout Alaska and winters fromLower 46 south to northern South America.Food: Voles, lemmings, frogs, dragonflies, sparrows, andsandpipers.Eaten Or Great horned owl"Goo Whtz": Locates prey by sound using curved, sound-reflecting facia! ruff.

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101 Mil Eagle

Trot* 30 43 inches (75 - 107 cm); 8 - 13 lbs. (3.8 - 5.9 kg).Large body, sharply hooked bill; lugs curved talons; roundedtail; brood wing& Adults have a white heed and tatHabitat Forested area along coast, lakes, and rivers; alsoalong coast in some treeless regions.Food: Waterfowl, small mammals, salmon, herring, dead anddying fish, mammals, or birds washed up along shorelines.blee Sy: Young occasionally eaten by ravens and magpie."Gee Whiz": Abundant in Alaska; endangered or threatenedeverywhere else in the United States.

101. Vole

Traits: Small mouse-like mammal with rounded nose, shorttail and legs, and long front teeth (incisors) for gnawing.Habitat Forests, shrublands, wetlands, and tundra.Food: Fresh green vegetables, seeds, roots, berries, mush-rooms, and other fungi.Eaten by: Coyotes, foxes, marten, weasels, hawks, owls,jaegers, sandhill cranes, gulls, and other predatory birds."Gee Mar: These animals are important to many plantsbecause they help scatter seeds and spores of mycorrhinlfungi. The tunnels they dig in leaf litter and soils help allowthe soil to absorb water and air and provide crevices in whichsmall soil animals can live.

I

102. Lemming

Trails: Small mouse-like animal with thick neck and short tail;two gnawing teeth (incisors) on upper and lower OW sepa-rated by P. spacs from cheek teeth.Habitat: Alpine and lowland tundra and muskegs.Food: Shoots and leaves of grasses and sedges and bark,twigs and buds of willow and dwarf birch. Insects, berries,and fungi are occadionally eaten.Files by: Owls, lagers, gulls, arctic foxes, and weasels."Gee Whlz": Collared lemmings turn white in the winter andgrow shovel-like claws for digging through snow and ice.

144

103. Skew

Traits: Small mammal with long, pointed nose, sharp teeth,short legs, and long tail.Habitat Forests, shrublands, wetlands and tundra.Food: Insects such as springtails, beetles, and fly larvae; alsocentipedes, mites, worms, spiders, roundworms, eggs andyoung of small ground nesting birds, and young voles.Eaton by: Weasels, marten, foxes, owls, kestrels, lepers, andshrikes."Om Whiz": Shrews live under the snow and remain activethroughout the winter.

104. Mink

Traits: Mammals with large canine teeth, a long, slenderbody, short legs, and long round tail covered with densebrown fur. Feet not webbed. Length: 17 to 26 inches (43.2-66cm). Weight 11/4 to 3 pounds (0.5-1.4 kg).Habitat Streams, lakes, marshes, inlets. estuaries.Food: Muskrats, voles, lemmings, eggs, and young of ducks,geese and shorebirds, fish, frogs, mussels, and aquaticinsects.(also by: Hawks, owls, lynx, foxes, coyotes, and wolves."Gee Whiz": Like all other weasels, mink have an anal scentgland which produces a strong odor.

105. Muskrat

Traits: Brownish rat-like mammal, 1C to 25 inches (40.6- 63.5cm) in length; long, naked tail, flattened side to side with shorthairs, hind feet webbed. Two gnawing teeth (incisors) onupper and lower jaw separated by space from cheek teeth.Weight 13/4 to 3 1/2 pounds (0.6-1.6 kg).Habitat Ponds, lakes, marshes, estuaries.Food: Mainly aquatic plants including bulrushes, water lilies,and pordweeds; occasionally mussels, frogs and fish.Eaton by: Hawks, owls, and occasionally foxes, coyotes andmink."Gee Whiz": During winter, muskrats spend much of theirtime under the ice. They maintain holes through the ice, called'pushups' for breathing and as feeding sites.

145

106. Rem

Traits: Small mammal with long incisors, webbed feet, andlong flat tail.Habitat Slow-moving streams or lakes, usually near willow,aspen or other deciduous trees and shrubs.Food: The cambium Omar bark) of wNlow, aspen, cottonwoodtrees, and shrubs; also aquatic plants.Eats by: Wolves, lynx, wolverines, beers, and people."Gee %VW: Beavers change their environment to suit theirneeds by constructing large dams and by building lodges.People are the only animals that make greater changes in theirenvironment

107. River Otter

Traits: Furbearing mammal with large wine teeth, longslender body, short legs, four webbed feet, and a long tailcovered with dense fur.HAWK Streams, rivers, large lakes, and along sea coasts.Food: Fish induding rockfish, blackftsh, sculpins, suckers;also frogs, aquatic invIebrates, and occasionally birds andsmall mammals.(she Occasionally taken by lynx, coyotes, and wolves."Gee watt: River otters can dive 60 felt (18.3 m) below thewater surface and can stay underwater for up to 4 minutes.

108. Brown Bear

Traits: Heavy-set mammal with short tail, long snout, canineteeth, large hump on shoulders, long claws on forefeet walkson heels rather than toes; brown fur. 6-7ft., 300-1,153 lbs.Habitat Tundra and forests throughout Alaska.Food: In spring, over-wintered berries, roots, and freshgrasses and herbs; during summer and fall berries areimportant. Brown bears also kill and eat small mammals,caribou, moose, salmon and feed on carrion.Eaten by: Other brown bears"Gee Whiz": Brown bears survive winter by remainingdormant in an underground den.

146

149. Moose

Traits: Large hoofed mammal, long legs, drooping nose,large palmate antlers on male in fall.Habitat Prefers tall shrub thickets that grow 10 to 20 yearsafter a fire or other disturbance and thickets along rivers;also seeks shelter in forests, particularly during winters withheavy snowfall.Foot Browses on woody vegetation, especially willow, birch,and aspen. In spring, grasses, sedges, horsetails. andaquatic plants.Eaten br Wolves, brown bears, and people."Gas Whiz": A moose depends upon bacteria and othermicroscopic organisms that live in its digestive tract to helpit get energy and minerals from its fowls.

110. Cariboo

Traits: Moderately sized hoofed mammal, ears and tail short,mane on neck antlers large and variable with forwardprojecting brow tines.Habitat Tundra and open coniferous forest.Food: Grasses, sedges, lichens, mosses, leaves of willowand birch.Eater by: Wolves, bear, lynx. people."Gee Whiz": Both male and female caribou have antlers.

111. Red Fox

Traits: 35 - 44 inches (900 -1,117 mm); 8 - 15 lbs. (3.6 -6.8 kg). Dog-like mammal; 5 toes on front, 4 on hind feetcanine teeth; red to black fur, holds tail straight out whenrunning.Habitat Muskegs, shrub areas, wet tundra, river and streamcorridors.Food: Voles, lemmings, snowshoe hares, muskrats, berries,insects, carrion from kills by larger carnivores, nesting/molting ducks, geese and other birds, and young birds.Eats. Ily: Wolves, coyotes, lynx, wolverines. Eagles prey onyoung foxes."Gee Whit': Foxes cache excess food when hunting is good.

147

112. Aretle Fox

Traits: Dog-like mammal, five toes on front, four on hind feet,blue-gray to yellcwobrown fur in summer, white in winter, tailheld straight out when running.Habitat Wetlands, dry tundra, and pack ice in winter.Food: Lemmings, voles, hares, birds and their eggs. blackWant, adding Canada goose. emperor goose, Pacific white-fronted goose. fish, including burbot, char and arctic cod, andcarrion from kills of larger animals.Estee by: Occasionally taken by wolves, wolverines, andbears. Snowy owls may take young foxes."Gee YAW: Arctic faces WON introduced to the AleutianIslands by people for fur harvest These introduced predatorscaused declines in the populations of several seabirds, andthe Aleutian Canada Goose. These birds did not have theadaptations necessary to avoid nest predation by foxes.

113. Little Brows Bat

Traits: 3 - 3.5 inches (79 - 93 cm); 1/4 - 1/3 oz. (5.5 -12 gm).Simple snout, large ears; skin membrane stretched betweenforelegs, hind legs, and tail; tail does not extend beyondmembrane connecting tail and hind legs. Dark brown.Habitat Feeds at dusk over wetlands and forest openingsnorth to interior Alaska. Roosts by day in caves, hollow trees,or buildings.Food: Moths, beetles, and other flying insects.FAIN y Merlins"Gee Whiz": A colony of 500 little brown bats can eat up to500,000 insects in a single night. Bats have excellent eyesight,despite the phrase "blind as a bat." Scientists believe manybats spend the winter in Alaska but they do not know where.

44- 4 4-

114. People

Traits: Large mammals that walk erect on two legs and haveforelimbs with opposable thumbs. Have little hair in compari-son to other mammals.Habitat People use tools to make clothing, build shelters,catch or grow food, and thus are able to live in a wide varietyof environments around the world.Food: Moose, caribou, salmon, geese, many plants anddomesticated animals.Eats. by: Bears and other large, wild animals kill people onrare occasions, but people have no true predators."Gel Mit: People have the ability to cooperate together toaccomplish big jobs. People can work together to ensurethere will be wildlife in the future.

14S

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